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Tema 23:
Estructura de la
oración en inglés:
Afirmaciones,
preguntas,
negaciones y
exclamaciones.
Madhatter
09/06/2007

Tema 23:
Estructura de la oración en inglés: Afirmaciones, preguntas, negaciones y exclamaciones.
2
Table of contents.
1. Parts of the sentence. _______________________________________________________ 3
1.1. Subject ______________________________________________________________________ 3
1.2. Object: Direct & Indirect. ______________________________________________________ 4
1.3. Complement: Subject and object. ________________________________________________ 5
1.4. Adverbials. __________________________________________________________________ 5
2. Sentence types. ____________________________________________________________ 6
3. Affirmative declaratives sentences _____________________________________________ 7
4. Negative declarative sentences. _______________________________________________ 8
4.1. Clause Negation. ______________________________________________________________ 8
4.1.1. Clause negation through verb negation. __________________________________________________ 8
4.1.2. Syntactic features of clause negation. ____________________________________________________ 9
4.1.3. Clause negation other than through V negation. ____________________________________________ 9
4.1.3.1. Words negative in form and meaning. _______________________________________________ 9
4.1.3.2. Words negating in meaning but not in form. _________________________________________ 10
4.1.4. Nonassertive items and negative items. _________________________________________________ 10
4.1.5. Scope of negation. __________________________________________________________________ 11
4.1.6. Focus of negation. __________________________________________________________________ 11
4.2. Local Negation. ______________________________________________________________ 12
4.3. Negation of modal auxiliaries. __________________________________________________ 13
4.3.1. Present forms of modals _____________________________________________________________ 13
4.3.2. Past forms of modals. _______________________________________________________________ 13
4.4. Predication negation. _________________________________________________________ 13
4.5. Double negation. _____________________________________________________________ 14
5. Interrogative sentences. ____________________________________________________ 14
5.1. Yes-no Questions. ____________________________________________________________ 15
5.1.1. Form of Yes-no Questions. ___________________________________________________________ 15
5.1.2. Positive Yes-No questions. ___________________________________________________________ 15
5.1.3. Negative Yes-No Questions. __________________________________________________________ 16
5.1.4. Question tags. _____________________________________________________________________ 16
5.1.5. Declarative questions. _______________________________________________________________ 18
5.1.6. Exclamatory questions. ______________________________________________________________ 18
5.2. Wh-Questions. _______________________________________________________________ 19
5.2.1. Functions of Wh-elements. ___________________________________________________________ 19
5.2.2. Positive and negative Wh-Question. ____________________________________________________ 20
5.2.3. More than one Wh-element. __________________________________________________________ 20
5.3. Alternative questions. _________________________________________________________ 21
5.4. Minor type questions. _________________________________________________________ 21
5.4.1. Rhetorical Questions. _______________________________________________________________ 21
5.4.2. Recapitulatory echo Questions. ________________________________________________________ 22
5.4.3. Questions about questions. ___________________________________________________________ 22
6. Exclamatives. ____________________________________________________________ 23
6.1. Echo exclamations. ___________________________________________________________ 23
Bibliography _______________________________________________________________ 24
Brief summary _____________________________________________________________ 25
Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

Tema 23:
3
PARTS OF THE SENTECE.

1. Parts of the sentence.
Elements of a sentence.
The distinction between the elements of a sentence are based on
(i) Form.
(i) forms (NP, VP, finite clause…); (ii) position; (iii) syntactic function &
(ii) Position.
(iv) semantic role. It is primarily on the basis of syntactic function and (iii) Syntactic Fn.
semantic role that a distinction is made btw Direct Obj (DO) & Indirect (iv) Semantic role.
Obj (IO), Object complement (OC) & Subject complement (SC).
1.1. Subject
Subject.
Of the clause elements other than the verb, the subj is the most
It is the element which is
most often present.
important in that (except for the V) it is the element which is most often
present. It is also the element for which we can find the greatest number of
characteristic features.
(i) FORM: The subj is normally a NP or a nominal clause. (i) It is a NP.
(ii) POSITION: The subject normally occurs before the V in declarative (ii) Declaratives: before V.
Yes-no Qs: after the Op.
clauses and after the Op in yes-no Interrogative clauses. In wh-Qs, Wh-Qs: after Op except
when wh-element is subj.
subj-Op inversion also occurs, except when the wh-item is the subj.
Everybody [Subj] has left [V] for the day Has [Op] everybody [Subj] left for the day?
What have [Op]you [Subj]seen today? What [Subj]has [Op] kept you so long?
(iii) SYNTACTIC FN:
a. A subj is obligatory in finite clauses, except in imperative (iii) obligatory in finite
clauses except Imperatvs.
clauses, where it is absent but implied.
b. In finite clauses, It determines the V number & person. (iii) V nº & pers.
c. It normally determines number of the SC when that is a NP. (iii) Nº of SC when NP.
d. It determines the number and, when relevant, the person (iii) Nº, pers & gender of
reflexive prons.
and gender of the reflexive prons as DO, IO, SC.
e. It requires the subjective form for prons that have distinctive (iii) Subjective forms prons
case forms: I [Subj]
like him; He [Subj]
likes me.
f. There is a systematic correspondence btw active & passive

Active Passive
clauses. DO/IO - Subj
Subj - omitted/by-Phr
g. It is repeated in a tag Qs by a pron form.
(iii) Repeated in a tag Qs.
h. The implied subj of a subjectless nonfinite or Verbless clause is (iii) Implied subj is =
w/that of the
identical with the subj of the superordinate clause. superordinat clause.

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(iv) SEMANTIC PROPERTIES:

a. The subj is usually the Theme (or topic) of the clause. (iv) Theme of the clause.
b. It typically refers to information that is considered by the (iv) refers to Inf regarded
by the speaker as given.
speaker as given.
(iv) nonpassive: Subj has
c. In a non passive clause, the subj is agentive if the agentive agentive role when possibl.
role is expressed in the clause.
1.2. Object: Direct & Indirect. Object: Direct & Indirect.

DO & IO have some characteristics in common, and this fact justifies their
sharing the term object.
(i) FORM: Like the subj, the obj is normally a NP or a nominal clause. (i) NP or nominal clause.
(ii) POSITION: The obj normally follows the Subj and V. If both objs are
(ii) Follows the Subj & V.
present the IO come normally before the DO. IO usually before DO.
(iii) SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS:

a. The Obj Fn requires the objective form for some prons. (iii)Objective form of prons.
b. If an obj is co-referential with the subj, it usually requires a (iii) Reflexive obj pron
agrees with the subj.
reflexive pron which agrees with the subj in pers &, where
relevant, in number & gender.
c. The obj of an active clause may generally become the subj of (iii)Obj(active)→Subj(passiv).
the corresponding passive clause. If both Objs are present, it

is possible to make either the subj.
d. The IO generally corresponds to a PpP, after the DO. (iii) IO > PpP after the DO.
(iii) IO may be generally
e. The IO may generally be omitted without affecting the omitted without affecting
the semantic relations.
semantic relations btw the other elements: David saved me a seat.
Hence, if there is only one obj present, it is generally the
(iii) Ditransitive Vs:
DO. But with a few Ditransitive Vs the IO may be retained DO may be omitted.
while the DO is omitted.

(iv) SEMANTIC PROPERTIES:
a. The DO typically refers to an entity that is affected by the (iv) DO refers to an entity
that is affected by the
action denoted in the clause. action denoted in the
clause
b. The IO typically refers to an animate being that is the (iv) IO refers to an animate
being that is the recipient
recipient of the action. of the action.

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1.3. Complement: Subject and object. Complement: Subject & Object.
Both complements are in copular relationship with another clause Copular relation with
another clause element.
element. The SC relates to the subj, and the V is copular. The OC
SC → Subj & V[copular].
relates to the DO.
OC → DO.
My glass is empty. [SC] My daughter has became an accountant. [SC]
We find them very pleasant. [OC – They are very pleasant]
Carol made Joshua & Pit her assistants. [OC – Joshua & Pit are her assistants]
The implied relationship btw the DO and the OC can be expressed by means of
a corresponding SVC sentence with a copular V (be or become).
(i) NP, AdjP or nominal cl.
(i) FORM: The complement is usually a NP or an AdjP, but it may also be
a nominal clause.
(ii) POSITION: The SC normally follows the Subj & the V. The OC (ii) SC follows Subj & V.
OC follows DO.
normally follows the DO.
(iii) SYNTACTIC FUNCTION:
a. If it is a NP, the SC normally agrees in number with the (iii) NP – SC agrees in nº
w/Subj. OC w/DO
Subj, and the OC normally agrees in number with the DO.
b. If it is a Reflexive pron, the SC agrees in number, person (iii) Refl Pron – SC
agrees in nº, pers &
and, when relevant, gender with the subj. gender w/Subj.
c. Unlike the Obj, the complement cannot become the subj of a
(iii) Compl cannot become
passive.
corresponding passive clause. In SVOC [Subj+Verb+Obj+Compl],
the OC can become the SC in the passive clause.
SVOC> OC → OS.
His friends call him Ted [OC] ≈ He is called Ted [OS] by his friends
d. If the SC is a pron, there is a distinction btw subjective & (iii) SC is pron: subjective
& Objective forms.
objective forms. Subjective forms are more formal. Subjectiv + formal
This is he. [+Formal] That’s him.

(iv) SEMANTIC PROPERTIES: The complement typically identifies the (iv) Complement identifies
the referent of the clause
referent of the clause element to which it is related. element to which it is
related.
1.4. Adverbials.
Adverbials are the most diverse of the clause elements, and therefore I
distinguish several major types.

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Adverbials.
(i) FORM: It is normally an AdvP. It may also be a NP. (i) AdvP & NP.
(ii) POSITION: It is capable of occurring in more than one position in (ii) + than one position:
SVA → follows subj & V.
the clause. The advbl in the SVA type normally follows the subj & V. SVAO → follows DO too.
Others → end clause.
The advbl in the SVOA type normally follows the DO as well. Others
normally appear at the end of the clause.
(iii) SYNTACTIC FUNCTION:
a. Except for some obligatory adbls (SVA & SVAO types), they (iii) Except for some
obligatory, all are optional.
are optional: they may be added or removed from the clause
without affecting its acceptability.
b. Other syntactic potentialities depend crucially on the type of (iii) Does not have the
syntactic features listed for
advbl. At the most general level, it may be characterized the other clause elements.
negatively: It does not have the syntactic features listed for

the other clause elements.
(iv) Diff types:
(iv) SEMANTIC PROPERTIES: It refers to the circumstances of the - Adjunct/Subjunct:
circumstances of the
situation (ADJUNCT & SUBJUNCT), comments on the form or content situation.
- Disjunct: comments on
of the clause (DISJUNCT) or provides a link btw clauses (CONJUNCT). the form of the clause.
- Conjunct: Link btw cls.
2. Sentence types. Sentence types.
Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic types: Syntactic sentence types.
1. DECLARATIVES are sentences in which the subject is present & Declaratives: Subj
before the V.
generally precedes the V. Exceptionally, declaratives can be subjectless. Exception: subjless.
Pauline gave Tom a digital watch for his birthday.

2. INTERROGATIVES are sentences which are formally marked as: Interrogative: OP
before the Subj.
a. Yes-no interrogatives: The Op is placed in front of the subj.
Yes-No Qs: Op before
Did Pauline give Tom a digital watch for his birthday? Subj.
b. Wh-Interrogatives: The wh-element is placed initially. Wh-Qs: Wh-item placed

initially.
What did Pauline give Tom for his birthday?
3. IMPERATIVES are sentences that normally have no overt grammatical Imperatives: No overt
subj. V in the base form.
subj, and whose V has the base form.
∅ Give me a digital watch for my birthday.
4. EXCLAMATIVES are sentences which have an initial phrase introduced Imperatives: initial Phr
introduced by what or
by what or how, usually with subj-Verb order. how. Subj-V order.
What a fine watch he received for his birthday!

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Discourse Functions.
Associated with these four sentences types are four classes of
discourse functions:
1. STATEMENTS are primarily used to convey information. Statements: Convey Inf.
2. QUESTIONS are primarily used to seek information on a specific point. Qs: seek Inf.
Directives: instruct smone
3. DIRECTIVES are primarily used to instruct somebody to do smthing. to do something.
4. EXCLAMATIONS are primarily used for expressing the extend to which the Exclamations: speaker
impressed by something.
speaker is impressed by something.
Direct association btw syntactic class and semantic class is the norm, Direct association btw
syntactic class &
but the two classes do not always match. For instance, a sentence like I semantic class is the
norm.
would like a cup of tea is syntactically declarative, but it is a directive suggesting
that the hearer bring the speaker a cup of tea.
3. Affirmative declaratives sentences Affirmative Declaratives.
A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE is one which states or asserts a fact. A States/asserts a fact.

period is used to close such a sentence. This is, of course, the type of sentence
widely used in Lg production.
DECLARATIVE SENTENCES consist of a subject and a predicate (SVO). SVO.
In the sentence John is drinking a coffee, the subject is John & the predicate is is
drinking a coffee. The subject is normally present & may be a simple or a Subj:Simple or compound.
compound one. A simple subject consists of a NP or a nominative personal
pronoun. Compound subjects are formed by combining several simple
Predicate.
subjects with conjunctions. The predicate may have one or two objs
Transitive.
(Transitive: I eat a cake; Ditransitive: I gave her the letter) or non
Ditransitive.
(Intransitive: It rains ∅). Intransitive.
Sometimes, the order may change. In some cases, [1] the subj (and Order may change:
even the Op) may be omitted, because it is really clear from the context and Subj omitted.
V before the Subj to

in some set-phrases. When [2] the subj is given special emphasis, the V emphasize it.
usually come first. Items such as [3] much/many, here/there occur in Much/many, here/there.
initial position.
[1] (I) Beg your pardon. [1] (I’m) Afraid not. [1] (It’s) Good to see you.
[2] Out rushed the thief.
[3] Here is the milkman. [3]There is my son.

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Negative declarative sentences.

4. Negative declarative sentences.
Three types of negation can be distinguished:
1. Clause negation, through which the whole clause is syntactically
treated as negative.
2. Local negation, in which one constituent (not necessarily a clause
element) is negated.
3. Predication Negation, a minor type applying only after certain auxs,
in which the predication is negated.
4.1. Clause Negation. CLAUSE NEGATION.
4.1.1. Clause negation through verb negation. Clause negation through V:
A simple positive sentence is negated by inserting the clause Insert not btw the Op &
st the predication.
negator nor btw the Op and the predication. The Op is the 1 aux V of a
complex VP.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
I have finished I have not finished
He may be working He may not be working
If an Op is not present in the positive sentence, the dummy aux If no Op present, dummy-
do is introduced.
do is introduced. Like Modal auxs, it is followed by the bare Inf. Except in
Dummy-do + bare Inf.
formal English or when the negator is emphasised, it usually occurs in the [-Formal] or [-stress]: ‘nt.
contracted form.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
She works hard She does NÓT work hard. [+formal]
They knew you They didn’t know you.
If the Op can be contracted to the subject, there are two diff If Op can be contracted to
the subj, 2 diff possibilities.
possibilities of contraction in negative clauses.
She isn’t responsible. [More common] She’s not responsible.
We aren’t ready. [More common] We’re nor ready.

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Syntactic features of
4.1.2. Syntactic features of clause negation. clause negation.
Certain syntactic features differentiate negative clauses from
positive one.
(i) They are followed by positive checking tag questions. Positive tag Qs.
Apply to independent
declarative clauses.
She doesn’t work here, does she? [>She works here, doesn’t she?]
(ii) They are followed by negative tag clauses, with additive meaning. Negative tag clauses.
I haven’t finished, nor have you [>I’ve finished and so have you]
(iii) In discourse, they’re followed by negative agreement responses. In discourse, negative
agreement responses.
A: He does not know Russian. B: No, he doesn’t. [>A:He knows Russian. B:Yes,he does]
Apply to subordinate
(non)finite clauses.
(iv) They are followed by nonassertive items.

Nonassertive items.
He won’t notice any change in you, either [>She’ll notice some change in you, too]
(v) They do not occur with items that have positive orientation. Can’t occur with positive
orientation items.
*It isn’t pretty late [> It’s pretty late]
4.1.3. Clause negation other than through V negation. Clause negation other
than through V.
4.1.3.1. Words negative in form and meaning.
Clausal negation may be accomplished by negating a clause element When both form &
meaning are negative,
there are alternative
other than the V with no(t), or by using a negative word such as none or never. negations.
We then sometimes have a choice btw V negation and negation of some
other element.
VERB NEGATION NEGATION OF OTHER ELEMENT
That was not an accident That was no accident.
She isn’t any different She is no different.
An honest man would not lie. No honest man would lie. [+Formal]
I don’t see any clouds. I see no clouds.
They are not staying with us any longer They are no longer staying with us.
In formal style, the negative item may be moved out of its usual
Formal: Initial position;
position to initial one, in which case subj-Op inversion is often required. Subj-Op inversion.
Except for a few set-phrases (no good, no different), the adv no modifies No modifies adjs (when
comparative) & Ns.
adjs only when used as a comparative (No worst, no less intelligent) & Ns.
Negation with no may have different implications than V negation
No converts the usually
with not. While He is not a teacher denotes that his occupation is not teaching, nongradable N into a
gradable N that
He is no teacher implies that he lacks the skills needed for teaching. The characterizes the person.
determiner no converts the usually nongradable N into a gradable N

that characterizes the person.

Tema 23:
10
Words negating in
4.1.3.2. Words negating in meaning but not in form. meaning but not in form.
There are several advs and determiners which are negative in Advs & dets which are
negative in meaning but
meaning but not in form. They include: not in form.
Seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely, little, few.

As with other initial negative advbls (no), the advs normally cause Subj-Op Advs initially cause subj-
Op inversion.
inversion when they are positioned initially.
Rarely does [Op]crime [Subj] pay so well as many people think.
Only is to some extend negative. When it focuses on a subj NP, the Only: when focuses on a
subj NP → nonassertive.
latter is followed by nonassertive items.
Only two of us had any experience on sailing.
And when it focuses on a fronted initial element other than the subj, it Only: may occasionally
take Subj-Op inversion.
may occasionally take subj-Op inversion.
Only his mother will he obey. [> he will obey only his mother]
Vs, adjs & Pps with negative meaning may be followed by Vs, Adjs & Pps: followed
by nonassertive items.
nonassertive items, particularly any & its compounds.
He denies I ever told him. [Verbs: forget, avoid …]
We are unaware of any hostility. [N> Prefixes a-, counter-, de-, in-, non-, un- ...]
They are unwilling ever to accept our help. [N> Suffixes: -less]
They decided to leave without telling any of their friends. [Pps> against, …]
4.1.4. Nonassertive items and negative items.

As already pointed out, clause negation is frequently followed by one or
more nonassertive items. Common nonassertives are listed below with the
corresponding assertives and negative items:
SYNTACTIC CLASS ASSERTIVE1 NONASSERTIVE NEGATIVE
(1) Determiner Some Any no
(2) Determiner Either one or the other Either Neither
(3) Pron Some Any None
(4) Pron one or the other Either Neither
(5) Pron Something Anything Nothing
(6) Pron Somebody Anybody Nobody
(7) Pron Someone Anyone No one
(8) Process Adv Somehow In any way In no way
Somewhere Anywhere Nowhere
(9) Place Advs
Someplace [Informal AmE] Anyplace [Informal AmE] No place [Informal AmE]
Sometime(s) Ever Never
(10) Time Adv
Always Anytime [Informal AmE] ---
(11) Time Adv Already Yet --
Still Any more No more
(12) Time Adv
Any longer No longer
(13) Degree advbl To some extend At all --
(14) Degree advbl Somewhat Any (the) No, (none the)
(15) Additive adbl As well, too Either --
1
Assertive items may follow a negative if they fall outside the scope of negation.

Tema 23:
11
4.1.5. Scope of negation. Scope of the negation.

A negative item may be said to govern a nonassertive only if the
Scope of negation: the
latter is within the scope of the negative, that is, within the stretch of Lg stretch of Lg over which
the negative item has a
over which the negative item has a semantic influence. The scope of the semantic influence.
negation normally extends from the negative itself to the end of the It normally extends from
the negative to the end
clause, but it need not include an end-placed advbl. In a clause with the of the clause.
negator not or a negative word such as never or hardly, advbls occurring End place-advbl may
lie outside the scope.
before the negative normally lie outside the scope. Contrast:
Advbls before the
She definitely didn’t speak to him. She didn’t definitely speak to him. negative lie outside
[>It’s definite that she didn’t speak to him] [>It’s not definite that she spoke to him] scope.
I wasn’t LÍStening all the TÌME. I wasn’t listening all the TÍME.
[>For the whole time, I wasn’t listening] [>It’s not true that I was listening all the time]
Disjuncts & conjuncts always lie outside the scope of clause Disjuncts & conjuncts
lie outside the scope.
negation, whatever their position:
She doesn’t know him, unfortunately. She doesn’t know him, however.
The scope can sometimes extend into a subordinate clause: Scope may extend into a
subordinate clause.
She didn’t know I would come to her whenever she needed any advice.
The use of assertive forms indicates the limit of the scope of negation. Assertive forms help
indicatiη the scope’s limits.
I didn’t listen to some of the speakers. I didn’t listen to any of the speakers.
4.1.6. Focus of negation. FŎCUS of negation.
We need to identify not only the scope, but also the FOCUS of the
Focus of negation is
negation. The focus of negation is signalled by the nuclear stress. A signalled by the nuclear
stress.
contrastive nuclear stress falling on a particular part of the clause
Its position indicates the
indicates that the contrast of meaning implicit in the negation is scope of negation, so the
rest of the clause can be
understood as positive.
located at that spot, and also that the rest of the clause can understood
as positive. So, we need to REFINE OUR NOTION OF SCOPE to allow for DISCONTINUOUS SCOPE.
THE PRECEDING ITEM FROM
discontinuous scope & also for the part preceding the negative item to THE NEGATIVE MAY COME
WITHIN THE SCOPE.
come within the scope.
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the PÒOL today. [< I forgot to do so –STANDARD version-]
I didn’t take JŎAN to swim in the pool today. [< It was Mary]
Discontinuous
I didn’t take Joan to SWĬM in the pool today. [< just to see it]
scope.
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the PŎOL today. [< I took her to the seaside]
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool TODĂY. [< It was last week that I did so]
Ĭ didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool today. [< It was my brother who took her]
Scope and focus are interrelated: Scope must include the focus. One way Scope & focus are related.
One way of signaling the
of signaling the extend of the scope is by the position of the focus. extend of the scope is by
the position of the focus.
Tema 23:
12
4.2. Local Negation. Local negation.
Local negation negates a word or a phrase, without making the

Negates a word/Phr,
clause negative. A common type is exemplified in [1]. w/out making the clause
negativ.
[1] She is not unattractive woman, [ in some ways / *in any respect ]
In [1], not negates unattractive but not the whole clause, as we can see Doble negation:
Not + neg.prefix-Adj/adv.
from the inadmissibility of the nonassertive item any. The effect of not in [1] is
Reverse the already
merely to reverse the already negative force of the following negative force of the
following expression.
expression. Such double negative phrases are devices of euphemism;
She is not entirely unintelligent woman meaning that “she is a fairly intelligent
Gradable adjective or
woman”. This double negative phrases require a gradable adjective or adverb as head, the
negation indicating a
adverb as head, the negation indicating a point between the 2 extremes point between the 2
extremes of the scale.
of the scale.
In another type of local negation, not modifies a degree adv, which
Not + DegreeAdv +
in turn modifies a positive gradable adj or adv. GradableAdj/Adv:
Not very often
They own two not very fierce dogs. [Rather docile]
I saw a not too sympathetic report about you. [rather unsympathetic]
I visit them not very often. [> I don’t visit them very often]
The quantifiers a few & a little may be negated by not. A few/A little + not:
Not a little hostility
I sensed not a little hostility in his manners.
PpP may also be negated, whether as adjuncts or as postmodifiers in PpP (Adjuncts or
postmodifiers).
NPs, by a negative word within the complement:
I’ll give it to you for nothing. It was a decision of no consequence.
She replied with not a moment’s hesitation.
An unusual type of local negation appears in NPs that express a NP (express a
compressed predication).
compressed predication.
The company promised no victimization. [>It promised that there would be no victimization]
No news is good news. [>Receiving no news is good news]
In local negation, an initial negative advbl does not cause subj-Op Initial negative advbl does
not cause subj-Op
inversion. We may therefore contrast local negation in the [a] below with inversion.
clause negation in [b] sentences.

[a] In no time we cleared the table. [> we cleared the table within a short time]
[b] At no time was war as imminent as now. [>War wasn’t as imminent as now at any
previous time]
[a] Not even 10 years ago you could see such a film. [Positive → “,couldn’t you?”]
[b] Not even ten years ago could you see such a film. [Negative → “,could you?”]

Tema 23:
Esttructura de la orración en ingléss: Afirmaciones, preguntas, neg
gaciones y excla
amaciones.
13
4.3. Negattion of modal

m aux
xiliaries. Negation
N of modal
m auxs.
4.3.1. Prese
ent forms
s of moda
als
The scope
s of negation
n may or may
m not include the
t mean
ning of Aux Negatio
on: includes
g of the modal.
the meaning
he modal auxiliariies. We th
th herefore distinguish
d btw AUXIILIARY NEG
GATION Clausal neg
gation.
(in
ncludes the
t meaning of the mod
dal –claussal negatio
on-) & MAIN V Main V nega ation: Does
not include the meaniη
NE
EGATION (d
does not include th
he meanin
ng of the modal –Local negattion-). of modals. Local
L
negation.
You
u may not smoke
s in he
ere. [> You are not allowed too smoke in heree – AUX NEGASN]
Theey may not like
l the parrty. [>It is posssible that they do not like the party – MAIN V NEGASN]
He
ere there iss a list of present auxs
a acco
ording to their
t scop
pe of nega
ation: Present
P moda
al auxs.
AUXILIARY NEGA
ATION MAIN VERB
E NEGATTION
May not
n [=permiission]. Mayy not [=posssibility]
m not go swiimming. [>Youu are not alloweed to]
You may They
ey may not botther to come if
i it’s wet. [It iss possible that they
t won’t …]
Canno ot, can’t [=a all senses]. Sha

all not [=all senses;
s esp BrE]
You caan’t be seriouss. [It is not posssible that] You
u shall not lose
e your reward.. [I’ll make suree that you don’t lose …]
Needd not [=both esp BrE] Musst not [=Obligation]
You neeedn’t pay thaat fine. [You are not obliged too] You
u must not kee
ep us waiting. [It’s essential thhat you don’t …]
…
Dare not Ougght not [=alll senses]

I dareen’t quarrel witth them. [I donn’t have the couurage] You
u ought not to keep us waitiing. [“obligationn”]
The distin
nction btw auxx & main nega alized for will in all its sense
ation is neutra es
4.3.2. Past forms off modals. Past

P modal au
uxs.
AUXILIARY NEGA
ATION MAIN VERB
E NEGATTION
Couldd not [=all seenses] Mig
ght not
ouldn’t be seriious. [>It is nott possible …, is it?]
She co They
ey might not be telling lies. [It
[ is possible th
hat they are nott …]
He cou
uldn’t drive a car.
c [>He was not able to]
Shoould not [=all senses]
Youu should not sa
ay anything. [>>You are advise
ed not to say an
nything]
They
ey should not be
b there yet. [>It
[ is probable that they are not
n there yet]
As witth will, the disstinction btw Aux or would in all its senses.
A and Main V negation is neutralized fo
4.4. Predic
cation ne
egation. Predica
ation negation
n.
Very rarely, PR
REDICATION
N NEGATION
N occurs in
i the con
ntext of d
denials
Modal aux is used with a
an
nd permis
ssion. In predication
p n negation,, a modal aux is used
u with a diff diff scope of
o negation
al for that aux.
that is norma
sc
cope of ne
egation th
hat is normal for th
hat aux
Theey may ‘nott go swimmiing. [= They are
a allowed not to go swimming g]
You
u can (simplyy) ‘not obey
y the order. [It’s possible foor you not to obbey the order.]
So
o, the clau
use is not negated.. It differs
s from loc
cal negatiion in thatt it can Diff from LOC
CAL negation:
can be extennded over
be
e extende
ed over se
everal clause elements. several clausses.
Prediccation nega
ation may also be fo
ollowed by
y nonasse
ertive form
ms. May be follo
owed by
nonassertivve forms.
You
u could ‘nott attend any
y of the mee
etings. [=it’s possible for you not to attend any of the
mee
etings]
Ivan Matella
anes’ Notes
Tema 23:
14
Because both kinds of negation can occur with the same aux Clause and predication
negation can cooccur.
(clause and predicative), acceptable instances of two negations in the Double negation.
same clause sometimes arise.

You can’t ‘not admire him. [it’s not possible for you not to admire him = You have to admire him.]
More natural ways of expressing a corresponding negation would be: Use of but as predication
negation.
I can’t help obeying her.
I can’t help but obey her.
4.5. Double negation. Double negation.

As we have just seen, two negatives occasionally occur in the Two negatives can
cooccur in the same
same clause. Our example there involved a combination of aux and main V clause.
negation (predication and clause negation), but other combinations occur.
Not many people have nowhere to leave. [=Most people have somewhere to live]
No one has nothing to offer to society. [=Everyone has something to offer to society.]
Not all imperatives have no subject. [=Some imperatives have a subj]
These sentences are somewhat similar to the double negative of logic: Similar to the double
negative of logic.
each negative has its separate value and can be found paraphrases
which cancel out each negative.
Double negation in
The double negation in standard English is ungrammatical and standard English is
ungrammatical.
only used in some dialects to give emphasis to the negative meaning
of the sentence. Except: dialects
to emphasize.
Interrogative sentences
5. Interrogative sentences.
Questions can be divided into three major classes according to the type
of reply they expect:
1. Those that expect affirmation or negation, as in Have you finished the book?,
are yes-no Qs.
2. Those that typically expect a reply from an open range of replies, as
in What is your name? are Wh-Qs.
3. Those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented
in the Qs, as in Would you like to go for a walk or stay here?, are alternative Qs.

Tema 23:
gaciones y excla
amaciones.
15
5.1. Yes-n
no Questiions.
5.1.1. Formm of Yes-nno Questions. Yes
s-No Qs.
Yes-N
No Qs are usually
u form
med by pla
acing the Op beforre the Subj and
Place the Op
O before
giv
ving the sentence
s a rising intonation
i n. the Subj & give the
sentence a rising
Thee boat has LÈÈFT ≈ Has the
th boat LÉFTT? intonation.
Shee’ll be waiting
g outSÌDE ≈ Will she bee waiting outtSÍDE?
If there is no he VP that can functiion as Op, dummy-do

o item in th d is introd
duced. Dummy-do o introduced
if no Op exxists.
Theey live in Syd
dney ≈ Do they
t live in Sydney?
Sy
Ass with nega n V be fun

ation, main s Op & BrE Have offten acts a
nctions as as Op, Be is Op. Ha
ave is Op [BrE
E]
ut informally have … got is mo

bu ore commo
on.
Pattrick was latee ≈ Was Pat
atrick late?
Does she
s have a cold?
c [AmE]
Shee has a cold ≈ Has sh
he (got) a co
old? [BrE]
5.1.2. Posittive Yes-N

No questtions. sitive Yes-no Qs.
Pos
s, Yes-no
Like negative statements
s o Qs may
y contain
n nonass
sertive May have noonassertives.
orms such as any & ever. The

fo e Qs contaiining such forms is generally
g NEUTRAL,
NEUTRAL PO OLARITY:
with no exp
pectation towards a positive
e or a neg
gative res
sponse. No expectaations
towards a positive
p or
Som
omeone calleed last night. Did anyo
yone call lastt night? esponse.
negative re
I livve somewhe
here near NY Y. Do you live
l anywhe ere near NY??
But Qs
Q may be
b CIVE,
CONDUC that is, they may indicate tha
at the CONDUCIVE: the speaker
is predispose
ed to the kind
peaker is
sp s predispo
osed to the kind
d of answ
wer he has
h wantted or of answer hee expects.
ex
xpected. Thus,
T a po
ositive Qs
s may be presented
d in a form
m which is b
biased
to
owards a positive answer.
a I has posittive orienta
It ation, for in
nstance, iff it uses
Positive Qs → Positive
asssertive forrms rather than the usual
u nonassertive fo
orms. answer. Use of
ve forms.
assertiv
Did
d someone call
c last night
ht? Hass the boat lefft already?
A positive Qs may also have negativ
ve orienta
ation. Notice the efffect of Really: Positive
P Qs →
Negativee orientation.
re
eally:
Do you really want
w to leave
ve now?
A Qs that is not conductive
e, so it ha
as no biass for eliciting a posiitive or
ne
egative response, can
n be said to
o have NEUTRAL POLLARITY.
Ivan Matella
anes’ Notes
Tema 23:
16
5.1.3. Negative Yes-No Questions. Negative Yes-no Qs.
Negative Qs are always CONDUCIVE. Negative orientation is found Negative Qs are always
conducive.
in Qs which contain a negative form of one kind or another.
Don’t you believe me? Has nobody called?
Negative orientation is complicated by an element of surprise. The
implication is that the speaker had originally hoped for a positive
response, but new evidence now suggests that the response will be An expected positive
answer (OLD EXPECTATIONS)
negative. So, Hasn’t he told you what to do? means “surely he has told you what to is now expected to be
negtiv (NEW EXPECTATIONS)
do. I would have thought that he had told you” There is a combination of OLD
EXPECTATIONS (positive: I thought he told you what to do) & NEW EXPECTATIONS
(negative: He hasn’t told you what to do).

Can’t you drive?. [>I’d have thought you’d be able to, but apparently you can’t]
Aren’t you ashamed of yourself? [>You should be, but apparently you are not]
If a negative Qs has assertive items, it is biased towards positive A Negative Qs with
assertive items biased
towards positive orientaSn.
orientation.
Didn’t someone call you last night? Hasn’t the boat left already?
The position of the negative particle varies according to whether the Position of negative
particle: n’t before subj;
full or contracted form is used. The contracted form (n’t) occurs before not after subj.
the subj, whereas not generally follows it.

Didn’t they warn you? Did they not warn you?
5.1.4. Question tags. Tag Qs.

Maximum CONDUCIVENESS is expressed by a further type of Yes-No Qs Maximum
conduciveness is
which conveys positive or negative orientation: A tag Qs attached to a expressed by tag Qs .
statement.
The boat hasn’t left, has it? John recognized you, didn’t he?
Two independent factors that are present in tag Qs: 2 Independent factors:
Assumption expressed
- There is an assumption that is expressed by an statement. by the statement.
- There is also the expression of the speakers’ expectation about the

Speakers’ expectation
meaning of the statement. This is expressed by the final Qs. about the meaning of
the statement.

Tema 23:
17
The general rules for forming the most common types of Qs tags are: Gnrl rules forming tag Qs:
1. The Tag Qs consists of an Op and Subj in that order. In formal English, 1. Op + Subj.
the negative particle is placed after the pron. Formal English:

neg particle placed
,is he? ,didn’t she? Did they not? [Formal English] after the pron.
2. The Op is generally the same as the Op of the preceding statement.

2. Op of the statement or
dummy-do.
If the statement has no Op, dummy-do is used instead.
I haven’t seen you before, have I? She ∅ knows you, doesn’t she?
3. The subj of the tag must be a pron which either repeats, or is in co-
3. Pron of the tag:
reference with, the subj of the statement, agreeing with it in repeat or be in co-
reference with the subj
of the statement.
number, pers & gender.
4. Commonly, the tag Qs is negative if the statement is positive & vice 4. Tag Qs is negative if
the statement is positive
versa. and vice versa.
5. The nuclear tone of the tag occurs on the aux, and is either rising or
5. Nuclear tone occurs
falling. on the aux & is either
rising or falling.
Four main types of tag Qs emerge from these rules.
Five main types of Qs tags:
POSITIVE + NEGATIVE
(i) +SÌ –TÊ +ASSUMPTION &
Rising tone Falling tone NEUTRAL EXPECTATION
2
(i) +SÌ –TÊ >+ASSUMPTION & NEUTRAL EXPECTATION (iii) +SÌ –TÌ >+ASSUMPTION & +EXPECTATION
He does like JÒB, DÓESn’t he? He likes his JÒB, DÒESn’t he? (ii) –SÌ +TÊ >-Assumption
& neutral expectation
NEGATIVE + POSITIVE
(iii) +SÌ –TÌ+Assumption
Rising tone Falling tone & +expectation
(ii) –SÌ +TÊ >-ASSUMPTION & NEUTRAL EXPECTATION (iv) –SÌ +TÌ >-ASSUMPTION & -EXPECTATION
(iv) –SÌ +TÌ-Assumption &
He does not like his JÒB, DÓES he? He does not like his JÒB, DÒES he?
-expectation
The tag with rising tone invites verification, expecting the hearer to Rising tone: invites
verification.
decide the truth of the proposition in the statement. The tag with the
falling tone invites confirmation of the statement, and has the force of Falling tone: invites
confirmation.
an exclamation rather than a genuine Qs. So, types (iii) & (iv) are like
exclamatory Yes-No Qs with a falling tone.
There is a further, less common type of tag Qs in which both the (v) +SÌ +TÊ
statement & Qs are positive. The tag typically has a rising tone & the Statement preceded
by oh or so.
statement is characteristically preceded by oh or so, indicating the
Speakers arrive at
POSITIVE + POSITIVE speakers arrival at a conclusion. This tag has a conclusion.
Rising tone
(v) +SÌ +T Ê sometimes no nucleus and may have a sarcastic Sarcastic tone.
So he likes his JÒB, DÓES he?
tone.
2
Positive Statement w/a falling nuclear tone by a negative tag with a rising tone.

Tema 23:
18
Imperative sentences:
Tag Qs can also be attached to imperative sentences, where they
Invite the listener’s
invite the listener’s consent. For positive imperatives, types (i), (iii) consent.
Positive: (i), (iii) & (v).
and (v) are available. The aux in the tag is usually will/won’t and the subj
is usually you. Negative imperatives are less common followed by tag Qs.
Negative: (iv).
The only type that seems possible is will you? In type (iv).
(i) Open the DÒOR, WÓN’T you? (iv) Don’t make NÒISE, WÌLL you?
Invariant tag Qs:
Several other tag Qs inviting the listener’s response may be
Invite listener’s response.
attached to statements and exclamations. They have the same form, Have the same form with
positive & negative.
whether the statement is positive or negative & take a rising tone.
am I right
forgot isn’t that so
They didn’t forget
to attend the lecture, don’t you think
wouldn’t you say ?
5.1.5. Declarative questions. Declarative Qs:
Not all Yes-No Qs have subj-Op inversion. The declarative Qs is a No Subj-Op inversion.
Identical in form to a
type of Qs which is identical in form to a declarative, except for the final declarative sentence,
except for the final rising
rising question intonation. tone.
You’ve got the exPLÓsive? He didn’t finish the RÁCE?
Declarative Qs are conducive, and resemble tag Qs with a rising Invite the hearer’s
verification.
tone [(i) & (ii)] in that they invite the hearer’s verification. Positive Qs
Positive Qs have positive
have positive orientation & can therefore accept only assertive forms. orientation. Assertives
He wants something to eat? Somebody is with you?

negative Qs have
Negative Qs have negative orientation, & nonassertive forms may be negative orientation.
Nonassertives.
used following the negative.
You didn’t get anything to eat? You want nothing to eat yet?
5.1.6. Exclamatory questions. Exclamatory Qs:

The exclamatory Qs is an interrogative in structure, but has the Interrogative in structure,
but illocutionary force of
illocutionary force of an exclamation. Typically, it is a negative Yes-No an exclamation.
Qs with a final falling instead of rising tone. Negative Qs: final falling.
Meaning is positive.
Hasn’t she GRÒWN! Wasn’t it a marvelous CÒNcert!
These invite the hearer’s agreement to something on which the
speaker has strong feelings. The meaning is vigorously positive.
A positive Yes-No Qs is another way of expressing a strong positive Positive Qs: Meaning is
positive.
conviction: Am I HÙNgry! or Has he GRÒWN!

Tema 23:
19
5.2. Wh-Questions. Wh-Qs:
Wh-Qs are formed with the aid of one of the following simple Qs formed with the aid of
Wh-words.
interrogative words (wh-words):
Who/whom/whose, What, Which, When, Where, How & Why.
Unlike Yes-No Qs, Wh-Qs generally have falling intonation. As a rule: Falling intonation.
(i) The Wh-element (the clause element containing the wh-word) comes st
Wh-element comes 1 in
the sentence.
first in the sentence (apart form some conjuncts, such as on the other
hand, …)
Wh-word is 1st in the Wh-
(ii) The wh-word itself takes the first position in the wh-element. element.
The only exception to the principle (ii) occurs when the wh-word is Exception: Wh-
word is w/in a PpP.
within a PpP complement. Here, English provides a choice btw two
constructions. In formal style, the Pp occurs before the complement, Formal: Pp before
the Wh-word.
whereas otherwise the complement comes first and the Pp is moved to st
Wh-word 1 and Pp
end of the sentence.
the end of the sentence.
On what did you base your prediction? ≈ What did you base your prediction on?
5.2.1. Functions of Wh-elements. Functions of Wh-Qs:

The following sentences exemplify the various clause Fns in which
Wh-elements operates:
WHO: Ask about a person’s identity > Subj, Obj, Compl Pp Who opened my LÈTter?
WHOM: Especial variant of Who > Obj; Compl Pp For whom do the bells ring?
WHOSE: Indicates possession >determiner w/in NP, Whose beautiful anTÌQUES are these?
Pron w/personl reference
WHAT: Non-human reference > Subj, Obj, Compl Pp; What did you see?
alternative to who. det
WHICH: Identify one out of a > Subj, Obj, Compl Pp; Which books have you LÈNT him?
number of persons or things det
WHEN: Identify time. > Advbl When will you be proMÒTed?
WHERE: Identify place. > Advbl Where shall I put the GLÀSSes?
WHY: Identify clause of reason. > Adbvl Why are they always comPLÀINing?
HOW: clause of manner. > Adv, adj or clause How did you MÈND it?
> Modifies the Adj How wide did you make the BÒOKcase?
> Modifies the Adv How much does he CÀRE?
> Modifies the Adj. How long have you been WÀITing?
> Modifies the Adv. How often do you visit New YÒRK?
We see above that normal statement order of elements is altered Order altered:
in Wh-Qs not only by the initial placing of the Wh-element, but by the Initial placing of the
Wh-element.
Subj-Op inversion in all cases except when the Wh-element is subject. Subj-Op inversion.
As with Yes-No Qs, a dummy do is introduced if there is no other Op in

Dummy do. Exception: Wh-
the sentence. word is subj.

Tema 23:
20
5.2.2. Positive and negative Wh-Question. Positive Wh-Qs:

A positive Wh-Qs may generally be matched with a positive
presupposition. There may, however, be no presupposition if
nonassertive items are present.
Where was she born? > PRESSUPOSSITION: She was born somewhere. Positive presupposition.
Who opened my letter? > PRESUPPOSITION: Someone opened my letter.
If nonassertive items
When will we ever win any prizes? What help have they ever given us? are present: negative
presupposition.
The Qs are conducive, having a negative orientation. Questions introduced by
Why do you: positive
Why do you have a positive presupposition, but a negative orientation presupposition.
when they have the illocutionary force of directives:

Negative orientation if
Why do you bother to reply? [> You are replying but you shouldn’t bother to reply] it’s directive.
As directive, it cannot have a past form.

Wh-Qs can also be negative. Negative Wh-Qs:
Why didn’t you tell me? > PRESUPPOSITION: You didn’t tell me for some reason.
Which books don’t you want? > PRESUPPOSITION: You don’t want some books.
How long haven’t you heard from them? > PRESUPPOSITION: You haven’t heard
from them for some time.
Unknown presupposed
The presupposed particular unknown is outside the scope of negation. item is outside of the
scope of negation.
Thus they may be paraphrased as “There are some books that you don’t want”.
Why don’t you/Why not:
Qs beginning with Why don’t you / why not are commonly used as Used as directives.
directives. Directives are invitations (AmE), suggestions or instructions.
Directives: Invitations,
Why don’t you shave? Why not go by train? suggestions, instructions.
5.2.3. More than one Wh-element. More than one Wh-element:

Ordinary Qs can have more than one Wh-element.
Which presents did you gave whom?
If one of the wh-element is subject, it must be initial. Otherwise, there is If Wh-item is subj, it must
occur initially.
a choice as to which wh-element is fronted, so that the same question
Otherwise, free
may occur in more than one way. choice as to which
wh-item is fronted.
Who said what to whom? [Fronting of Subj]
> PRESUPPOSITION: You have hidden something somewhere:
What have you hidden where? Where have you hidden what?
Alternative, the 2nd wh-element may be coordinated. nd
The 2 wh-item may be
coordinated.
What have you hidden, and where?
If only one wh-element is advbl and the other is DO, only coordination
wh-item is advbl & other
is DO: Only coordination
is fully acceptable: is acceptable.
What does he teach, and where? ? What and where does he teach?

Tema 23:
21
5.3. Alternative questions. Alternative Qs:
There are two types of alternative Qs. The first resembles a yes- Two types.
no Qs, and the 2nd a wh-Qs:

[1] Would you like CHÓcolate, vaNÍLla or STRÀWberry (ice-cream)?
[2] Which ice cream would you LÌKE? CHÓcolate, vaNÍLla or STRÀWberry?
1. Resemble to
[1] differs from Yes-No Qs only in intonation. Instead of a final rising tone, Yes-No Qs.
it contains a separate nucleus for each alternative: A rise occurs on
Separate rising nucleus
each item on the list, except the last, on which there is a fall, indicating for each alternative.
Last element: Falling tone.
that the list is complete. Contrast the differences:
A: Shall we go by BÚS or TRÀIN? B: By BÙS. > Alternative
A: Shall we go by bus or TRÁIN? B: No, let’s take the CÀR. > Yes-No Qs
Also by adding or not?.
It may also be formed by adding “or not? “ at the end of the Qs
Are you coming, or not?
2. Resemble to
[2] is really a compound of two separate Qs: A wh-Qs followed by an Wh-Qs.
elliptical alternative Qs. It may be taken as a reduced version of: Compound of 2

separate Qs.
Which ice cream would you LÌKE? Would you like CHÓcolate, vaNÍLla or STRÀWberry?
Alternative Qs presupposes the truth of only 1 of the Propositions. Alternative Qs: truth of
only one proposition.
Are you a DÉMocrat or a RePÙblican? [> You are either a Democrat or a Republican]
However, the Yes-No Qs presupposes that one of two mutually exclusive
possibilities is true: Are you RÉADy?
5.4. Minor type questions.

5.4.1. Rhetorical Questions. Rhetorical Qs:
Rhetorical Qs are interrogative in structure, but has the force of a Interrogative structure,
force of statement.
strong assertion. It generally does not accept an answer. A positive
Rhetorical Yes-No Qs is like a strong negative assertion, while a +Rhetorical Yes-No Qs:
Strong –assertion.
negative Qs is like a strong positive one. They have the normal rising -Rhetorical Yes-No Qs:
Strong +assertion.
intonation of Yes-No Qs.
Is that a reason for desPÁIR? [> Surely that is not a reason for despair]
Isn’t that ÓBvious? [> Surely that the answer is obvious]
There are also rhetorical Wh-Qs. The positive Qs is equivalent to a Rhetorical Wh-Qs:
+Qs → -Assertion.
statement in which the Wh-item is replaced by a negative element & -Qs → +Assertion.
vice versa (less common). Nonassertives may occur. They have a rise-fall tone. Nonassertive may occur.
Who KNÔWS? [> Nobody knows] Rise-fall tone.

How CÔULDn’t you remember? [> You certainly should have remembered]

Tema 23:
22
5.4.2. Recapitulatory echo Questions. Recapitulatory Qs:

A recapitulatory echo Qs is simply a Qs which repeats part or all of a
Qs which repeats part or
message, as a way of having its content confirmed. This is the simplest all of a message, as a way
of having its content
type of Yes-No Qs which merely repeats, with rising intonation, what has just confirmed.
been said.
A: I didn’t’ like the meal. B: You didn’t LÍKE the meal? Yes-No Qs.
There is also a Wh-echo Qs which indicates, by the Wh-item, which part Wh-echo Qs: Wh-item
indicates which part of the
of the previous utterance the speaker did not hear or understand. previous utterance the
speaker did not hear or
A: It costs five dollars. B: How much did it cost? understand.
Regularly, the Wh-element is fronted and Subj-Op inversion takes place.
May undergo Subj-Op
However, in a variant type of Wh-echo Qs, the statement order is inversion or not.
retained.
A: I’ll pay for it. B: You will pay WHÁT?
A: I saw Ted Dawson today B: You saw WHÓ?
5.4.3. Questions about questions. Qs about Qs:
Since a echo Qs can refer back to any type of utterance, a special case Qs raised to the 2nd power.
of it is a Qs about a Qs, called Qs raised to the second power.
A: Have you borrowed my PÉN? B: (Have I) borrowed your PÉN?
This is a Yes-No Qs about a Yes-No Qs. In addition, there are three further
Yes-No Qs about a
Yes-No Qs.
types:
1. Yes-No Qs about Wh-Qs:
Yes-No Qs about Wh-Qs.
A: What do you think of the picture? B: What do I THÍNK of it?
2. Wh-Qs about Yes-No Qs: Wh-Qs about Yes-No Qs.

A: Have you ever been to Lloret de Mar? B: (Have I ever been) WHÉRE?
3. Wh-Qs about Wh-Qs:

Wh-Qs about Wh-Qs.
A: How did you enjoy the carnival? B: How did I enjoy WHÁT?

Tema 23:
gaciones y excla
amaciones.
23
Excla
amative sente
ences.
6.. Exclam
matives.
Exclam
matives ass a formal category of
o sentence
e are restrricted to th
he type
of exclamato
ory utteran uced by wh
nce introdu hat or how
w.
Exclam esemble Wh
matives re W -Qs in re
equiring the
t initia
al placement of
Requires the
e initial
an atory Wh
n exclama h-elementt. The syntactic orde
er is thereffore upsett to the placement of
o an
exclamatoryy Wh-element.
t Wh-ele
exxtend that the ement mayy be taken from its usual position and putt into a
po
osition of in
nitial prominence. On
n the otherr hand, the
ere is gen
nerally no
o Subj- No Subj-Op inversion.
Op
p inversio
on.
What: prede
eterminer
SUBBJECT: [[1] What ann enormouss crowd cam me! [S V -the raresst type.]
OBJJ: [
[2] What a time we havave had todayy! [DO S V A] Subj.
Obj.
COMMPLEMENT: [
[3] How del
elightful herr manners are
re! [Co
omplSubj S V V] Advbl.
[
[4] How I used
u to hate e geography
hy! [A S V DO] Comp pl of a Pp.
ADVVERBIALS: [
[5] What a long time we’ve
w been waiting!
w [A S V]
[
[6] How Quuickly you eaat! [A S V]
t wh-ellement ca
In addition, the an act as PpComple
P ement. Wh-element act as a Pp
Complement.
a] What a me
[7a ess we are in
n! [7b] In wha
hat a mess we are! [=Rarre]
Only two Wh-words
- ca
an be us orm the Wh-
sed to fo W eleme
ent in
ex nces: Wha
xclamatorry senten at as pred
determine
er in a NP
P may funcction as
How: Intensifier.
Su
ubj[1], ob
bj[2] adv
verbial[5] or complement of 7a-b]. Ho
o a Pp[7 ow as
Adj.
intensifier of an ad
dj[3], adv
v[6] or cla
ause[4]. It
I can also
o function
n as a Adv.
Clause.
Degreee advbl
de
egree adv
verbial [4]].
6.1. Echo exclama

ations.
Echo
E Exclama
ations.
The echo
e excla
amation, like the eccho Qs, re
epeats pa
art or all of a
Repeats parrt or all of a
prreceding utterance
e, but in contrast
c to the rising tone of th
he echo Qs, it is preceding uttterance.
Rise-fall (or high fall) tone
e.
ch
haracteriz
zed by a rise-fall (or hig
gh fall) tone. The
e form o
of the
Form: Decla arative,
uttterance to
t be repeated may be decla
arative, in
nterrogative, impe
erative interrogative
e, imperative o
or
exclamative..
orr even exc
clamative
e.
A: I am going to London foror a holiday B: To LÔND DON! That’s not
n my idea o of rest.
A: H
Have you beeen to Paris?? B: Been
n to PÂRIS? I’ll
I say I havee!
A: H must be the
He t only app plicant B: Must
M be the ÔN
Ô ly applican
ant! That can
n’t be true
A: O
Open the do
oor, please. B: Open
n the DÔOR! Do you takee me for a do oorman?
A: W
What a beauutiful day! B: Whatt a beautiful DÂY! You muust be joking
g
Ivan Matella
anes’ Notes
Tema 23:
24
Bibliography
CEN
Editorial MAD
Quirk, R. et al. A comprehensive grammar of English language.
3. Declarative sentences:
http://www.tutorpal.com/eng097/pg71.html
http://www.scientificpsychic.com/grammar/enggram4.html
http://www.burgoyne.com/pages/bdespain/grammar/gram063.htm
http://www.usingenglish.com/glossary/ditransitive-verb.html

Topic 23: Brief summary
25
Brief summary: Estructura de la oración en Inglés: Afirmaciones, preguntas, negaciones y exclamaciones.
1- PARTS OF THE SENTENCE
1a SUBJECT OBJECT COMPLEMENT ADVERBIALS
Form: NP or nominal clause. Form: NP or nominal clause. Form: NP, AdjP or nomnl clause. Form: AdvP, but also a NP.
Position: Position: Position: Position: More than one:
- Before the V in declaratives; - Follows the Subj and V - Subject Compl normally - SVA type.
- After the Op in yes-no Qs. - When both objs are present the follows the Subj & the V - SVOA type.
- In wh-Qs, subj-Op inversn also IO come before the DO - Object Complement normally - End of the clause
occurs, except when wh is subj. follows the DO
Syntactic Fn: Syntactic Fn: Syntactic Fn: Syntactic Fn:
- Obligatory in finite clauses, - IO may be omitted without - Optional, except adjuncts &
except in imperative. affecting the semantic relations - SC agrees in nº w/the Subj. subjuncts.
- Det the V number & person. - co-referential w/the subj, it asks - OC agrees in nº w/the DO
- Det the nº, pers & gender of for a reflexive pron agreement - Reflexive pron→the SC agrees - It does not have the syntactic
reflexv prons with the subj in pers, nº & gender in nº, pers & gender w/ the subj features listed for the other
- subjective form for some prons. - objective form for some prons - SC (pron), distinction btw clause elements
subjective (+formal) & objective.
- Active subj is passive by-phr - Active obj is subj of passive. - Complement cannot become
- IO is a PpP, after the DO the subj of passive clause
Semantic role: Semantic role: Semantic role: Semantic role:
- Theme (or topic) of the clause. - DO refers to an entity that is - Complement identifies the - Adjunct/subjunct: refers to the
- subj is agentive if the agentive affected by the action. referent of the clause element to circumstances of the situation
role is expressed in the clause. - IO refers to an animate being which it is related - Disjunct: comments on the form
that is the recipient of the action. - Conjunct: link btw clauses
1b - Sentence types.
♦ Declaratives: subj is present & generally precedes the V STATEMENTS convey information
♦ Interrogatives: There are 2 types: (a) Yes-no interrogatives (b) Wh-Qs QUESTIONS seek information
♦ Imperatives: form by no overt grammatical subj, and whose V has the base form DIRECTIVES instruct smbd to do smthing
♦ Exclamatives: initial phrase introduced by what or how, usually with subj-Verb order EXCLAMATIONS speaker is impressed by smth
2- AFFIRMATIVE DECLARATIVE SENTENCES: SUBJ

Declarative sentences consist of a subject and a predicate (SVO
PREDICATE
- subj is normally present & may be a simple or a compound one - Predicate may have one or two objs
♦ simple subj consists of a NP or a nominative personal pron. ♦ Transitive: I eat a cake; Ditransitive: I gave her the letter
♦ Compound subjs consist of several simple subjs w/conjs ♦ or non (Intransitive: It rains ∅)
- Smtimes the subj may be ommitted
- Subj can be fronted to give special emphasis
3- NEGATIVE DECLARATIVE SENTENCES:

3a - Clause negation: the whole clause is syntactically treated as negative
st
- Simple positive sentence is negated by inserting the clause negator nor btw the Op (1 aux) and the predication.
♦ If an Op is not present in the positive sentence, the dummy aux do is introduced + the bare Inf.
- If the Op can be contracted to the subj, there are two diff possibilities of contraction in negative clauses.
- Syntactic features of clause negation:
♦ Followed by positive checking tag questions ♦ Followed by nonassertive items
♦ In discourse, they’re followed by negative agreement responses ♦ Not occur with items that have positive orientation
- There are some words negating in meaning but not in form:
♦ Seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely, little, few …
♦ They normally cause Subj-Op inversion when they are positioned initially.
♦ Can be followed by nonassertive items, particularly any & its compounds
Scope of negation Focus of negation
♦ The stretch of Lg over which the negative item has a semantic ♦ Focus of negation is signalled by the nuclear stress.
influence. ♦ Its position indicates the scope of negation, so the rest of the
♦ It normally extends from the negative to the end of the clause. clause can be understood as positive.
♦ Advbls occurring before the negative, disjuncts & conjuncts ♦ Redefine our notion of scope to allow for discontinuous scope.
normally lie outside the scope. I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pòol today. [STANDARD vers.]
♦ The use of assertive forms indicates the limit of the scope of I didn’t take Jŏan to swim in the pool today. [< It was Mary]
negation → I didn’t listen to SOME of the speakers. I didn’t take Joan to swĭm in the pool today. [< just to see it]
I didn’t take Joan to swim in the pool todăy. [< It was last week]
Scope and focus are interrelated: Scope must include the focus.
One way of signaling the extend of the scope is by the position of the focus
3b - Local negation negates a word or a phrase, without making the clause negative.
→ She is not unattractive woman. [Doble negation: Not + neg.prefix-Adj/adv]
♦ Not + DegreeAdv + GradableAdj/Adv → Not very often
♦ The quantifiers a few & a little may be negated by not → I sensed not a little hostility in his manners.
♦ PpP may also be negated by a negative word within the complement → It was a decision of no consequence.
♦ NPs that express a compressed predication → The company promised no victimization
3c - Negation of Modal Auxs: Scope of negation may or may not include the meaning of the modal Auxs.
♦ Auxiliary negation: includes the meaning of the modal (clausal negation) → You may not smoke in here. [>not allowed to smoke here]
♦ Main V negation: does not include the meaning of the modal (local negation) → They may not like the party. [>It is possible that they do
not like the party]
3d - Dbl negation in standard English is ungrammatical & it is only used in some dialects to give emphasis to the negative meaning
Ivan Matellanes’ Notes of
the sentence
Topic 23: Brief summary
26
4 - INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES are divided into three major classes.
RISING
4a - Yes-No Qs. INTONATION
- Form of yes/no Question:
♦ by placing the Op before the Subj and giving the sentence a rising intonation.
♦ If there is no item aux, dummy-do is introduced (As with negation, main V be functions as Op & BrE Have often acts as Op).
- NEUTRAL POLARITY vs. CONDUCIVENESS:
♦ Like negative statements, Yes-no Qs may contain nonassertive forms such as any & ever. The Qs containing such forms are
generally NEUTRAL, with no expectation towards a positive or a negative response.
♦ But Qs may be CONDUCIVE: they may indicate that the speaker is predisposed to the kind of answer he has wanted or expected.
Positive Yes/No Qs Negative Yes/No Qs Qs tags
♦ Neutral polarity: with nonassertive forms ♦ Always conducive: ♦ Maximum conduciveness:
→ Did anyone call last night? ♦ Neg Orientation: Qs which contain (a) There is an assumption that is expressed
♦ Positive orientation: w/assertive forms. a negative form of one kind or another. by an statement & (b) There is also the
→ Did someone call last night? → Has nobody called? expression of the speakers’ expectation
♦ Negative orientation: w/really. ♦ Pos orientation: w/assertive items about the meaning of the statement
→ Do you really call last night? → Didn’t someone call you last night? (expressed by the final Qs.)
- Qs Tags:
RISING or FALLING
♦ Tag Qs consists of an Op and Subj in that order → ,is he? → didn’t he? INTONATION
♦ The Op is generally the same as the Op of the preceding statement (If no Op, dummy-do is used instead)
♦ subj of the tag must be a pron which either repeats or is in co-reference with the subj of the statement, agreeing with it in nº, pers &
gender. → I haven’t seen you before, have I?
♦ The tag Qs is negative if the statement is positive & vice versa.
♦ The nuclear tone of the tag occurs on the aux, and is either rising or falling.
___ Rising tone: invites verification. → He does like JÒB, DÓES n’t he?
___ Falling tone: invites confirmation. → He likes his JÒB, DÒESn’t he?
♦ There is a less common type of tag Qs in which both the statement & Qs are positive. The tag typically has a rising tone & the
statement is characteristically preceded by oh or so. This tag has a sarcastic tone → So he likes his JÒB, DÓES he?
- Declarative Qs is a type of Qs which is identical in form to a declarative, except for the final rising question intonation.
RISING
INTONATION
→ He didn’t finish the RÁCE ?
♦ Declarative Qs are conducive, and with a rising tone they invite the hearer’s verification (as with Qs tags)
___ Positive Qs have positive orientation & can therefore accept only assertive forms → He wants something to eat?
___ Negative Qs have negative orientation, & nonassertive forms may be used → You didn’t get anything to eat?
4b - Wh-Qs: are formed with the aid of one of the following simple interrogative words (wh-words): Who/whom/whose, What, Which, When,
Where, How & Why.
- Form of Wh-Qs: FALLING

♦ Wh-Qs generally have falling intonation. INTONATION
♦ The Wh-element (the clause element containing the wh-word) comes first in the sentence.
♦ The wh-word itself takes the first position in the wh-element.
___ Exception: wh-word is w/in a PpP complement → [+formal] Pp occurs before the wh-word → On what did you base your guess?
- Positive Wh-Qs may generally be matched with a positive presupposition. There may be no presupposition if nonassertive items are
present → Where was she born? [She was borned smwhere] → What help have they ever given us?
- Negative Wh-Qs: Presupposed particular unknown is outside the scope of negation. Thus, an examples like “Which books don’t you
want?” may be paraphrased as “You don’t want some books”.
- More than one Wh-element: Ordinary Qs can have more than one Wh-element. If one of the wh-element is subject, it must be initial.
Otherwise, there is a choice as to which wh-element is fronted → Who said what to whom? [Fronting of Subj] → What have you lost where?
4c - There are two types of Alternative Qs: The first resembles a yes-no Qs, and the 2nd a wh-Qs. on each item;
Resembles yes/no Qs Resembles Wh-Qs last is
Contains a separate nucleus for each alternative: A rise occurs A wh-Qs followed by an elliptical alternative Qs.
on each item on the list, except the last, on which there is a fall. → Would you like chócolate, vanílla or stràwberry? [= Which ice
→ Shall we go by BÚS or TRÀIN? cream would you lìke?]
4e - There are other minor type of Qs. ♦ Recapitulatory Qs: Qs which repeats part or all of a message, as a way of
having its content confirmed.
♦ Rhetorical Qs: Rhetorical Qs are interrogative Yes/No echo Qs: Wh-echo-Qs:
in structure, but does not accept an answer. A: I didn’t’ like the meal. A: I saw Ted Dawson today
A positive Rhetorical Yes-No Qs is like a strong B: You didn’t líke the meal? B: You saw WHÓ?
negative assertion, while a negative Qs is like a
strong positive one. ♦ Questions about Qs:
→ Isn’t that ÓBVIOUS? [> the answer is obvious] Wh-Qs about Yes-No Qs:
A: What do you think of the picture? B: What do I thínk of it?
Wh-Qs about Wh-Qs:
5- EXCLAMATIVES
-
: A: How did you enjoy the carnival? B: How did I enjoy whát?
Exclamatives resemble Wh-Qs in requiring the initial placement of an exclamatory Wh-element. However, there is generally no Subj-Op
inversion → What a time we have had today! [OSVA]] → How I used to hate geography! [ASVO]
- Only two Wh-words can be used to form the Wh-element in exclamatory sentences:
♦ What as predeterminer in a NP: Fn as Subj, obj & adverbial → What a long time we’ve been waiting!
♦ How as intensifier of an adj, adv or clause → How Quickly you eat!
- Echo exclamations: like the echo Qs, repeats part or all of a preceding utterance, but in contrast to the rising tone of the echo Qs, it is
characterized by a rise-fall (or high fall) tone → A: I am going to London for a holiday B: To LONDON ! That’s not my idea of rest.

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Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

PARTS OF THE SENTECE.

Obj (IO), Object complement (OC) & Subject complement (SC).

f. There is a systematic correspondence btw active & passive

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

(iv) SEMANTIC PROPERTIES:

role is expressed in the clause.

1.2. Object: Direct & Indirect. Object: Direct & Indirect.

(iii) SYNTACTIC FUNCTIONS:

the corresponding passive clause. If both Objs are present, it

while the DO is omitted.

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

1.3. Complement: Subject and object. Complement: Subject & Object.

This is he. [+Formal] That’s him.

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

negatively: It does not have the syntactic features listed for

2. Sentence types. Sentence types.

Pauline gave Tom a digital watch for his birthday.

b. Wh-Interrogatives: The wh-element is placed initially. Wh-Qs: Wh-item placed

What a fine watch he received for his birthday!

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

that the hearer bring the speaker a cup of tea.

3. Affirmative declaratives sentences Affirmative Declaratives.

A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE is one which states or asserts a fact. A States/asserts a fact.

V before the Subj to

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

Negative declarative sentences.

4.1. Clause Negation. CLAUSE NEGATION.

4.1.1. Clause negation through verb negation. Clause negation through V:

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

(iv) They are followed by nonassertive items.

determiner no converts the usually nongradable N into a gradable N

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

Seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely, little, few.

4.1.4. Nonassertive items and negative items.

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

4.1.5. Scope of negation. Scope of the negation.

4.1.6. Focus of negation. FŎCUS of negation.

4.2. Local Negation. Local negation.

Local negation negates a word or a phrase, without making the

clause negation in [b] sentences.

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

4.3. Negattion of modal

Canno ot, can’t [=a all senses]. Sha

Dare not Ougght not [=alll senses]

4.3.2. Past forms off modals. Past

same clause sometimes arise.

4.5. Double negation. Double negation.

Ivan Matellanes’ Notes

If there is no he VP that can functiion as Op, dummy-do

Ass with nega n V be fun

ut informally have … got is mo

5.1.2. Posittive Yes-N

orms such as any & ever. The

5.1.3. Negative Yes-No Questions. Negative Yes-no Qs.

(negative: He hasn’t told you what to do).

the subj, whereas not generally follows it.

5.1.4. Question tags. Tag Qs.