What is Morphology?

Morphology studies the structure of words and is the main discipline of linguistics.
Morphology studies how words are formed and varied. It studies the relationship between
morphemes, and how morphemes can be put together to create new words, or new forms
of the word. The smallest element at a morphological level is a morpheme.

The term "morphology" is of Greek derivation and is made up of morph-, meaning "shape,
form," and -ology, meaning "the study of something."

Morphemes can be:

 free (like "table" or "start," can stand alone and form the care of a word; removing affixes
and inflections leaves the morpheme untouched);
 bound (such as "re-", “dis-", “un-", "-ing,", “-s”, cannot exist independently and are
added to free morphemes; express lexical and grammatical meaning).

Bound morphemes can be:

 lexical (affixes) (adding meaning to form new words or negative equivalents; denote
process, actions, );
 grammatical (inflections) (denote different grammatical categories (number,
tense, gender)) in a sentence).

Morphology primarily deals with grammatical morphemes.

There are two types of morphological relations:

 inflectional (when a new form of the word is created);

 derivational (when a new word with a new meaning is formed).

2. What is Grammar?
Grammar is approached in two ways:

 popularly (about/deals with everyday rules of the language that are understandable to
the general public);
 professionally (in the context of linguistics, it means the systematic study of language
rules at different levels).

Grammar level is about the morphological and syntactic levels.

3. What are inflections? Answer and exemplify.

Grammatical morphemes (inflections) denote different grammatical categories like
number, tense, gender, case (he – him) and mood (sing – sings (indicative mood);
Inflections are dependent units that cannot exist by themselves. They are part of bound
morphemes.
Inflections mark a certain morphological category (noun, adverb) of the word; is realized by
inflections and they express syntactic relations in a sentence (e.g. concord in gender,
number)

Example: play – plays – played; child – children; unhappy, dislike, friendship.

4. What are ditransitive verbs? Characterize their position in a sentence and their
function. Provide examples.
Ditransitive verb – verb that is followed by two objects (direct object (that receives the
action) and an indirect object (that indicates the recipient) to complete the meaning. They
usually follow the structure of subject - verb - indirect object - direct object.

Example: She gave him a book (him – indirect object); (book – direct object).

5. How do we express a real wish? Answer and exemplify.

We usually use a real wish when we want to express some efforts, goals:

Example: I am not a dancer – I wish I were a dancer. (this is the real situation; it is the fact ).
The structure is "subject + wish + (that) + past simple."

We express a real wish with unreal tenses. Since they express non-fact, i.e. the situation that
is NOT real, we use ‘backshift’ of tenses. There are ways to introduce a wish:

a) With wish/if only we can express a wish about a present, past, or future situation:

1. PRESENT SITUATION (impossible ‘now’): wish + PAST SIMPLE: I wish I

was/were at home. (but I am not); If only I lived by the sea (but I do not);
2. PAST SITUATION (non-existent ‘past’): wish + PAST PERFECT: I wish I had
bought a different car.
3. FUTURE SITUATION (impossible ‘future’): WISH + WOULD I wish they would
come. (...but they will not.)

if both parts of the sentence have the same subject, we do not use would; we use could
instead. (I wish I could fly. NOT I wish I would fly)

b) When it´s time we express a wish about a present or future situation. It is always
followed by simple past form of a verb: It is time she was here.

c) With would rather we express a wish about a present situation, expresses a comparison
or preference: I would rather she was here (than in somewhere else) (PAST SIMPLE)

would prefer – present simple.

6. What is mandative subjunctive? Provide its form, meaning and exemplify its usage.

The mandative (from Latin mandatum – a task, a command) subjunctive is a grammatical

structure used to express a recommendation, requirement, suggestion, or necessity.

Mandative is used in present forms in declarative sentences function as commands, they

usually express a WISH, requirement, recommendation, proposal, intention, suggestion,
especially when used in 'that-clauses' following verbs like insist, demand, prefer, request,
require, and suggest. Follow some set phrases – It is essential/necessary that,…

Example:

I suggest that he study for the exam. (suggestion)

The teacher required that all students do their homework. (demand)
I would prefer that he not talk during the presentation. (demand)

8. What are primary verbs? How do they function?

The primary verb is a closed word class in English grammar, include the verbs be, have, and
do — all three verbs can function as either main verbs or auxiliary verbs.

Primary verbs are sometimes called as primary auxiliaries.

1. To be
- Sarah is a teacher. Are you sad? (lexical verb)
- She is waiting for her husband. (auxiliary verb)

2. To have
- I have a little dog. (lexical verb)
- The train had arrived. (auxiliary verb)

3. To do
- I always do my homework. (lexical verb)
- They don’t live in Chicago. (auxiliary verb)

9. Explain the difference between TENSE and TIME.

Time is a concept associated with our understanding of reality, includes three times: past,
present, and future.
Tense is a grammatical category which is marked by verb inflection and expresses when
an events or action is happening in time. In English inflections are used mainly for the past
(e.g., talked) and present (e.g., talks).

10. Modal verbs function as … Circle the correct answer and explain.
a) main verbs b) auxiliary verbs c) they can function as both main and auxiliary
They function only as auxiliary verbs; however, they are not grammatical words. They
express modal meanings like possibility, ability, permission, volition, prediction, obligation,
logical necessity (certainty), etc.

11. What are non-finite verb forms? Name them and explain why we call them non-
finite.
A non-finite verb is a verb that does not show tense. In other words, it is a verb form that
does not act as a verb. Non-finite verb cannot be the main verb in a sentence.
Finite verb forms include all six grammatical categories; non-finite verb forms include
only voice and aspect, which is why they cannot be the predicate of a sentence.

Non-finite verb forms:

1. THE INFINITIVE (e.g., to bake, to sing)
2. THE PARTICIPLE (e.g., baking/baked, singing/sung)
3. THE GERUND (e.g., baking, singing)

12. What is ASPECT? Explain and give examples.

ASPECT in grammar describes how a verb's meaning relates to time, differences between
completed actions and ongoing actions.

There are four aspects:

SIMPLE – CONTINUOUS – PERFECT – PERFECT-CONTINUOUS.
The aspects show the beginning of the action, the end, if the action is continuing,
temporary, or repeated.

Examples:

1. He dives deeply.
2. He is diving deeply.
3. I have lived in Paris since 2020.
4. I have been running for 2 hours.

13. What is AGENT? Name types of agent and provide examples.

The person who does the action in a passive sentence is called AGENT. The agent is
introduced with ‘by’; the agent may or may not be mentioned.
Types of agent:
1. Unknown agent: my car has been stolen. [by somebody]
2. Generalized agent: these animals are not accepted here.
3. Obvious agent: my car has been stolen by Bob.
4. Unimportant agent (to the meaning of the sentence): I was advised to rewrite my essay.
5. Impersonality: It is believed that climate change is a global problem.
14. What does a modal verb will mean? Provide examples.

Наполегливість: If you will not help me with the exam, I will not pass it.

15. Give the form, meaning and usage of the indicative mood. Provide examples.
The indicative mood is grammatical structure that expresses the actual meaning of a
statement. This the most common form of a verb, which includes all variants of gender,
number, mood, tense, type, aspect. Example: She is cleaning the house.

16. What are stative verbs? Define and give examples.

Stative verbs are verbs that describe a state/condition or situation where no obvious action
is happening; which is why they cannot normally be used with the progressive aspect.

Examples: She knows the secret. They appear to be hungry.

4 groups of stative verbs:

1. Verbs of sensory/feeling understanding – seem, smell, sound, taste, feel, hear, look,
see, appear, be: I see you.
a) to express continuing activity, we add ‘can’/’could’: I can feel.
b) equivalent verbs for see, hear that can take the progressive – look (at), listen
(to).
2. Verbs that describe knowledge (mental activity) – know, mean, realize, remember,
suppose, think, understand, believe, desire, doubt, hope, imagine: I didn’t understand
a word that foreigner said to us.
 3. Verbs of emotion (liking and disliking) – adore, like, love, prefer, hate, want, wish,
need: I prefer to stay inside when it’s cold.
3. Verbs referring to a relationship or a state of being – have, fit, include, matter, owe,
own, be, belong to, concern, consist, contain: This dress does not fit me.

17. Give at least 4 morphological characteristics of modal verbs. Provide examples.

1. They are followed by the bare infinitive. (безособові закінчення) (I can invite
you later);
2. They have no -s form for the 3rd person singular (She can invite them later);
3. To negate a complete clause, we use ‘not’ after the main verb (I can’t invite them
later);
4. Their ‘conditional’ forms used to express the present and future time (often with a
tentative meaning). (Will/Would she invite them?).

18. What is a dummy operator? What is its function?

Dummy operator - a structure word (verb do) that is used in some constructions; has no
lexical meaning. Dummy operator it helps to create different aspects of tenses (negative or
interrogative). Example: Does she run every morning? Yes, she does. I do not like cheese.

19. Open word classes are … (name them and provide explanation of what ‘opened’
means)

Nouns, adjectives, full verbs and adverbs. ‘Opened’ means that they already have a large
number of terms and it is usually possible to add new words to them, while others are
removed from use.

20. How do we express a wish? Explain and give examples.

4 phrases are used to introduce a wish: If only/I wish I bought this bag last week; it is time
they were there; I would rather they work here than in Paris (expresses a wish in the form of
a comparison or preference; “than” may be left out if the comparison is understood from the
context)

21. What is the difference between transitive and intransitive verbs? Explain and give
examples.

INTRANSITIVE verbs are verbs that don't need an object to complete their meaning.
They don't have a passive form. They can be followed by an adverb or additional
information. She left early.

TRANSITIVE verbs are verbs with an object after them to make sense. They can have a
passive voice, which means you can reorganize the sentence where the object is the focus.
Many people watch this show. This show is watched by many people.

This building charmed her. She was charmed by the building.

22. What is the difference in meaning between present perfect simple and present
perfect progressive forms? Explain and give examples.
The present perfect simple:

 is used with stative verbs and verbs of action;

 focuses on the result of the action;
 talks about recently completed actions or experiences that have a connection to
the present;
a) irregular verbs: form of 'have' + 3rd column of irregular verbs: I have spoken
a) regular verbs: form of 'have' + infinitive + ed: I have worked.
The present perfect progressive:

 is only used with action verbs;

 express the continuity of an action;
 talks about temporary ongoing events of an action or new habits;

*form of 'have' + been + verb + ing: I have been speaking

23. How many tenses do we speak of in English? Answer and explain.

TENSE is a grammatical category that is realized by a verb inflection:

a) a zero inflection;
b) –s or –ed inflections are added to the verb;
based on this, English verbs have two tense forms – PRESENT and PAST.

24. What are causative verbs? What do they express and how are they used in a
sentence?
CAUSATIVE VERBS (let, make, have, get, help) are used to express the idea that X
makes Y to do something: to let someone do something – to allow someone to do something.
A causative verb can be in any tense, is followed by an object and another verb form (often
an infinitive or a participle.)

25. How do we express possibility? Answer and exemplify.

…by using such modal verbs as a: in Present Tense (can, could, may, might); Past Tense
(could have, may have, might have)

26. What is a gerund? Characterize and exemplify.

Gerund - is a verb that is formed by adding the "-ing" to a verb and is used as a noun. It can
act as a subject, complement, or adjunct in a sentence, and it can be followed by a
preposition, a possessive adjective, or a specific article : He is excited about gardening.
Skiing is my favorite winter sport.

27. How do we form the passive? Explain the basic steps and exemplify.
Create a passive voice:
 To express the passive voice, use the auxiliary verb "be" followed by the past participle
of the main verb (e.g., "is built" for "builds");
 Change the active object to a passive subject and, optionally, make the active subject
into an agent with using "by".

28. What are modal idioms? Name them; explain what they mean and how they are
used in a sentence.
Modal idioms are verbs that are in the middle between auxiliary and main verbs. They are
expressed by a combination of an auxiliary verb with an infinitive or an adverb; the
elements of these modal phrases have meanings on their own, but when combined, they
express a completely different meaning.

Modal idioms: had better, would rather, have got to, be to, may/might as well

 I had better finish my homework before going out.

 I would rather stay home than go to the party.

30. What are dynamic verbs? Define and give examples.

Dynamic verbs are verbs that express action (drink, play, sing), process (change, become),
and physical sensation (hurt, feel, ache). The dynamic verb can be used in the progressive
aspect and in the imperative, mood. Dynamic verbs are opposed to stative verbs.
31. What grammatical categories are reflected in non-finite verb forms? Answer and
exemplify.
Non-finite verb forms reflect only voice (active/passive) and aspect (simple, perfect,
progressive, perfect-progressive.

33. Closed word classes are … (name them and provide explanation of what ‘closed’ means):
PRIMARY VERBS, MODAL VERBS, PRONOUNS, DETERMINERS,
PREPOSITIONS, CONJUNCTIONS are classified as closed word classes.

Closed classes are limited - no new words can be added to them. They are not replaced by
new words and cannot be reformulated. Closed classes include words that play an
important role in the English grammar – they sometimes called grammatical words, service
words, or structure words.

34. How do we express future time? Give 4 examples.

English verbs have only two tenses – present and past. Due to the absence of inflection, we
express future tense with modals (in combination with auxiliaries) and adverbials of time:

1. The present simple: The school bus arrives at 8 AM.

2. The present progressive: They are flying to Kyiv tomorrow.

3. The modal verb will (or shall) with the base form of a verb: I'll send you a message
when I’m at home.
4. The modal verb will (or shall) with the progressive: I'll be waiting for you outside.

5. The infinitive: I’m to stay till tomorrow.

6. A semi-auxiliary such as “to be going to” or “to be about to” with the base form of a
verb: I am going to visit them tomorrow.

35. What is the difference between the following structures: have smth done and have sb
do smth? Explain and give examples.
Have + object + past participle (have something done)

We usually use 'have something done' when we are talking about paying someone to do
something for us. It's often used for services - I had my makeup done.

Have + person + infinitive (have somebody do something)

We can also use the construction 'subject + have + person + infinitive' we name the person
who we asked to do the thing for us.

I had hair-colorist to dye my hair wiled blue.

36. What is the difference in meaning between present perfect simple and past simple
forms? Explain and give examples.
We use the past simple for events that are finished that are have no connection to the
present.
We use the present perfect simple for actions which started in the past and are still
happening now OR for finished actions which have a connection to the present.

Present Perfect Simple Past Simple

Unfinished actions:
Finished actions:
I've worked here for 10 years (and I still
I worked there for 10 years (but now I don’t).
work there).

A finished action in someone's life (when A finished action in someone's life (when the
the person is still alive: person is dead):

My brother has tried diving three times. My uncle tried diving three times.

with a result in the present: with no result in the present:

I've left my ISIC at the room! (The result I left my ISIC somewhere yesterday. (Now there is
is that I can't get into university now). no result. I have to make another one).
unfinished time word (this week, this finished time word (last week, last month,
month, today): yesterday):

I haven’t been at the university this week. I wasn’t at the university last week.

37. Can we use past verb forms for present time? Answer and if so, give examples.
1. When we want be more polite or less direct: I thought you might like this movie, so I
bought two tickets for us.

2. Conditional and hypothetical structures with “if”, “what if”, wish and supposing: I wish I
could turn back time and pass this exam.

3. Referring to past statements that are still true: She couldn’t get into this academy because
her marks weren’t good enough.

4. Using "It's time" to express the present with the past verb form: It’s time you stopped
complaining.

39. How do we express certainty in positive and negative contexts, in the present and the
past? Give examples.
Certainty (logical necessity)
Present: must, would (positive), cannot (negative) - You would do it anyway.
Past: must have, can’t have - You can’t have eaten all of my candies.

40. What is the past participle used for? Answer and exemplify.

The past participle is used to express the perfect tenses (present perfect, past perfect, and future
perfect) and the passive voice.

- Used to form perfect forms with "have": I have already done my presentation.
- Used to form passive voice with "be": His bike was stolen.
- used attributively: An overheard conversation.
- used predicatively: Their conversation was overheard.
- compound participles: The students being awarded with FX will have to rewrite exam next week.
41. Give the form and the usage of the passive when used for reporting.
The passive is often used with ‘say’, ‘believe’, ‘understand’, ‘know’, and similar verbs in
reporting to avoid an impersonal ‘they’ or ‘people’ and to give a generalized opinion. This
structure is usually used in a newspaper style (probably to avoid claiming the source): It is
believed that the thieves have left the country.

42. What are marginal modals? Name them, explain what they mean and how they are
used in a sentence.
Marginal modals are verbs, such as: used to, ought to, dare, need;
Used to – express a past activity or habit; is followed by an infinitive; sometimes the
infinitive can be omitted: I used to go to the cinema every week.
Ought to - used in the same way as ‘should’; it is less common than ‘should’ and it is used
to express recommendation: You ought to have breakfast every morning.

Dare can function as a main and auxiliary verb:

- full verb: I don’t dare to go there
- auxiliary: How dare you say that?

Need - expresses an obligation to do something, a feeling that something needs to be done:

You need to drink more water.

43. Give the form, meaning and usage of the subjunctive mood.
The subjunctive mood is used for expressing wishes, recommendations, unreal statements
(after “if” “as if”), commands, requests, or things that may not be true.

Forms of subjunctive mood:

- present form (present subjunctive) are expressed by the base form of the verb (with all
persons, no –s for the 3rd person sg); ‘that-clauses’ (mandative), formulaic (set phrases).
2. past form (past subjunctive): the subject and the verb are not in concord: both the present
and the past forms are used with all persons.
1. Wish-clauses: I wish I were taller.
2. Conditional and concessive clauses (if; as if):

(1) If it rains, we will stay inside. (real possibility in the future); (will).
(2) If I had a million dollars, I would buy a house. (unreal or unlikely present situation); (past
perfect).
(3) They look as if they hadn't slept all night (suggests an unlikely condition, admitting the
possibility) (past perfect).

45. What grammatical categories are reflected in the infinitive? Answer and exemplify.
Infinitive is non-finite verb form, so only 2 grammatical categories are reflected: voice and
aspect.

He seems to have forgotten the appointmen.

She likes to sing in the karaoke.

46. What verb forms are used to express present time? Provide at least 4 and exemplify.

1. BASE FORM (dictionary entry form)

2. –S FORM
3. –ING PARTICIPLE
4. –ED FORM
47. What is the grammatical category of mood about? What oppositions does it have?
What do they express?
Mood – a grammatical category that express modality.

Mood: indicative, imperative and subjunctive (present: mandative and formulaic “God save
the Queen”; past: wish-clauses and condition or concessive clauses);

1. The Indicative – stating a fact, denial, disagreement, differences or opposition.

2. The Imperative – expresses wish, commands, orders, requests, appeal, inviting to action.

3. The Subjunctive – wish, recommendation, requirement, suggestion, or necessity.

wish-clauses, condition or concessive clauses (if; as if)

48. In what situations is present simple used? Name them and exemplify.

1. Present State: This cake taste really good.

2. Present Event: He hopes for a sunny day.
3. Present habit: She walks to school every day.
4. Summaries: At the end of the film the main character kills himself.
5. Past form for present time: She said she liked that film.
49. What are causative verbs? What do they mean? How are they used in a sentence?
Exemplify.
Causative verbs are used to express the idea that X makes Y to do something.

1. To let someone do something – to allow someone to do something *ex*

2. To make somebody do something – to force somebody to do something *ex*

50. What is the difference between Agent and Instrument in passive structures?
Exemplify.
The person who does an action in a passive sentence is called the AGENT. The agent is the
subject of an active verb. It is introduced by ‘by’ (the agent may or may not be mentioned):
This picture was taken by famous photographer.

A passive verb can be expressed by ‘with’; When an object makes something to happen – it is
called an INSTRUMENT; ‘with’ generally introduces tools, instruments and ingredients or
components: This cake was made with love.

51. Do future simple form (‘will’) and future progressive form (‘will be doing’) express
the same or different idea? Answer and use examples to explain.
We use future simple form when we want to express: possibility, future fact, prediction,
proposal, opinion, promise, request.

We use future progressive form when we want to express: request for info., strong
possibility.

COMPARE:
Will you be coming to the party? - request for information (we want someone to confirm
whether s/he is coming or not)

Will you come to the party? - invitation (we invite someone, ask someone to come)

52. What meanings does the modal verb should express? Provide at least 4 of them.
Answer and exemplify.
1. TENTANTIVE INFERENCE: The soup should be done by now.

2. OBLIGATION - You should do as he says.

3. EXPECTATION - This film should be really good.

4. RECOMMENDATION - I think you should discuss it with the parents.

5. CRITICISM OF AN ACTION - You shouldn’t eat so much candy at night.

6. UNCERTAINTY - Should I leave these books on your table?

54. In what cases do we keep the by-agent in a passive sentence? Explain and exemplify.
1. To change focus (emphasis on the agent): Jack won the prize – The prize was won by
Jack.
2. To indicate the authorship: The book was written by a famous novelist.

55. Explain how the verb dare behaves when it functions as a full verb and when it
functions as an auxiliary. Exemplify.

FULL VERB:
- it is never progressive, it takes ‘do support’ to form questions and negatives: Did he dare
to call him?
- as an intransitive verb, it is followed by to-infinitive: He doesn’t dare to complain.
- sometimes the to-infinitive can be left out: She never went there on her own – she didn’t
dare to.
- as a transitive verb, it is followed by an object and to-infinitive: Someone dared him to
climb the tree.

AUXILIARY:

- is followed by the bare infinitive: You are wrong, I dare tell you.
- it forms a question by subject-verb inversion: Dare he tell her the truth?
- it takes ‘not’ to form negatives (‘dare not’ can be shortened to ‘daren’t’): He daren’t tell
her the truth.
- has no –s for the 3rd person singular: How come he dare say that!

56. Give the form, meaning and usage of the imperative mood. Exemplify.
Imperative mood – is a grammatical category of mood, which is typically used with
directives, commands, orders, instructions, etc.
Form of the imperative mood is the base form of the verb, typically without an obvious
subject.

MEANING:
a) typically is used to make a person do something (commands);
b) can also express wish, request, command, appeal, etc.: Open the door!

57. What are stative verbs used dynamically? Give 4 examples and identify when they
are stative and when they are dynamic.

The progressive aspect gives the stative verb a different lexical meaning. In English, it can
be expressed with the simple and progressive aspects of some stative verbs.
Stative verbs, that are used as a dynamic verb also: admire, appear, cost, hope, imagine,
measure, say, see, think, weigh.

Stative verbs with dynamic meaning:

1. She think that he is cute/She is thinking about the answer.
2. She weight 120 pounds/She is weighing the ingredients for the recipe.
3. I hope for good weather tomorrow/I am hoping the bus arrives on time.
4. She imagines a peaceful world/ She is imagining a new future of her country."