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Tema 24: 
Expresión de la 
aserción, el énfasis 
y la objeción.  

Madhatter 
09/06/2007 
 
 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la obje
eción
2

Ta
able of contents
1. Assertion
A & nonassertioon. _____________________________
___________________________ 3
1.1. Nonassertive forms. ___________
_ ________________________
______________________________ 3
1.2. The notiions of scope and focus. __________________________
______________________________ 4
1.3. Assertive pronouns. ___________
_ ________________________
______________________________ 5
1.3.1. The some
s series. _________________________________________ _________________________________ 5
1.3.2. Multaal (many, muchh) and paucal (fe
few, little) quanttifiers. _______
_________________________________ 5
1.3.3. One. ___________________________________________________ _________________________________ 6
1.3.3.1. Numerical one. _____________________________________ _________________________________ 6
1.3.3.2. Substitute one. ______________________________________ _________________________________ 6
1.3.3.3. Generic one. _____________
_ __________________________ _________________________________ 6
1.3.4. Half, several, enouggh. ____________________________________ _________________________________ 7
1.4. Nonassertive pronoun
ns. ________________________________
______________________________ 7
1.4.1. Somee and any seriess. _____________________________________
_________________________________ 7
1.4.2. Any and
a either.___________________________________________ _________________________________ 8
1.5. Assertive and nonassertive contexxts. _____________________
______________________________ 8
1.5.1. Negaation. _______________________________________________ _________________________________ 8
1.5.1.1. Non-assertion ini clause negatiion. ______________________
_________________________________ 9
1.5.1.2. Local and preddicative negationn. _______________________________________________________ 10
1.5.2. Questions. ______________________________________________ ________________________________ 10
1.5.2.1. Yes/No Questioons. ___________________________________ ________________________________ 10
1.5.2.2. Wh-Questions ______________________________________ ________________________________ 11
1.5.2.3. Exclamatory annd Rhetorical questions.
q __________________
________________________________ 11
1.5.3. Otherr contexts.___________________________________________ ________________________________ 12

2. Emphasis
E _____________________________________________
__________________________ 13
2.1. Emphatiic pronouns and
a determin
ners. ___________________
_____________________________ 13
2.1.1. Refleexive pronouns.. _____________________________________ ________________________________ 13
2.1.2. Posseessive determinners. ___________________________________
________________________________ 14
2.2. Exclamaatory sentences. ________________________________
_____________________________ 14
2.3. Emphatiic Operators.. __________________________________
_____________________________ 15
2.4. Noncorrrelative so and
d such. _____________________________
_____________________________ 15
2.5. Intensifyying adjectivees and adverb
bs. _____________________
_____________________________ 16
2.6. Intensifiication of Queestions and negatives.
n _______________
_____________________________ 16
2.7 Interjectiions and explletives. _____________________________
_____________________________ 17
2.8. Reinforccement ______
____________________________________
_____________________________ 17
2.9. Order an
nd emphasis ___________
_ ________________________
_____________________________ 18
2.9.1. Markked Theme (or “topic”)
“ and Rhheme (or “focuss”).__________
________________________________ 18
2.9.2. Frontting ________________________________________________ ________________________________ 18
2.9.3. Inverrsion. _______________________________________________ ________________________________ 19
2.9.4. Cleft and pseudo-cleeft sentences. _____________
_ _____________ ________________________________ 19
2.9.5. Postpponement. ___________________________________________ ________________________________ 20

3. Objection. ___________
_ ________________________________
__________________________ 21
3.1. Disapprooval. _______
____________________________________
_____________________________ 21
3.2. Disagreeement. ______
____________________________________
_____________________________ 22
Bibbliography ___________
_ ________________________________
__________________________ 23
Brrief summaryy _________________________________________
__________________________ 24

Iván Matella
anes’ Notes
 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
3

Assertion and nonassertion.

1. Assertion & nonassertion.
1.1. Nonassertive forms. Nonassertive forms.
It is clear that there is a close connection between Qs & Negations: Close connection btw
Qs & negations.
both constructions involve an Op, and the Qs-and-answer sequence show
how a Yes-No Qs elicits from its addressee a choice btw a positive and
negative statement. The term Yes-No Qs itself reinforces this point.
Yes-No Qs are also related to negation through their association Yes-No Qs are also
related to negation
with a set of words which may be called NONASSERTIVE FORMS (any, anybody, through their association
w/a set of words.
anywhere …). This contrasts with the corresponding ASSERTIVE FORMS (some,
Nonassertive.
somebody, somewhere, already …), which are associated with positive statements: Assertive.

[2] Yes, I have found some already. (Assertive)

[1] Have you found any mistakes yet? [3] No, I haven’t found any yet. (Nonassertive)

The contrast btw assertiveness and nonassertiveness is basically a Assertiveness: asserts

the truth of a Proposition.
logical one: whereas a statement like [2] asserts the truth of some
Non-assertiveness: Do
proposition, the Qs [1] and the negative statement [3] do not claim not claim the truth of the
corresponding positive
the truth of the corresponding positive statement. So: statement.

Positive statement.
[2]

Yes-No Qs.
[1] Non-assertive territory.
Negative statement.
Table 1: [3]
Nonassertive territory.

Add a 4th category:

The arrows represent relations btw Qs and answer & the area enclosed by the negative Qs.
the broken line may be termed as “NONASSERTIVE TERRITORY”. However,
the paradigm is not complete, in a grammatical sense, until we add a fourth
category, that of a negative Qs.
[4] Haven’t you found any mistakes yet?

Negative Yes-No Qs are equivalent to positive ones in that they elicit Negative Qs ≈
positive ones. Differ in
equivalent Yes and No answers: They differ from the latter only in indicating that the negative
statement is implied.

that the corresponding negative statement has been implied.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
4

1.2. The notions of scope and focus. The notions of scope & focus.

In order to understand the concepts of assertion and non-

assertion, it is convenient to define some related notions: Sentence
scope & sentence focus.
Scope.
SCOPE is the general term that I shall use to describe the semantic
Semantic influence which
influence which assertive and nonassertive forms have on assertive & nonassertive
forms have on neighboring
neighboring parts of a sentence beyond the particular phrase where parts of a sentence
beyond the particular
they occur. The position of a negative form, for instance, is generally phrase where they occur.

significant in defining whatever follows as nonassertive:

Some people never send any Christmas cards.
In such a sentence, can be said that any, because it follows never, is within
the scope of negation, while some is not. It would therefore not be
possible to reverse the positions of the assertive and nonassertive words.
* Any people never send some Christmas cards.
Intonation is also an imp
Intonation is also an important factor to decide the scope of a sentence. factor to decide the scope
of a sentence.
It’s specially useful to know whether final adjuncts are within the scope of
negation. When this is not the case, assertive forms are used to Assertive forms may be
used to indicate
indicate variations in the extension of the scope. variations in the
extension of the scope.
I didn’t see some of the paintings. [But I saw some others]
I didn’t see any of the painting. [I saw none of them]
The FOCUS of a sentence is marked by a falling-rising stress on a Focus.

particular part of the clause. The focus of negation is signalled by the It is marked by a falling-
rising stress on a
nuclear stress. A contrastive nuclear stress falling on a particular part particular part of the
clause.
of the clause indicates that the contrast of meaning implicit in the
negation is located at that spot, and also that the rest of the clause can DISCONTINUOUS SCOPE.

understood as positive. So, we need to REFINE OUR NOTION OF SCOPE to

The preceding item from
allow for DISCONTINUOUS SCOPE & also for the part preceding the negative the negative may come
w/in the scope.
item to come within the scope.
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the PÒOL today. [< I forgot to do so –STANDARD version-]
I didn’t take JŎAN to swim in the pool today, but MÀRY. [< It was Mary]
Discontinuous

I didn’t take Joan to SWĬM in the pool today. [< just to see it]
scope.

I didn’t take Joan to swim in the PŎOL today. [< I took her to the seaside]
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool TODĂY. [< It was last week that I did so]
Ĭ didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. [< It was my brother who took her]

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
5

1.3. Assertive pronouns.

Assertive prons.

1.3.1. The some series. The some series.

Assertive prons are associated with “assertive territory” rather than Associated w/ Assertive
territory.
“nonassertive territory” rather than “nonassertive territory”. The clearest case
of this distinction is to be found in the contrast btw some and any, and Contrast btw some & any.

their corresponding compound prons.

Some as a determiner [1, 2] & as a pron [1a, 2a] occurs most Some:

typically with pl uncountable Ns. One may be the sing form of Some as a Pron: pl uncount Ns;
One as sing form.
pron. As a determiner, some also occurs with sing count Ns. Det: pl uncount Ns &
also sing count Ns.
[1] Some rolls have been eaten [1a] Some (of the rolls) have been eaten.
[2] Some bread has been eaten. [2a] Some (of the bread) has been eaten.
[3a] [One / * Some] of the rolls has been eaten
[4] Some day, I’ll tell you a great secret. [“one day”]

1.3.2. Multal (many, much) and paucal (few, little) quantifiers. Multal & paucal quantifiers.
The multal & paucal group of prons are antonyms with a similar
Prons that are antonyms
distribution. Many [“a large number”] contrasts w/a few [“a small number”] w/a similar distribution.

and much [“a large amount”] contrasts w/a little [“a small amount”].
[1] I know [many / a few] people in Boston. [2] I have eaten [too much / a little]. Many <> a few.
Much <> a little.
[3] [Many / A few] (of my friends) were there.
Much and, to a lesser degree, many have acquired some Much & many said to
nonassertive force with the result that they are rarely used, at least in have a nonassertive force,
rarely used w/affirmative.
informal English, without some negative or interrogative implication.
w/affirmative: Preference
With affirmative sentences, there is a preference in Modern English for for open-class quantifiers
(great deal of, plenty of, a
open-class quantifiers, such as great deal (of) for much & plenty of / a lot of).

lot of for many.

Gradable: occur w/a
These quantifiers are gradable, & can be accompanied by degree degree adv.

Advs such as very, too, so, as, … Have you ever seen (very) many houses for sale?
There are also Comparative &
MULTAL PAUCAL superlative: Objections
comparative against the use of
Count Noncount Count Noncount
less/least with Pl Ns.
ABSOLUTE Many Much A few A little & superlative
COMPARATIVE More Fewer (less) Less
SUPERLATIVE Most Fewest (least) least forms. As in
the case of determiner, there are prescriptive objections against the use Widely used in
informal English.
of less and least with pl Ns, yet they are widely used in informal English.
There used to be more women than men in the country, but now there are fewer.
[+ colloquial]

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la obje
eción
6

1.3.3. One.
e types off pron one
Three ne can be distinguis
d shed morphologica
ally:

1.33.3.1. Num
merical one. merical one.
1. Num
The cardinal
c umber one
nu e is sing and
a coun
nt. It is invvariable, b
but can
Sing & Count.
occcur, like otther cardin
nals, as a determiner
d r or as a he
ead of a NP
P.
Invariable, but
b can
[On
ne / a] boy One
e of the [boyys / pens] occur as a det or head
of a NP.
On is also the
One t sing eq o the indeffinite pron some.
quivalent of o sing
Equivalent to
some.
I’vee made som
me cakes. Wo
ould you like one (of them
m)?
On also occurs
One o in contrastt to the
e other or
o anothe
er in corrrelative Contrast w/th
he other or
another.
onstructions. One … the oth
co her is used
d with re t two. O
eference to One …
O …the other → 2 element.
One
an
nother/th
he other iss used witth referen
nce to mo
ore than tw
wo.
One → +2 elements
O …another→
I saaw two suspi
picious-looking
ng men. (Thee) One wentt this way, th
he other thaat.
I’vee been busy with one thi
hing or anoth
her.

1.33.3.2. Sub
bstitute on
ne. 2. Substitute one.

The substitute
s pron one
e has the plural on
nes, and it is used
d as a
One → Pl on
nes.
ubstitute for a cou
su unt N or an
a equivalent nominal exprression. Itt is only Used as a su ubstitute for
a count N orr an
exxceptionallyy that one
e immediately follow efinite articcle: a one
ws the inde e. One equivalent nominal
expression.
alo d as a subsstitute for “a/an + N”
one is used
A: I’m
I looking forf a book of o grammarr. B: is th
his one?
I’d like a drink,
k, but just a small
s one.
Combined w/dets
w &
ubstitute one
Su o can be easily com
mbined w/determi
w iners and modifierrs. modifiers.

Tho
hose ones I like.
l The
e old one in
n the kitche
en.

1.33.3.3. Gen
neric one.. eric one.
3. Gene

eric one occurs

Gene o chiefly in th
he sing & w/pl ge
ender. It h
has the In Sing w/pl gender.

enitive on
ge ne’s and the
t xive onese
reflex self. The meaning
m o generic one is
of Genitive & re
eflexive.

“p
people in general”,, often witth particula
ar referencce to the speaker.
s T
The use
of generic one
o is chieefly forma
al, and it’s often repllaced collloquially by you. Formal use. You
Y [-formal].

I likke to dress nicely.

n It givees [one / yo
ou] confidencce.
In Am c tial use of one is characte
mE, the coreferent eristically formal. Coreferential One → BrE.

He
He/his/him
mself is preeferred in regular usage. Coreferentia
al
his/he/himsself → AmE.
One’s invvestments. [e
esp BrE]
One
ne must be caareful about
His invesstments. [esp
p AmE]

Iván Matella
anes’ Notes
 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
7

1.3.4. Half, several, enough. Half, several & enough.

A miscellaneous group of prons may be illustrated at this point. They all
have corresponding determiners:
Half [(of) the class / children] were girls. I’ve only read half (of) the book.
I have several books on folklore. Several (of my friends) attended the show.
I’ve enough of your tantrums(=rabieta). There is enough (of the) water to last 3 days.
Several: always pl;
Several is always pl, and indicates a number slightly greater than a few. Number slightly
greater than a few.
Enough contrasts with too little & too few. As determiner, it usually occurs Enough: contrasts
with too little/few. As
in front of the head N, but can also follow it (rarely). Half, normally a det, occurs in front of
the head N, but can
predeterminer, also occurs occasionally as a postdeterminer. also follow it (rare).

Half a loaf; half an hour. [Predet] a half loaf, a half hour. [Postdet] Half: predet, can also
occur as a postdet.

1.4. Nonassertive pronouns. Nonassertive prons.

In addition to the compound prons anybody, anyone & anything, there
are two nonassertive of-prons any & either. With reference to the distinction
Parallelism btw
btw assertive and nonassertive forms, we can see that there is a parallel some & any.

btw some and nonassertive any.

ASSERTIVE:
Pam bought some apples.
NONASSERTIVE:
Did Pam buy any apples? Didn’t Pam buy any apples?
Pam didn’t buy any apples.

1.4.1. Some and any series. Some and any series.

The main “superficial” markers of nonassertion are negative,
A basic meaning of
interrogative and conditional clauses, but it is the underlying or basic the whole sentence
conditions the choice
meaning of the whole sentence which conditions the choice of the of the some or the
any series.
some or the any series. For instance, in [1], the basic meaning is
negative and nonassertive, as appears in the paraphrase [1a].
[1] Freud contributed more than anyone to the understanding of dreams.
≈ [1a] Nobody contributed as much to the understanding of dreams as Freud.

Conversely, some is often used in negative, interrogative and Some is used in

assertive contxts to give
conditional sentences when the basic meaning is assertive (“positive a positive orientation
& vice versa.
orientation”).
Did [somebody / anybody] telephone last night?
Somebody suggests that the speaker expected a telephone call, whereas
anybody does not.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
8

1.4.2. Any and either. Any and either.

Any is distinguished from either in representing a choice btw three or Any represents a choice
btw three or more.
more, while either limits the choice to two. Thus, either, like both and Either limits the choice
neither has dual meaning. The difference obtains whether the determiner or btw two. DUAL meaning.

a pron is used. Any can also be used with pl noncount Phrases. Either/Any: used as a
determiner or pron.
I haven’t seen [any of my relatives / either of my parents] since 1975. [Pron]
Can you see [any part of the school / either end of the tunnel]? [Det]
Don’t spill any ((of) the wine).
Any in its stressed form occurs in “assertive territory” with the Stressed ANY: can be
used in assertive contxts.
meaning “it does not matter which/who/what”. It chiefly happens (a) (a) with Modals (esp
will, can & may).
when the clause contains a modal aux (esp will, can or may), or (b) when
(b) any-NP contains a
the NP introduced by any contains restrictive postmodification (esp a restrictiv postmodifier.

relative clause).
He will eat any kind of vegetables. [Modal] Any dog might bite a child. [Modal]
I advise you to accept any offer you receive. [postmodification → Relative clause]
The compound prons anybody, anyone & anything are similarly used & Compound prons and
either can also be used in
there is also a parallel use of either (the hearer is offered a choice btw two). a parallel way.

Anyone who tells lies is punished. [Postmodif.] He will eat anything. [Modal]
You can ask either of us to help you. [Modal]

1.5. Assertive and nonassertive contexts. Assertive & Nonassertive contexts.

1. NEGATION.
1.5.1. Negation.
I must start by recalling the three types of negation that occur in
English, with respect to their scope:
- Clause negation: The whole clause is negated.
- Local negation: One constituent is negated.
- Predication negation: Negation only after certain auxs.

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
9

1.5.1.1. Non-assertion in clause negation. Nonassertion in clause negation.

One of the features that differentiate negative from affirmative Negative clauses are
followed by nonassertive
clauses is the fact that negative clauses are followed by nonassertive items.
items. There are cases in which there is a choice btw V negation (through
1. Choice btw V-Op
an Op) & negation by some other. negation & negation
by some other.
I am not staying at the hotel any longer ≈ I’m no longer staying at the hotel.
I won’t talk to John ever again ≈ I will never talk to John again.

There are syntactic restrictions that limit the possibilities of this choice: Syntactic restrictions
limit this choice:
There is no such corresponding negation with an Op when the negated
Negated element is
element is the subj & it is not generic (It’s specific). the subj.

It’s specific.
No one saw the film [Subj; specific] ≠ *Anyone didn’t saw the film
When negation with an Op is also possible, it has a different meaning When negation w/Op is
also possible, it changes
because the scope of negation will change. meaning, as the scope of
negation changes.
Many people did not go to the concert. [=Many, from a group I have in mind, were absent]
Not many people go to the concert. [=Only a few people came]
The negative element may be fronted from its usual position 2. Negative element
fronted. Subj-Op
initially. Subj-Op inversion is then normally required and it can be seen inversion and the whole
clause is negative.
that the whole clause is made negative (the scope of negation includes the
whole clause) because nonassertive items are required.
Never will I lie anyone in my life again.
There are other words which are negative in meaning but not in 3. Other words negative
in meaning but not in
form and can also effect clause negation: form effect clause
negation.
ADVS & DETERMINERS: Seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely; little, few.
I seldom pass any subject at the university.
Rarely does my father ever hit me. [Subj-Op Inversion] Seldom, rarely, scarcely;
deny, unaware, without …
Few measure have ever been so useful.
VERBS, ADJECTIVES AND PREPOSITIONS: Deny, unaware, without …
The CIA was unaware of any conspiracy to kill the president.
Susan denies I ever kissed her.
They went to Rome without any knowledge of Italian.
Emotive intensification to negative sentences can be achieved by 4. Emotive
intensification to
means of nonassertive expressions. negative sentences can
be achieved by means of
AT ALL, BY ANY MEANS, IN THE SLIGHTLEST, IN THE LEAST, IN ANY WAY, WHAT(SO)EVER: nonassertive expressions.
Assertive.
You have no justification whatever.
QUITE, PRETTY, RATHER; FAR (COMPARATIVE INTENSIFIER):
Nonassertive. They speak Japanese [pretty/rather] well. At all, by any means, in any
Your girlfriend was far more intelligent than I expected. way, what(so)ever …

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
10

1.5.1.2. Local and predicative negation. Local & predicative negation.

These kinds of negation occur when only part of the clause is

Except for the
affected, without making the whole clause negative. Therefore, except for word/phrase that is made
negative, assertive forms
the word/phrase that is made negative, assertive forms may occur in may occur in the rest of
the clause.
the rest of the clause.
They can speak English fluently and with not many mistakes. [LOCAL NEGATION]
John is not entirely bad at his work in some ways. [LOCAL NEGATION; He’s rather good]
Predication negation occurs when a modal aux V is used with a Predication negation:
assertive forms may be
different scope of negation from its normal one. It can be extended over used depending if they are
w/in the scope of negation
several clause elements. or not.

You can not do some exercises. [Predication: It is possible for you not to do some exercises]
You can not do any exercises. [Predication: It is possible for you not to do none (exercises)]

1.5.2. Questions. 2. QUESTIONS.

Yes/No Qs.
1.5.2.1. Yes/No Questions.
Positive Yes/No Qs.
In general, Yes/No Qs shown no expectation towards a positive or
negative response. Like negative statements, Yes/No Qs will replace any Gnrl rule: assertive forms
are replaced for equivalent
nonassertive ones.
assertive form with their nonassertive equivalent. This is the most
common type of interrogative structure, which is neutral, with no Neutral: No expectation
towards a positive or a
expectation towards a positive or a negative response. negative response.

I’ve already finished my homework ≈ Have you finished your homework yet?

However, there is another variety of positive Yes/No Qs (Conducive) that Conducive: Indicate the
speaker’s expectation of
indicate the speaker’s expectation of the kind of answer that he the kind of answer that he
thinks he will receive.
thinks he will receive. Positive Qs may have positive orientation,
Positive orientation →
usually conveyed by means of assertive items, but it is also possible to assertive items.
negative orientation is
exhibit negative orientation. also possible.

Did someone phoned me while I was gone? [+ORTsN: I expect someone to have phoned
me]
Do you really like that kind of music? [-ORTsN: Surely you don’t]
Negative Yes/No Qs.
Yes-No Qs which contain a negative element are always oriented
towards a negative answer (Didn’t you eat that?). Again, Orientation may be Orientation defined by the
use of assertive and
nonassertive items.
defined by the use of assertive and nonassertive items. Negative
oriented Qs will include nonassertive items, whereas assertive items -OrientaSn → nonassert.

+OrientaSn → assertive.
are used to give a positive orientation.
Hasn’t you dad left yet? [-ORIENTATION: I thought he would have left, but it seems he hasn’t]

Iván Matellanes’ Notes

 Tema 24:
Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
11

Hasn’t your dad left already? [+ORIENTATION: surely he has already left] Declarative Yes/No Qs.
Declarative Yes/No Qs do not present Subj-Op inversion. This
No Subj-Op inversion.
type of Qs is identical in form to a declarative, but it can be considered a
Qs because of the final rising intonation. Positive declarative Yes/No Qs +Qs → +Orientation:
accept only assertives.
have positive orientation and accept only assertive forms, while
negative declarative Yes/No Qs have negative orientation and accept -Qs → - Orientation:
accept only nonassertives.
only nonassertive forms.
You eat something after dinner? You have not had anything to eat after dinner?

1.5.2.2. Wh-Questions Wh-Qs.

A Wh-Qs generally corresponds to a statement (presupposition)
Positive Qs:
which contains an indefinite expression (Wh-element) standing for the
Positive presupposition
part of the sentence that we lack information for. A positive Wh-Qs about the missing element.

may generally be matched with a positive presupposition about the No such assumption,
nonassertive items.
missing element [1], if there is no such assumption [2], non assertive Negative Qs:
Nonassertive items.
items are present. Negative Wh-Qs occur w/nonassertives [3].
[1] Who closed the door? [Implies “someone closed the door”]
[2] When will I ever run any races? [No assumption implied – Nonassertive items can occur]
[3] Why don’t you ever write to anyone? [Negative Qs – Nonassertive items can occur]

1.5.2.3. Exclamatory and Rhetorical questions. Exclamatory Qs.

The exclamatory Qs is interrogative in structure, but has the
illocutionary force of an exclamatory assertion, with falling intonation and
Don’t admit nonassertive
a exclamation mark at the end. They don’t admit nonassertive forms. forms.

Has Daddy already gone! Rhetorical Qs.

The rhetorical Qs is interrogative in structure as well, but it
functions as a strong assertion, where no answer is expected. It exhibits
Nonassertive forms may
the normal rising intonation, and nonassertive forms may occur. occur.
What has he ever done for you?

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1.5.3. Other contexts. 3. OTHER CONTEXTS.

Nonassertive items tend to occur where the truth of the Nonassertive items tend
to occur where the truth of
proposition is not definite, or where a certain degree of subjectivity or
the proposition is not
definite or uncertainty is
implied.
uncertainty is implied.
Conditional clauses.
Conditional clauses can also imply uncertainty. There are either
Imply uncertainty.
neutral in their expectation or biased towards a negative response. Neutral or –orientation.
She always carries a pen in case anyone should need it.
If you ever do that again, I will kick you.
Putative should.
Putative should clauses convey the notion of a situation which is
Situation which is
recognized as possibly existing or coming into existence. Non-factuality possibly existing or
coming into existence.
is highlighted with a conditional clause (esp AmE). Non-factuality is
highlighted with a
I’d be amazed if someone should ever travel through time. conditional clause.
Comparative clause.
Comparative clauses carry some nonassertive force.
I have more stamps that I have than I’ve yet shown you.
He is too young to understand anything about the film.
Restrictive relative clause.
Restrictive relative clauses modifying a generic noun, where the
Modifying a generic N,
clauses have conditional meaning. where the clauses have
conditional meaning.
All that he has ever said confirms my suspicious of his motives.
Words morphologically &
After words that are morphologically negative or semantic traits semantically negative.
with a negative orientation: Unlikely, fail, prevent, deny, hard, reluctant … Negative orientation.

Unlikely, fail, prevent,

It’s unlikely that she has ever met John. deny, hard, reluctant …

Other words that tend to occur in nonassertive contexts: Other words.

BEAR/STAND, MIND, CARE: Bear/stand, mind, care ….

They don’t mind waiting ≠ *They mind waiting
I can’t bear that kind of music.
NEED AND DARE WHEN USED AS MODAL AUXS: Auxs Need & Dare.
No one dare predict the results * I dare do it
MUCH, MANY & FAR WHEN UNMODIFIED: Much, many and far
I don’t like them much. We didn’t see many on our last visit. when unmodified.
They don’t life far from us.

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Emphasis.
2. Emphasis
Some Lg devices are used to show the significance or special value
of any discourse part, making it more important than it would
normally be. These devices vary according to the type of discourse.
In speech, emphasis is given by means of pronunciation. Most
common devices are higher intonation, longer vowels & pauses before
emphasized words.
In writing, emphasis means changes in spelling. This is accomplish by
means of capital letters (Mark phoned HER last week); Italic, underlined or
bold words; and the “apostrophe” may also be used to denote a special
meaning of a word.

2.1. Emphatic pronouns and determiners. Emphatic prons and dets.

2.1.1. Reflexive pronouns. Reflexive prons.

Reflexive prons in emphatic use occur in apposition and have
Occur in apposition.
heavy (nuclear) stress. Unlike basic reflexive prons, they may have Have nuclear stress.

positional mobility. Positional mobility.

I mySĚLF wouldn’t take any NÒtice.

Diff meaning than can occur.

I wouldn’t take any NÒtice mySÉLF. “Speaking personally”
MySĚLF, I wouldn’t take any NÒtice of her.
Here, the meaning of the pron is “speaking personally”. In other contexts,
the pron has a meaning better captured by the paraphrase “X and
nobody else”.
Do you mean that you spoke to the Pope himSÉLF? “X and nobody else”
Sometimes there is an explicit contrast btw the referent and some other Explicit contrast btw the
referent & some other
thing or person: thing or person.

I’d prefer you to do the job yourSÈLF, rather than to leave it to Tony.
Semi-emphatic use.
It also has a “semi-emphatic” use in sentences such as John’s father is even
more handsome than himsélf.

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2.1.2. Possessive determiners. Possessive prons.

The possessives can be made emphatic by adding own, with the Possessives can be
made emphatic by
implied meaning of “mine and nobody else”. adding own.
Meaning of “mine &
This book doesn’t belong to the library. It’s my own copy. nobody else”.

Besides, it often expresses co-reference btw the possessive & the subj. Expresses co-
reference btw the
Sam makes his own cloths. possessive & the subj.

Prons cannot be combined with own (*mine own). Instead, own Prons cannot be
combined with own.
added to the determinative possessive can Fn as an independent NP. Own added to the
determinative possessive
The trick is my own. can Fn as an
independent NP.

2.2. Exclamatory sentences. Exclamative sentences.

Exclamatives as a formal category of sentence are restricted to the type
of exclamatory utterance introduced by what or how.
Exclamatives resemble Wh-Qs in requiring the initial placement of
Requires the initial
an exclamatory Wh-element. The syntactic order is therefore upset to the placement of an
exclamatory Wh-element.
extend that the Wh-element may be taken from its usual position and put into a
position of initial prominence. On the other hand, there is generally no Subj- No Subj-Op inversion.
Op inversion.
What: predeterminer
SUBJECT: [1] What an enormous crowd came! [S V -the rarest type.]
OBJ: [2] What a time we have had today! [DO S V A] Subj.
Obj.
COMPLEMENT: [3] How delightful her manners are! [ComplSubj S V] Advbl.
[4] How I used to hate geography! [A S V DO] Compl of a Pp.
ADVERBIALS: [5] What a long time we’ve been waiting! [A S V]
[6] How Quickly you eat! [A S V]

In addition, the wh-element can act as PpComplement. Wh-element act as a Pp

Complement.
[7a] What a mess we are in! [7b] In what a mess we are! [=Rare]

Only two Wh-words can be used to form the Wh-element in

exclamatory sentences: What as predeterminer in a NP may function as
How: Intensifier.
Subj[1], obj[2] adverbial[5] or complement of a Pp[7a-b]. How as intensifier
Adj.
of an adj[3], adv[6] or clause[4]. It can also function as a degree Adv.
Clause.
Degree advbl
adverbial [4].

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Echo Qs.

The echo exclamation, like the echo Qs, repeats part or all of a
Repeats part or all of a
preceding utterance, but in contrast to the rising tone of the echo Qs, it is preceding utterance.
Rise-fall (or high fall) tone.
characterized by a rise-fall (or high fall) tone. The form of the
Form: Declarative,
utterance to be repeated may be declarative, interrogative, imperative interrogative, imperative or
exclamative.
or even exclamative.
A: I am going to London for a holiday B: To LÔNDON! That’s not my idea of rest.
A: Have you been to Paris? B: Been to PÂRIS? I’ll say I have!
A: He must be the only applicant B: Must be the ÔNly applicant! That can’t be true
A: Open the door, please. B: Open the DÔOR! Do you take me for a doorman?
A: What a beautiful day! B: What a beautiful DÂY! You must be joking

2.3. Emphatic Operators. Emphatic Ops.

We are concerned with the diff between pairs like the following:
I’m SÒRry. Mary will be PLÈASED.
I ÀM ‘sorry. Mary WÌLL be ‘pleased.
You look PÀLE this ‘morning. He PRŎmised to ‘go.
You DÒ ‘look ‘pale this ‘morning. He did PRŎmise to ‘go.
Aux as Ops can carry nuclear stress to add exclamatory emphasis to Ops can carry nuclear
stress to add
the whole sentence. This use is called EMPHATIC POSITIVE because it mainly exclamatory emphasis
to the whole sentence.
occurs to deny a negative which has been stated or implied. Sometimes,
Emphatic positive:
however, the emphatic Op has no contrastive meaning, but is used purely for deny a negative which
has been stated or
emotive force. implied.

He does look unhappy. (=very unhappy)

Dummy-do is introduced where the V is simple present/past and Dummy-do is
introduced when no
there is no other Op to bear the emphatic stress. other Op exists.

I did tell you (even if you say you didn’t)

Noncorrelatie so & such.
2.4. Noncorrelative so and such.
The determiner such and the adv so receive stress in familiar Det such; Adv so:
stress in familiar speech
speech so as to give exclamatory force to the statement, Qs or to give exclamatory
force.
directive.
Her parents gave her so many toys that she … [comparative clause expressing result w/no
special emphasis]

She was wearing ‘such a lovely DRÈSS. Don’t upSÈT yourself ‘so.
Such & so: equivalent
Therefore, so & such become equivalent to how & what in exclamations. to how & what in
exclamations.
They’re such delightful children! What delightful children they are!
So and such can also occur in Qs and directives. Additional emotive
emphasis is achieved by assigning a nucleus to them: I’m SÒ PLÉASED!

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2.5. Intensifying adjectives and adverbs. Intensifying adjs & advs.

Some adjs have a amplifying effect on the Noun they modify, or

the reverse, a lowering effect. At least, three semantic subclasses of
intensifying adjs/advs can be distinguished:
1. EMPHASIZERS have a general amplifying effect and are generally 1. Emphasizers:
Amplifying effect.
attributive. CONVEY EMPHASIS: True, clear …

A true scholar, a clear failure, a definite loss

2. AMPLIFIERS scale upwards from an assumed meaning of a N. 2. Amplifiers:
Convey degree.
CONVEY DEGREE: Complete, great …
firm, fool …
A complete victory; Great destruction; A complete fool; A firm friend
Amplifiers are only attributive when used as emphasizers, conveying
principally emphasis rather than degree:
Total nonsense --- * The nonsense was total >>>> EMPHASIZER
Total destruction --- The destruction was total >>> AMPLIFIER
3. DOWNTONERS: have a lowering effect, usually moving downwards 3. Downtoners:
Lowering effect.
from an assumed point. They are relatively few (Slight → a slight effort; Slight, feeble …

feeble → a feeble joke).

Many intensifying adjs can be related to intensifying advs:

He is a true scholar --- He is truly a scholar
It is utter folly to do that --- It is utterly foolish to do that.

2.6. Intensification of Questions and negatives. Intensification of Qs & negatives.

The emotive force of a Wh-Qs is intensified by adding ever, on

Positive: add ever, on
earth, etc to the Wh-item. earth … to the Wh-word.

What on earth are you doing? Why ever can he find my candies?
Where the hell is my wallet?
In writing, ever is sometimes spelled as part of the Wh-word (whoever, Ever is sometimes
spelled as a part of the
whatever …), but this may give rise to confusion with the use of such words Wh-word.

in universal conditional-concessive clauses.

Expressions involved in the intensification of negative statements Negative: include at all,
What(so)ever, a bit, by
include at all (either after the negative or in a later position in the sentence), any means …

what(so)ever (postmodifier of a negative NP), the advbls of degree a bit

(informal) and by any means, and other intensifying idioms.
I went shopping and I bought nothing at all. I didn’t sleep a wink.
You have no excuse whatsoever. She has never had it so good.

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2.7 Interjections and expletives. Interjections.

Interjections are purely emotive words which do not enter into

Purely emotive words
syntactic relations. Some of them have features which lie outside the which do not enter into
syntactic relations.
regular system of the Lg (Whew has a bilabial fricative) & are represented in
Have features which lie
writing through spelling conventions. outside the regular
system of the Lg.
Aha: recognition. Oh: surprise
Ahem: Mind call for attention. Ouch: pain
Eh?: Impolite request for repetition. Sh: request for silence.
Hey: call for attention. Uh-huh: (dis)agreement.
Mm: casual yes Wow: great surprise. Expletive.

Expletives are expressions of anger or dismissal (=rechazo) and other Expressions of anger or
dismissal used when
miscellaneous exclamations used when people want to express strong people want to express
strong emotions &
emotions and emphasize what they mean, usually by means of taboo emphasize what they
mean.
words & swearwords. In English, they fall under three groups: Taboo or swearwords.

- Words related with Christian religion which should be used only in Diff types:

formal and respectful contexts, and they may be upset or shocked by Christian religion.

their “careless” use: Damn, hell, Jesus, Christ …

- Words related to sexual activity & associated with parts of the body. Sexual activity or
parts of the body.
PART OF THE BODY: Arse (AmE ass), arsehole (AmE asshole), balls, cock, dick, cunt …
SEXUAL ACTIVITY: Fuck, wank (AmE jerk off), bugger (Anal sex), bitch, bastard, sod …

- Words referring to the elimination of bodily wastes and the Elimination of bodily
wastes.
associated parts of the body. Piss, shit, crap (excrement), fart …

2.8. Reinforcement Reinforcement.

Reinforcement is a feature of colloquial style. An item is repeated or Colloquial style. Repetition

or replacement of an
replaced by a pron for purposes of emphasis. It can take diff forms: element to emphasize it.

a) Its simplest form is merely the REPETITION of a word for emphasis Repetition.

or clarity. It also denotes degree (=extremely)

It’s far, far too expensive I agree with every word you’ve said. Every single word.
b) A reinforcing or recapitulatory “PROXY” PRON may be inserted w/in a Proxy pron may be
inserted in a clause
clause where the referential NP has been left aside (fronting NP). where the referential NP
is fronted.
The man I was telling you - Well, he used to live next door to me.
c) AMPLIFICATORY TAGS contrast with the proxy pron. An amplificatory Amplificatory tags are
phases added after a
phrase may be added after a clause which contains a co- clause which contains a
co-referential pron.
referential pron.
I wouldn’t trust him for a MÒment, your BRÓther-in-law

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2.9. Order and emphasis Order and emphasis.

Previous sections have shown how certain words are used with the
Syntactic devices
purpose of adding emphatic force to the sentence. English grammar has related to word order
that give more
also some syntactic devices related to word order that give more importance to some
parts of the sentence.
importance to some parts of the sentence.

2.9.1. Marked Theme (or “topic”) and Rheme (or “focus”). Theme & rheme.

Theme is the starting point that indicates what the clause is Theme : Starting point that
indicates what the clause is
going to be about. It typically coincides with the subject (unmarked theme). going to be about.

Rheme: what is said

Rheme is what is said about the theme, where the intonation nucleus is about the theme.

place. It’s generally found at the end of the clause.

The elephant is the biggest animal. The biggest animal is the elephant.
Theme & Rheme

When the theme and the new information given in a sentence Marked Theme:
Theme and the new
coincide, it is usually called MARKED THEME. information given in a
sentence coincide.
MARKED THEME: Who gave you that money? DÀD ‘gave me the MÒney.
UNMARKED THEME: ‘Dad ‘gave me the MÒney.

In a MARKED RHEME, the focus falls on a part of the predicate. It is Marked Rheme: Move the
focus from its predictable
achieved when we move the focus from its predictable position to position to another one.

another one.
A: Peter was reading a book at the cafeteRÌA. [UNMARKED RHEME]
B: So, Peter was reading the newspaper at the cafeteria?
A: No, Peter was reading a BÒOK at the cafete’ria. [MARKED RHEME]

2.9.2. Fronting Fronting.

Marked theme may also be achieved by moving into initial Moving into initial position
an item which is otherwise
position an item which is otherwise unusual there. Several ways of fronting: unusual there.

- EMPHATIC FRONTING: Informal conversation. The first thing in the Emphatic fronting: first
thing in the speaker’s
speaker’s mind is said first, the rest is added like an afterthought. mind is said first.
WÌLSON his NÁME is. An utter FÒOL she ‘made me ‘feel.
- GIVEN FRONTING: Given information (less important) is fronted , Given fronting: Given
information is fronted,
emphasizing it. emphasizing it.
To this list may be added 10 further items of importance.
- CONTRASTIVE FRONTING: It’s a dramatic contrast or parallelism. One Contrastive fronting:
of the contrastive elements occurs initially and the other at the end. Dramatic contrast or
parallelism.
Poor may be, but this does not mean fool.

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2.9.3. Inversion. Inversion.

Emphasis is also accomplished by changing the order of the Emphasis accomplished

by changing the order of
sentence elements. This inversion usually involves the subj. the sentence elements.

Subj-V inversion can occur when the VP consists of a single-word Subj-V: VP is a single
word intransitive V;
(simple present/past) intransitive V and the fronted element is an adv of fronted element is adv
of place or direction;
place or direction. The subj cannot be a pers pron. Subj is not a pers pron.
Fronted item Verb Subject
In a distant grave lies his beloved. [Adv of place] Adv of place single word Subj NOT
There goes my dog. [Adv of direction] or direction. intrans V. pers pron.

Subj-Op inversion is obligatory when a negative element is Subj-Op: Obligatory

when a negative
fronted. element is fronted.
At no time must this door be left unlock.
Scarcely had he started jogging that it began to rain.

2.9.4. Cleft and pseudo-cleft sentences. Cleft sentences.

Cleft sentences consist of an introductory it that emphasizes a Introductory it
emphasizes a particular
particular element in a sentence. It is useful for thematic fronting of element in a sentence.
Thematic fronting.
any element. The sentence is split in two halves, and the theme is
highlighted being the complement of it + BE. The second clause is
st nd
1 part 2 part
It +BE+ theme that-
usually introduced by that. clause

[Declarative] John wore a suit at the dance last night.

[Subj focus] It was John who wore a suit at the dance last night.
[DO focus] It was a suit that John wore at the dance last night.
[Adv position focus] It was at the dance that John wore a suit last night.
[Adv time focus] It was last night that John wore a suit at the dance.
Pseudo-cleft sentences.
The pseudo-cleft sentence is another device to make explicit the
Device to make explicit
division of btw “given” and “new” parts of the communication. It is the division of btw
“given” and “new” parts
essentially an SVC sentence with a nominal relative clause as subj or of the communication.

complement. The main focus is at the end of the clause. SVC sentence with a
nominal relative clause
What John did to his suit has no name. What I am doing is teaching him a lesson. as subj.

Cleft sentences tend to be more flexible in being able to highlight any st

1 part
nd
2 part
Wh + IP + BE Phrase
element, whereas pseudo-clef sentences sound awkward when they
front an advbl clause, a PpP or who/whom/whose/Why/how. Sound awkward when
they front an advbl
* Why we decided to return was because he was ill. [Wh-element] clause, a PpP or who,
* How we traveled to Paris was by plane. [PpP] whom, whose, why,
? Where I met Susan was near the theater. [Advbl clause] how.

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Postponement.
2.9.5. Postponement.
It may be clear now that one important communicative diff btw the Placing the new info at
the end of the clause
two types of cleft constructions is while the cleft sentence often put the may be emphatic.

main focus near the front sentence, the pseudo-cleft is chiefly used to
postpone the focus to end position. Given the importance of end focus,
placing the new information at the end of the clause may be emphatic.
a. VOICE: The passive voice provides a convenient way of postponing a. Voice: way of
postponing an agentive
an agentive subject which should be placed at the end because subj at the end because of
end-focus or end-weight.
[1] it coveys new information (end-focus) or [2] because of its greater
length (end-weight).
[1] A: Who made this camera? B: it was made by Sony.
[2] Pepsi is preferred by most of the children in South America.

b. EXTRAPOSITION: Postponed element is replaced by an anticipatory b. Extraposition:

Postponed element is
form (usually it). The resulting sentence has then two subjs: the replaced by an
anticipatory (it) form.
extraposed subj and the anticipatory subj (it).
It is a pleasure to teach her. It surprised me to hear him say that.
It does not matter what you do. It is a pity that we miss the show.
If the extraposed subj (to teach her, what you do …) is of type SVC and Extraposed subj: SVC &
has an obj or PpCompl,
contains an obj or a PpComplement, the NP concerned can the NP can be frontedin
place of it.
sometimes be fronted to become the theme in place of it.
It is a pleasure to teach her [SVC→IO] = She is a pleasure to teach.
It is easy to beat them [SVC→IO] = They are easy to beat.
It’s fun to be with Margaret [SVC→PpCompl] = Margaret is fun to be with.
Extraposition can also occur to the obj. When the obj is an –ing Extraposed Obj: When
obj –ing clause, it can
clause, it can undergo extraposition. When it is a to-inf or a that- undergo extraposition.
When to-inf or that-
clause, it must do so. clause, it must do so.

You must find it exciting working here ≈ you must find working here exciting.
I made it my goal to pass the exam ≈ *I made to pass the exam my main goal.
I owe it to you that you saved my life ≈ *I owe that you save my life to you.

c. When the OBJECT is a long complex phrase, final placement for end c. Obj is a long complex
phrase, final placement for
focus or end-weight is possible in SVOC and SVOA clause types. end-focus or end-weight.

I confessed him all my worst defects.

d. DISCONTINOUS NP: Sometimes, only a part of an element is d. Discontinuous NP:
Only a part of an element
postponed, so that the prominent element is placed at the end. is postponed, so that the
prominent element is
- POSTMODIFICATION OF A NP: The time has come to declare the war to Irak. placed at the end.
- COMPARATIVE ITEMS: He studied more for the exam than any other student.

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Objection.
3. Objection.
Two ideas are directly related to objection: DISAPPROVAL and
DISAGREEMENT. The register used by the speaker is also very important
here to determine the extension of the disapproval or disagreement.

3.1. Disapproval. Disapproval.

A negative judgment expressing an unfavorable opinion may

include concepts such as blame, accusation, reprimand …
1) NEUTRAL STYLE:
a) Always + Pres cont indicate a continuous action that does not
please the speaker.
My sister is always touching my things
b) KEEP + -ing also indicate a continuous action that does not please
the speaker.
This man keeps molesting me
c) There’s nothing I [like / enjoy] less than …
d) (really) [don’t / can’t] approve of …
e) How + negative adj/adv f) What a + Negative Adj + NP.
How disgusting was that meal. What a horrible day!
2) INFORMAL STYLE:
a) I can’t [bear / stand / put up with] …
b) I don’t think much of … c) I am against …
3) FORMAL STYLE:
a) I rather dislike …
b) I am not very fond of …
c) I am opposed to …
d) I find quite unacceptable …
e) Your … HAVE no excuse.
f) I found … disappointing.
g) Did you have to …?
h) Was it necessary to …?
i) Don’t you think it would have been better if …?

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eción
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3.2. Disag
greementt.
Disagree
ement.
Disag
greementt involves
s a negattive expre
ession off judgeme
ent on
otther peop
ple’s opiniion. Here social reg
gister is also
a impo
ortant. There are
tw
wo main typ
pes:
1) PARTIAL NT:
AGREEMEN When the speakker rejects
s someth
hing and, at the
me, agrees with some
same tim ething.
a) Neuttral:
i) I can
c see your
y pointt, but …
ii) Ce
ertainly, it’s
i true that
th …, bu
ut …
iii) I agree
a witth most of
o what yo
ou say, bu
ut …
b) Inforrmal:
i) [Ok
O / Mm / Yes / Co
ould be], but …
ii) Trrue, but …
iii) I’d
’d go along
ng with most
mo of tha
at, but …
c) Form
mal:
i) Th
here is [some
so / mu
uch] truth
h in whatt you say, but …
ii) I agree
a on the wholle, but …
2) DISAGREEEMENT: spe
eaker’s tottal rejectiion to som
meone’s op
pinion or acction.
a) Neuttral:
i) I totally
t dis
isagree with
wi …
ii) I can’t
c acce
ept your argument
a t.
iii) I don’t
d sha
are your views
v .
b) Inforrmal:
i) Rubbish!;
Ru N
Nonsense
e!; No way
y!; Never!
r!
ii) You
Yo must be
b joking.
iii) You
Yo can’t be
b seriouss.
c) Form
mal:
i) I am
a afraid
d I entirely
ly disagre
ee …
ii) I see
s thing
gs rather differently
d ly.
iii) Iff you don’’t mind my saying so, …

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anes’ Notes
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23

Bibliography
Editorial MAD
Apuntes CEDE
Swan, M. 1996. Practical English Usage.
Quirk, Randolph, 1985 A comprehensive grammar of the English language.
1. Assertion & nonassertion.
Quirk: 2.53, 55, 56; 6.52-58, 59-61; 10.61
CEDE: 1.2.
2. Emphasis.
Quirk: 6.28, 30; 7.33-34; 11.31-32, 54-55; 18.19, 20-43, 55-59
Swan: 550
CEDE: 2.5-9

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 Tema 24: Brief summary.
24
- Brief summary: Expresión de la aserción, el énfasis y la objeción
- ASSERTION:
- It is clear that there is a close connection between Qs & Negations: both constructions involve an Op and are associated
with a set of words which may be called NONASSERTIVE FORMS. This contrasts with the corresponding ASSERTIVE FORMS (some, somebody,
somewhere, already …), which are associated with positive statements.
- The contrast btw assertiveness and nonassertiveness is basically a logical one: whereas a positive statement asserts
the truth of some proposition, the Qs & the negative statement do not claim the truth of the corresponding positive statement.
Scope of negation Focus of negation
♦ The stretch of Lg over which the negative item has a ♦ Focus of negation is signalled by the nuclear stress.
semantic influence. ♦ Its position indicates the scope of negation, so the rest of the
♦ It normally extends from the negative to the end of the clause can be understood as positive.
clause. ♦ Redefine our notion of scope to allow for discontinuous scope.
♦ Advbls occurring before the negative, disjuncts & conjuncts I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pòol today. [STANDARD vers.]
normally lie outside the scope. I didn’t take Jŏan to swim in the pool today. [< It was Mary]
♦ The use of assertive forms indicates the limit of the scope of I didn’t take Joan to swĭm in the pool today. [< just to see it]
negation → I didn’t listen to some of the speakers. I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool todăy. [< It was last week]
Scope and focus are interrelated: Scope must include the focus.
One way of signaling the extend of the scope is by the position of the focus
- Assertive Prons:
- The some series: Some as a determiner (→Some bread has been eaten) & as a pron (→ Some has been eaten.) occurs most typically
with pl uncountable Ns. As a determiner, some also occurs with sing count Ns.
♦ Any in its stressed form may occur with the meaning “it does not matter which/who/what” → Any dog might bite a child. [Modal]
- The multal & paucal group of prons are antonyms with a similar distribution. Many [“a large number”] contrasts w/a few [“a small
number”] & much [“a large amount”] contrasts w/a little [“a small amount”].
♦ Much & many have acquired some nonassertive force bc they are rarely used without some negative or interrogative implication. With
affirmative sentences, there is a preference for open-class quantifiers: Great deal (of) for much & plenty of / a lot of for many.
- One: ♦ The substitute pron one has the pl ones, and it is used as a substitute for a count N or an equivalent nominal expression.
♦ The cardinal number one is sing and count. It is invariable, but can occur as a determiner or as a head of a NP.
___ One … the other is used with reference to two. One … another/the other is used with reference to more than two.
♦ Generic one occurs chiefly in the sing & w/pl gender. It has the genitive one’s and the reflexive oneself.
___ Its meaning is “people in general”, often with particular reference to the speaker.
___ Its use is chiefly formal, and it’s often replaced colloquially by you.
- Half, several, enough: ♦ Several is always pl, and indicates a number slightly greater than a few.
♦ Enough contrasts with too little & too few. As determiner, it usually occurs in front of the head N, but can also follow it (rarely).
♦ Half, normally a predeterminer, also occurs occasionally as a postdeterminer.

- Nonassertive Prons:
- The any series: Any is the parallel for of some in negative and interrogative contexts → Pam bought some tea ≠ Pam did not buy any tea.
♦ Conversely, some is often used in nonassertive contexts when the basic meaning is assertive (“positive orientation”).
♦ Any is distinguished from either in representing a choice btw three or more, while either limits the choice to two. Thus, either, like
both and neither has dual meaning.
- Assertive and Nonassertive contexts:
- NEGATION: One of the differences btw negative & affirmative clauses is that negative clauses are followed by nonassertive items.
CLAUSE NEGATION LOCAL AND AUX NEGATION
♦ There are cases in which there is a choice btw V negation ♦ These kinds of negation occur when only part of the clause is
(through an Op) & negation by some other affected, without making the whole clause negative. Therefore,
→ I won’t talk to John ever again ≈ I will never talk to John again except for the word/phrase that is made negative, assertive forms
♦ The negative element may be fronted from its usual position may occur in the rest of the clause.
initially. Subj-Op inversion is then normally required. → John is not entirely bad at his work in some ways.
→ Never will I lie anyone in my life again. ♦ Predication negation occurs when a modal aux V is used with a
♦ There are words which are negative in meaning but not in form different scope of negation from its normal one → You can not do
and effect clause negation → Seldom, rarely, scarcely; deny … some exercises. [= It is possible for you not to do some exercises]
- INTERROGATION:
- Neutral Polarity vs. Conduciveness: Like negative statements, Yes-no Qs may contain nonassertive forms such as any & ever. The
Qs containing such forms are generally neutral, with no expectation towards a positive or a negative response. But Qs may be
conducive: they may indicate that the speaker is predisposed to the kind of answer he has wanted or expected.
Positive Yes/No Qs Negative Yes/No Qs Declarative Qs
♦ Neutral polarity: with nonassertive forms ♦ Always conducive: ♦ Positive Qs have positive orientation &
♦ Positive orientation: w/assertive forms. ♦ Neg Orientation: Qs which contain can therefore accept only assertive forms
♦ Negative orientation: w/really. a negative form of one kind or another. ♦ Negative Qs have negative orientation, &
♦ Pos orientation: w/assertive items nonassertive forms may be used

Positive Wh-Qs Negative Wh-Qs Exclamatory Qs

♦ Neutral polarity: with nonassertive forms ♦ Norm: w/nonassertives ♦ They don’t admit nonassertive forms
♦ Positive orientation: Norm. Rhetorical Qs
♦ Nonassertive forms may occur
- OTHER CONTEXTS:
♦ Nonassertive items tend to occur where the truth of the proposition is not definite or uncertainty is implied.
___ Conditional clauses can also imply uncertainty → If you ever do that again, I will kick you.
___ Putative should: situation which is possibly existing or coming into existence → I’d be amazed if smone should ever travel through time.
♦ Comparative clauses carry some nonassertive force → He is too young to understand anything about the film.
♦ After words that are morphologically negative or semantic traits with a negative orientation: Unlikely, fail, prevent, deny, hard …
Iván Matellanes’ Notes
 Tema 24: Brief summary.
25
- EMPHASIS: show the significance or special value of any discourse part, making it more important than it would normally be
- Emphatic prons and determiners:
- REFLEXIVE PRONS: in emphatic use occur in apposition and have heavy (nuclear) stress. They may also have positional mobility..
→ I mySĚLF wouldn’t take any NÒtice = I wouldn’t take any NÒtice mySÉLF (meaning speaking personally)
♦ In other contexts, the meaning may be paraphrase as “X and nobody else” → you spoke to the Pope himSÉLF?
- POSSESSIVE DETERMINERS can be made emphatic by adding own, with the implied meaning of “mine and nobody else”
WORDS are used with the purpose of adding emphatic force to the sentence

→ This book doesn’t belong to the library. It’s my own copy.

♦ Poss prons cannot be combined with own (*mine own)

- Exclamative sentences resemble Wh-Qs in requiring the initial placement of an exclamatory Wh-element. However, there is
generally no Subj-Op inversion → What a time we have had today! [OSVA]] → How I used to hate geography! [ASVO]
♦ Only two Wh-words can be used to form the Wh-element in exclamatory sentences:
___ What as predeterminer in a NP: Fn as Subj, obj & adverbial → What a long time we’ve been waiting!
___ How as intensifier of an adj, adv or clause → How Quickly you eat!
♦ Echo exclamations: like the echo Qs, repeats part or all of a preceding utterance, but in contrast to the rising tone of the echo Qs, it is
characterized by a rise-fall (or high fall) tone → A: I am going to London for a holiday -- B: To LONDON ! That’s not my idea of rest.

- Emphatic Ops: Ops can carry nuclear stress to add exclamatory emphasis to the whole sentence. This use is called EMPHATIC
POSITIVE because it mainly occurs to deny a negative which has been stated or implied → I’m SÒRry vs. I ÀM ‘sorry.
♦ Dummy-do is introduced when there is no other Op to bear the emphatic stress → I DID tell you (even if you say you didn’t)

- Noncorrelative so & such: The determiner such and the adv so receive stress in familiar speech so as to give exclamatory force to
the statement, Qs or directive → She was wearing ‘such a lovely DRÈSS. Therefore, so & such become equivalent to how & what in exclamations

- Intensifying adjs and Advs: Some adjs have a amplifying effect on the Noun they modify, or the reverse, a lowering effect.
♦ EMPHASIZERS have a general amplifying effect. Convey emphasis → A true scholar
♦ AMPLIFIERS scale upwards from an assumed meaning. Convey degree → A complete victory
♦ DOWNTONERS have a lowering effect, usually moving downwards from an assumed point. Convey degree → a slight effort.
- Interjections and expletives:
♦ INTERJECTIONS are purely emotive words. Some of them have features which lie outside the regular system of the Lg & are represented in
writing through spelling conventions → Aha (recognition), Oh! (surprise), Ouch (pain), sh (request for silence) …
♦ EXPLETIVES are expressions of anger or dismissal and other miscellaneous exclamations used when people want to express strong
emotions, usually by means of taboo words & swearwords:
___ Words related with Christian religion → Damn, hell, Jesus, Christ …
___ Words related to sexual activity & associated with parts of the body → arsehole (AmE asshole), balls, cock, Fuck, wank (AmE jerk off) …
___ Words referring to the elimination of bodily wastesn → Piss, shit, crap, fart …

- Reinforcement is a feature of colloquial style. An item is repeated or replaced by a pron for purposes of emphasis
→ It’s far, far too expensive

- Marked theme (or “topic”) or Rheme (or “focus”)

♦ THEME is the starting point that indicates what the clause is going to be about. It typically coincides with the subject.
___ Marked Theme: Theme and the new information given in a sentence coincide → Who gave you that money? Dàd ‘gave me the mòney.
♦ RHEME is what is said about the theme, where the intonation nucleus is place. It’s generally found at the end of the clause.
used to emphasize

___ Marked Rheme: Move the focus from its predictable position to another one
→ A: Peter was reading a book at the cafeterìa. [Unmarked rheme] -- B: So, Peter was reading the newspaper at the cafeteria?
→ A: No, Peter was reading a bòok at the cafete’ria. [Marked rheme]
- Marked theme may also be achieved by fronting an item which is otherwise unusual there:
♦ Emphatic fronting: first thing in the speaker’s mind is said first → WÌLSON his NÁME is
♦ Given fronting: Given information is fronted, emphasizing it → To this list may be added 10 further items of importance.
SYNTACTIC DEVICES

♦ Contrastive fronting: Dramatic contrast or parallelism → Poor may be, but this does not mean fool.
- Emphasis is also accomplished by inverting the order of the sentence elements. This inversion usually involves the subj.:
♦ Subj-V: VP is a single word intransitive V; fronted element is adv of place or direction; Subj is not a pers pron → There goes my dog.
♦ Subj-Op inversion is obligatory when a negative element is fronted → Scarcely had he started jogging that it began to rain.

- Cleft and pseudo-cleft sentences:

♦ CLEFT SENTENCES consist of an introductory it that emphasizes an element in a sentence. It is useful for thematic fronting of any element.
___ The theme is highlighted being the complement of it + be → It was John who wore a suit at the dance last night [Subj focus]
♦ The PSEUDO-CLEFT SENTENCE is essentially an SVC sentence with a nominal relative clause as subj or complement. The main focus is at the
end of the clause → What John did to his suit has no name.
- OBJECTION: Two ideas are directly related to objection: disapproval and disagreement.
- Disapproval: A negative judgment expressing an unfavorable opinion.
♦ NEUTRAL STYLE: Always + Pres cont & Keep + -ing (continuous action that does not please the speaker) → My sister is always touching
my things → This man keeps molesting me; There’s nothing I [like / enjoy] less than … ;
♦ FORMAL STYLE: I can’t bear/stand … ; I don’t think much of …; I’m against …
♦ FORMAL STYLE: I’d rather like …; I´m not very fond of …; I’m opposed to …; I found … disappointing; Was it necessary to ….?
- Disagreement involves a negative expression of judgement on other people’s opinion
♦ Partial agreement: When the speaker rejects something and, at the same time, agrees with something.
___ Neutral: I can see your point, but …; Certainly, it’s true that …, but …; I agree with most of what you say, but …
___ Informal: [Ok / Mm / Yes / Could be], but …; True, but …; I’d go along with most of that, but …
___ Formal: There is [some / much] truth in what you say, but …; I agree on the whole, but …
♦ Disagreement: speaker’s total rejection to smone’s opinion or action. Neutral: I totally disagree with …; I don’t share your views
___ Informal: Rubbish!; Nonsense!; No way!; Never!; You must be joking; You can’t be serious
___ Formal: I am afraid I entirely disagree …; I see things rather differently; If you don’t mind my saying so … Iván Matellanes’ Notes