INTRODUCTION

Course objectives.
English is an international language,
Technology language
Business
Language spoken all over the world / worldwide
or in most parts of the world,
Language for Scientific research
A lot of Writers/Authors/researchers publish their books or findings in English.

SAYING HELLO OR GREETINGS

saying hello to friends or someone you already know

Hello.
Hi.
Morning.
Good morning!

use this when you see someone at the start of the day, for example when you
arrive at work
saying hello when you are being polite because you are in a formal or business
situation
Hello.
Good morning. (= before 12 noon)
Good afternoon. (= 12 noon until about 6 p.m.)
Good evening. (= after about 6 p.m.)
How are you (feeling;doing;keeping;getting on)?
How is life ( treating you)?
Very well, thank you! Fine, thanks!
Not so bad……

Note: Only use Goodnight when you are saying goodbye in the evening, not
when you are saying hello.

when you are introducing yourself

Hello, I’m…

For example: Hello, I’m Blanchard. I’m a friend of Chantal’s.

Hello, my name’s…

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E.g. Hello, my name’s Lynda. I’ll be in the same class as you this year.

when you are introducing someone else

This is…

E.g. This is my boyfriend, Glody.

Have you met… ?

E.g. Have you met my brother, Jean-Robert?

Do you know…?
E.g. Do you know our Class Monitor, Salomon Vodiasilua?
I'd like you to meet ...
use this in formal situations, for example at work, or when you are talking to a
much older person

E.g. I'd like you to meet Linda Kamwanya, the new Anatomy Lecturer.
Workshop
How do people greet each other?
Handshaking
Head bowing
Kiss(es) on the cheek
Hugging
A pat on the back

SAYING GOODBYE

When saying goodbye, you usually say Bye, but you can say these other things

A. Saying goodbye to a friend you will see again soon

See you.

See you later. / See you soon.

See you tomorrow / next week etc

B. Saying goodbye to a friend you may not see very soon

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See you sometime.

See you around.

Take care.

C. Saying goodbye when it’s the end of an evening or you are going to bed

Goodnight.

Night.

Note: Night is more informal than Goodnight.

D. Saying goodbye when you think it’s time to leave

You can use these phrases before you say goodbye:

Note: You usually you give a reason when you tell someone that you have to
leave.

I’d better be going. INFORMAL

E.g. I’d better be going. My Darling will wonder where I am.
I must go. BRITISH

E.g. I must go, or I’ll be late for my aerobics class.

I’d better be off. BRITISH INFORMAL

E.g. Well, we’d better be off. I’ve got work in the morning.

I’ve got to go. ESPECIALLY BRITISH

I have to go. AMERICAN

E.g. I have to go or I’ll be late.

I’m afraid I have to leave now. FORMAL

I’m afraid I have to leave now. My train leaves at nine.

E. Saying goodbye when you want to be formal or very polite

Goodbye.

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 E.g. It was nice meeting you / talking to you.

Workshop Exercise

Names: ……………………………………..

Class: G…………….

Date : ……………………………….

Build up a friendly conversation between yourself as the first individual and your
comrade and the basis of the information and/or remarks provided on your
sheet

Information Starting remark by Student 1. Reply by Student 2.

1.Introducing
oneself to make
acquaintance
with another
student

2.Salutations

3.Enquiry about
health

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4.Enquiry about
the nationality or
origin

5.Enquiry about
the destination

6.Gratitude or
thanks giving

7.Apologies

8.Regrets

9.Best wishes

10.Season’s
greetings

11.Congratulations

12.Farewells

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 13.Good wishes
sent to a third
person

THE SENTENCE
When we speak or write we use words. We generally use these words in groups,
like,
Little Jack Zola sat in a corner.
A group of words like this, which makes complete sense , is called a Sentence.
A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete thought.
A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, question mark
or an exclamation mark, depending on the nature and meaning of the
sentence.
A sentence must contain a subject and a finite verb.
In order to check whether you have a subject , ask Who or what before the
verb.
For example:
The boy plays > Who plays? > He plays
The different forms of sentences are:

1. STATEMENTS or Assertions
A ‘statement’ is a sentence which gives information. If you make a statement,
you usually give the sentence a subject, and this must go in front of the verb.

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E.g. The children are playing in the garden.
Johnny studied at Unikin five years ago!

NEGATIVE STATEMENTS

Negative statements are made in two main ways:

1
If the statement contains an auxiliary verb, such as is or have, or the main
verb is be, you usually add not or its contracted form _n’t.
E.g. She is not leaving. OR She isn’t leaving.

Will, shall, and can have special contracted forms: won’t, shan’t, can’t.
Am not : Aren’t or the informal form Ain’t
The same rules apply when you make a question negative.
E.g. Are they in the garden? Aren’t they in the garden?
WiII he get the job? Won’t he get the job?
2
If the statement has no auxiliary verb, you need to make the negative using
a form of do + not/n’t. Make sure that the main verb is in its basic form or the
infinitive form without to.
E.g. Cathy likes swimming. Cathy doesn’t like swimming. NOT Cathy
doesn’t likes swimming.
Christian saw a ship. Christian didn’t see a ship. NOT Christian didn’t saw a
ship.

2. QUESTIONS

Questions are sentences which ask for information. They fall into three main
types, depending on the kind of reply they expect.

1. ‘Yes–no questions’ expect a simple yes or no reply (or a word or phrase

which can be used instead of yes or no). In these cases, you put the
subject after an auxiliary or after the main verb be.
E.g. Will Jane resign? (Possible answers: yes, no, I don’t know, probably,
maybe etc)
Are the students ready for the English test?
Does Davina know about this?

2. A. ‘Wh– questions’ begin with a question word, such as what, why,

where, or how. This kind of question can have a wide range of different
replies. The answer may be a full sentence, or one which leaves out the

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 words that you can guess from knowing the question. Here too, you
need to put the subject after an auxiliary or be, unless the question word
is the subject.
E.g. Where are you going? (Possible answers: I’m going to work,
downstairs, to the library etc)
What did Pierrette say?
Who found the money?

2.B. ‘Alternative questions’ give the listener a choice of two possible

replies, both of which are mentioned in the question. The two possibilities
are connected by the word or. Once again, you must change the order
of subject and verb.
E.g. Will you travel by train or by boat? (Possible answers: by train, by
boat, I don’t know etc)

2.C. Tag questions

You can change a statement into a question by adding a ‘tag question’ at the
end of it. When you use a tag question, you are asking the listener to agree with
the statement you have just made. If the statement is positive, you expect the
answer yes. If it is negative, you expect the answer no.

A tag question is a type of ‘yes–no question’, and consists of a personal

pronoun after an auxiliary or the main verb be. You use the same personal
pronoun (she, they etc) and tense of the verb as in the statement to which the
tag question is joined. In the most common kind of tag question, you change
from positive to negative, or from negative to positive.

E.g. She’s outside, isn’t she? (Expected answer: yes)

They were ready, weren’t they? (Expected answer: yes)
You aren’t going, are you? (Expected answer: no)
It isn’t difficult, is it? (Expected answer: no)

2.D. Questions which are not questions

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You can also use a sentence which looks like a question, but it is one where you
are not actually expecting any reply. Because these sentences are halfway
between a question and an exclamation, you will find them sometimes written
with a question–mark and sometimes with an exclamation–mark.

In some cases, you already know the answer or you are asking your listener to
agree with you. These sentences are called ‘exclamatory questions’.
E.g. Hasn’t Cynthia grown!
Wasn’t the book marvellous?

In other cases, no answer is possible. (Of course your listener may still give you
an answer, whether you like it or not!) These sentences are used when you want
to express a strong feeling about something. They are called ‘rhetorical
questions’.

Doesn’t everyone know that the whole thing is impossible?

2.E. Polite questions

When using a question to make a request, you can make it sound more polite
by using please and by using phrases such as could I...? or may I...?

REQUESTS

When asking friends

Can you…?
E.g. Can you lend me $10 till Saturday?
Will you…?
E.g. Will you buy me a newspaper while you’re out?

When asking anyone

Could you…?
E.g. Could you give me a ride to work on Monday?

Would you mind…(doing something)?

E.g. Would you mind feeding the cat while I’m away?

when you want to be polite

Note: Use the following polite phrases when you are talking to someone you do
not know well, or when you are asking a friend to do something difficult or
important.

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Do you think you could…?
E.g. Do you think you could check your records again, please?

I was wondering if you’d mind… (doing something)?

E.g. I was wondering if you’d mind giving this letter to Mr Roberts?

saying yes or no to a request

1. YES
OK. / All right.
– Can you lend me $10 till Saturday?
– OK. Here you are.

Yes, sure.
– Will you buy me a newspaper while you’re out?
– Yes, sure. Which one?

Certainly. FORMAL

– Do you think you could check your records again, please?

– Certainly. Just a moment.

2. NO

Note: It is polite to give a reason if you say no.

Sorry, but…
– Can you lend me $10 till Saturday?
– Sorry, but I don’t really have enough.
I can’t really.
– Could you give me a lift into town?
– I can’t really. I’m waiting for a phone call.
I’m afraid…
– Can you come to my office tomorrow at 10 o’clock?
– I’m afraid I’m busy tomorrow morning.

3. EXCLAMATIONS
These express emotions such as surprise, fear, alarm, or anger.
For instance

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 It’s a ghost!
Your work is unacceptable!

4. COMMANDS or IMPERATIVES
These are used to give orders or instructions.
E.g. Do not enter through that door.
Leave the room immediately!
Shut the door!

VERBS
A Verb is a ’’ doing’’ or an ‘’ action’’ word.
We can test if it is a verb :
A. By asking : Can you…….? Can you ask? Can you reply?
B. By placing a pronoun in front of it: We asked….. He replied….

I. English has three main tenses.

1. PRESENT , PAST , and FUTURE

The tense tells when the action takes place.

Present today Verb JR paints a picture

Past yesterday Verb+ed JR painted a picture
Future tomorrow Will/shall+verb I shall paint a picture

Note: Irregular verbs do not follow this pattern. Their past tense is different.

2. A more detailed analysis: Simple, Continuous and Perfect tenses

SIMPLE CONTINUOUS PERFECT

(generally) (at the moment/on going) (already completed)

Present I drive I am driving I have driven

Past I drove I was driving I had driven
Future I shall drive I shall be driving I shall have driven

The meaning of each tense is subtly different:

a) I shall drive to Maluku tomorrow. (future simple tense)
b) I shall be driving to Maluku tomorrow. (future continuous tense)
c) I shall have driven to Maluku by this time tomorrow.(future perfect tense)

II. FINITE VERBS.

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A finite verb can stand on its own and does not need an auxiliary or helping
verb.
A finite verb must have a subject number (singular or plural) and tense.
a) Together with the subject, it makes a complete sentence ;
for example
Maria plays. They argue
b) It indicates number:
E.g. The boy (i.e.one) plays football. The boys (i.e.many) play football.
c) It has tense
E.g. Today I play
Yesterday I played.
Tomorrow I shall play.

III. THE INFINITIVE

When a verb is preceded by a ’’ To’’, it is known as the infinitive:

For instance : To play To dance To read To study To discuss

The infinitive cannot stand alone. It must be preceded by a finite verb.

E.g. She wants to discuss They start to argue We tried to study
Children love to play
The infinitive should not be split:
E.g. I am going to definitely complete my work tomorrow x
I am definitely going to complete my work tomorrow √

IV. AUXILIARY VERBS

a. An auxiliary verb is a helping verb.

● It always precedes a verb. E.g. Benive has done her work.
●It regulates the tense of its sentence. E.g. We could see the sun rising
in the east. (past tense)

b. Common auxiliary verbs: am, are, be, can, could; had, has, have, is,
may, might, must, shall, should, was, were, will, would, ought to.

c. Depending on the sentence, the verb may be classified as a finite or

an auxiliary verb:

E.g. He is the president of his company.(finite verb)

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 He is hoping to become the president of his company.(auxiliary
verb+ present participle)

V. THE LIKING VERB – TO BE

a. The verb ‘’ to be ‘’ (is, am; are) is also referred to as the linking verb.
b. A linking verb connects a noun with another noun, or a noun with an
adjective.
E.g. The man is a soldier.(noun) The man is brave.(adjective)
c. The word that follows the linking verb is not the object; it is known as
the complement.

S= singular PRESENT TENSE PAST TENSE FUTURE TENSE FUTURE TENSE

P= plural if definite
1 person(s)
st I am cold I was cold I shall be cold I will be cold
1stperson(p) We are cold We were cold We shall be cold We will be cold
2ndperson(S &P) You are cold You were cold You will be cold
3rdperson(s) S/he/It is cold S/He/It was cold S/he/it will be cold
3rdperson(p) They are cold They were cold They will be cold

VI. Verbs: intransitive and transitive

Most verbs in English belong to either of two types: intransitive verbs or transitive
verbs depending on whether or not it is followed by a direct object.

INTRANSITIVE VERBS

An intransitive verb does not have a direct object. You can use it without
having to add any more words to the sentence. Here are some examples of
intransitive verbs:

Something’s happening.

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 I’ll wait.

It doesn’t matter.
You can add other words to these sentences in order to show meanings such
as time, place, or manner, but these words do not have to be there for the
sentence to make sense.
E.g. Something’s happening in the street.

I’ll wait for a few minutes.

It doesn’t matter at all.

Other intransitive verbs include appear, come, go, smile, lie, and rise.

Intransitive verbs cannot be used in the passive.

Don’t say: ‘it was happened’ or ‘they were died’.

Say: it happened or they died.

TRANSITIVE VERBS

A transitive verb must have an object. Without the object, the sentence does
not make sense. The object of the verb is usually a noun, a noun phrase, or a
pronoun. Here are some examples of transitive verbs:
E.g.
She bought that dress in Brazzaville.
Did you find the key?
I really like him.

Sometimes the object is a clause which begins + (that). For example:

I wish she would stop smoSometimes the object is a whole sentence.
For example:
“It’s time to go home,” he said.
Other transitive verbs include make, use, need, thank, enjoy, keep, and carry.

VERBS THAT CAN BE TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE

Several verbs can be used in a transitive or intransitive way. Here are some
examples of verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:

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There’s no need to shout. [intransitive]

Someone shouted my name. [transitive]

Where do you want to meet? [intransitive]

I’ll meet you outside the school. [transitive]

I’m sorry. I don’t understand. [intransitive]

She didn’t understand his explanation. [transitive]

The intransitive uses are very similar to the transitive ones, except that the object
been left out.

OTHER VERBS

Some verbs can be followed by an adjective or adjective phrase. Here are

some examples of these verbs:

E.g .You seem tired.

It all sounds very interesting.

Was he angry?

VII. THE MOOD OF THE VERB

The mood of the verb indicates the speaker’s intention or attitude.

There are three main moods:
a. Indicative
The indicative verb is used to express a fact or provide information.
E.g. I always buy an ice cream at lunch time.
b. Imperative
The imperative verb expresses instructions r commands.
E.g. My Darling always tells me : ‘’Don’t waste your money on airtime!’’
c. Subjunctive

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 The subjunctive mood is used when something is unlikely or to express a
wish, doubt, or uncertainty.
●The linking verb was changes to were for all persons.
E.g. If I were to win the DV lottery, Mbaki would

Talking about the present

English has two main ways of talking about present time: the simple present
and the present progressive.

THE SIMPLE PRESENT

You make the simple present by using the verb in its basic form. You add –s or
–es to the verb in the third person singular.

The simple present is used in the following ways:

1 You use the simple present to talk about something which is happening now,
and which will continue to happen in the future. You often use the simple
present in this meaning to talk about things that are true about your life, for
example where you live, your job, or the kinds of things you like.

Martin lives in Canada.

I work in a hospital.

“What kind of music do you like?” “I like all kinds of pop music.”

2 You use the simple present when you talk about something which happens
again and again, or when you say that something happens regularly at a
particular time. Use words such as always, often, sometimes, occasionally, and
never, or phrases such as on Tuesdays or every day with the simple present in
this meaning.

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They often go out to restaurants.

I travel to London twice a month.

He gets up at 6 o’clock.

She goes to church every Sunday.

3 You use the simple present to talk about something which stays the same for
ever – such as a scientific fact.

Oil floats on water.

Two and two make four.

4 You can use the simple present when you are describing what is happening
at the exact moment when you are speaking. The simple present is used like
this, for example, in sports commentaries.

Shearer gets the ball from Gascoigne. He shoots – and scores!

For descriptions of actions that are happening now, you usually use the present

progressive (see below) rather than the simple present. For example:

“What are you doing?” “I’m making a poster.”NOT “What do you do?” “I make
a poster.”

THE PRESENT PROGRESSIVE

You make the present progressive by using a form of the verb be in the present
tense, followed by the main verb with an –ing ending, for example l am waiting,
she is coming.

The present progressive is used in the following ways:

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1 You use the present progressive to talk about something which is happening
now at the time you are speaking or writing. You often use this meaning with
words and phrases that express present time, such as now, at the moment, and
currently.

“What’s Bob doing?” “He’s watching television.”

It’s raining again.

I’m looking for my glasses.

2 You use the present progressive to say that something is happening now, but
will only continue for a limited period of time. Compare these pairs of
sentences:
We live in France. (=France is our permanent home)

We’re living in France. (=we are living there for a limited period of time)

He cooks his own meals. (=he always does it)

He’s cooking his own meals. (=he does not usually do it)

If you want to talk about the subjects you are studying at school or university,
you usually use the present progressive.

She’s studying law at UPC. NOT She studies law at UPC.

I’m studying English. NOT I study English.

Verbs that cannot be used in the progressive

Verbs which express a situation or state, rather than describing a definite

action, are not usually used in the progressive. Do not use the progressive with
the following verbs:

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be ; believe ; know ; recognize ; remember ; understand ; wish ; have ; like ; love
; hate ; prefer ; want ; belong ; see ; agree ; disagree ; mean ; need ; deserve
For instance,
I know the answer. NOT I am knowing the answer.

She understands me. NOT She is understanding me.

Talking about the past

There are several ways of talking about actions that happened in the past. These
include the simple past, the past progressive, the present perfect, the past perfect,
and the phrase used to.

THE SIMPLE PAST

You usually make the simple past by adding -ed to the end of the verb. For
example:

I walk→
I walkedwe wait→
we waitedthey jump→
they jumped

Many common verbs have irregular simple past forms, and so you have to use a
special ending, or change the verb in some other way. For example:

I go→
I wentwe buy→
we boughtthey see→
they saw

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You use the simple past to talk about an action which happened and finished in the
past. There is a space between the time when the action happened, and the time
when you are speaking or writing about it.

He kicked the ball into the net.

I went home early because I had a headache.

The police found a dead body in the river.

You often use words or phrases such as at midnight, on Tuesday, in 1992,

yesterday, and last year with the simple past, to draw attention to the time when
something happened. For example:

Our visitors arrived yesterday.

Where did you go last week?

The war ended in 1945.

THE PAST PROGRESSIVE

You make the past progressive by using was or were, followed by the main verb
with an –ing ending, for example I was looking, they were laughing.

The past progressive is used in the following ways:

1 You use the past progressive when you want to talk about something that
happened in the past, and continued to happen for only a limited period of time.

We were living in France at that time.

I was trying to get the waiter’s attention.

The man was looking at me in a very strange way.

2 You use the past progressive to talk about something which continued to happen
for a period of time, during which another thing happened.

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I was watching TV when the phone rang.

They met each other while they were staying in London.

Some verbs are not usually used in the progressive. Don’t say, ‘I was not believing
him’. Say I did not believe him. See Talking about the present for a list of
these verbs.

THE PRESENT PERFECT

You make the present perfect by using has or have, followed by the past participle
form of the main verb, for example I have walked, she has gone, they have
seen.

The present perfect is used in the following ways:

1 You use the present perfect to talk about something that happened in the past
and is finished, but which still affects the situation now.

Someone has broken the window. (RESULT NOW: it is still broken, and needs to be
mended)

The taxi has arrived. (RESULT NOW: someone needs to go and get into the taxi)

Jane’s hurt her hand, so she can’t write. (RESULT NOW: Jane can’t write)

You often use just and recently with the present perfect in this meaning.

Jane’s just left, but you might catch her in the car park.

In American English, people often use the simple past instead of the present perfect
in this sense.
British English

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American English
I’ve just seen Carol.

You’ve already told me that.

Have they come home yet?

I just saw Carol.

You already told me that.

Did they come home yet?

2 You use the present perfect to say that something started to happen in the past,
and has continued to happen up to now. There is a clear difference with the past
tense, which you use when the action is finished. Compare these sentences:

present perfect: I have lived in Chicago for many years. (=I still live there now)

simple past: I lived in Chicago for many years. (=now I live somewhere else)

present perfect: Jim has worked for us since 1992. (=he still works for us now)

simple past: Jim worked for us from 1992 to 1996. (=he does not work for us any
more)
Don’t say ‘I am living here for 10 years’, or ‘I live here for 10 years’. Say I have
lived here for 10 years.
3 You use the present perfect to talk about something that happened at some time
in the past before now, when it is not important to say when it happened.

She has had several jobs abroad.

There have been problems with this system in the past.

This meaning of the present perfect is often used in this way in news reports.

There has been a big earthquake in Japan, and hundreds of people have been killed.

You can emphasize this meaning by using ever in questions, or never in negative
sentences. For example:

Have you ever visited Scotland?

I’ve never been in a plane before.

If you give the date, year, or time when something happened, you must use the
simple past, not the present perfect. For example:

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I spoke to him yesterday. NOT I have spoken to him yesterday.

They arrived in the US last week. NOT They have arrived in the US last week.

THE PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE

You make the present perfect progressive by using have been/has been, followed
by the main verb with an –ing ending, for example I have been living, she has
been studying. The present perfect progressive has very similar meanings to the
present perfect, but draws attention to the period of time during which the action
has taken place.

The present perfect progressive is used in the following ways:

1 You use the present perfect progressive to talk about something which has
continued to happen for a period of time in the past, and which may still be
happening now.

How long have you been learning English?

We’ve been expecting them to arrive since last Thursday.

2 You use the present progressive to talk about something which has been taking
place recently and which affects the situation now.

“You look tired.” “I’ve been working really hard.”

It’s been raining all week, so the ground’s very wet.

Don’t say ‘I’ve been knowing John for a long time’. Say I have known John for a
long time. See Talking about the past for a list of these verbs.

THE PAST PERFECT

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If you want to talk about a past action which took place before another past action,
you can use had, followed by the past participle of the main verb.

After the visitors had left, we watched TV.

They told me that the taxi had already arrived

You can also use the past perfect in a ‘progressive’ form by using had been, and
putting it in front of a main verb with an –ing ending.

We had only been driving for an hour when the car ran out of petrol.
Using the right time phrases with the past tense

If you use words or phrases about time with the simple past, they must have a
meaning which shows there has been a space between the time when the action or
event happened and the time when you are talking or writing about it. For example:

I saw John yesterday/a week ago/last Tuesday.

If you use words or phrases about time with the present perfect, they must have a
meaning which shows that the action has continued up to the present, and may still
going on. For example:

I haven’t seen John since Monday/so far/yet.

Don’t say ‘I’ve seen him a week ago’ or ‘I didn’t see John since Monday’.

USED TO

You use used to when you want to say that something happened in the past over a
period of time, but it no longer happens now. It is found only in the past tense. You
use used to with the basic form of the main verb, for example used to smoke,
used to live, used to be.

I used to play football a lot when I was at school.

She used to smoke 40 cigarettes a day.

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The club used to be very fashionable.

They used to live in Los Angeles.

In negatives, you say didn’t use to, or used not to.

I didn’t use to like spicy food. OR I used not to like spicy food.

In questions, you say did (you/she/John etc) use to ... ?

Did you use to smoke?

What did she use to call him?

When you want to say that one situation (described in the main clause) depends on
another situation, you use a conditional clause.

Conditional clauses usually begin with if or (for negative clauses) unless.

Jane will pass the exam if she works hard.

Jane will not pass the exam unless she works hard.

They may follow or go in front of the main clause.

If Jane works hard, she will pass her exam.

Conditional clauses are used in two main ways:

• If you see the situation as a real one, and likely to happen, you use the simple
present tense in the conditional clause and will (’ll) or won’t in the main clause.
Don’t use will in the conditional clause.

If you take a taxi, you will be there in good time. NOT If you will take a taxi...

If you wear a coat, you won’t get cold. NOT If you will wear a coat...

• If you see the situation as unreal, imaginary, or less likely to happen, you use the
simple past tense in the conditional clause and would (’d), might, or could in the
main clause. Don’t use would in the conditional clause.

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If you saw a ghost, what would you do? NOT If you would see a ghost...

If I bought a new coat, I might not feel so cold. (=I would possibly not feel so cold)

If I found their address, I could write to them. (=I would be able to write to them)

In sentences of this kind, the past tense of the verb be appears as were after the
first and third persons, in formal speech and writing. Only use was in informal
speech.

If I were at home, I would be watching television. (informal: If I was at home...)

If John were playing today, we’d have a chance of winning. (informal: If John was
playing...)

• If you want to talk about conditional situations in the past, use had (’d) in the
conditional clause, and would have in the main clause.

If I’d seen her, I would have asked her to call. (=I did not see her)

The books wouldn’t have been damaged if Mary had moved them. (=Mary didn’t
move them)

• You can use when instead of if in sentences of the first type (simple present +
will etc), but not with those of the second (simple past + would etc). When is not
used for situations that are unlikely or impossible.

What will John do if he goes home? (=John is probably going home) OR What will
John do when he goes home? (=John is definitely going home)

What would John do if he went home? (=John is probably not going home) NOT
What would John do when he went home?

I would shout if I saw a ghost. NOT I would shout when I saw a ghost.

I wish

If you want to talk about a situation in the present which you are not happy about,
and would like to change, use the simple past tense in a clause after I wish.

I wish I had a new bike. (=unfortunately, I don’t have a new bike)

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If you want to talk about a situation in the past which you are not happy about, and
would like to change, use had.

I wish I’d gone by train. (=unfortunately, I didn’t go by train)

I wish I hadn’t gone by train. (=unfortunately, I did go by train)

Active and passive

In the sentence The dog chased the cat, the verb (chased) is active. If you turn it
around, and say The cat was chased by the dog, the verb (was chased) is passive.
You form the passive by using the verb be and the past participle of the main verb.
For example, the passive of attack is be attacked, the passive of pay is be paid,
and the passive of see is be seen. You can only use the passive with transitive
verbs (see Verbs: intransitive and transitive).

WHEN TO USE AN ACTIVE VERB

You use an active verb when you want to say that the subject of a sentence does
something. For example:
She opened the window.

WHEN TO USE A PASSIVE VERB

You use a passive verb when you want to say that something happens to the subject
of the sentence. For example:

President Kennedy was killed in 1963.

You often use a passive verb when talking about the history of something. For
example:
The bridge was built in the 19th century.

The company was established in 1826.

In these cases, it is much more natural to use the passive than to find a vague,
active way of expressing the sentence (such as Someone built this bridge in the 19th
century.)

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You often use a passive verb when you are writing about science, or when you are
saying how things are made. For example:

Hydrogen and oxygen can be easily mixed in this way.

Paper is made from wood.

If you used an active verb here, you would have to say who does the action –

information which is not known or not important.

If you want to say who does the action of the verb in a passive sentence, use by
and then say who does it.

President Kennedy was killed by Lee Harvey Oswald in 1963.

The bridge was designed by Brunel.

HOW TO CHANGE AN ACTIVE SENTENCE INTO A PASSIVE ONE

There are three things you need to do in order to change an active sentence into a
passive one.

1 Move the subject of the active verb to the end of the sentence, and put by in front
of it.
2 Move the object of the active verb to the front of the sentence, so that it becomes
the passive subject.

3 Change the verb from active to passive. You do this by adding a form of the
auxiliary verb be and changing the main verb to the past participle form (see
Talking about the past).

THE PASSIVE WITH ‘GET’

You can also make a passive using get instead of be. This kind of passive is very
common in conversation. Do not use it in formal writing. You often use this kind of
passive to say that something happened suddenly to someone.

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I got sacked by my firm.
ORI was sacked by my firm.
He got hit by a car.
ORHe was hit by a car.

You can also use the passive with get when you want to suggest that an action is
more forceful or more important to you.

I get paid on Thursday.

ORI am paid on Thursday.
We often get asked this question.
ORWe are often asked this question

Nouns: countable and uncountable

COUNTABLE NOUNS

A noun is ‘countable’ if you can think of it as one of several separate units, for
example book, egg, or horse. As the name suggests, countable nouns can actually
be counted.

UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

A noun is ‘uncountable’ if you cannot think of it as one of several separate units, but
only as a single idea or substance, for example butter, music, or advice. These
nouns are sometimes called ‘mass’ nouns. They cannot be counted.

GRAMMATICAL DIFFERENCES

There are some important grammatical differences in the way you use countable and
uncountable nouns.

1 You can use a countable noun in the singular or in the plural, for example
book/books, egg/eggs, horse/horses, ticket/tickets,
university/universities. Don’t try to use uncountable nouns in the plural. Don’t

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say butters, musics, advices, informations, furnitures. It is a common mistake
to use an uncountable noun in the plural.

You should listen to his advice. NOT You should listen to his advices.

2 You can use a countable noun with a or an: for example a book, an egg, a
horse, a ticket, a university. Don’t use a or an with uncountable nouns. Don’t say
a butter, a music, an advice, an information, a furniture. It is a common
mistake to use a or an with an uncountable noun.

I like listening to music. NOT I like listening to a music.

3 You can use an uncountable noun with quantity words such as some and any:
some butter, any music. If you want to use these words with countable nouns,
you must put the nouns into the plural, and say some tickets, any eggs.

She bought some books. NOT She bought some book.

4 You can only use the quantity expressions much, how much, or a little with
uncountable nouns. With countable nouns, you have to use many, how many, or a
few.

uncountable
countable
I don’t have much money.
How much time do you have?

There is a little butter in the fridge.

He doesn’t have many friends.

How many records do you have?

There are a few rooms still available.

5 You can use an uncountable noun on its own without such words as the, some,
or any.

She doesn’t eat meat.

If you need advice, don’t be afraid to ask.

You cannot use a countable noun in the singular in this way – only in the plural.

I like reading books.

NOTI like reading book.
Computers are always causing problems.
NOTComputers are always causing problem.

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NOUNS WHICH CAN BE COUNTABLE OR UNCOUNTABLE
You can use some nouns in either a countable or an uncountable way, depending on
their meaning. The following pairs of sentences show how the meaning can change:
in each case there is a countable noun in the first sentence, and an uncountable
noun in the second.

Would you like a cake? (=one of several cakes which someone can take to eat)

Do you like chocolate cake? (=a type of food)

The lambs were born early this year. (=the animals)

There are several ways of cooking lamb. (=a type of meat)

Most abstract nouns, such as love, anger, knowledge, intelligence, or

freedom, are always uncountable. But some abstract nouns can also be used in a
countable way.

uncountable
countable
They did it with difficulty.

Her voice sounded full of doubt.

They’ve had a lot of difficulties.

I have my doubts about whether he’s the right person for the job

Determiners and articles

‘Determiners’ are used before a noun to ‘determine’ the character of the noun – in
particular, how ‘definite’ or ‘general’ a noun it is, and whether it is ‘one’ or ‘more than
one’. When you use a noun, you have the choice of using it in one of three possible
states.

1 You can use the noun without any determiner at all.

• in the singular, if it is a proper noun

• in the singular, if it is an uncountable noun

• in the plural, if it is a countable noun

Boston is on the east coast.

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I can hear music.

Tigers have black stripes.

When you use a plural countable noun without a determiner, you are seeing the
noun in a general way – ‘tigers in general’.

2 You can use the noun with either of the ‘articles’, a or the:

• use a with singular countable nouns

• use the with singular countable nouns

• use the with plural countable nouns

• use the with uncountable nouns

I can see a car.

I can see the car.

I can see the cars.

I can see the water.

The articles are the most common determiners in English. Their main job is to say
whether the noun is ‘definite’ or ‘indefinite’.

3You can use the noun with one of the other determiners. This adds a further
meaning to the noun. For example:

determiner
adds the meaning of
my book

this book

that book

some books

enough books

each book

either book

no book

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what book.
‘possession’ (also our, his, her etc)

‘nearness to the speaker’ (also plural these)‘distance from the speaker’ (also plural
those)

‘quantity’ (also any)

‘sufficiency’

‘item by item’ (also every)

‘one of two’ (also neither)

‘absence’

‘unknown item’ (also which, whose etc)

You cannot use two determiners at the same time. Don’t say things like ‘the this car’,
‘my an apple’, or ‘some the cups’.

You can use other words or phrases expressing quantity in front of a determiner to
make the meaning of the noun phrase more exact.
NOTE: (of) shows that you can leave out the word of.
all (of) the people both (of) the cats half (of) the golddouble the amounttwice the
cost a third of the peoplea few of the carshalf (of) that cakesome of those cakes

You can also add certain quantity words after the determiner. They include the
numerals, as well as a few general expressions of quantity.

The three kittens were playing on the floor.

I’ve just taken my fourth examination.

He bought it on one of his many trips abroad.

If you want to add adjectives to the noun phrase (see Word order), they always
follow any determiners or other quantity expressions.

the three little kittens

my fourth difficult examination

his many interesting trips

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WHEN TO USE ‘A’ AND ‘THE’

A and the are called ‘the articles’. A is called ‘the indefinite article’, and the is called
‘the definite article’. They are used in the following ways:

1The main use of a and the is to say whether you are talking about a noun for the
first time, or whether you have mentioned it before. For a first–time mention, use a;
for later mentions, use the.

Mary bought a car and a bike, but she used the bike more often.

2If you use the with a noun that you have not mentioned before, you are actually
saying to your listener ‘you know which one I mean’. This is usually because there is
only one example of the noun in the situation, or you have only one such example in
your mind. That is why it is ‘definite’.

Have you fed the cat? (=you have only one cat)

There’s the hotel. (=that is the hotel we have been looking for)

I met him during the war. (=both you and your listener know which war you mean)

Pass the salt, please.

3If you want to talk about something of a particular type in an indefinite way, use a.

I’m training to be an engineer.

NOTI’m training to be engineer.
I went out to buy a newspaper.
NOTI went out to buy newspaper.

4Use a when you are talking about one of several things or people and it is not
important to say which one. Use the when it is clear that you are talking about one
particular thing or person and there is only one.

A man I work with told me about it. (=you work with several men)

The man I work with told me about it. (=you work with only one man)
5You must use the with singular nouns such as world, sky, or sun, because there
is only one of these things in the situation that you are talking about.

We’re going to travel round the world.

Don’t look directly at the sun

6If you are talking about buildings, places, and organizations as things which you
often see or visit, use the. For example: the bank, the theatre, the cinema etc.

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I went to the theatre last week.
She’s at the gym.
When a is used before a word that begins with a vowel, it changes to an.

WHEN NOT TO USE ‘A’ OR ‘THE’

1If you want to use a countable noun in the plural to talk in general about
something, don’t use the.

Tigers are very fierce animals.

Prices keep going up.

2 If you want to use an uncountable noun to talk in general about something, don’t
use the.
There has been a big increase in crime.
NOTThere has been a big increase in the crime.
It takes patience and skill to be a teacher.
NOTIt takes the patience and the skill to be a teacher.

3Most names of places or people that begin with a capital letter do not have the
before them. Don’t use the with these names.

They’re visiting Belgium and Holland.

NOTThey’re visiting the Belgium and the Holland.

However, there are some names that always have the in them, for example the
United States, the Nile (=the big river in Egypt) etc. Don’t forget to put the in
these names.

He’s from the United States.

NOTHe’s from United States.

There are also many common nouns and phrases which are not used with a or the.
This is especially true when talking about meals, illnesses, ways of travelling, times,
and periods of time.

Will you have lunch with me?

NOTWill you have the lunch with me?

Her mother has cancer.

NOTHer mother has the cancer.

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I travel to work by bus.

NOTI travel to work by the bus.

In winter we get a lot of snow.

NOTIn winter we get a lot of the snow.

It’s time to go to bed.

NOTIt’s time to go to the bed.

We got up at dawn.

NOTWe got up at the dawn.

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