Non-finite forms of the Verb

Lecture 2
 References
• Харитонов І.К. Теоретична граматика англійської мови : навчальний
посібник. – Вінниця : НОВА КНИГА, 2008. – 352 с. (С. 41-65).
• Biber D., Conrad S., Leech G. Longman Student Grammar of Spoken and
Written English / D. Biber, S. Conrad, G. Leech. – Harlow : Pearson
Education Limited, 2002. – P. 259-261; 328-348.
• Brinton Laurel J. The Structure of Modern English. A linguistic
introduction / J. Laurel Brinton. – Amsterdam / Philadelphia : John
Benjamins Publishing Company, 2000 – 358 p. (P. 124-131)
• Crystal D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language / D.
Crystal. L.; N.Y. : The Cambridge University Press, 1995. – 487 p. (P. 243-
283)
• Laimutis Valeika, Janina Buitkienė An Introductory Course in
Theoretical English Grammar. – Vilnius Pedagogical University, 2003. –
135 p. (P. 103-115)
 Plan
• Verbids as a part of the category of finitude.
Grammatical meaning of verbids
• The Infinitive
• The Gerund
• The Participles
 Category of Finitude (Бархударов,
Strang)
Finite vs. Non-finite verb forms
e.g. Changing gear, the taxi
turned the sharp corner – The
taxi changed gear and turned the
sharp corner.
Friendship is not to be bought at a
fair.
 Morphological features
Finite verb forms Non-finite verb forms
Person, number, aspect, tense, No person, number, tense, mood
mood, voice distinctions distinctions
e.g. He won’t agree to that. express time, which is either
simultaneous with or prior to
the time expressed by the
finite form
e.g. Having summed up these
topographical facts, my plan
was to do all I could to stay
just where we were until
sundown (N. Lewis)
 Semantic features
Finite verb forms Non-finite
Infinitive verb forms
represents ACTION
represent
action as process, result or state as part of SUBJECT/OBJECT
e.g. It is never too late to mend.
Gerund - ACTION as
SUBJECT/OBJECT
e.g. Many excellent cooks are
spoilt by going into the arts.
Participle – ACTION as part of
PROPERTY
e.g. Barking dogs seldom bite.
Forbidden fruit is sweet.
 Non-finites are language
economy devices

With the help of non-finites we can expand the

simple sentence and thus abbreviate the text.
e.g. We are sitting here in the sun. We can see
hills. The hills are covered with snow. vs.
Sitting here in the sun, we can see snow-
covered hills.
 Predication
Finite verb forms Non-finite verb forms (verbids)

Full predication Semi-predication

Actual predicative function Potential predicative function
Primary predicative center Secondary predicative center
Form both independent and Form only dependent, embedded
dependent clauses clauses
e.g. Tomorrow will take care of e.g. It is easier to destroy than to
itself. create.
 Four forms of verbids
Infinitive e.g. It is easy to take advantage of other
people’s difficulties.
Gerund e.g. Learning without thought is labour lost,
thought without learning is perilous (Adjectival
predicative).
Participle I e.g. Beauty of face is a frail ornament, a
passing flower, a momentary brightness
((substantival predicative), belonging only to the
skin (attribute).
Participle II e.g. Concealed (Attribute) talent
(Subject) brings (predicate) no reputation (object)
 The Infinitive
Features of the Verb and the Noun
Historically, the infinitive is a verbal noun

Head-form of the whole paradigm of the Verb as it

represents the actual derivation base for all the
forms of regular verbs.
According to G. O. Curme (1931: 49), the infinitive
clause introduced by to was originally a clause
introduced by that and constituted by a subject and a
finite verb. Cf. I am not eager that I should go _I am
not eager to go. As the subject of the subordinate
clause refers to the same entity as the subject of the
principal clause, the use of such a subject was
redundant and, consequently, suppressed. Cf. John
hopes that he will learn Chinese. vs. John hopes to
learn Chinese. However, in cases where clauses
contained different subjects, the subject of the
subordinate clause was not suppressed. Cf. I should
prefer to wait until evening. vs. I should prefer you to
wait until evening.
 Dual verbal-nominal meaning
The verb type combinability of the infinitive The noun type combinability of the infinitive

with nouns expressing the object with finite notional verbs as the
of the action object of the action
e.g. We saw her cross the street. e.g. Mrs. Bentley tried to ignore
(complex object, infinitval the fuss.
objective construction) with finite notional verbs as the
with nouns expressing the subject of the action
subject of the action e.g. To ignore means to avoid.
e.g. The courses to be taught are
listed in the catalogue.
with modifying adverbs
e.g. A full cup must be carried
steadily.
 Infinitive
factive (refers to the past), e.g. non-factive (refers to the future
Mary remembered to visit her or to the uncertain period of
old friend. time), e.g. Mary does not
want this news to be made
public yet.
 Syntactic functions of
the Infinitive

Subject e.g. To see his children again will make

him very happy. He was seen to leave the house.
Object e.g. I saw the man cross the road. We
can’t let the matter rest here.
Predicative e.g. To decide is to act. Our intention
was to help you.
• Attribute e.g. She was the last to learn the
news. He is not the man to do such a thing.
 Representation Forms of the
Infinitive

Marked / to infinitive Unmarked / bare infinitive

Analytical grammatical form is used with other analytical forms
To is a word morpheme or like modal verbs, e.g. can,
particle functioning only as a must, may etc
formant identifying infinitive verbs of perception, e.g. see, hear
To has prepositional origins etc
deriving from the direction verbs let, bid, make, help (with
preposition ‘to’ (meaning the latter — optionally), with
‘towards’) the verb know in the sense of
"experience", with a few verbal
“split infinitive”: to thoroughly
phrases of modal nature (had
investigate, to clearly define
better, would rather, would
have, etc.), with the relative-
inducive why.
 The infinitive vs. the finite form

shares with finites three categories:

the aspective category of development (continuous in
opposition), e.g. The term ‘discourse’ is seen to be
being used extremely diversely. The term ‘discourse’ is
seen to be used extremely diversely.
the aspective category of retrospective coordination
(perfect in opposition), e.g. He’s lucky to have found
such a wonderful wife. He’s lucky to find such a
wonderful wife.
the category of voice (passive in opposition), e.g. I saw
her approach us. She was seen to approach us.
 Paradigm of the Infinitive
the most common are
non-perfect non-passive forms.

Transitive verb (8 forms) Intransitive verb (4 forms)

The indefinite active (to take) The indefinite active (to walk)
The continuous active (to be taking) The continuous active (to be
The passive active (to have taken) walking)
The perfect continuous active (to The passive active (to have
have been taking) walked)
The indefinite passive (to be taken) The perfect continuous active (to
The continuous passive (to be being have been walking)
taken)
The perfect passive (to have been
taken)
The perfect continuous passive (to
have been being taken)
 Gerund
the gerund is originally a verbal
noun in –ing (until about 1250
also with the form –ung).
non-finite form of the verb that
combines features of the verb and
the noun
 Gerund vs. Infinitive
Gerund Infinitive
more strongly pronounced more actional than substantive
substantive properties expresses something
expresses something real, vivid, hypothetical, unfulfilled, or
fulfilled (D. Bolinger), e.g. future ( D. Bolinger), e.g. Max
Max enjoys swimming. hopes to learn how to swim.
Obama to announce Afghan
plan.
 Dual Verbal-nominal meaning
The nominal features of the Gerund The verbal features of the Gerund

• can be modified by a noun in the • distinguishes the categories of voice

possessive case or its and order: writing (non-passive, non-
perfect) – being written (passive, non-
pronominal equivalents, e.g. She perfect), having written (non-passive,
did nothing to encourage John’s perfect) – having been written
going abroad. She did nothing (passive, perfect).
to encourage John going • It will be obvious that gerunds
abroad. vs. She did nothing to derived from intransitive verbs will
encourage his going abroad. have only two forms: non-perfect
active and perfect active, e.g. walking
She did nothing to encourage vs. having walked.
him going abroad. • The gerund has the following syntactic
• can be used with prepositions, features of the verb: it can function as
e.g. He is known for being a part of the verbal predicate (e.g. If he
philistine. stops working, he will die); it can be
followed by an objective complement
 Paradigm of the Gerund
Transitive verb (4 forms) Intransitive verb (2 forms)
the simple active (taking) the simple active (going)
the perfect active (having taken) the perfect active (having gone)
the simple passive (being taken)
the perfect passive (having been
taken)
 Categories of the Gerund
aspect (perfect :: non-perfect), e.g.
He denied having been married.
He denied being married.
voice (active ::passive), e.g. I hate
lying to people. I hate being lied
to.
 Syntactic functions of the Gerund

Subject, e.g. Going there would have been

imprudent.
Object, e.g. I prefer seeing a play to reading it.
Predicative, e.g. Seeing is believing.
Attribute, e.g. She gave the impression of being
more interested and excited than ever.
 Gerund vs. Verbal Noun
Gerund Verbal noun
cannot be used in the plural, e.g. can be used in the plural, e.g. His
His coming at such a late comings and goings disturb
hour disturbed me. me.
cannot be preceded by the can be preceded by the article,
article, e.g. There’s no point in e.g. She had witnessed the
breaking the seal . breaking of the seal .
can be determined not by the can be determined by the
adjective but by the adverb, adjective, e.g. I resented his
e.g. I resented his constantly constant questioning of my
questioning my motives . motives
 Present Participle
is the non-finite form of the verb which combines
the properties of the verb with those of the
adjective and adverb, serving as the qualifying-
processual name. In its outer form the present
participle is wholly homonymous with the
gerund, ending in the suffix -ing .
 Origin of the Present Participle

It was originally applied to adjectival forms of verbs in

Ancient Greece which were inflected for tense, aspect,
and case. It was borrowed from Greek grammar
through Latin grammar and uncritically applied to
English verbal forms which had an adjective-like use.
As to its temporal meaning, the present participle
expresses a process simultaneous with or prior to the
process of the finite verb: it may denote present, past,
and future. Consider: I see/saw/ will see a child
crying in the street. vs. Having heard the noise, we
stopped talking.
 Present Participle vs. Gerund

Present Participle Gerund

identical outer form –ing identical outer form –ing
denotes a qualifying action denotes a substantival action
grammatical categories of Aspect grammatical categories of Aspect
and Voice and Voice
e.g. Having heard the noise, we e.g. Communicating ideas is an
stopped talking. important feature of speech.
 Present Participle
Verb properties Adjectival properties
combinability with the object, function of a postposed attribute,
e.g. Entering the room, I was e.g. The man talking to John is
dazzled by the bright light . my boss. (temporary quality)
formation of the verbal Function of a prepositional
predicate, e.g. Lucy is writing attribute, e.g. Where is that
now . smiling girl?
I was awakened by a barking
dog.
(habitual process)
*the smiling girl (permanent
trait)
*the barking dog
 Present Participle vs. Infinitive

both can build up semi-predicative complexes of objective

and subjective types. The two groups of complexes, i.e.
infinitival and present participial, may exist in parallel (e.g.
when used with some verbs of physical perceptions), the
difference between them lying in the aspective presentation
of the process,
e.g. Nobody noticed the scouts approach the enemy trench
(result). — Nobody noticed the scouts approaching the
enemy trench with slow, cautious, expertly calculated
movements (process). Suddenly a telephone was heard to
buzz, breaking the spell (result). — The telephone was
heard vainly buzzing in the study(process).
 Past Participle
is the non-finite form of the verb which combines
the properties of the verb with those of the
adjective, serving as the qualifying-processual
name.
The past participle is a single form, having no
paradigm of its own.
It conveys implicitly the categorial meaning of the
perfect and the passive, e.g. Her transition since
being released hasn’t been easy.
 Syntactic characteristics of the Past
Participle
It has no syntactic function of an adverbial.
It performs different attributive functions:
Past participle attributive front-position, e.g. Moyra's
softened look gave him a new hope.
Past participle attributive back-position, e.g. It’s a face
enlightened by wisdom.
Past participle attributive detached position, e.g.
Looked upon in this light, the wording of the will
didn't appear so odious.
Past participle predicative position, e.g. The light is
bright and inconveniently placed for reading.
Semi-predicative constructions with the
Past Participle
The past participial complex object is specifically characteristic with
verbs of wish and oblique causality (have, get), e.g. Will you have
my coat brushed up, please?
The past participial complex object with perception verbs, e.g. We
could hear a shot or two fired from a field mortar.
The past participial complex subject with perception verbs, e.g. A
shot or two could be heard fired from a field mortar.
The past participial complex subject with verbs of motion and position,
e.g. We sank down and for a while lay there stretched out and
exhausted.
The absolute past participial complex as a rule expresses priority in the
correlation of two events. Cf.: The preliminary talks completed, it
became possible to concentrate on the central point of the agenda.
 The adjectivization of participles of
intransitive verbs
Participles of intransitive verbs are rarely
used in independent sentence-part
positions; they are mostly included in
phraseological or cliche combinations like
faded photographs, fallen leaves, a
retired officer, a withered flower,
dream come true, etc. In these and
similar cases the idea of pure quality rather
than that of processual quality is expressed.
 Adverbial-related use of
the Past Participle
The past participle is traditionally interpreted as
being capable of adverbial-related use (like the
present participle), notably in detached
syntactical positions, after the introductory
subordinative conjunctions, e.g. Called up by
the conservative minority, the convention failed
to pass a satisfactory resolution. Though
welcomed heartily by his host, Frederick felt
at once that something was wrong.
 Aspective peculiarities of the Past
Participle
if the verb expresses a bounded perfective process, the past
participle expresses priority (e.g. He stopped before a closed
door); if the verb expresses an unbounded process, the
participle expresses simultaneity (e.g. This man, loved and
respected by all his friends, is a teacher); if the bounded verb is
both perfective and imperfective, the meaning of such a
participle is determined by the co-text: it may denote priority
or simultaneity (e.g. His was a victory gained against all
rules. vs. The questions discussed at the meeting are of great
importance. In the given example where discussed, because
of the double nature of the verb it derives from, can be
interpreted in this co-text as expressing either simultaneity or
priority.
Aspective pairs with the Past Participle
• The music which is played at the concert hall is
by Bach -
• The music played at the concert hall is by
Bach.
• B. The music which is being played now is by
Bach -
• The music being played now is by Bach.