bt101 (Grey Format)

Ecology, Biodiversity & Evolution -I(BT-101) VU
Ecology, Biodiversity & Evolution-I

(BT-101)
PREPARED BY:
Prof. Dr. Muhammad Sharif Mughal
HANDOUTS
LESSONS #01 –150

Table of Contents
Topic No.1................................................................................13
Introduction to ecology ……………
Topic No.2................................................................................18
Level of organization…………………
Topic No.3................................................................................21
Species ……………………………
Topic No.4................................................................................24
Population …………………………..
Topic No.5................................................................................26
Community ………………………
Topic No.6................................................................................29
Ecosystem …………………………..
Topic No.7................................................................................32
The ecological niche……………...
Topic No.8................................................................................35
Generalist species…………………
Topic No.9................................................................................37
Specialist species………………….
Topic No.10..............................................................................39
Native species…………………….
Topic No.11..............................................................................41
Nonnative species………………..
Topic No.12..............................................................................43
Indicator species…………………
Topic No.13..............................................................................45
Keystone species…………………………..

Topic No.14..............................................................................47
Foundation species………………………….
Topic No.15..............................................................................49
Ecological pyramids…………………………
Topic No.16..............................................................................52
Food pyramids …………………………………..

Topic No.17..............................................................................54
Organisms-and environment……..................
Topic No.18..............................................................................57
Food chain.....................................................
Topic No.19..............................................................................59
Food webs ..................................................
Topic No.20..............................................................................61
Trophic levels …………………………………
Topic No.21..............................................................................63
Producers……………………………………
Topic No.22..............................................................................65
Terrestrial producers………………………

Topic No.23..............................................................................66
Aquatic producers…………………………..
Topic No.24..............................................................................69
Photosynthesis……………………………..
Topic No.25..............................................................................71
Consumers…………………………………
Topic No.26...............................................................................74
Primary consumer…………………………….
Topic No.27...............................................................................77
Secondary consumers………………….......

Topic No.28...............................................................................79
Tertiary consumer………………………….
Topic No.29...............................................................................81
Omnivores……………………………..
Topic No.30...............................................................................83
Decomposers……………………………..
Topic No.31................................................................................85
Detritus feeders, or detritivores ………………..
Topic No.32................................................................................87
Life-supporting system of earth…………………….
Topic No.33................................................................................90
Population ecology: Dynamics …………………..

Topic No.34................................................................................93
Population growth……………………………………
Topic No.35................................................................................96
Carrying capacity…………………………………
Topic No.36................................................................................98
Exponential population growth………………….
Topic No.37................................................................................100
Logistic population Growth………………………
Topic No.38................................................................................102
Population growth………………………………………
Topic No.39................................................................................104
Population density………………………………
Topic No.40..............................................................................106
Density-independent factor……………………..
Topic No.41..............................................................................108
Density-dependent factors…………………………..
Topic No.42..............................................................................110
Impact of human population on environment…………..
Topic No.43..............................................................................112
Atmosphere: its Composition and role in ecosystem……….
Topic No.44..............................................................................114
Water…………………………………………….
Topic No.45..............................................................................116
Freshwater ecosystem……………………………

Topic No.46..............................................................................118
Lotic water bodies……………………………….

Topic No.47..............................................................................120
Streams...............................................................
Topic No.48..............................................................................121
Rivers…………………………………………..
Topic No.49..............................................................................123
Lentic water bodies………………………………..
Topic No.50..............................................................................125
Lakes……………………………………………….

Topic No.51..............................................................................127
Oligotrophic lake……………………………………
Topic No.52.............................................................................128
Eutrophication lake…………………………………..
Topic No.53.............................................................................130
Inland wetland………………………………….
Topic No.54..............................................................................132
Ecological and economic services of a wetland
Topic No.55..............................................................................134
Brackish water ………………………………………..
Topic No.56..............................................................................136
Coastal wetlands………………………………………
Topic No.57..............................................................................138
Marine-water ecosystem………………………..........
Topic No.58..............................................................................140
Marine water life zones……………………………….
Topic No.59..............................................................................144
Importance of marine ecosystems ………………………
Topic No.60..............................................................................147
Aquatic life zones ……………………………………
Topic No.61..............................................................................149
Coral reefs: amazing centers of biodiversity …………..
Topic No.62..............................................................................151
Rocky and sandy shores ……………………………..
Topic No.63.............................................................................153
Soil……………………………………………………
Topic No.64……………………………………………..…...155
Soil types………………………………………………
Topic No.65……………………………………………….…157
Soil profile…………………………………………

Topic No.66……………………………………………..……..159
Temperature…………………………………………
Topic No.67……………………………………………………161
Thermoregulation…………………………………..
Topic No.68……………………………………………………163
Ectoderms………………………………………….
Topic No.69……………………………………………………165
Endotherms………………………………………..
Topic No.70……………………………………………………167
Torpor…………………………………………….
Topic No.71……………………………………………………169
Hibernation………………………………………
Topic No.72…............................................................................170
Hibernation vs winter sleep………………………
Topic No.73…………………………………………………....171
Aestivation………………………………………
Topic No.74…………………………………………….…...….173
Light……………………………………………
Topic No.75……………………………………….……..…..…175
Electromagnetic radiations……………………..

Topic No.76…………………………………………..….……..177
Energy quality……………………………….
Topic No.77……………………………………………...……..179
Community ecology…………………………
Topic No.78………………………………………...............181
Species composition………………………...
Topic No.79……………………………………………..…..182
Species richness……………………………
Topic No.80……………………………………..…………..185
Species diversity and dominance……………..
Topic No.81………………………………………….………187
Succession…………………………………….
Topic No.82………………………………………….…..….189
Primary succession……………………………
Topic No.83………………………………………………....191
Secondary succession…………………………
Topic No.84………………………………………..….…….193
How living systems are sustained………………….
Topic No.85…………………………………….……..…….195
Interspecific competition …………………………..
Topic No.86………………………………………….……..197
Coevolution…………………………………………
Topic No.87………………………………………….……..199
Symbiosis……………………………….
Topic No.88………………………………………..….……201
Commensalism…………………………..
Topic No.89………………………………………..….……203
Mutualism…………………………………….
Topic No.90…………………………………………...……205
Lichens……………………………………
Topic No.91………………………………………..……208
Mycorrhizae………………………………
Topic No.92……………………………………..………211
Root nodules………………………………
Topic No.93……………………………………..………213
Parasitism………………………………….
Topic No.94…………………………………..…………215
Interspecific adaptations……………………….
Topic No.95………………………………………..……216
Camouflage…………………………………..

Topic No.96…………………………………….………219
Counter-shading……………………………..
Topic No.97…………………………………….………221
Aposematic coloration………………………….
Topic No.98………………………………….…………223
Mimicry…………………………………………
Topic No.99……………………………………….……225
Chemical warfare………………………………
Topic No.100……………………………………...……227
Biome………………………………..
Topic No.101…………………………………..….……229
Biogeochemical cycles……………………..
Topic No.102…………………………………….….….231
Carbon cycle……………………………….
Topic No.103…………………………………….……..233
Nitrogen cycle……………………………...
Topic No.104……………………………………..…….236
Phosphorous cycle…………………………...
Topic No.105……………………………………..…….239
Sulfur cycle………………………………….
Topic No.106…………………………………….….…..242
Water cycle………………………………….
Topic No.107……………………………………..….…..244
Pollution…………………………………….
Topic No.108……………………………………….....…247
Organic pollutants: Bio stimulants……………...
Topic No.109………………………………………...…..249
Water pollution………………………………
Topic No.110…………………………………...……..…251
Air pollution……………………………………..
Topic No.111…………………………………...……..…255
Noise pollution……………………….
Topic No.112……………………………………..…..…257
Climate change…………………………………
Topic No.113……………………………………...…….260
Greenhouse effect……………………………..
Topic No.114………………………………….…….…..262
Noise pollution…………………………….
Topic No.115…………………………………….……..265
Global warming……………………………
Topic No.116…………………………………..………..267
Effects of global warming……………………….
Topic No.117…………………………………..….…….269
Ozone layer………………………………………
Topic No.118……………………………………...…….272
Ozone-layer destruction…………………………
Topic No.119…………………………………….……..274
Solid Waste……………………………………..
Topic No.120……………………………………….…..277
Strategy to Protect Ecosystems………………….
Topic No.121……………………………………….…..278
Stabilize Global Population…………………….
Topic No.122……………………………………….…..280
Waste management…………………….
Topic No.123…………………………………….……..282
Introduction-to biodiversity …………………….
Topic No.124…………………………………….……..284
Species diversity……………………………
Topic No.125…………………………………….……..286
Ecosystem diversity…………………………..
Topic No.126…………………………………..……….288
Genetic diversity………………………
Topic No.127……………………………………..…....290
Types of biodiversity over spatial scale………….
Topic No.128…………………………………………….292
Importance of biodiversity………………………..
Topic No.129……………………………………………294
Threats to biodiversity…………………………...
Topic No.130……………………………………………295
Habitat loss & fragmentation……………………
Topic No.131……………………………………………297
Invasive species……………………………….
Topic No.132……………………………………………299
Overexploitation…………………………………
Topic No.133……………………………………………301
Pollution………………………………………..
Topic No.134……………………………………………303
Deforestation…………………………………..
Topic No.135……………………………………………305
Resource depletion & biodiversity………………….
Topic No.136………………………….…………….…..307
Five-kingdom classification………………………
Topic No.137…………………………………………….309
Kingdom-Monera………………………………
Topic No.138…………………………………………….312
Archeobacteria……………………………….
Topic No.139…………………………………………….314
Eubacteria……………………………….
Topic No.140…………………………………………….316
Kingdom-Protista: concept………………..
Topic No.141……………………………………………319
Chrysophytes……………………………..
Topic No.142……………………………………………321
Dinoflagellates…………………………..
Topic No.143……………………………………………323
Euglenoids……………………………..
Topic No.144……………………………………………325
Slime moulds……………………………
Topic No.145……………………………………………326
Protozoans………………………………
Topic No.146……………………………………………328
Kingdom-fungi: concept…………………..
Topic No.147……………………………………………331
Phycomycetes………………………………..
Topic No.148……………………………………………333
Ascomycetes………………………………..
Topic No.149……………………………………………336
Basidiomycetes……………………………
Topic No.150……………………………………………338
Deuteromycetes…………………………………
Topic No.1
Introduction to ecology
Introduction
The term ecology was invented by the German biologist; Ernst Haeckel in 1866. Ecology is the
study of the interaction between the living components of the earth with the environment.
Ecologists study the factors that explain the distribution and abundance of plants and animals.
More and more we explore the impact of human activities on these distribution. Understanding
the ecological foundation of a system enables the ecologist to predict how future changes may
affect the system. Ecology for example is critical for understanding conservation, biodiversity
issues, global climate change, human alterations of the environment, and the impact of pollutants
on ecological systems.
Major components of ecology are

 Species
 Population
 Community
 Ecosystem
 Biome
 Biosphere
Species
A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals are capable
of reproducing fertile offspring, typically using sexual reproduction. For example, these happy
face spiders look different, but since they can interbreed, they are considered the same
species: Theridion grallator.
Population
A population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area at the same
time. Population ecologists study the size, density, and structure of populations and how they
change over time.
Community
A biological community consists of all the populations of different species that live in a given
area. Community ecologists focus on interactions between populations and how these
interactions shape the community.
Ecosystem
An ecosystem consists of all the organisms in an area, the community, and the abiotic factors
that influence that community. Ecosystem ecologists often focus on flow of energy and recycling
of nutrients.
Biome
Biomes are very large ecological areas on the earth's surface, with fauna and flora (animals and
plants) adapting to their environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such as
climate, relief, geology, soils and vegetation. A biome is NOT an ecosystem, although in a way it
can look like a massive ecosystem.
Biosphere
The biosphere is planet Earth, viewed as an ecological system. Ecologists working at the
biosphere level may study global patterns—for example, climate or species distribution—
interactions among ecosystems, and phenomena that affect the entire globe, such as climate
change.
Sub fields of ecology are

1) Organismal ecology
2) Population ecology
3) Community ecology
4) Ecosystem ecology
5) Landscape ecology
6) Global ecology
1) Organismal ecology
Organismal ecology is the study of individual organisms' behavior, physiology, morphology, etc.
in response to environmental challenges.
2) Population ecology
Population ecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics
of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment. It is the study of
how the population sizes of species change over time and space.
3) Community ecology
Community ecology is the study of the interactions between species in communities on many
spatial and temporal scales, including the distribution, structure, abundance, demography,
and interactions between coexisting populations
4) Ecosystem ecology
Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) components
of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. This science examines how
ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants,
and animals.
5) Landscape ecology
Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological
processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of
landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.
6) Global ecology
Global ecology is the study of the interactions among the Earth's ecosystems, land, atmosphere
and oceans. Global ecology is very important because it is used to understand large scale
interactions and how they influence the behavior of the entire planet, including the earth's
responses to future changes.
Topic No.2
Level of organization: Cell
The cell is the basic structural, functional, and biological unit of all known living organisms. A
cell is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently, and cells are often called the
"building blocks of life". The study of cells is called cell biology.Organisms may consist of single
cell (unicellular) or many cells (multicellular). In unicellular (single-celled) organisms, the single
cell performs all life functions. It functions independently. However, multicellular (many celled)
organisms have various levels of organization within them. Individual cells may perform specific
functions and also work together for the good of the entire organism. The cells become
dependent on one another.
Division of cell
10 µm
Organisms are divided into two types on the basis of their cell structure.
1. Prokaryotes
2. Eukaryotes
1) Prokaryotes
A prokaryote is a single-celled organism that lacks a membrane bound nucleus, mitochondria, or any
other membrane-bound organelle. Prokaryotes can be divided into
two domains, Archaea and Bacteria. Species with nuclei and organelles are placed in the
domain Eukaryota. In the prokaryotes, all the intracellular water-soluble components
(proteins, DNA and metabolites) are located together in the cytoplasm enclosed by the cell
membrane, rather than in separate cellular compartments. Bacteria, however, do possess protein-

based bacterial microcompartments, which are thought to act as primitive organelles enclosed in
protein shells.
2) Eukaryotes
A eukaryote is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed
within membranes. Eukaryotes belong to the taxon Eukarya or Eukaryota. The defining feature
that sets eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells (Bacteria and Archaea) is that they have
membrane-bound organelles, especially the nucleus, which contains the genetic material, and is
enclosed by the nuclear envelope. Eukaryotic cells also contain other membrane-
bound organelles such as mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus. In
addition, plants and algae contain chloroplasts. Eukaryotic organisms may be unicellular, or
multicellular. Only eukaryotes have multicellular organisms consisting of many kinds of tissue made
up of different cell types.
10
Topic No.3
Species
A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which two individuals are
capable of reproducing fertile offspring, typically using sexual reproduction. Every organism
is a member of a particular species with specific traits. The species is the largest unit of
population in which gene flow is possible. For example, these happy face
spiders look different, but since they can interbreed, they are considered the same
species: Theridion grallator.
Four basic concepts about species are

1. Biological species concept
2. Ecological species concept
3. Morphological species concept
4. Phylogenetic species concept
1. Biological species concept
The biological species concept defines a species as members of populations that actually or
potentially interbreed in nature, not according to similarity of appearance. Although appearance
is helpful in identifying species, it does not define species.
Example
1. Organisms may appear to be alike and be different species. For example, Western
meadowlarks (Sturnella neglecta) and Eastern meadowlarks (Sturnella magna) look almost
identical to one another, yet do not interbreed with each other thus; they are separate species
according to this definition.
The Western meadowlark (left) and the Eastern meadowlark (right) appear to be identical, and
their ranges overlap, but their distinct songs prevent interbreeding.
2. Organisms may look different and yet be the same species. For example, look at these ants.
You might think that they are distantly related species. In fact, they are sisters—two ants of the
species Pheidole barbata, fulfilling different roles in the same colony.
2. Ecological species concept

The ecological species concept in which a species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set
of resources, called a niche, in the environment. According to this concept, populations form the
discrete phenetic clusters that we recognize as species because the ecological and evolutionary
processes controlling how resources are divided up tend to produce those clusters.
3. Morphological species concept

The morphological species concept groups species according to morphological similarities and
ignores other differences such as DNA or inability to reproduce between individuals. The
morphological species concept stems from the morphology, which is the study of the physical
aspects of an organism and their arrangement.
4. Phylogenetic species concept

A species is a "tip" on a phylogeny, that is, the smallest set of organisms that share an ancestor
and can be distinguished from other such sets. Under this definition, a ring species is a single
species that encompasses a lot of phenotypic variation.
Topic No.4
Population
Population is defined as a group of individuals of same species located at the same place and
same time.
Populations are geographically based; they live in a particular area. But the size or scale of that
area can be variable. A population is a given species in an area at a given time. Populations
include different genetic makeup of the same species. For instance, the human population
includes various ethnicities.
Every population has particular characteristics
 Population size
 Population growth
 Population distribution
 Population density
Population ecology studies the interactions between a particular population and the environment.
Population studies are the type of ecological study most likely to be talked about by the general
public and have been a rich source of data for ecologists over the years. A population gives an
ecologist a well-defined group of subjects to study whose numbers can, usually, be reasonably
estimated, which gives a scientist a way to quantify their results. If population studies are done in
a geographic area with a large enough number of populations, ecologists can then begin piecing
together the larger ecological picture, which brings us to the next level of ecology: community
ecology.
Organisms are born and the population size increases. Other factors that will increase the
size of a population are
 Reproductive fitness
 Good weather
 Medicine
 Geographic isolation
 No predators
A group of ducks would not be a population if there were mallard and wood ducks combined.
It means that there are two populations existing in the same area.
Topic No.5
Community
A biological community consists of all the populations of different species that live in a given

area. Community ecologists focus on interactions between populations and how these
interactions shape the community. Communities are not only a random composition of species
but they also have a unique organization. A community is made up of many populations that
interact in an area.
Example
 A forest of trees and undergrowth plants, inhabited by animals and rooted in soil
containing bacteria and fungi, constitutes a biological community.
 A catfish species in a pond usually shares the pond with other fish species, and with
plants, insects, ducks, and many other species that make up the community. Many of the
organisms in a community interact with one another in feeding and other relationship.
Communities, like all biological entities, require matter for their construction and energy for
their activities. The community is an assemblage of species populations that occur together in
space and time.
Community assembly
The species that assemble to make up a community are determined by:
1.Dispersal constraints
2.Environmental constraints
3.Internal dynamics
1)Dispersal constraints
Dispersal constraints refers to both the movement of individuals (animals, plants, fungi, bacteria,
etc.) from their birth site to their breeding site ('natal dispersal'), as well as the movement from
one breeding site to another ('breeding dispersal'). Dispersal is also used to describe the
movement of propagules such as seeds and spores. Technically, dispersal is defined as any
movement that has the potential to lead to gene flow. The act of dispersal involves three phases:
departure, transfer, settlement and there are different fitness costs and benefits associated with
each of these phases. Through simply moving from one habitat patch to another, the dispersal of
an individual has consequences not only for individual fitness, but also for population
dynamics, population genetics, and species distribution.
2.Environmental constraints
Many things in the environment can affect the health of a community. Hazardous substances
found in the air, soil and water can originate from a variety of sources, such as agricultural and
industrial activities, mining operations, landfills and leaky underground storage tanks. Health
officials work with individuals, communities, government agencies and industries throughout the
state to reduce or eliminate exposure to substances that could be harmful.
3.Internal dynamics
The perspective of community dynamics or ecological succession enables us to manage whole

communities rather than individual species or even habitats. It becomes possible to see, monitor,
and manage for relationships and interdependencies that enhance pleasure and profit.
As with the water cycle, mineral cycle, and energy flow, the condition of the soil surface is
critical. In brittle environments, where moisture is seasonal and intermittent, succession may not
advance from bare ground or algae and mosses to grasses without soil disturbance and the
creation of microenvironments where grass seedlings can become established--such as can be
provided by grazing animals. But as with the other ecosystem processes, the perspective of
community dynamics enables us to go beyond the question of whether there are or aren't hoof
prints, whether this piece of land is grazed or ungrazed, logged or unlogged, with "native"
organisms or exotic ones.
Topic No.6
Ecosystem
The term "ecosystem" was first used by British ecologist Arthur Tansley in 1935. Tansley devised
the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and
their environment.
An ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with one another and with their
nonliving environment of soil, water, other forms of matter, and energy, mostly from the sun. For
example, soil can wash from a grassland or crop field into a nearby river or lake. Water flows
from forests into nearby rivers and crop fields. Birds and various other species migrate from one
ecosystem to another. Winds can blow pollen from a forest into grassland.
Factors of ecosystem
Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors. External factors such as climate,
the parent material that forms the soil, and topography control the overall structure of an ecosystem
and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Other
external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities invariably; they
are subject to periodic disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past
disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world
can have very different characteristics simply because they contain different species.
Components of ecosystem
There are two major components of ecosystem are
1. Biotic components
2. Abiotic components
1) Biotic components
Biotic components are the living things that shape an ecosystem.
Biotic components usually include:
1. Producers are autotrophs: e.g. plants, they convert the energy from photosynthesis (the
transfer of sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide into energy), or other sources such as
hydrothermal vents] into food.
2. Consumers are heterotrophs: e.g. animals, they depend upon producers (occasionally other
consumers) for food.
3. Decomposers are detritivores: e.g. fungi and bacteria, they break down chemicals from

producers and consumers (usually dead) into simpler form which can be reused.
2) Abiotic components
Abiotic components are non-living chemical and physical parts of the environment that affect
living organisms and the functioning of ecosystems. Abiotic components include physical
conditions and non-living resources that affect living organisms in terms of growth, maintenance,
and reproduction. Resources are distinguished as substances or objects in the environment
required by one organism and consumed or otherwise made unavailable for use by other
organisms.
Physical components are
 Water
 Light
 Temperature
 Wind
 Air
 Soil
Chemical components are

 Oxygen
 Carbon
 Nitrogen
 Phosphorus
 Sulphur
Topic no.7
The ecological niche
G.E. Hutchinson (1958) suggested that the niche could be modeled as an imaginary space with
many dimensions, in which each dimension or axis represents the range of some environmental
condition or resource that is required by the species. Thus, the niche of a plant might include the
range of temperatures that it can tolerate, the intensity of light required for photosynthesis,
specific humidity regimes, and minimum quantities of essential soil nutrients for uptake.
An ecological niche is the role and position a species has in its environment; how it meets its
needs for food and shelter, how it survives, and how it reproduces. A species' niche includes all
of its interactions with the biotic and abiotic factors of its environment. Biotic factors are living
things, while abiotic factors are nonliving things. It is advantageous for a species to occupy a
unique niche in an ecosystem because it reduces the amount of competition for resources that
species will encounter.
1. A species’ niche should not be confused with its habitat, which is the place where it lives.
Niche is simply a pattern of living of species. The ecological niche basically highlights
the functional position of a species in its environment.
2. A typical niche describes the habitat which is the actual place of living of organisms. The
activity pattern of an organism that is a time period in which an organism remains active.
The resources that an organism gains from the surrounding environment.
3. A useful extension of the niche concept is the distinction between fundamental and realized

niches. The fundamental niche of a species includes the total range of environmental conditions
that are suitable for existence without the influence of interspecific competition or predation from
other species. The realized niche describes that part of the fundamental niche actually occupied
by the species.
Ecological habitats of Pseudomonas genus
Bacteria from the genus Pseudomonas can thrive in a broad variety of niches, which range from
natural environments to human-associated ecosystems. Members of this genus can be found on
the surface of plants (for example, Pseudomonas fluorescens and Pseudomonas syringae),
whereas others are common rhizosphere and soil colonizers (for example, Pseudomonas
putida KT2440 and P. fluorescens). Several species have also been isolated from water (for
example, P. fluorescens and P. putida ), from insects (for example, Pseudomonas entomophila)

and from humans (for example, Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Several Pseudomonas spp. is often
located in soils that have a history of pollution by chemical wastes.
Ecological niche of a black bear
American black bears are the world's most common bear, although certain subspecies are rare.
Their diet varies by season and region but includes grasses, roots, tubers, nuts, berries and
insects. Most of the meat they eat is scavenged, but they do hunt for fish and small mammals
when the opportunity arises. Black bears hibernate during the cold months and may lose up to 40
percent of their body weight during that time.
Topic no.8
Generalist species
Those species that have broad range of niches are known as generalist species. A generalist
species is able to thrive in a wide variety of environmental conditions and can make use of a
variety of different resources.
Generalist example
Cockroach (survives in most climates, only needs water/moisture and a food source, only defense
is responding to puffs of air), raccoon (wide diet, omnivore, lives in any area with trees, brush, or
structures), rat (found everywhere in the world but the Artic, not picky eaters), horseshoe
crab (wide diet on floor of sea bed, tolerates wide range of water temperature, can survive in low
oxygen waters and out of water for extended periods.
Introduction
Cockroaches, common name for an order of insect, the most familiar of which are characterized
by their oval shape, foul odor and their status as household pests. About 4000 species are known
worldwide most inhabit the warm tropical region of the globe. About 25 species have attained
worldwide distribution due to accidental transport in commerce and their affinity for human
habitation. Among these are most of the important pest species. Cockroaches are an ancient
group having changed little in appearance in 320 million years. Fossils record indicates that they
were the predominant insects during the carboniferous period 345 to 280 million years ago.
Characteristics
 Cockroaches in general are flat and oval in outline. The points downward and is protected
by large flanges of the thorax. In many respects they are similar in morphology to
grasshopper crickets, katydids, stick insects and mantids, their closer relatives.
 Cockroaches may be winged but even winged species do not always fly.
 Some cockroach species can go for a month without food, survive for a month on a drop
of water from a dishrag, and withstand massive doses of radiation.
 One species can survive being frozen for 48 hours.
 They have high reproductive rates.
 In only a year, a single Asian cockroach and its offspring can add about 10 million new
cockroaches to the world.
 Their high reproductive rate also helps them to quickly develop genetic resistance to
almost any poison we throw at them.
 About 25 species of cockroach live in homes and can carry viruses and bacteria that
cause diseases.
 On the other hand, cockroaches play a role in nature’s food webs. They make a tasty meal
for birds and lizards.
Cockroaches: Nature’s Ultimate Survivors

Topic No.9
Specialist species
Those species that occupy narrow range of niches are known as specialist species. A specialist
species can thrive only in a narrow range of environmental conditions or has a limited diet.
Most organisms do not all fit neatly into either group, however. Some species are highly
specialized (the most extreme case being monophagy), others less so, and some can tolerate many
different environments. This makes specialists more prone to extinction when environmental
conditions change.
Specialist examples:
1. Orchid mantis (colorful mantis with appendages like leaves, thrives only on orchids and in
tropics), sword-billed hummingbird (beak longer than body, co-evolved with flowers having very
long corollas and difficult getting food elsewhere), koala (lives almost entirely on eucalyptus
filling a niche that is toxic to most animals.
2. For example, tiger salamanders breed only in fishless ponds where their larvae will not be
eaten. Some shorebirds occupy specialized niches, feeding on crustaceans, insects, and other
organisms on sandy beaches and their adjoining coastal wetlands.
When environmental conditions are fairly constant, as in a tropical rain forest, specialists have an
advantage because they have fewer competitors. But under rapidly changing environmental
conditions, then the generalist usually is better off than the specialist.
China’s giant panda is highly endangered because of a combination of habitat loss, low birth
rate, and its specialized diet consisting mostly of bamboo.
Generalist vs specialist
Topic No.10
Native species
Native species are those species that normally lives and thrives in a particular ecosystem. This
can include any species that developed with the surrounding habitat, and can be assisted by or
affected by a new species. Native species occurs naturally within a region. They either evolve in
that region or arrive and become established in that region without human assistance.
Native species can be either endemic or indigenous

1. Endemic species
An endemic species is one whose habitat is restricted to a particular area. The term could refer
to an animal, a plant, a fungus, or even a microorganism. Endemic species are often endangered,
and particular examples may become a focus point for campaigns to protect biodiversity in a
given environment. Some have become national, or regional, emblems.
Example
Blind Indus dolphin is only found in Indus river of Pakistan.
2. Indigenous species
A species is defined as indigenous to a given region or ecosystem if its presence in that region is
the result of only natural process, with no human intervention. Every natural organism (as
opposed to a domesticated organism) has its own natural range of distribution in which it is
regarded as indigenous.
Example
Snow leopard is found in Pakistan, Nepal, India, and Russia and in some other countries of
central Asia.
Topic No.11
Non-native species
Non-native species are those species living outside its native distributional range, which has
arrived there by human activity, either deliberate or accidental. Non-native species can have
various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread
beyond the place of introduction are called invasive species. Some have a negative effect on a
local ecosystem. Some introduced species may have no negative effect or only minor impact.
Some species have been introduced intentionally to combat pests.
For example
1. Grass carp was introduced in Pakistan from china. It controls the growth of pond weeds as
well as a great protein source.
2. In 1957, Brazil imported wild African bees to help increase honey production. Instead, the
bees displaced domestic honeybees and reduced the honey supply.
Species are introduced in the new Environment by two ways intentional or Unintentional.
1. Intentional introductions
Species that humans intentionally transport to new regions can subsequently become
successfully established in two ways. In the first case, organisms are purposely released for
establishment in the wild. It is sometimes difficult to predict whether a species will become
established upon release, and if not initially successful, humans have made repeated
introductions to improve the probability that the species will survive and eventually reproduce in
the wild. For example, the timber industry promoted the introduction of Monterey pine ( Pinus
radiata) from California to Australia and New Zealand as a commercial timber crop. These
examples represent only a small subsample of species that have been moved by humans for
economic interests.
2. Unintentional introductions
Unintentional introductions occur when species are transported by human vectors. For example,
three species of rat (the black, Norway and Polynesian) have spread to most of the world as
hitchhikers on ships. There are also numerous examples of marine organisms being transported
in ballast water, one being the zebra mussel. Over 200 species have been introduced to the San
Francisco Bay in this manner making it the most heavily invaded estuary in the world.
3. Impact of non-native species

 Non-native species can spread rapidly if they find a new more favourable niche.
 In their new niches, these species often do not face the predators and diseases they faced
before
 They may be able to out-compete some native species in their new niches.
 Causes habitat loss and ecosystem disturbance.
Topic No.12
Indicator species
An indicator species is an organism whose presence, absence or abundance reflects a specific

environmental condition. Indicator species can signal a change in the biological condition of a
particular ecosystem, and thus may be used as a proxy to diagnose the health of an ecosystem.
Example
Plants or lichens sensitive to heavy metals or acids in precipitation may be indicators of air
pollution. Indicator species can also reflect a unique set of environmental qualities or
characteristics found in a specific place, such as a unique microclimate. However, care must be
exercised in using indicator species. Judging an ecosystem based on the response of a single
indicator species might be like taking a pulse on a patient and immediately prescribing a
treatment without a) further examination, b) other indicators such as blood pressure, or c)
knowledge of the patient’s past medical history.
Some basic indicators

1. Birds are excellent biological indicators because they are found almost everywhere and are
affected quickly by environmental changes such as loss or fragmentation of their habitats and
introduction of chemical pesticides. The populations of many bird species are declining.
2. Butterflies are also good indicator species because their association with various plant species
makes them vulnerable to habitat loss and fragmentation.
3. Fungi are also good indicator because they have high conservation value, old-growth forests.
Wood-decay fungi are the basis of saprotrophic species communities in forest ecosystems, and
sensitive to intensive forest management. Their diversity correlates well with insect diversity,
and indicates continuum of dead wood at the stand or landscape level
4. Some amphibians are also classified as indicator Species. Amphibians (frogs, toads, and
salamanders) live part of their lives in water and part on land. Populations of various frog species
can decline because of the effects of harmful factors at different points in their life cycle.
Factors
Such factors include habitat loss, drought, pollution, and increased ultraviolet radiation, and
parasitism, disease, overhunting by humans, and non-native predators and competitors.
Topic No.13
Keystone species
A keystone species is a plant or animal that plays a unique and crucial role in the way

an ecosystem functions. Without keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically
different or cease to exist altogether. All species in an ecosystem, or habitat, rely on each other.
The contributions of a keystone species are large compared to the species' prevalence in the
habitat. A small number of keystone species can have a huge impact on the environment.
Keystone species can play several critical roles in helping to sustain an ecosystem. One such role
is pollination of flowering plant species by bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, bats, and other
species.
Examples
1. The monarch butterfly, which feeds on pollen in a flower and other insects pollinate flowering
plants that serve as food for many plant eaters.
2. Some sea stars (e.g., Pisaster ochraceus) may prey on sea urchins, mussels, and
other shellfish that have no other natural predators. Paine removed the mussel-eating Pisaster sea
stars from one rocky shoreline community but not from an adjacent community, which served as
a control group. Mussels took over and crowded out most other species in the community
without the Piaster sea stars
3. Sharks are also a keystone species because they remove injured and sick animals from the
ocean, and thus play an important ecological role. Without the services provided by these
keystone species, the oceans would be filled with dead and dying fish.
Effects of keystone species

The effects of a keystone species can lead to population crashes and extinctions of other species
in a community that depends on it for certain services. This explains why it so important for
scientists to identify and protect keystone species.
Topic No.14
Foundation species
Foundation species is used to refer to a species that has a strong role in structuring a community.
They create and enhance the habitats in ways that provides benefits to other species. They
facilitate the survival and reproduction of other species in the community.
For example
1) Elephants push over, break, or uproot trees, creating forest openings in the grasslands and
woodlands of Africa.
2) Beavers are another good example of a foundation species. Acting as “ecological engineers,”
they build dams in streams to create ponds and other wetlands used by other species.
3) Some bat and bird

foundation species help
to regenerate deforested
areas. They spread fruit
plants by depositing
plant seeds in their
droppings.
Foundation vs keystone species

1. A foundation species creates or provide a foundation of an ecosystem. For example, kelp is the
foundation species for a kelp forest community. Without kelp, there would be no kelp forest.
2. Keystone species regulates and maintains that ecosystem. For example, sea otters are the
keystone species of a kelp forest because they prey on urchins and if urchin populations get out
of control then they will destroy all of the kelp. So otters maintain the habitat.
Topic No.15
Ecological pyramids
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or bio

productivity at each trophic level in a given ecosystem. Biomass is the amount of living or
organic matter present in an organism. Biomass pyramids show how much biomass is present in
the organisms at each trophic level, while productivity pyramids show the production in biomass.
Energy pyramids begin with producers on the bottom (such as plants) and proceed through the
various trophic levels (such as herbivores that eat plants, then carnivores that eat herbivores, then
carnivores that eat those carnivores, and so on).
Classification of ecological pyramid
An ecological pyramid is classified into three main types
1. Pyramid of number
2. Pyramid of biomass
3. Pyramid of energy
1) Pyramid of number
It depicts the number of individual organisms at different trophic levels of food chain. This
pyramid was advanced by Charles Elton (1927), who pointed out the great difference in the
number of the organisms involved in each step of the food chain. Successive links of trophic
structure decrease rapidly in number until there are very few carnivores at the top.
The pyramid of number ignores the biomass of organisms and it also does not indicate the
energy transferred or the use of energy by the groups involved. The lake ecosystem provides a
typical example for pyramid of number.
2) Pyramid of biomass
The biomass of the members of the food chain present at any one time forms the pyramid of the
biomass. Pyramid of biomass indicates decrease of biomass in each tropical level from base to
apex.
For example, the total biomass of the producers ingested by herbivores is more than the total
biomass of the herbivores in an ecosystem. Likewise, the total biomass of the primary carnivores
(or secondary consumer) will be less man the herbivores and so on.
3) Pyramid of energy
When production is considered in terms of energy, the pyramid indicates not only the amount of
energy flow at each level, but more important, the actual role the various organisms play in the
transfer of energy. An energy pyramid illustrates how much energy is needed as it flows upwards
to support the next trophic level.
The pyramid is constructed according to the rate at which food material(in the form of energy)
passes through the food chain. Some organisms may have a small biomass, but the total energy
they assimilate and pass on, may be considerably greater than that of organisms with a much
larger biomass.
Topic No.16
Food pyramids
A food pyramid is a graphical representation of flow of energy through different trophic levels of
an ecosystem. The highest level an organism occupies on a food chain is termed as trophic level.
Energy supports the activities of all organisms in the ecosystem. It usually enters the ecosystem
in the form of sunlight. It is incorporated into the chemical bonds of molecules within living and
decaying tissues, and is eventually lost as heat.
1. The food pyramid is designed to make healthy eating easier. Healthy eating is about getting
the correct amount of nutrients – protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals you need to
maintain good health.
2. Foods that contain the same type of nutrients are grouped together on each of the shelves of
the Food Pyramid. This gives you a choice of different foods from which to choose a healthy
diet. Following the Food Pyramid as a guide will help you get the right balance of nutritious
foods within your calorie range. Studies show that we take in too many calories from foods and
drinks high in fat, sugar and salt, on the top shelf of the Food Pyramid. They provide very little
of the essential vitamins and minerals your body needs. Limiting these is essential for healthy
eating.
3. A food pyramid is basically consists of producers and consumers that belongs to different life
forms. Energy in the form of food is transferred from one organism to other through different
trophic levels. A simple food pyramid showing the interconnection of different trophic levels.
Topic No.17
Organisms and environment
Actual place of an organism where it lives is called its habitat or environment. A habitat is
an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant, or other
type of organism. The term typically refers to the zone in which the organism lives and where it
can find food, shelter, protection and mates for reproduction. It is the natural environment in
which an organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds a species population.
An animal’s habitat (environment) includes (biotic) and (abiotic) factors. These are
1. Biotic factors are living or once-living organisms in the ecosystem. These are obtained from
the biosphere and are capable of reproduction. Examples of biotic factors are animals, birds,
plants, fungi, and other similar organisms.
2. Abiotic factors refer to non-living physical and chemical elements in the ecosystem. Abiotic
resources are usually obtained from the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. Examples of
abiotic factors are water, air, soil, sunlight, and minerals.
3. Tolerance range
Animals always live within a certain range of values, called the tolerance range, for any
environmental factor. At either limit of the tolerance range, one or more essential functions
cease.
A certain range of values within the tolerance range is called the range of optimum.
Range of optimum defines the conditions at which organisms are most successful in survival.
Organisms can perform their life activities well under these optimum conditions.
1. Limiting factor
When an abiotic factor becomes out of an organism tolerance range then it is said to be a limiting
factor. For example
 Oxygen
 Water
 Food
2. Taxis
Response of an organism towards any abiotic factor is known as taxis. Basically organisms
orient themselves to that response. For example, a response of organism to light is called
phototaxis.
Classification
Taxis are classified based on the type of stimulus, and on whether the organism's response is to
move towards or away from the stimulus. If the organism moves towards the stimulus, the taxis
are positive, while if it moves away, the taxis are negative. For example, flagellate protozoans of
the genus Euglena move towards a light source. This reaction or behaviour is called "positive
phototaxis", since phototaxis refers to a response to light, and the organism is moving towards
the stimulus.
Topic No.18
Food chain
The sequence of organisms through which energy moves in an ecosystem is a food chain. A food
chain starts with the primary energy source, usually the sun or boiling-hot deep sea vents. The
next link in the chain is an organism that makes its own food from the primary energy source an
example is photosynthetic plants that make their own food from sunlight (using a process
called photosynthesis) and chemosynthetic bacteria that make their food energy from chemicals
in hydrothermal vents. These are called autotrophs or primary producers.
Next come organisms that eat the autotrophs; these organisms are called herbivores or primary
consumers an example is a rabbit that eats grass.
The next link in the chain is animals that eat herbivores these are called secondary consumers an
example is a snake that eats rabbits.
In turn, these animals are eaten by larger predators an example is an owl that eats snakes.
The tertiary consumers are eaten by quaternary consumers an example is a hawk that eats owls.
Each food chain ends with a top predator and animal with no natural enemies (like an alligator,
hawk, or polar bear).
The arrows in a food chain show the flow of energy, from the sun or hydrothermal vent to a top
predator. As the energy flows from organism to organism, energy is lost at each step. A network
of many food chains is called a food web.
Trophic-Levels
The trophic level of an organism is the position it holds in a food chain.
1. Primary producers (organisms that make their own food from sunlight and/or chemical
energy from deep sea vents) are the base of every food chain - these organisms are called
autotrophs.
2. Primary consumers are animals that eat primary producers; they are also
called herbivores (plant-eaters).
3. Secondary consumers eat primary consumers. They are carnivores (meat-eaters)
and omnivores (animals that eat both animals and plants).
4. Tertiary consumers eat secondary consumers.
5. Quaternary consumers eat tertiary consumers.
6. Food chains "end" with top predators, animals that have little or no natural enemies.
When any organism dies, it is eventually eaten by detrivores (like vultures, worms and crabs)
and broken down by decomposers (mostly bacteria and fungi), and the exchange of energy
continues.
Some organisms' position in the food chain can vary as their diet differs. For example, when a
bear eats berries, the bear is functioning as a primary consumer. When a bear eats a plant-eating
rodent, the bear is functioning as a secondary consumer. When the bear eats salmon, the bear is
functioning as a tertiary consumer (this is because salmon is a secondary consumer, since salmon
eat herring that eat zooplankton that eat phytoplankton, that make their own energy from
sunlight). Think about how people's place in the food chain varies - often within a single meal.
Topic No.19
Food web
A food web is the natural interconnection of food chains and generally a graphical representation
(usually an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological community. Another name for food web is
a consumer-resource system. Ecologists can broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories
called trophic levels: 1) the autotrophs, and 2) the heterotrophs. To maintain their bodies, grow,

develop, and to reproduce, autotrophs produce organic matter from inorganic substances, including
both minerals and gases such as carbon dioxide. These chemical reactions require energy, which
mainly comes from the sun and largely by photosynthesis, although a very small amount comes
from hydrothermal vents and hot springs.
A gradient exists between trophic levels running from complete autotrophs that obtain their sole
source of carbon from the atmosphere, to mixotrophs (such as carnivorous plants) that are
autotrophic organisms that partially obtain organic matter from sources other than the
atmosphere and
complete heterotrophs that
must feed to obtain organic
matter.
Charles Elton pioneered the
concept of food cycles, food
chains, and food size in his
classical 1927 book "Animal
Ecology"; Elton's 'food cycle'
was replaced by 'food web' in
a subsequent ecological text.
Elton organized species
into functional groups, which
was the basis for Raymond
Lindeman's classic and
landmark paper in 1942 on
trophic dynamics. Lindeman
emphasized the important role
of decomposer organisms in
a trophic system of
classification.
Food chains and webs show
how producers, consumers,
and decomposers are
connected to one another as
energy flows through trophic levels in an ecosystem. Provide stability to ecosystem.
Taxonomy of a food web

Links in food webs map the feeding
connections (who eat whom) in
an ecological community. Food cycle is an
obsolete term that is synonymous with
food web. Ecologists can broadly group
all life forms into one of two trophic
layers, the autotrophs and
the heterotrophs.
Autotrophs produce more biomass energy,
either chemically without the sun's
energy or by capturing the sun's energy
in photosynthesis, than they use
during metabolic respiration. Heterotrophs
consume rather than produce biomass
energy as they metabolize, grow, and
add to levels of secondary production.
Topic No.20
Trophic levels
The trophic level of an organism is the position it occupies in a food chain. The word trophic
derives from the Greek (trophe) referring to food or feeding. A food chain represents a succession
of organisms that eat another organism and are, in turn, eaten themselves. The number of steps
an organism is from the start of the chain is a measure of its trophic level. Food chains start at
trophic level 1 with primary producers such as plants, move to herbivores at level 2, predators at
level 3 and typically finish with carnivores or apex predators at level 4 or 5. The path along the
chain can form either a one-way flow or a food "web".
The three basic ways in which organisms get food are as producers, consumers and decomposers.
1) Producers (autotrophs) are typically plants or algae. Plants and algae do not usually eat other
organisms, but pull nutrients from the soil or the ocean and manufacture their own food
using photosynthesis. For this reason, they are called primary producers. In this way, it is energy
from the sun that usually powers the base of the food chain. An exception occurs in deep-
sea hydrothermal ecosystems, where there is no sunlight. Here primary producers manufacture
food through a process called chemosynthesis.
2) Consumers (heterotrophs) are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to

consume other organisms. Animals that eat primary producers (like plants) are called herbivores.
Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores, and animals that eat both plant and other
animals are called omnivores.
3) Decomposers (detritivores) break down dead plant and animal material and wastes and release
it again as energy and nutrients into the ecosystem for recycling. Decomposers, such
as bacteria and fungi (mushrooms), feed on waste and dead matter, converting it into inorganic
chemicals that can be recycled as mineral nutrients for plants to use again.
Trophic levels can be represented by numbers, starting at level 1 with plants. Further trophic
levels are numbered subsequently according to how far the organism is along the food chain.
Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food and are called primary producers.
Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.
Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.

Level 4: Carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumers.
Level 5: Apex predators that have no predators are at the top of the food chai
Topic No.21
Producers
Producers are organisms that make their own food; they are also known as autotrophs. They get
energy from chemicals or the sun, and with the help of water, convert that energy into useable
energy in the form of sugar, or food. The most common example of producers is plants. Through
a process called photosynthesis, green plants use sunlight and water and make a type of sugar
called glucose. Green plants such as trees are found on land, but they can also exist underwater
as long as there is enough sunlight.
Although algae look like a plant, they're actually a special kind of single-celled organism called
a protist. A protist's cellular structure is different from a plant's, but it can still make its own
food, and therefore, it is a producer. Algae and its relatives can be found in aquatic ecosystems.
Surprisingly, single-celled bacteria can also be producers. Located deep below the ocean surface
are areas that get little to no sunlight. Green plants can't survive there, since they are unable
make food without sunlight. But, single-celled bacteria use a process to make food
called chemiosynthesis, which involves taking chemicals expelled from hydrothermal vents deep
in the ocean and converting them into the same type of food that plants make.
Autotrophs are divided in to two types.
1. Photoautotrophs
Photoautotrophs are organisms that carry out photosynthesis. Using energy from sunlight, carbon
dioxide and water are converted into organic materials to be used in cellular functions such as
biosynthesis and respiration. In terrestrial environments plants are the predominant variety, while
aquatic environments include a range of phototrophic organisms such as algae, Protists,
and bacteria. In photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria that build up carbon dioxide and water
into organic cell materials using energy from sunlight, starch is produced as final product. This
process is an essential storage form of carbon, which can be used when light conditions are too
poor to satisfy the immediate needs of the organism.
2. Chemoautotrophs
Chemoautotrophs are organisms that derive their energy from the oxidation or breakdown of
various inorganic or organic food substances in their environment. The process releases energy
which supports metabolic activity in the organism.
Just like plants, they are autotroph, which means that they are able to sustain themselves without
the need to consume other organisms or decomposing dead matter.
One example of a chemoautotroph would be iron bacteria (Thiobacillus Ferrooxidans).
Topic No.22
Terrestrial producers
In most terrestrial ecosystems, green plants are the producers which generally capture about 1%
of the solar energy that falls on their leaves and convert it to chemical energy stored in organic
molecules such as carbohydrates. In aquatic ecosystems, most of the producers are
phytoplankton, consisting of various species of floating and drifting bacteria and protist. Both
types of producers have the same basic mechanics. They both use sunlight and carbon dioxide to
produce oxygen and sugars. Most producers make their organic nutrients they need
through photosynthesis.
The overall net chemical change can be summarized as follows:
6 CO2 + 6 H2O + solar energy -----> C6H12O6 + 6 O2
1. Some producers, mostly specialized bacteria, can extract inorganic compounds from their
environment and convert them into organic nutrient compounds without the presence of sunlight.
These producers are called chemosynthesis. An example of this is around the hydrothermal vents
in some parts of the deep ocean. Bacteria carry out chemosynthesis by converting inorganic
hydrogen sulfide to organic nutrients.
2. Terrestrial plants are self-supportive plants, so they are strong and stiff in nature. They
experience Gravity as a main environmental force while Wind as an external mechanical force.
3. Plants are the major habitat-structuring feature in terrestrial ecosystems. Their physical
structure governs the patterns of physical environment, organism feeding and activity, and
ecosystem processes.
Topic No.23
Aquatic producers
Producers are the organisms that that manufacture food in aquatic environment. In other words,
the producers are the green plants. Other organisms within an ecosystem, the consumers, get
their energy by eating producers. As on land, aquatic ecosystems have their own producers that
help maintain the balance of life. In freshwater and marine ecosystems, algae and aquatic plants
are the major producers. In open water, the dominant producers are phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton
In oceans, lakes and slow-moving streams, phytoplanktons are the major producers.
Phytoplanktons are simply microscopic floating plants. Fish and other aquatic animals eat the
phytoplankton as it floats through the water. Phytoplankton, a great source of food for a wide
range of aquatic creatures including whales, shrimp, snails, and jellyfish.
Phytoplanktons are of two types
1. Diatoms
2. Dinoflagellates
1) Diatoms
Diatoms are a major group of algae, and are among the most common types of phytoplankton.
Diatoms are unicellular, although they can form colonies in the shape of filaments or ribbons
(e.g. Fragilaria), fans (e.g. Meridion), zigzags (e.g. Tabellaria), or stars (e.g. Asterionella).
Diatoms are producers within the food chain. A unique feature of diatom cells is that they are
enclosed within a cell wall made of silica (hydrated silicon dioxide) called a frustule. These
frustules show a wide diversity in form, but are usually almost bilaterally symmetrical, hence the
group name.
2. Dinoflagellates
Dinoflagellates are unicellular protists which exhibit a great diversity of form. The
largest, Noctiluca, may be as large as 2 mm in diameter. Though not large by human standards,
these creatures often have a big impact on the environment around them. Many are
photosynthetic, manufacturing their own food using the energy from sunlight, and providing a
food source for other organisms. Some species are capable of producing their own light
through bioluminescence, which also makes fireflies glow. There are some dinoflagellates which
are parasites on fish or on other protists.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the enrichment of an ecosystem with chemical nutrients, typically compounds
containing nitrogen, phosphorus, or both. Eutrophication can be a natural process in lakes,
occurring as they age through geological time. Human activities can accelerate the rate at which
nutrients enter ecosystems (Fish, shellfish, birds and mammals).
Red tide
Red tide is a common name for a phenomenon known as an algal bloom (large concentrations of
aquatic microorganisms) when it is caused by a few species of dinoflagellates and the bloom
takes on a red or brown color. Red tides are events in which estuarine, marine, or fresh water
algae accumulate rapidly in the water column, resulting in coloration of the surface water. It is
usually found in coastal areas. It kills many manatees every year.
A red tide
off the
coast of La Jolla San Diego, California
Topic No.24
Photosynthesis
1. Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy,

normally from the Sun, into chemical energy that can be later released to fuel the organisms'
activities (energy transformation). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such
as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis,
from the Greek phos, "light", and synthesis, "putting together". In most cases, oxygen is also
released as a waste product. Most plants, most algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis;
such organisms are called photoautotrophs. Photosynthesis maintains atmospheric oxygen levels
and supplies all of the organic compounds and most of the energy necessary for life on Earth.
2. Although photosynthesis is performed differently by different species, the process always
begins when energy from light is absorbed by proteins called reaction centres that contain
green chlorophyll pigments. In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called
chloroplasts, which are most abundant in leaf cells, while in bacteria they are embedded in
the plasma membrane. In these light-dependent reactions, some energy is used to
strip electrons from suitable substances, such as water, producing oxygen gas. The hydrogen
freed by water splitting is used in the creation of two further compounds: reduced nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) and adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the "energy
currency" of cells.
For example
1. Photosynthetic organisms are photoautotrophs, which means that they are able to synthesize food
directly from carbon dioxide and water using energy from light. However, not all organisms that
use light as a source of energy carry out photosynthesis, since photoheterotrophsuse organic
compounds, rather than carbon dioxide, as a source of carbon. In plants, algae and cyanobacteria,
photosynthesis releases oxygen. This is called oxygenic photosynthesis. Although there are some
differences between oxygenic photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, the overall

process is quite similar in these organisms. However, there are some types of bacteria that carry
out anoxygenic photosynthesis. These consume carbon dioxide but do not release oxygen.
2. Chlorophyll is the plant pigment that captures light energy directly from sun. It is converted
into chemical energy, glucose. Glucose is then used as a basic energy source by the primary
consumers that feed on plants. Although hundreds of chemical changes take place during
photosynthesis, the overall reaction can be summarized as follows
Topic No.25
Consumers
Consumers are organisms that receive all their energy by consuming other types of organisms or
organic matter. Generally consumers prey on other organisms because they do not have the
ability to produce their own energy or to obtain energy through inorganic sources. These
organisms are formally referred to as heterotrophs, which include animals, bacteria and fungi. Such
organisms may consume by various means, including predation, parasitization, and biodegradation.
Types of consumers
1. Herbivores
2. Carnivores
3. Omnivores
1) Herbivores
A herbivore is an animal that gets its energy from eating plants, and only plants. Omnivores can
also eat parts of plants, but generally only the fruits and vegetables produced by fruit-bearing
plants. Many herbivores have special digestive systems that let them digest all kinds of plants,
including grasses.
Herbivores need a lot of energy to stay alive. Many of them, like cows and sheep, eat all day
long. There should be a lot of plants in your ecosystem to support your herbivores. If you
put carnivores or some omnivores in your ecosystem, they'll eat your herbivores, so make sure
you have enough herbivores to support them.
2)
Carnivores
A carnivore is an animal that gets food from killing and eating other animals. Carnivores
generally eat herbivores, but can eat omnivores, and occasionally other carnivores. Animals that
eat other animals, like carnivores and omnivores are important to any ecosystem, because they
keep other species from getting overpopulated.
Since carnivores have to hunt down and kill other animals they require a large amount of
calories. This means that they have to eat many other animals over the course of the year. The
bigger the carnivore, the more it has to eat. You should make sure that you have many more
herbivores and omnivores than carnivores.
Large Carnivores
3)
An omnivore is a kind of animal that eats either other animals or plants. Some omnivores will
hunt and eat their food, like carnivores, eating herbivores and other omnivores. Some others
are scavengers and will eat dead matter. Many will eat eggs from other animals.
Omnivores eat plants, but not all kinds of plants. Unlike herbivores, omnivores can't digest some
of the substances in grains or other plants that do not produce fruit. They can eat fruits and
vegetables, though. Some of the insect omnivores in this simulation are pollinators, which are
very important to the life cycle of some kinds of plants.
Large Omnivores
Medium-sized Omnivores
Topic No.26
Primary Consumers
A plant-eating animal (an herbivore) that obtains organic molecules by eating producers
(autotrophs) or their products. Primary consumers are animals that eat producers, and since
producers are almost always green plants, primary consumers can most simply be defined as
herbivores, such as cows and deer. "Consumer" and "producer," in this usage, refer to the
production and consumption of energy in a form that can be used for life processes. Ecologists
talk of consumers and producers when discussing food webs in a particular place.
Examples
1. On land, the large hoofed mammals, such as cattle, antelope and horses, and the massive
African fauna, such as hippos and elephants, all readily come to mind as exemplary primary
consumers. A rhinoceros eats grass, leaves, twigs and shrubs.
2. There are, of course, numerous other land-based primary consumers, which are much smaller
and less exotic. The mouse in the wall, the squirrel in the tree, and even the beetle eating sugar
crumbs off the floor are examples of familiar primary consumers. Cattle eat grass and hay.
3. Fruit bats, hummingbirds and butterflies primarily consume plant material, and all are primary
consumers, although they are not often thought of as plant-eaters. Manatee Eat 150 pounds of
plants each day.
4. In the ocean, primary consumers consist of the

tiny shrimp and zooplankton that feed on
algae and the many bottom-dwelling fish
which nibble on plants. Deer eat corn, twigs,
shoots, acorns, fruit, berries, and green
plants.
5. A giraffe lives in Africa and eats leaves from trees. They especially like the leaves of the
Arcadia tree. A giraffe may eat 75 pounds of food each day.
Features of primary consumers

1. Herbivores are animals that eat only plants.
2. They need a lot of energy to stay alive.
3. Many have to eat all day long to get enough energy.
4. Some herbivores have a special digestive system so they are able to eat/digest grasses.
`
Topic No.27
Secondary consumer
An animal that preys on and eats a primary consumer. They are also called as Carnivores (Meat
eaters).
1. In deserts, secondary consumers include species such as snakes, spiders and raptors that feed
on smaller animals classified as herbivores. Secondary consumers, unlike primary consumers, eat
mostly meat. They take the form of animals such as roadrunners, foxes, owls, hawks and
vultures.

2. Secondary consumers rank high on the desert food chain; only tertiary consumers rank higher.
The food chain
begins with
producers. Those
organisms, primarily
plants and
vegetation, make
their own food
supplies. Most
perform
photosynthesis,
which involves
absorbing sunlight
and converting light
to energy. Plants
make energy in the
form of sugars called glucose. Producers supply primary consumers with energy.
3. Carnivorous fishes possess long stomach and short intestine.
4. Different organisms - both plant and animals - can be grouped together and organized
by trophic levels, or hierarchical levels that visually give information about the food
consumption of each of these groups. Trophic levels are stacked into a trophic or ecological
pyramid, a graphic representation of what groups of organisms survive by consuming other
groups. The simplest way to explain these pyramids is with an example.
The different consumer levels are shown on the

ecological pyramid
Topic No.28
Tertiary consumers
Tertiary consumers are animals that eat other animals. In order to be a tertiary consumer, an animal
must be a carnivore or an omnivore. Tertiary consumers are the organisms that eat the secondary
consumers, primary consumers, and sometimes producers. Pelicans are birds of the sea. They eat
a variety of small fish. What pelicans are most famous for is their bill. It has a small pouch, in
which it stores food for its young.
In the food chain, tertiary consumers are at the top. Producers are at the beginning of the food
chain. Organisms like autotrophs are producers. Primary consumers are the next link in the
chain. The secondary consumer eats the primary consumers, and the tertiary consumer eats the
secondary consumer. Last on the food chain are the decomposers; these animals feed off the dead
and break down the nutrients depositing to the soil.
Examples
1) Tigers
2) Wolves
3) Mice-eating snakes
4) Hawks
5) Killer whales (orcas)
1. Lions eat other animals such as gazelles,

antelopes, and zebras.
2. Eagles eat fish, mammals, birds, and

snakes. They love fish.
3. A wolf eats deer, dogs, fish, mice,

moose, birds, and other herbivores.
Topic No.29
Omnivores
An omnivore is a kind of animal that eats either other animals or plants. Some omnivores will
hunt and eat their food, like carnivores, eating herbivores and other omnivores. Some others
are scavengers and will eat dead matter. Many will eat eggs from other animals.
Omnivores eat plants, but not all kinds of plants. Unlike herbivores, omnivores can't digest some
of the substances in grains or other plants that do not produce fruit. They can eat fruits and
vegetables, though. Some of the insect omnivores in this simulation are pollinators, which are
very important to the life cycle of some kinds of plants.
Examples
Besides humans, there are many different
species that have omnivorous diets. Some
common mammalian omnivores include
raccoons, opossums, skunks, pigs, rats,
badgers, and most bear species. There are
also several omnivorous birds, including
chickens, crows, and robins. Some reptiles,
such as lizards and turtles, are also
omnivorous.
Adaptations of Omnivores
Badger
Unlike herbivores and carnivores that have
teeth specially designed for eating either meat or plants, the teeth of omnivores are adapted for
the consumption of both plants and animal materials. Omnivores have relatively sharp front
teeth, incisors and canines for ripping foods including tough meats. They also have large, flat
molars in the back of their mouths for grinding up vegetation.
Raccoons are a good example of an omnivore with well-adapted teeth. They have large and sharp
front teeth, which they use to tear apart animal meat, and they also have large molars for
chewing up plant materials, such as berries.
1. A pig eats fruit, eggs, corn, and

earthworms.
2. A grizzly bear usually eat things such

as grasses, roots, berries, insects, fish,
and small / large mammals.
3. A raccoon eats almost anything

including berries, acorns, baby mice, baby
birds & eggs, frogs, fish, and even some
snakes.
Topic No.30
Decomposers
Decomposers are organisms that break down dead or decaying organisms, and in doing so, they
carry out the natural process of decomposition. Like herbivores and predators, decomposers
are heterotrophic, meaning that they use organic substrates to get
their energy, carbon and nutrients for growth and development. While the terms decomposer
and detritivores are often interchangeably used, however, detritivores must digest dead matter via
internal processes while decomposers can break down cells of other organisms using
biochemical reactions without need for internal digestion.
The primary decomposers of litter in many ecosystems are fungi. Unlike bacteria, which are

unicellular organisms, most saprotrophic fungi grow as a branching network of hyphae. While
bacteria are restricted to growing and feeding on the exposed surfaces of organic matter, fungi
can use their hyphae to penetrate larger pieces of organic matter. Additionally, only wood-decay
fungi have evolved the enzymes necessary to decompose lignin, a chemically complex substance
found in wood. These two factors make fungi the primary decomposers in forests, where litter has
high concentrations of lignin and often occurs in large pieces. Fungi decompose organic matter by
releasing enzymes to break down the decaying material, after which they absorb the nutrients in
the decaying material.
The fungi on this tree are decomposers

Decomposers feed by secreting enzymes. Enzymes speed up the breakdown of bodies of dead
organisms into nutrient compounds such as water, carbon dioxide, minerals, and simpler organic
compounds
Like some kinds of bacteria, prefer breaking down meat or waste from carnivores.
Like certain kinds of fungi, prefer fruits and vegetables.

Topic No.31
Detritivores
An organism that feeds on and breaks down dead plant or animal matter, returning essential
nutrients to the ecosystem. Detritivores include microorganisms such as bacteria and Protists as
well as larger organisms such as fungi, insects, worms, and isopod crustaceans. In a food chain,
detritivores are primary consumers.
Detritivores are an important aspect of many ecosystems. They can live on any soil with an
organic component, including marine ecosystems, where they are termed interchangeably
with bottom feeders.
Examples
1.Typical detritivorous animals include millipedes, woodlice, dung flies, slugs, many
terrestrial worms, sea stars, sea cucumbers, fiddler crabs, and some sedentary polychaetes such
as amphitrites (Amphitritinae, worms of the family Terebellidae) and other terebellids.
Earthworms are a good example of soil-dwelling detritivores.
Two Common Blue butterflies lap at a small lump of feces lying on a rock

2. Scavengers are typically not thought to be detritivores, as they generally eat large quantities of
organic matter, but both detritivores and scavengers are specific cases of consumer-resource
systems. The eating of wood, whether live or dead, is known as xylophagy. Τhe activity of
animals feeding only on dead wood is called sapro-xylophagy and those animals, sapro-
xylophagous.
3. Hordes of decomposers and detritus feeders can transform a fallen tree trunk into a powder
and finally into simple inorganic molecules that plants can absorb as nutrients.
Conclusion
 Some organisms produce the nutrients they need.
 Some get their nutrients by consuming other organisms.
 Others recycle the nutrients in the wastes and remains of organisms so that producers can
use them again.
Topic No.32
The Earth’s Life-Support System
Earth’s life-support system consists of four main spherical systems that interact with one another.
1. The atmosphere (air)
2. The hydrosphere (water)
3. The geosphere (rock, soil, sediment)
4. The biosphere (living things)
1) Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%) of the air
includes water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane, all of which are called greenhouse gases,
because they trap heat and thus warm the lower atmosphere. High above the planet, the
atmosphere becomes thinner until it gradually reaches space. It is divided into five layers. Most
of the weather and clouds are found in the first layer.
The atmosphere is an important part of what makes Earth livable. It blocks some of the Sun's
dangerous rays from reaching Earth. It traps heat, making Earth a comfortable temperature. And
the oxygen within our atmosphere is essential for life.
2) Hydrosphere
Hydrosphere is a discontinuous layer of water at or near Earth’s surface. It includes all liquid and
frozen surface waters, groundwater held in soil and rock, and atmospheric water vapour.
Water is the most abundant substance at the surface of Earth. About 1.4 billion
cubic kilometres (326 million cubic miles) of water in liquid and frozen form make up the
oceans, lakes, streams, glaciers, and groundwaters found there. It is this enormous volume of
water, in its various manifestations, that forms the discontinuous layer, enclosing much of the
terrestrial surface, known as the hydrosphere.
3) Geosphere
The geosphere is considered that portion of the Earth system that includes the Earth's interior,
rocks and minerals, landforms and the processes that shape the Earth's surface. The Earth itself
(contrary to Christopher Columbus) is not a perfect sphere. It is what is called an oblate spheroid,
with a radius of 6,357 kilometers (km) from the Earth's center to the North Pole and 6,378 km
from the center to the Equator. Prior to advanced instruments and spacecraft, 17th-century
scientist Sir Isaac Newton predicted a similar shape based on the effects of the Earth's daily
rotation and his studies of other planets. Geodesy (the study of the Earth's shape) is a very
important science, in that it is critical for helping us understand satellite orbits, create maps and
navigate on the planet using devices such as the Global Positioning System (GPS).
4) Biosphere
The biosphere is the global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed as the zone
of life on Earth, a closed system (apart from solar and cosmic radiation and heat from the interior
of the Earth), and largely self-regulating. By the most general bio physiological definition, the
biosphere is the global ecological system integrating all living beings and their relationships,
including their interaction with the elements of the lithosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere,
and atmosphere. The biosphere is postulated to have evolved, beginning with a process
of biopoesis (life created naturally from non-living matter, such as simple organic compounds)
or biogenesis (life created from living matter), at least some 3.5 billion years ago.
Topic No.33
Population ecology: Dynamics
Population ecology is a sub-field of ecology that deals with the dynamics

of species populations and how these populations interact with the environment. It is the study of
how the population sizes of species change over time and space.
Population ecology is important in conservation biology, especially in the development
of population viability analysis (PVA) which makes it possible to predict the long-term probability
of a species persisting in a given habitat patch. Although population ecology is a subfield
of biology, it provides interesting problems for mathematicians and statisticians who work in
Populations differ in factors such as their
 Distribution
 Numbers
 Age structure
 Density
Population dynamics
1. Population dynamics is the branch of life sciences that studies the size and age composition
of populations as dynamic systems, and the biological and environmental processes driving
them (such as birth and death rates, and by immigration and emigration). Example

scenarios are ageing populations, population growth, or population decline.
2. All other factors (both biotic and abiotic) exert their impact on population density by
influencing one (or more) of the variables on the right-hand side of the above equation.
Such factors, known as secondary ecological events, may affect the frequency, extent,
magnitude, or duration of a primary ecological event. Cold winter temperatures, for
example, could increase mortality and reduce population density. On the other hand, low
predation rates in the summer might increase natality and allow the population to grow.
Most secondary ecological events act as "population regulating factors". Whenever they
limit a population from reaching its maximum reproductive potential, they are regarded
as "environmental resistance".
General patterns of population distribution or dispersion
1. Clumping
2. Uniform dispersion
3. Random dispersion
1. Clumping
Individuals are found in form of groups or clusters due to uneven distribution of resources.
Individuals in a population are clustered together, creating some patches with many individuals
and some patches with no individuals.
2. Uniform dispersion
Is the tendency for populations to be found evenly distributed about their habitat? This is
generally caused by a species ability to survive anywhere in their habitat - they use the resources
found immediately around them, and spread out as to use all of the available resources.
3. Random dispersion
Is the tendency for populations to be found randomly about their habitat? In immobile species,
this is usually caused by their ability to live anywhere in a given habitat, except, they are limited
to growing wherever they are first set root (which is usually caused randomly, from spores
drifting in the wind to seeds falling and tumbling on the ground). In motile populations,
individuals are able to move about their habitat, so that at any given instance, they can be found
anywhere about their environment.
Topic No.34
Population growth
A population is a group of organisms of the same species that live in the same area at the same
time. Population ecologists study the size, density, and structure of populations and how they
change over time.
In ecology, the population of a certain species in a certain area is estimated using the Lincoln
Index. The area that is used to define a sexual population is defined as the area where inter-
breeding is potentially possible between any pair within the area. The probability of
interbreeding is greater than the probability of cross-breeding with individuals from other areas.
Under normal conditions, breeding is substantially more common within the area than across the
border.
The distribution of human world population in 1994

Biotic potential
Ability of a population to grow under ideal conditions.
Low biotic potential
Large individuals, such as elephants and blue whales.
High biotic potential
Small individuals, such as bacteria and insects.
Intrinsic rate of increase (r)
The rate at which the population of a species would grow if it had unlimited resources.
Individuals in populations with a high intrinsic rate of growth typically,
1. Reproduce early in life
2. Short generation times (the time between successive generations)
3. Reproduce many times
4. Have many offspring each time they reproduce
Environmental resistance
The constraints that climate, food, space, and other environmental factors place on a population
are called environmental resistance.
It is the combination of all factors that act to limit the growth of a population. Together, biotic
potential and environmental resistance determine the carrying capacity (K ).
World human population
As of today's date, the world population is estimated by the United States Census Bureau to be
7.338 billion. The US Census Bureau estimates the 7 billion numbers was surpassed on 12
March 2012. According to a separate estimate by the United Nations, Earth’s population
exceeded seven billion in October 2011, a milestone that offers unprecedented challenges and
opportunities to all of humanity, according to UNFPA, the United Nations Population Fund.
According to papers published by the United States Census Bureau, the world population hit 6.5
billion on 24 February 2006. The United Nations Population Fund designated 12 October 1999
as the approximate day on which world population reached 6 billion. The population of countries
such as Nigeria is not even known to the nearest million, so there is a considerable margin of
error in such estimates.
Population physical limits

As long as we imagine humans retaining their present physical form, one obvious limit can be
computed by dividing the cosmologists' estimated mass of the universe by the mass of a human.
If you consider the human personality more important than its material embodiment, then you
could get a larger number by embodying human personalities in smaller material forms.
Going to the other extreme, if we imagine humans living on earth and refusing any new
technology, we get much smaller limits, and maybe these limits decrease with time as things get
used up. If you reject some important existing technologies or insist on allocating most of the
planet to non-human life you get still smaller limits.
Population Geographic limit
A geographic range limit is the geographic boundary beyond which a species does not occur, the
limit or limits of the range of a species. "Core populations" are populations of individuals
occurring within the center of the range, and "peripheral" or "edge populations" are groups of
individuals near the boundary of the range.
The inability of a species to expand its range beyond these limits is because of some factor or
factors that constrain the species from adapting to overcome the factors that are imposing limits
on its distribution. In some cases, geographical range limits are entirely predictable, such as the
physical barrier of an ocean for a terrestrial species.
Population geography
Population geography is a division
of human geography. It is the study of the
ways in which spatial variations in the
distribution, composition, migration, and
growth of populations are related to the
nature of places. Population geography
involves demography in a geographical
perspective. It focuses on the characteristics
of population distributions that change in a
spatial context. Examples can be shown
through population density maps. A few types of maps that show the spatial layout of population
are choropleth, isoline, and dot maps.
Topic No.35
Carrying capacity
Carrying capacity as the maximum population of a given species that can survive indefinitely in
a given environment. It was originally applied to relatively simple population-environments such
as the number of sheep or cattle that could be maintained on grazing land without degrading the
land so that it could no longer support the animals. It depends on the conditions and resources
available in the specific area, and the consumption habits of the species considered. Because both
what is available in the area, and the consumption habits of the species change over time,
carrying capacity is always changing. Carrying capacity is a measure of sustainability within
these changing conditions.
Factors that influence carrying capacity are

 Food availability
 Water
 Space
 Environmental conditions
Two Patterns
Many animal species have been studied with respect to a specific area’s carrying
capacity. Starting from a low population level there are two quite different patterns which
describe how various species reach carrying capacity, the sigmoid and peak phenomena.
Populations which exhibit the sigmoid pattern increase rapidly while food and habitat are
abundant, and then slow down as regulatory factors such as lower birth rate and reduced food
availability come into play. As the rate of population growth slows down to zero, the population
reaches a fairly stable level. This pattern is referred to as K (for constant) selected species.
Human Application
1. The concept of carrying capacity was applied to human populations in the 1960’s. It was
noted that the consumption habits of humans are much more variable than those of other
animal species, making it considerably more difficult to predict the carrying capacity of
the earth for human beings. This realization gave rise to The IPAT Equation which
pointed out that carrying capacity for humans was a function not only of population size,
but also of differing levels of consumption, which in turn are affected by the technologies
involved in production and consumption.
2. There have been a large number of published estimates for the human carrying capacity
of the earth; they range from a low of one half billion people to a staggering 800
billion. Many of these estimates are more ideologically based than determined by
scientific principles2. These exercises demonstrate the complexity of developing useful
estimates of the human carrying capacity of the planet, and the limitations of using the
methodology which has been successful with non-human species.
3. Carrying capacity plays a vital role in sustainability and protection of an environment.
When a population exceeds the carrying capacity of an area, it causes damage that
reduces the area’s carrying capacity.

Topic No.36
Exponential growth
Exponential growth is a phenomenon that occurs when the growth rate of the value of a
mathematical function is proportional to the function's current value, resulting in its growth with
time being an exponential function. Exponential decay occurs in the same way when the growth
rate is negative. In the case of a discrete domain of definition with equal intervals, it is also
called geometric growth, the function values forming a geometric progression.
The formula for exponential growth of a variable x at the (positive or negative) growth rate r, as
time t goes on in discrete intervals (that is, at integer times 0, 1, 2, 3…..), is
Xt=x0(1+r) t
Where x0 is the value of x at time 0. For example, with a growth rate of r = 5% = 0.05, going
from any integer value of time to the next integer causes x at the second time to be 5% larger
than it was at the previous time. Since the time variable, which is the input to this function,
occurs as the exponent, this is an exponential function.
During its exponential growth phase, a population may overshoot carrying capacity because
demand on resources may lag behind population growth. When that happens, numbers may cycle
on either side of K fig (a), or form a J-shaped curve fig (b).
Reproductive potential
Ability of individuals to reproduce under ideal or optimum conditions. Exponential growth
cannot occur indefinitely.
Factors influencing reproductive potential
 Number of offspring produced
 The likelihood of survival to reproductive age
 Duration of the reproductive period
 Length of time it takes to reach maturity
Topic No.37
Logistic population growth
The measurement of how the size of a population changes over time is called the population
growth rate and it depends upon the population size, birth rate and death rate. As long as there
are enough resources available, there will be an increase in the number of individuals in a
population over time, or a positive growth rate. However, most populations cannot continue to
grow forever because they will eventually run out of water, food, sunlight, space or other
resources. As these resources begin to run out, population growth will start to slow down. When
the growth rate of a population decreases as the number of individuals increases, this is
called logistic population growth.
Graphing Logistic Population Growth

If we look at a graph of a population undergoing logistic population growth, it will have a
characteristic S-shaped curve. The population grows in size slowly when there are only a few
individuals. Then the population grows faster when there are more individuals. Finally, having
lots of individuals in the population causes growth to slow because resources are limited. In
logistic growth, a population will continue to grow until it reaches carrying capacity, which is the
maximum number of individuals the environment can support.
Equation for Logistic Population Growth
Equation for Logistic Population Growth

We can also look at logistic growth as a mathematical equation. Population growth rate is
measured in number of individuals in a population (N) over time (t). The term for population
growth rate is written as (dN/dt). The d just means change. K represents the carrying capacity,
and r is the maximum per capita growth rate for a population. Per capita means per individual
and the per capita growth rate involves the number of births and deaths in a population. The
logistic growth equation assumes that K and r do not change over time in a population.
Let's see what happens to the population growth rate as N changes from being smaller than K,
close or equal to K and larger than K. We will use a simple example where r = 0.5 and K = 100,
N= 2.
Logistic growth involves rapid exponential population growth followed by a steady decrease in
population growth until the population size levels off.
After leveling off, a population with this type of growth typically fluctuates slightly above and
below the carrying capacity.
Topic No.38
Population regulation
Demography
The statistical study of human populations especially with reference to size, density,
distribution, vital statistics and the factors that regulate the growth of population.
Population of any ecosystem is regulated by certain biotic and biotic factors which are necessary
for the growth of population. Based on the demographic research of the earth, earth's population
up to the year 2050 and 2100 can be estimated by demographers. Demographics are quantifiable
characteristics of a given population.
Formal demography limits its object of study to the measurement of population processes, while
the broader field of social demography or population studies also analyzes the relationships
between economic, social, cultural, and biological processes influencing a population.
Factors regulating population,

 Birth rate
 Death rate
 Food
 Climate
 Water
 Competition
 Predators
 Emigration
 Immigration
 Disease
Metapopulation
Metapopulation is a population that is made up of the same species. Each subpopulation, or
subgroup, is separated from all other subpopulations, but movement of individuals from one
Population to another occurs regularly. Extinction and colonization are the main processes that
regulate the Metapopulation.
Extended Family
In modern times, it's easy to keep in touch with even the most far-flung members of your kin.
You have grandparents in Florida, cousins in Minnesota, and even an aunt and uncle living up in
Alaska. Throw in more distant relatives, and you could claim to have family members that live
all over the world .Expanded Families in Nature Humans aren't the only species who have far-
flung relatives spread around the globe. We see this same pattern in all manner of life forms.
Have you ever noticed a swallowtail butterfly in your backyard and then observed another one
during a vacation in the mountains? These two butterflies belong to the same species, but they
are not part of the same local population, since they live so far away from each other.
Topic No.39
Population density
Population density is a measurement of population per unit area or unit volume; it is a quantity of

type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, and most of the time to humans.
Population density and population size are the two main factors which are used to study any
population in an ecosystem
Human population density
For humans, population density is the number of people per unit of area, usually quoted per
square kilometer or square mile (which may include or exclude, for example, areas of water or
glaciers). Commonly this may be calculated for a county, city, country, another territory, or
the entire world.
Biological population density

Population density is population divided by total land area or water volume, as appropriate
Low densities may cause an extinction vortex and lead to further reduced fertility. This is called
the Allee effect after the scientist who identified it. Examples of the causes in low population
densities include
 Increased problems with locating sexual mates

 Increased inbreeding
Higher population density

 May help sexually reproducing individuals find mates, but it can also lead to increased
competition for mates, food, living space, water, sunlight, and other resources.
 Help to shield some members from predators, but it can also make large groups such as
schools of fish vulnerable to human harvesting methods.
 Close contact among individuals in dense populations can increase the transmission of
parasites and infectious diseases.
 Smaller organisms have high population density than larger organisms.
Low population density
 Less competition for food, living space, water, sunlight, and other resources.
 Individuals with low population density face difficulty in finding mates as compared to
individuals with higher population density.
 Less adaptability to environmental changes.
Topic No.40
Density-independent factors
Both living and non-living things can influence the size of a population of organisms. Some
things that happen to populations, such as disease and parasites, depend on the size of the
population to be successful at causing destruction. Things and events that limit the size of a
population regardless of the density of the population are called density-independent factors.
The density of a population can be described as the number of organisms living in a specific area
at a certain time.
Factors
Many factors, typically physical or chemical in nature (abiotic), influence the mortality of a
population regardless of its density. They include weather, natural disasters, and pollution. An
individual deer may be killed in a forest fire regardless of how many deer happen to be in that
area. Its chances of survival are the same whether the population density is high or low.
In real-life situations, population regulation is very complicated and density-dependent and

independent factors can interact. A dense population that is reduced in a density-independent
manner by some environmental factor(s) will be able to recover differently than would a sparse
population. Density dependent factors are different in that the size of populations affect how
certain factors increase or decrease numbers of specimens. Predation, disease and competition
for resources affect populations based on their size.
Examples
 A field with thousands of corn plants is much more densely populated than a field of the
same size with an orchard of 40 fruit trees. Density-independent factors can affect a
population of organisms no matter how small or large the population may be.
 A population of deer affected by a harsh winter will recover faster if there are more deer
remaining to reproduce.
 Certain diseases spread faster if large numbers of animals live closer together. These
diseases can wipe out many specimens in a short period of time, but such an event may
not have occurred so rapidly if the population was less dense.
 Weather conditions often limit populations. A severe freeze in late spring can kill many
individuals in a plant population or a population of monarch butterflies regardless of their
density.
 An extremely cold winter with little snow cover may devastate a population of lizards
hidden beneath the litter of the forest floor. Human activities, such as construction and
deforestation, often affect animal populations in a similar fashion.
Topic No.41
Density-dependent factors
When a population of organisms becomes too large, the individuals will suffer because there will
not be enough resources for everyone. These resources, such as food, water, and shelter, are
essential to life. Each population has a size that is 'just right' for it, and there are natural methods
to control population growth.
One very important mechanism for regulating population size is density dependence.
The density of a population is simply how many organisms are living in a given area. Density-
dependent factors are factors where the effects on the size or growth of a population vary with
the density of the population itself. There are several types of density-dependent factors, but they
all have two things in common: they influence the rates of births and deaths, and the effect
increases as population size increases.
When the density of a population is low (few individuals in a given area), resources are not
limiting. There are plenty of resources for everyone. More individuals can give birth, and fewer
individuals will die. Overall, the population will grow in size and become denser.
When the density of a population is high (many individuals in a given area), resources are more
limited for each individual. Because of this, more individuals will die, fewer individuals will be
born, and the population size will decrease and become less dense.
In population ecology, density-dependent processes occur when population growth rates are

regulated by the density of a population. Most density-dependent factors, which are biological in
nature (biotic), include predation, inter- and intraspecific competition, accumulation of waste,
and diseases such as those caused by parasites. Usually, the denser a population is, the greater
its mortality rate.
For example, during intra- and interspecific competition, the reproductive rates of the individuals
will usually be lower, reducing their population's rate of growth. In addition, low prey density
increases the mortality of its predator because it has more difficulty locating its food source.
An example of density-dependent regulation is shown with results from a study focusing on the
giant intestinal roundworm (Ascaris lumbricoides), a parasite of humans and other mammals.
The data shows that denser populations of the parasite exhibit lower fecundity: they contained
fewer eggs. One possible explanation for this phenomenon was that females would be smaller in
more dense populations due to limited resources so they would have fewer eggs.
This hypothesis was tested and disproved in a 2009 study which showed that female weight had
no influence. The actual cause of the density-dependence of fecundity in this organism is still
unclear and awaiting further investigation.
Topic No.42
Impact of human population on environment
1. Population growth and distribution have significant roles to play in the sustainability
of the world's vast resources. Not only the number of people, but also the lifestyle,
consumption patterns, and regions people inhabit and use directly affect the
environment. The relationship between population growth and environmental
degradation may appear to be rather straightforward. More people demand more
resources and generate more waste. Clearly one of the challenges of a growing
population is that the mere presence of so many people sharing a limited number of
resources strains the environment. But when looking at the impact of human
activities, the situation is more complicated due to the wide variety of government
policies, technologies, and consumption patterns worldwide.
2. The link between population growth and the environment is found somewhere
between the view that population growth is solely responsible for all environmental
ills and the view that more people means the development of new technologies to
overcome any environmental problems. Most environmentalists agree that population
growth is only one of several interacting factors that place pressure on the
environment.
3. Many of the world's population live in poor countries already strained by food
insecurity; inadequate sanitation, water supplies and housing; and an inability to
meet the basic needs of the current population. These same countries are also among
the fastest growing places in the world. A large proportion of these populations are
supported through subsistence agriculture. As populations grow, competition for
fertile land and the use of limited resources increase.
4. In 2015 the world population is more than 7.3 billion people. That’s more than seven
billion three hundred million bodies that need to be fed, clothed, kept warm and ideally,
nurtured and educated. More than 7.3 billion individuals who, while busy consuming
resources, are also producing vast quantities of waste, and our numbers continue to grow.
5. For most of our existence the human population has grown very slowly, kept in check by
disease, climate fluctuations and other social factors. It took until 1804 for us to reach 1
billion people. Since then, continuing improvements in nutrition, medicine and
technology have seen our population increase rapidly.
The impact of so many humans on the environment takes two major forms:
 Consumption of resources such as land, food, water, air, fossil fuels and minerals.
 Waste products as a result of consumption such as air and water pollutants, toxic
materials and greenhouse gases.
There are many factors at play. Essentially, it is what is happening within those populations—
their distribution (density, migration patterns and urbanization), their composition (age, sex and
income levels) and, most importantly, their consumption patterns that are of equal, if not more
importance, than just numbers.
Following factors of human population growth has a great effect on the environment.
1. Population size
2. Population distribution
3. Population composition
1) Population size
It's no surprise that as the world population continues to grow, the limits of essential global
resources such as potable water, fertile land, forests and fisheries are becoming more obvious.
2) Population distribution
The ways in which populations are spread across Earth has an effect on the environment.
Developing countries tend to have higher birth rates due to poverty and lower access to family
planning and education, while developed countries have lower birth rates. In 2015, 80 per cent of
the world’s populations live in less-developed nations. These faster-growing populations can add
pressure to local environments.
3) Population composition
The composition of a population can also affect the surrounding environment. At present, the
global population has both the largest proportion of young people (under 24) and the largest
percentage of elderly people in history. As young people are more likely to migrate, this leads to
intensified urban environmental concerns.
Topic No.43
Atmosphere;
Its Composition and role in ecosystem
The mixture of gases that surrounds the solid earth is called the atmosphere. Although it
represents a very small fraction of the weight of the earth, it is very important because it is
essential to life and is highly reactive. Circulates and plays an important role in the evolution of
landscapes. The atmosphere is an important part of what makes Earth livable. It blocks some of
the Sun's dangerous rays from reaching Earth. It traps heat, making Earth a comfortable
temperature. And the oxygen within our atmosphere is essential for life. Over the past
century, greenhouse gases and other air pollutants released into the atmosphere have been
causing big changes like global warming, ozone holes, and acid rain.
Composition
The atmosphere is a mixture of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and other gases (1%) that
surrounds Earth. High above the planet, the atmosphere becomes thinner until it gradually
reaches space. It is divided into five layers. Most of the weather and clouds are found in the first
layer.
1. Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a common element in the universe, estimated at about seventh in total abundance in

the Milky Way and the Solar System. On Earth, the element forms about 78% of Earth's
atmosphere and is the most abundant uncombined element. The element nitrogen was discovered
as a separable component of air by Scottish physician Daniel Rutherford in 1772. Nitrogen is
unavailable to plants directly; therefore it must undergo chemical changes to make it useful to
producers (plants).
2. Oxygen
Oxygen an important part of the atmosphere and diatomic oxygen gas constitutes 20.8% of

the Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, as oxides the element also makes up almost half of
the Earth's crust. Oxygen is chemically reactive and important in the Breathing, Weathering of
rocks, the decay of organic and matter Combustion.
3. Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an important trace gas in Earth's atmosphere currently constituting about

0.04%, i.e. 400 parts per million (ppm), of the atmosphere. Despite its relatively small
concentration, CO2 is a potent greenhouse gas and plays a vital role in regulating Earth's surface
temperature through radiative forcing and the greenhouse. Carbon dioxide plays an important
role in tapping heat and causing the greenhouse effect, which keeps the earth warm and livable,
for the most part
4. Water vapor
Water vapor is the gaseous phase of water. It is one state of water within the hydrosphere. Water

vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from
the sublimation of ice. Unlike other forms of water, water vapor is invisible. Under typical
atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed
by condensation. It is lighter than air and triggers convection currents that can lead to clouds.
Water vapor plays an extremely important role in the hydrological cycle. Water vapors are
highly variable. Air in desert areas may contain only 1 percent vapor by volume; in tropical
areas, however, where the air is warm and moist, the content can be as high as 4 percent.
Topic No.44
Water (abiotic factor)
Water (H2O) is a very important abiotic factor it is often said that “water is life.” All living
organisms need water. Plants must have water to grow. Even plants that live in the desert need a
little bit of water to grow. Without water, animals become weak and confused, and they can die
if they do not rehydrate. About 71% of earth surface is covered with water. 97% of this water is
saltwater present in oceans while only 3% is available as freshwater. Water has the property of
its solid frozen form being less dense than the liquid form. This important property makes ice
float on water and allows many aquatic life forms to survive in cold conditions in the water in
spite of the surface being frozen. There is a wide range of temperature in which water remains in
liquid form and it has the ability to dissolve many essential nutrients & minerals.
Terrestrial organisms lose water to the environment by simple diffusion, they have evolved many
adaptations to retain water.
Examples of adaptations used by terrestrial and aquatic species include the following:
 Plants have a number of interesting features on their leaves, such as leaf hairs and a
waxy cuticle, that serve to decrease the rate of water loss via transpiration.
 Freshwater organisms, surrounded by water, are constantly in danger of having water
rush into their cells because of osmosis. Many adaptations of organisms living in
freshwater environments have evolved to ensure that solute concentrations in their bodies

remain within appropriate levels. One such adaptation is the excretion of dilute urine.
 Marine organisms are surrounded by water with a higher solute concentration than the
organism and, thus, are in danger of losing water to the environment because of osmosis.
 These organisms have morphological and physiological adaptations to retain water and
release solutes into the environment. For example, marine iguanas (Amblyrhynchus
cristatus) sneeze out water vapor that is high in salt in order to maintain solute
concentrations within an acceptable range while swimming in the ocean and eating
marine plants.
Water Importance
Apart from drinking it to survive, people have many other uses for water. These include:
 cooking
 washing their bodies
 washing clothes
 washing cooking and eating utensils; such as crockery and cutlery
 keeping houses and communities clean
 Recreation; such as swimming pools
 keeping plants alive in gardens and parks
Topic No.45
Freshwater ecosystem
Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They

include lakes and ponds, rivers, streams, springs, and wetlands. They can be contrasted
with marine ecosystems, which have a larger salt content. Freshwater habitats can be classified
by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, and vegetation.
Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into lentic ecosystems (still water) and lotic
ecosystems (flowing water).
1. Lentic ecosystems
A lake ecosystem includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well
as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions.
Lake ecosystems are a prime example of lentic ecosystems. Lentic refers to stationary or
relatively still water, from the Latin lentus, which means sluggish. Lentic waters range
from ponds to lakes to wetlands, and much of this article applies to lentic ecosystems in general.
Lentic ecosystems can be compared with lotic ecosystems, which involve flowing terrestrial
waters such as rivers and streams. Together, these two fields form the more general study area of
freshwater or aquatic ecology.
2. Lotic ecosystems
The ecosystem of a river is the river viewed as a system operating in its natural environment, and
includes biotic (living) interactions amongst plants, animals and micro-organisms, as well
as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions.
River ecosystems are prime examples of lotic ecosystems. Lotic refers to flowing water, from
the Latin lotus, washed. Lotic waters range from springs only a few centimeters wide to
major rivers kilometers in width. Much of this article applies to lotic ecosystems in general,
including related lotic systems such as streams and springs. Lotic ecosystems can be contrasted
with lentic ecosystems, which involve relatively still terrestrial waters such as lakes and ponds.
Original efforts to understand and monitor freshwater ecosystems were spurred on by threats to
human health (ex. Cholera outbreaks due to sewage contamination). Early monitoring focussed
on chemical indicators, then bacteria, and finally algae, fungi and protozoa. A new type of
monitoring involves differing groups of organisms (macroinvertebrates, macrophytes and fish) and
the stream conditions associated with them.
Topic No.46
Lotic water bodies
The study of freshwater is known as limnology. Those water bodies that hold running water are
termed as lotic water bodies. Rivers and streams rarely display the vertical stratification patterns
found in standing bodies of water because of their turbulent flow. Although slight differences in
temperature can exist between the surface and bottom waters of deep lotic systems, the greatest
changes take place as water moves downstream. Flowing water systems frequently possess
greater habitat heterogeneity than lentic systems. They also are more permanent ecosystems on a
geological or evolutionary scale. Both heterogeneity and permanence tend to increase species
diversity. The area drained by a stream and all of its tributaries is called its watershed. Any rain
that falls within the watershed will pass through the main stream channel. Examples of lotic
water bodies are
1. Rivers
2. Streams
3. Springs
1. Rivers
Water flow is the key factor in lotic systems influencing their ecology. The strength of water
flow can vary between systems, ranging from torrential rapids to slow backwaters that almost
seem like lentic systems. The speed of the water flow can also vary within a system and is
subject to chaotic turbulence. This turbulence results in divergences of flow from the mean
downslope flow vector as typified by eddy currents.
2. Streams
A stream is a body of water with a current, confined within a bed and banks. A shallow fast
flowing water body smaller than rivers. Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle,
instruments in groundwater recharge, and corridors for fish and wildlife migration.
3. Springs
A spring is a water resource formed when the side of a hill, a valley bottom or other excavation
intersects a flowing body of groundwater at or below the local water table, below which the
subsurface material is saturated with water. A spring is the result of an aquifer being filled to the
point that the water overflows onto the land surface. A freshwater body in which water flows out
of the ground.
Topic No.47
Streams
A small, shallow and fast moving water body that supports variety of aquatic flora and fauna.A
watershed, or drainage basin, is the land area that delivers runoff, sediment, and dissolved
substances to a stream. In many areas, streams begin in mountainous or hilly areas that collect
and release water falling to the earth’s surface as rain or snow melts during warm seasons.
Streams have low depth and narrow banks. Streams are important as conduits in the water cycle,
instruments in groundwater recharge, and corridors for fish and wildlife migration. The
biological habitat in the immediate vicinity of a stream is called a riparian zone. The study of
streams and waterways in general is known as surface hydrology and is a core element of
environmental geography.
Streams receive nutrients from

Falling leaves, Animal, feces,
insects and Biomass washed into
streams during heavy rainstorms or
by melting snow. Thus, the
levels and types of nutrients in a
stream depend on what is
happening in the stream’s
watershed. Streams receive their
water from Precipitation
Melting snow and Groundwater.
They lose water by evaporation
sinking into the ground
discharge at their terminus or
mouth.
The velocity of a stream
depends on following factors
 Volume of water
 Stream channel width
and depth
 Slope or gradient of
stream
Topic No.48
Rivers
Small streams join to form rivers, and rivers flow downhill to the ocean. Rivers and streams are
powerful transporting agents as they roll and push material on their bed down the channel. The
suspended matter gives river water a muddy look. A river is a natural flowing watercourse,
usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river
flows into the ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of
water. Small rivers can be referred to using names such as stream, creek, brook, rivulet,
and rill. Rivers are part of the hydrological cycle. Water generally collects in a river
from precipitation through a drainage basin from surface runoff and other sources such
as groundwater recharge, springs, and the release of stored water in natural ice and snowpacks (e.g.
from glaciers). Potamology is the scientific study of rivers while limnology is the study of inland
waters in general.
T
he downward flow of surface water and groundwater from mountain to the sea typically takes
place in three zones characterized by different environmental conditions:
 Source zone
 Transition zone
 Floodplain zone
Source zone:
Source zone containing mountain (headwater) streams. Headwaters are often small streams
with cool waters because of shade and recently melted ice or snow. They may also be glacial
headwaters, waters formed by the melting of glacial ice. Headwater areas are the upstream
areas of a watershed, as opposed to the outflow or discharge of a watershed. The river source
is often but not always on or quite near the edge of the watershed, or watershed divide.
Transition zone:
– Transition zone containing wider, lower-elevation streams.
Floodplain zone:
– Floodplain zone containing rivers, which empty into the ocean.
Topic No.49
Lentic water bodies
Standing bodies of freshwater that supports variety of life. Wind action is very vital in these
water bodies because it increases the content of dissolve oxygen that is necessary for the aquatic
life in these water bodies. A lentic water bodies includes biotic (living) plants, animals and micro-
organisms, as well as abiotic (nonliving) physical and chemical interactions.
Examples of such water systems are
1. Ponds
2. Lakes
3. Wetlands
The lentic water bodies possess following zones
1. Littoral zone
2. Limnetic zone
3. Profundal zone
4. Benthic zone
(1) Littoral zone:
The littoral zone adjoins the shore (and is thus the home of rooted plants) and extends down to a
point called the light compensation level, or the depth at which the rate of photosynthesis equals
the rate of respiration. Within the littoral zone producers are of two main types: rooted or benthic
plants, and phytoplankton (plant plankton) or floating green plants, which are mostly algae.
2) Limnetic Zone:
The limnetic zone includes all the waters beyond the littoral zone and down to the light
compensation level. The limnetic zone derives its oxygen content from the photosynthetic
activity of phytoplankton and from the atmosphere immediately over the lake’s surface. The
atmospheric source of oxygen becomes significant primarily when there is some surface
disturbance of water caused by wind action or human activity.
(3) Profundal Zone:
The bottom and deep water area of a lake, which is beyond the depth of effective light
penetration, is called the pro-fundal zone. In north-temperate latitudes, where winters are long
and severe, this zone has the warmest water (4°C) in the lake in winter and coldest water in
summer.
(4)Benthic zone
The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean or
a lake, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Organisms living in this zone
are collectively called the benthos, e.g. the benthic invertebrate community,
including crustaceans and polychaetes. The organisms generally live in close relationship with the
substrate bottom and many are permanently attached to the bottom.
Overturn
The mixing of water from the bottom of the lake with the water close to the surface of lake. This
occurs during spring and fall. Lake Overturn enhances the dissolve oxygen content of lake that is
necessary for survival of life present in the lake water.
Topic No.50
Lakes
Lakes are large natural bodies of standing freshwater formed when precipitation, runoff, or
groundwater seepage fills depressions in the earth’s surface. A lake is an area of variable size
filled with water, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land, apart from any river or other
outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean (except
for sea lochs in Scotland and Ireland), and therefore are distinct from lagoons, and are also larger
and deeper than ponds, though there are no official or scientific definitions. Lakes can be
contrasted with rivers or streams, which are usually flowing. However most lakes are fed and
drained by rivers and streams.
Lake formation
Natural lakes are generally found in mountainous areas, rift zones, and areas with
ongoing glaciation. Other lakes are found in endorheic basins or along the courses of mature
rivers. In some parts of the world there are many lakes because of chaotic drainage patterns left
over from the last Ice Age.
Deep lakes normally consist of four distinct zones
1. Littoral
2. Limnetic
3. Profundal
4. Benthic
(1) Littoral zone:
The littoral zone adjoins the shore (and is thus the home of rooted plants) and extends down to a
point called the light compensation level, or the depth at which the rate of photosynthesis equals
the rate of respiration. Within the littoral zone producers are of two main types: rooted or benthic
plants, and phytoplankton (plant plankton) or floating green plants, which are mostly algae.
2) Limnetic Zone:
The limnetic zone includes all the waters beyond the littoral zone and down to the light
compensation level. The limnetic zone derives its oxygen content from the photosynthetic
activity of phytoplankton and from the atmosphere immediately over the lake’s surface. The
atmospheric source of oxygen becomes significant primarily when there is some surface
disturbance of water caused by wind action or human activity.
(3) Profundal Zone:

The bottom and deep water area of a lake, which is beyond the depth of effective light
penetration, is called the pro-fundal zone. In north-temperate latitudes, where winters are long
and severe, this zone has the warmest water (4°C) in the lake in winter and coldest water in
summer.
(4) Benthic zone:
The benthic zone is the ecological region at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean or
a lake, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers. Organisms living in this zone
are collectively called the benthos, e.g. the benthic invertebrate community,
including crustaceans and polychaetes. The organisms generally live in close relationship with the
substrate bottom and many are permanently attached to the bottom.
Topic No.51
Oligotrophic lakes
Lake characterized by a low accumulation of dissolved nutrient salts, supporting but a sparse
growth of algae and other organisms, and having a high oxygen content owing to the low organic
content. These lakes have low algal production, and consequently, often have very clear waters,
with high drinking-water quality. The bottom waters of such lakes typically have ample oxygen;
thus, such lakes often support many fish species, like lake trout, which require cold, well-
oxygenated waters. The oxygen content is likely to be higher in deep lakes, owing to their
larger hypolimnetic volume.
Ecologists use the term oligotrophic to distinguish unproductive lakes, characterized by nutrient
deficiency, from productive, eutrophic lakes, with an ample or excessive nutrient supply.
Formation
Oligotrophic lakes are most common in cold regions underlain by resistant igneous rocks
(especially granitic bedrock).
Topic No.52
Eutrophic lake
A eutrophic body of water, commonly a lake or pond, has high biological productivity. Due to
excessive nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, these water bodies are able to support an
abundance of aquatic plants. Usually, the water body will be dominated either by aquatic plants
or algae. When aquatic plants dominate, the water tends to be clear. When algae dominate, the
water tends to be darker. The algae engage in photosynthesis which supplies oxygen to the fish
and biota which inhabit these waters. Occasionally, an excessive algal bloom will occur and can
ultimately result in fish death, due to respiration by algae and bottom-living bacteria. The process
of eutrophication can occur naturally and by human impact on the environment.
Eutrophic lakes usually have
 Shallow depth
 Murky brown or green water
 High turbidity
 High net primary productivity.
Cultural eutrophication
Human inputs of nutrients from the atmosphere and from nearby urban and agricultural areas can
enhance the biological activity of lakes by a process called cultural eutrophication.
Eutrophication arises from the oversupply of nutrients, which induces explosive growth of plants
and algae. When such organisms die, they consume the oxygen in the body of water, thereby
creating the state of hypoxia.
Hypertrophic lake
Hypertrophic lakes are highly fertile and supersaturated in phosphorus and nitrogen. They have
excessive phytoplankton growth which contributes to poor water clarity, poor suitability for
recreational uses, and restricts the habitat for desirable fish. Lake Hakanoa and Lake Ngaroto are
hypertrophic lakes.
Mesotrophic Lake
Mesotrophic lakes are lakes with an intermediate level of productivity. These lakes are commonly
clear water lakes and ponds with beds of submerged aquatic plants and medium levels of
nutrients.
Topic No.53
Inland wetlands
Inland wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such

that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that distinguishes
wetlands from other land forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic
plants, adapted to the unique hydric soil. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment,
principally water purification, flood control, carbon sink and shoreline stability. Wetlands are
also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of
plant and animal life.
Some examples of inland wetlands are

 Marshes
 Swamps
 Prairie potholes
 Floodplains
Seasonal wetlands
Seasonal wetlands are flooded in the winter and begin to dry out in the summer. The moisture
content of these biomes changes seasonally as opposed to a daily cycle. Rains (and snow in
colder areas) arrive in the winter and begin to fill the area with water. With the arrival of water,
insects, reptiles, birds, and small mammals populate the wetlands. As spring arrives, the plants in
the wetlands begin to grow and bloom, providing an additional food sources for the residents.
Crustaceans such as shrimp and bivalves that include clams feed on the insect larvae and detritus.
Shorebirds then come in to feed on those animals.
Wetlands are important habitats for

o Game fishes
o Muskrats
o Otters
o Beavers
o Migratory waterfowl
Topic No.54
Ecological and economic services of a wetland
Wetlands are very valuable natural habitats in different areas of world. These complex habitats
act as giant sponges, soaking up rainfall and slowly releasing it over time. Wetlands are like
highly efficient sewage treatment works, absorbing chemicals, filtering pollutants and sediments,
breaking down suspended solids and neutralizing harmful bacteria. They provide a number of
free ecological and economic services to humans and other living organisms
They are also the most biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth.
1. Flood control
The most significant social and economic benefit that wetlands provide is flood control.
Peatlands and wet grasslands alongside river basins can act like sponges, absorbing rainfall and
controlling its flow into streams and rivers.
2. Clean water
Wetlands act as the Earth's filters, cleaning up water in a number of ways. For example, nitrogen
in water is transformed to harmless nitrogen gas; nutrients are taken up by wetland plants in the
water. Wetlands remove pollutants such as phosphorous, heavy metals and toxins which are
trapped in the sediments of the wetlands. In addition, nitrogen and heavy metals are incorporated
into peat during its formation.
3. Food supply
Rice is the staple diet of nearly 3 billion people - half the world's population. It is grown in
wetlands across Asia and West Africa, and in the United States. Almost as important is sago
palm, which provides starch from which sago flour is made. And palms from the wetlands of
Africa yield valuable oils for cooking and soap making.
4. Materials and Medicines
Wetlands yield fuel wood for cooking, thatch for roofing, fibers for textiles and paper making,
and timber for building. Medicines are extracted from their bark, leaves, and fruits, and they also
provide tannins and dyes, used extensively in the treatment of leather.
5. Recreation areas
Wetlands everywhere provide important leisure facilities - canoeing and fishing, shell collecting
and bird watching, swimming and snorkeling, hunting and sailing.
6. Economic Benefits
The economic benefits associated with these environmental values of wetlands also can be
substantial. If, for example, a community had to build flood control or water treatment systems to
replace those functions provided by wetlands, the costs could far outweigh the land purchase
price of preserving the natural wetland systems. Similarly, when wetlands lose their value as fish
habitat, this value is difficult to replace, and the consequent losses to the recreational and
commercial fishing industries can be significant.
7. Fish and Wildlife Habitat
Many species of birds, fish, mammals, reptiles, and amphibians rely on wetland habitat for
breeding, foraging, and cover. The special wetland conditions provide unique habitat for species
that cannot survive elsewhere. Migratory birds depend on wetlands, and many endangered and
threatened animal species require wetlands during part of their life cycle. The incredibly high
rate of wetlands loss has contributed to their demise.
Topic No.55
Brackish water
Brackish water is salt water and fresh water mixed together. It is saltier than fresh water, but not
as salty as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with fresh water, as in estuaries, or it
may occur in brackish fossil aquifers.
Some human activities can produce brackish water, mostly certain civil engineering projects
such as dikes and the flooding of coastal marshland to produce brackish pools for
freshwater prawns.
Technically, brackish water contains between 0.5 and 30 grams of salt per liter—more often
expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand (ppt). Thus, brackish covers a range of salinity
regimes and is not considered a precisely defined condition. It is characteristic of many brackish
surface waters that their salinity can vary considerably over space and/or time.
Brackish water habitat
Estuaries
The most important brackish water habitats are estuaries, where a river meets the sea, mixing salt
and fresh water. The River Thames flowing through London is one of the most familiar of river
estuaries
Mangroves
Another important brackish water habitat is the mangrove swamp or mangal.
Brackish seas and lakes
Some seas and lakes are brackish. The Baltic Sea is a brackish sea adjoining the North Sea.
The Caspian Sea is the world's largest lake and contains brackish water with a salinity about one
third that of normal seawater. The Caspian is famous for its peculiar animal fauna, including one
of the few non-marine seals (the Caspian seal) and the great sturgeons, the source of caviar.
Types of Estuary,
1. Fjords
2. Tectonic estuary
3. Bar built estuary
4. Coastal plain estuary
Fjords:
Fjords are formed where Pleistocene glaciers deepened and widened existing river valleys so that
they become U-shaped in cross sections. At their mouths there are typically rocks bars or sills of
glacial deposits, which have the effects of modifying the estuarine circulation.
Tectonic estuary:
These estuaries are formed by subsidence or land cut off from the ocean by land movement
associated with faulting, volcanoes, and landslides. Inundation from eustatic sea level rise during
the Holocene Epoch has also contributed to the formation of these estuaries. There are only a
small number of tectonically produced estuaries; one example is the San Francisco Bay, which
was formed by the crustal movements of the San Andreas fault system causing the inundation of
the lower reaches of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers.[7]
Bar built estuary:
Bar-built estuaries are found in place where the deposition of sediment has kept pace with rising
sea level so that the estuaries are shallow and separated from the sea by sand spits or barrier
islands. They are partially common in tropical and subtropical locations.
Coastal plain estuary:
Drowned river valleys are also known as coastal plain estuaries. In place where the sea level is
rising relative to the land, sea water progressively penetrates into river valleys and the
topography of the estuary remains similar to that of a river valley.
Topic No.56
Coastal wetlands
A productive waterlogged area present between land and open sea is known as coastal wetland.
Coastal wetlands are among the region’s most ecologically valuable and productive habitats.
Fish and wildlife depend on coastal wetlands for food and shelter. Scientists estimate that two
thirds of all Great Lakes fish use coastal wetlands for spawning and reproduction.
Coastal wetlands also play an essential role in maintaining the health of the Great Lakes aquatic
ecosystem by providing several important functions. They:
 Improve Great Lakes water quality by filtering pollutants and sediment;

 Store and cycle nutrients and organic material from land into the aquatic food web;
 Reduce flooding and erosion during periods of high water.
There are several different types of coastal wetlands in the Great Lakes basin. They vary in size
and structure, but all are connected to the Great Lakes either by surface water or groundwater.
Coastal wetlands are found in the areas between land and open sea that are not influenced by
rivers such as, shorelines, beaches, mangroves and coral reefs.
Mangrove swamp:
A good example is the mangrove swamps found in sheltered tropical coastal areas. The partly
submerged roots of mangrove trees spread out beneath the water to trap sediment and prevent it
being washed out to sea. Around 70% of tropical coastlines are mangrove-lined.
Shallow lakes and ponds:
These wetlands are areas of permanent or semi-permanent water with little flow. They include
vernal ponds, spring pools, salt lakes and volcanic crater lakes. They are small, shallow,
intermittently flooded depressions in grasslands or forests, and are often only wet in winter and
early spring.
Bogs:
Bogs are waterlogged Peatlands in old lake basins or depressions in the landscape. Almost all
water in bogs comes from rainfall. Bogs have specialized and unique flora that have evolved in
their nutrient-poor and acidic conditions, including for example the carnivorous pitcher plant. As
bogs are unsuitable for agriculture, forestry or development they offer an undisturbed habitat for
a wide range of species, including moose, black bear, lynx, snowshoe hare and mink.
Marshes and Swamps:

Also known as palustrine wetlands, marshes, swamps and fens account for almost half of all
wetlands throughout the world. Marshes are one of the broadest categories of wetlands and in
general harbor the greatest biological diversity. Marshes form in depressions in the landscape, as
fringes around lakes, and along slow-flowing streams and rivers. Marshes are dominated by
floating-leafed plants like water lilies and duckweed.
Importance of coastal wetlands

These coastal aquatic systems provide important ecological and economic services.
 Maintain water quality

 Filter toxic pollutants, excess plant nutrients, and sediments,
 They provide food,
 Habitats and nursery sites for a variety of aquatic and terrestrial species.
 They also reduce storm damage and coastal erosion by absorbing waves.
 Supply timber and fuel wood to coastal communities.
Topic No.57
Marine-water ecosystem
Marine water ecosystems are among the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems, salt marshes, intertidal

zones, estuaries, lagoons, mangroves, coral reefs, the deep sea, and the sea floor. They can be
contrasted with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover two-
thirds of the surface of the Earth. Marine aquatic systems are a great source of biodiversity. They
include many different ecosystems, which host a great variety of species, genes, biological and
chemical processes that occur in this ecosystem.
Marine water ecosystem sustains four major components of the earth’s biodiversity.
1. Ecological diversity
2. Functional diversity
3. Species diversity
4. Genetic diversity
1. Ecological diversity:
Ecological diversity is a type of biodiversity. It is the variation in the ecosystems found in a region
or the variation in ecosystems over the whole planet. Ecological diversity includes the variation
in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Ecological diversity can also take into account the
variation in the complexity of a biological community, including the number of different niches,
the number of trophic levels and other ecological processes. An example of ecological diversity
on a global scale would be the variation in ecosystems, such as deserts, forests, grasslands,
wetlands and oceans.
2. Functional diversity:
Functional diversity reflects the biological complexity of an ecosystem. Some scientists argue
that examining functional diversity may in fact be the most meaningful way of assessing
biodiversity while avoiding the difficult and usually impossible task of cataloging all species in
marine ecosystems. By focusing on processes, it may be easier to determine how an ecosystem
can most effectively be protected. Protecting biological functions will protect many of the
species that perform them. However, the exact function of most of the species is hardly known to
date.
3. Species diversity:
Species diversity refers to the measure of diversity in an ecological community. Species diversity
takes into consideration species richness, which is the total number of different species in a
community. It also takes into account evenness, which is the variation of abundance in
individuals per species in a community.
4. Genetic diversity:
Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species.
It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic
characteristics to vary.
Genetic diversity serves as a
way for populations to
adapt to changing
environments. With more
variation, it is more likely
that some individuals in a
population will possess
variations of alleles that are
suited for the environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to produce offspring
bearing that allele. The population will continue for more generations because of the success of
these individuals.
Topic No.58
Marine water life zones
Marine life is found in three major life zones:

1. The coastal zone
2. Open sea
3. Ocean bottom
o The coastal zone:

Coastal zone means the coastal waters (including the land therein and thereunder) and the
adjacent shorelands (including the waters therein and thereunder), strongly influenced by each
and in proximity to the shorelines of the several coastal states, and includes islands, transitional
and intertidal areas, salt marshes, wetlands and beaches.
o Open sea:
The part of ocean that is deep and away from the coastal zone is termed as Open Ocean. The
main body of a sea or ocean, especially the part that is outside territorial waters and not enclosed,
or partially enclosed, by land. On the basis of the light penetration open ocean is divided into
three vertical zones.
1. Euphotic zone
The euphotic zone is the depth of the water in a lake or ocean that is exposed to such intensity of
sunlight which designates compensation point, i.e. the intensity of light at which the rate of
carbon dioxide uptake, or equivalently, the rate of oxygen production, is equal to the rate of
carbon dioxide production, equivalently to the rate of oxygen consumption, reducing thus the net
carbon dioxide assimilation to zero.
2. Bathyal zone
The Bathyal zone – (also known as midnight zone) is the part of the pelagic zone that extends
from a depth of 1000 to 4000 meters (3300 to 13000 feet) below the ocean surface. It lies
between the mesopelagic above, and the abyssopelagic below. The average temperature hovers at
about 4 °C (39 °F). Although larger by volume than the euphotic zone, the Bathyal zone is less
densely populated. Sunlight does not reach this zone, meaning primary production, if any, is
almost nonexistent. It is known as the midnight zone because of this feature.
3. Abyssal zone
The abyssal zone or abyssopelagic is a layer of the pelagic zone of the ocean. At depths of 4,000
to 6,000 metres (13,123 to 19,685 feet), this zone remains in perpetual darkness and never
receives daylight. These regions are also characterised by continuous cold and lack of nutrients.
The abyssal zone has temperatures around 2 °C to 3 °C (35 °F to 37 °F) through the large
majority of its mass. It is the deeper part of the midnight zone which starts in
the bathypelagic waters above.
o Ocean floor:
The base of an ocean where most organisms of the deep waters get their food from marine
snow.Showers of dead and decaying organisms drifting downward from upper lighted levels of
the ocean are known as marine snow. Most of the oceans have a common structure, created by
common physical phenomena, mainly from tectonic movement, and sediment from various
sources.
Deposit feeders
Some of organisms found in Deep Ocean are deposit feeders. These organisms take mud into
their guts and extract nutrients from it. Some worms species are deposit feeders.
Filter feeders
Other organisms found in deep oceans are filter feeders. They take in large amount of water into
the body and then filter nutrients from it. Organisms like oysters, clams, and sponges are filter
feeders.
Topic No.59
Importance of marine ecosystem
The seas provide a unique set of goods and services to society, including moderation of climate,
processing of waste and toxicants, provision of vital food, medicines and employment for
significant numbers of people. Our coasts provide space to live and directly and indirectly create
wealth, including millions of jobs in industries such as fishing, aquaculture and tourism. About
97% of total volume of water on earth surface belongs to sea water. Oceans provide valuable
ecological and economic services. The overall economic benefit from marine coastal ecosystems
is over $12 trillion per year.
The main goods and services provided by marine ecosystems are:
 Resilience and resistance

 Disturbance prevention
 Nutrient cycling
 Gas and climate regulation
 Bioremediation of waste
 Food provision
 Raw materials, including ornamental resources
 Leisure
1. Resilience and resistance

Coastal and marine ecosystems are affected by environmental disturbance at a variety of spatio-
temporal scales. The organisms inhabiting these systems are adapted to such disturbance, either
by being tolerant of these conditions or by playing a role in one or more of the successional
stages that follow during ecosystem recovery. If all species in the system were tolerant to a
particular perturbation, very little would change at the ecosystem level, and we could call the
system resistant to this disturbance of hard or soft substrate.
2. Disturbance prevention
Living marine flora and fauna can play a valuable role in the defence of coastal regions
i.e. disturbance prevention. Marine ecosystems and the presence of organisms in the front line
of sea defence can dampen and prevent the impact of tidal surges, storms and floods providing a
'buffering' effect that protects humans from the effects of these destructive perturbations. This
disturbance alleviaion service is provided mainly by a diverse range of species which bind and
stabilise sediments and create matural sea grass defences, for example salt marshes, mangrove
forests and sea grass beds
3. Nutrient cycling
Sediments cover most of the seabed and hence most of the earth. Recycling of carbon and
nutrients within this habitat (both subtidally and intertidally) is critical both at small and large
scales. The availability of essential nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, and metals is
essential for life. Processes that aid nutrient cycling are crucial to ecosystem functioning, as this
increases the availability of nutrients and thus maintains productivity of the system. For example,
in the marine benthic environment, bioturbation by marine worms, mainly through burrowing in
the sediment, moves nutrients from deep sediment layers to the surface and vice versa.
4. Gas and climate regulation

Marine ecosystems are an important regulator of global climate. Biogeochemical processes such
as regulation of the CO2/O2 (carbon dioxide/oxygen) balance, maintenance of the ozone (O3)
layer and sulphur oxides (SOx) are necessary to maintain a healthy planet and a healthy human
population through the provision of breathable air. For example, marine plants and animals aid in
controlling carbon dioxide in the ocean, as phytoplankton remove it from the surface waters
while releasing oxygen. When phytoplanktons die, they sink and add to the supersaturation of
carbon dioxide in the deep sea. This results in a vertical gradient of CO2 in the ocean, which has
been termed the 'Biological Pump.
5. Bioremediation of waste
A significant amount of human waste settles on the seafloor, through wash off from land and
through transport from rivers and estuaries. Waste settling on the seabed is stored, assimilated,
diluted and recycled through chemical re-composition, these bioremediation processes which de-
toxify and purify waste and are of critical importance to the marine environment. Through either
direct or indirect activity, marine living organisms store, bury and transform many waste
materials through assimilation and chemical re-composition. For example, the bioturbation
activity (reworking and mixing of sediments) of mega- and macrofaunal organisms within the
seabed can bury, sequester and process waste material through assimilation and/or chemical
alteration.
6. Food provision
One of the most tangible services provided by the marine environment is the provision of
Food for human consumption. Plants and animals derived directly from marine biodiversity
provide a significant part of the human diet. Fisheries in particular, and the accompanying
employment, provide a significant example of the importance of this function.
However, those species that are harvested commercially tend to be very heavily exploited, with
stocks of many traditional favourites such as North Sea cod facing the threat of collapse.
Seaweeds such as giant kelp, nori and agarweed are also very important commercially,
historically being extremely important in East Asia.
7. Raw materials, including ornamental resources

The oceans are a source of natural raw materials such as medicines, feed for livestock,
polysaccharides and building materials. The potential for acquiring future raw materials from the
marine environment is enormous.
Natural medicines continue to be discovered through the wealth of diversity on the planet.
Although most medicines originate from sessile land plants, the ocean hosts many sessile
animals that defend themselves through chemical means. The oceans hosts a high biochemical
diversifies resulting from the high phyletic diversity in marine ecosystems, suggesting there may
be further potential to extract chemicals for pharmaceuticals from these organisms. An example
includes the extract (arabinosides), collected from the sponge Tethya crypta and used in the
treatment of herpes.
8. Leisure
Marine biodiversity provides the basis for a wide range of leisure and recreational activities
including: (sea) bird watching, rock pooling, beachcombing, sport fishing, recreational diving,
and whale-watching. The provision of leisure and recreation results in significant employment
opportunities.
Topic No.60
Aquatic life zones
Saltwater and freshwater life zones possess several major types of organisms. Most Aquatic
Species live in top, middle, or bottom Layers of Water.
1. Plankton
2. Nekton
3. Benthos
4. Decomposers
1. Plankton
A microscopic swimming and free floating organisms in water are termed as planktons.
Organisms - Saltwater and freshwater life zones contain several major types of organisms. One
such type consists of weakly swimming free-floating plankton, which can be divided into 3
groups.
 Phytoplankton
 Zooplankton
 Ultra plankton
Phytoplankton
Microscopic free floating plants are called as phytoplankton. Greek for "drifting plants" which
includes many types of Algae. Phytoplankton and various rooted plants near shorelines are the
primary producers that support most aquatic food webs.
Zooplankton
A microscopic drifting animal are known as zooplankton. Greek for "drifting animals". It
consists of primary consumers (herbivores), which feed on phytoplankton, and secondary
consumers, which feed on other zoo-plankton.
The members of this group range from single-celled protozoa to large invertebrates such as
jellysifhs.
Ultra plankton
Very small drifting plankton having size less than 2 micrometer is called as ultraplankton. Third
group consists of huge populations of much smaller plankton. These tiny photosynthetic bacteria
may be responsible for 70% of the primary productivity near the ocean surface.
2. Nekton
This class of organisms includes active swimmers that act as a consumer. Important examples of
nektons are fish, turtles and whales. Second major type of organisms - strongly swimming
consumers such as fish, turtles and whales.
3. Benthos
Third type of organisms - consists of bottom-dwellers such as: oysters and sea starts, which
anchor themselves to ocean bottom structures; clams and worms, which burrow into the sand or
mud; and lobsters and crabs, which walk about on the sea floor.
4. Decomposers
Mainly bacteria and fungi that break down dead and decaying organic matter and release
nutrients. These nutrients in turn are used by the primary producers for manufacturing food.
Topic No.61
Coral reefs
Coral reefs are diverse underwater ecosystems held together by calcium carbonate structures

secreted by corals. Coral reefs are built by colonies of tiny animals found in marine waters that
contain few nutrients. Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist
of polyps that cluster in groups. The polyps belong to a group of animals known as Cnidaria,
which also includes sea anemones and jellyfish. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard
carbonate exoskeletons which support and protect the coral polyps. Most reefs grow best in
warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters.
Formation
Most of the coral reefs we can see today were formed after the last glacial period when melting
ice caused the sea level to rise and flood the continental shelves. This means that most modern
coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established themselves on the shelves,
the reefs grew upwards, pacing rising sea levels. Reefs that rose too slowly could become
drowned reefs. They are covered by so much water that there was insufficient light. Coral reefs
are found in the deep sea away from continental shelves, around oceanic islands and as atolls.
Types of coral reefs
There are two main types of corals
1. Hard corals
Hard corals produce carbon calcium that creates a skeletal structure and soft corals do not
create carbon calcium, so the skeletal structure doesn't exist. Hard coral is the coral
responsible for creating and building up coral reefs. As skeletal structures die out, living corals
grow on top of the old skeletons. There are deep sea hard coral that do not contribute to reefs but
do create their own small coral colonies.
2. Soft corals
Soft coral looks like oceanic vegetation, but it is coral and does live within hard coral reefs. oft
coral looks like trees, fans or flowing branches. While soft coral does not create a reef, it can
grow its own soft coral colony of grasses and trees.
Importance of coral reefs

 Provide natural habitat
 Economic benefits
 Food
 Medicine
 Recreation
 Breeding grounds
 Nursing grounds
Topic No.62
Rocky and sandy shores
The area of shoreline between low and high tides is called the intertidal zone. These low and
high tides are produced due to gravitational pull of moon and sun. Organisms in this zone must
be able to survive against the wave impact and changing levels of salinity.
Rocky shore
A rocky shore is an intertidal area of seacoasts where solid rock predominates.
Rocky shores are biologically rich environments, and are a useful "natural laboratory" for
studying intertidal ecology and other biological processes. Due to their high accessibility, they
have been well studied for a long time and their species are well known. A rocky shore consists
of rocky ledges with pools of salty water, boulders, pebbles and other non-living things such as
air and sunlight. Living in this habitat is a community of hardy plants and animals; each species
is specially adapted for coping with the harsh environment around it.
Sandy shore
Sandy shores or beaches are loose deposits of sand, gravel or shells that cover the shoreline in
many places. They make up two-thirds of the world’s ice-free coastlines. Beaches serve as buffer
zones or shock absorbers that protect the coastline, sea cliffs or dunes from direct wave attack. It
is an extremely dynamic environment where sand, water and air are always in motion. Beaches
also provide important coastal recreational areas for a many people. Fine-grained sand beaches
tend to be quite flat. Sandy beaches and their adjoining coastal wetlands are a home to a variety
of shorebirds that feed in specialized niches on crustaceans, insects, and other organisms. Many
of these species also live on barrier islands Low, narrow, sandy islands that form offshore,
parallel to some coastlines.
Topic No.63
Soil (abiotic factor)
Soil is often considered an abiotic factor since it is mostly made up of small particles of rock
(sand and clay) mixed with decomposed plants and animals. Plants use their roots to get water
and nutrients from the soil. Soils are different from place to place this can be a big factor in
which plants and animals live in a certain area. Residual product of the chemical, physical and
biological breakdown of rock material that supports plant growth
Weathering is an important phenomenon in soil forming process.

Weathering
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as well as wood and artificial
materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters. Weathering occurs in
situ, roughly translated to: "with no movement", and thus should not be confused with erosion,
which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents such as water, ice, snow, wind,
waves and gravity and then being transported and deposited in other locations.
Weathering is classified into three types
1. Chemical weathering
2. Mechanical weathering
3. Biological weathering
1. Chemical weathering
Chemical weathering is the breakdown of rocks and minerals by changing their chemical
composition by water, carbon dioxide, oxygen and other compounds. Chemical weathering may
change the size of pieces of rock materials, but definitely changes the composition. So one type
of mineral changes into a different mineral. Chemical weathering works through chemical
reactions that cause changes in the minerals.
2. Mechanical weathering
Mechanical weathering is the process of breaking big rocks into little ones. This process usually
happens near the surface of the planet. Temperature also affects the land. The cool nights and hot
days always cause things to expand and contract. That movement can cause rocks to crack and
break apart.
3. Biological weathering
Biological weathering also means organic weathering. It is the disintegration of rocks as a result
of the action by living organisms. Plant and animals have a significant effect on the rocks as they
penetrate or burrow into the soil respectively. Biological weathering can work hand in hand with
physical weathering by weakening rock or exposing it to the forces of physical or chemical
weathering.
Topic No.64
Soil types
Soil type usually refers to the different sizes of mineral particles in a particular sample. Soil is
made up in part of finely ground rock particles, grouped according to size as sand and silt in
addition to clay, organic material such as decomposed plant matter.
Each component, and their size, plays an important role. For example, the largest particles, sand,
determine aeration and drainage characteristics, while the tiniest, sub-microscopic clay particles
and are chemically active, binding with water and plant nutrients. The ratio of these sizes
determines soil type: clay, loam, clay-loam, silt-loam, and so on.
In general soils are classified into

two main groups on the base of
climate,
1. Pedalfer soils
2. Pedocal soils
1. Pedalfer soils
Pedalfer is composed of aluminum and iron oxides. It is a subdivision of the zonal soil order
comprising a large group of soils in which sesquioxides increase relative to silica during soil
formation. Pedalfers usually occur in humid areas. Pedalfer soils are Acidic soils formed in
temperate (wet) climates and mostly are extensive leaching activity and Supports growth of
deciduous forests and tall grasses.
2. Pedocal soils
Pedocal is a subdivision of the zonal soil order. It is a class of soil which forms
in semiarid andarid regions. It is rich in calcium carbonate and has low soil organic matter. With
only a thin A horizon (topsoil), and intermittent precipitation calcite, other soluble minerals
ordinarily removed by water may build up in the B horizon (subsoil) forming a cemented layer
known as caliche. Pedocal soils promotes growth of desert shrubs and small and medium grasses.
Laterite soil
A special type of Pedocal that is bright red and forms in tropical and subtropical climates with
heavy rain and high temperature.
Caliche
A tough cemented layer developed by the dense mass of calcium carbonate.
Topic No.65
Soil profile
The soil profile is defined as a vertical section of the soil that is exposed by a soil pit. A soil pit is
a hole that is dug from the surface of the soil to the underlying bedrock. Because of the way soils
develop, most soil profiles are composed of a series of horizons, or layers of soil stacked on top
of one another like layers of a cake. These horizons can tell us a lot about how the soil formed
and what was going on around the soil in the past, much like a diary of the landscape.
In a typical soil profile, four zones are exposed,
 O-horizon
 A-horizon
 B-horizon
 C-horizon
1. O-horizon
This layer generally forms above the mineral soil or occurs in an organic soil profile. The "O"
stands for organic matter. It is a surface layer dominated by the presence of large amounts of
organic material derived from dead plant and/or animal residues which is in varying stages of
decomposition. The O horizon is generally absent in grassland regions. The O horizon usually
occurs in forested areas and is commonly referred to as the forest floor. The O horizon is a
surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at various stages of decomposition. It is
most prominent in forested areas where there is the accumulation of debris fallen from trees.
2. A-horizon
The A horizon is the topmost mineral horizon, often referred to as the 'topsoil'. This layer
generally contains enough partially decomposed (humified) organic matter to give the soil a
color darker than that of the lower horizons. The A horizons are often coarser in texture, having
lost some of the finer materials by translocation to lower horizons and by erosion. The A horizon
is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand, silt, and clay) and with appreciable
amounts of organic matter. This horizon is predominantly the surface layer of many soils in
grasslands and agricultural lands.
3. B-horizon
B horizons form below an O, A horizon and they have undergone sufficient changes during soil
genesis, such that the properties of their original parent material are no longer discernible. The B
horizon is commonly referred to as the "subsoil". In humid regions, B horizons are the layers of
maximum accumulation of materials such as silicate clays, iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) oxides,
and organic material.
4. C-horizon
The C horizon (parent material) is below the B Horizon. This layer is little affected by soil-
forming processes and they thus have a lack of pedological development. In other words, the C
horizon is the unconsolidated material underlying the solum (A and B horizons). It may or may
not be the same as the parent material from which the solum formed. The C horizon forms as the
R horizon weathers and rocks break up into smaller particles. The C horizon is a subsurface
horizon. It is the least weathered horizon. Also known as the saprolite, it is unconsolidated, loose
parent material.
Topic No.66
Temperature
(abiotic factor)
Temperature is an abiotic factor that is strongly influenced by sunlight. Temperature plays an

important role for animals that cannot regulate their own body temperature, such as reptiles.
Unlike humans, whose normal body temperature is usually around 98.6F, reptiles (such as
snakes and lizards) cannot maintain a constant body temperature. Reptiles are usually found in
warm regions around the planet. To regulate their body temperatures, reptiles will sun
themselves on rocks, which absorb heat from sunlight and then radiate heat back into the
environment. Temperature regulates the activity of cold blooded and warm blooded animals.
1. Warm blooded animals
Warm-blooded animal species can maintain a body temperature higher than their environment.
In particular, homoeothermic species maintain a stable body temperature by regulating metabolic
processes. The only known homeotherms are birds and mammals. Other species have various
degrees of thermoregulation.
Animal body temperature control varies by species, so the terms "warm-blooded" and "cold-
blooded" give a false idea of there being only two categories of body temperature control, and
are no longer used scientifically.
2. Cold blooded animals

Animals whose internal body temperature changes with respect to external environmental
temperature. Also called Poikilotherms because they are at mercy of environmental temperature.
Cold-blooded animals, like reptiles, amphibians, and fish, become hotter and colder, depending
on the temperature outside. For example, when the sun sets at night, their bodies are cooler
because it is less warm outside. When the sun is out, however, their bodies soak up the heat and
become warmer.
Importance of temperature
 Metabolism
 Seed germination
 Opening and closing of flowers
 Seasonal falling of tree leaves
Topic No.67
Thermoregulation
Thermoregulation is the process that allows the human body to maintain its core internal
temperature. The state of having an even internal temperature is called homeostasis. All
thermoregulation mechanisms are designed to return the body to homeostasis.
A healthy, safe temperature has a very narrow window – between 98°F (37°C) and 100°F
(37.8°C). Within a few degrees of that range, you may experience signs related to body
temperature changes. For example, if your body temperature falls just 3 degrees to 95°F (35°C),
you might experience hypothermia. Hypothermia can cause cardiac arrest, stroke, or even death.
At 107.6 °F (42 °C), you could suffer brain damage as a result of temperatures that are too high.
Types of Thermoregulation
When your brain receives a temperature warning from your body, it sends signals to various
organs and body systems, which try to slow or increase heat production.
If your body needs to cool down, these include:
 Sweating: Sweating is one of the first methods your body will use to control your
temperature. Sweat cools your skin as it evaporates. This helps lower your internal
temperature.
 Vasodilatation: Your CNS may instruct the capillaries under the surface of your skin to
dilate, or open. Vasodilatation, or enlarged capillaries, increases blood flow at the skin
surface. This lets your body release heat through radiation.
If your body needs to warm up, these include:
 Stopping sweating: Your nervous system can lower sweat production to help maintain
the heat your body generates.
 Vasoconstriction: Your CNS may signal your capillaries to constrict, or become
narrower. This decreases blood flow under the skin and reduces heat loss.
 Thermogenesis: Your body’s muscles, organs, and brain can produce heat when your
internal temperature is sinking. This process is called thermogenesis. Muscles are
especially effective at thermogenesis. They can produce large quantities of heat quickly.
Shivering is one way muscles generate heat.
Animals are adapted to various activities for regulation of body temperature during unfavourable
environment.
Importance of temperature:
 Metabolism
 Seed germination
 Opening and closing of flowers
 Seasonal falling of tree leaves
 Growth and development
 Animals migration
 Reproduction
Enzymes biological catalysts need a specific temperature called optimum temperature for their
proper functioning. Improper temperature makes the enzymes unable to perform their catalytic
activity. In high temperatures the three dimensional structure of enzymes may denature.
Topic No.68
Ectotherms
An ectotherm is an organism in which internal physiological sources of heat are of relatively

small or quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature. Such organisms (for
example frogs) rely on environmental heat sources, which permit them to operate at very
economical metabolic rates. Colloquially, some refer to these organisms as "cold blooded" though
such a term is not technically correct, as the blood temperature of the organism varies with
ambient environmental temperature. Some of these animals live in environments where
temperatures are practically constant, as is typical of regions of the abyssal ocean. The
ectotherms include the fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and invertebrates. The body temperatures of
aquatic ectotherms are usually very close to those of the water. In contrast, in places where
temperature varies so widely as to limit the physiological activities of other kinds of ectotherms,
many species habitually seek out external sources of heat or shelter from heat;
For example, many reptiles regulate their body temperature by basking in the sun, or seeking
shade when necessary in addition to a whole host of other behavioral thermoregulation
mechanisms. In contrast to ectotherms, endotherms rely largely, even predominantly, on heat
from internal metabolic processes.
Characteristics of Ectotherms
 Low metabolic rate
 Generate body heat from external environment
 Body insulation is very poor
Topic No.69
Endotherms
An endotherm is an organism that maintains its body at a metabolically favorable temperature,

largely by the use of heat set free by its internal bodily functions instead of relying almost purely
on ambient heat. Such internally generated heat is mainly an incidental product of the animal's
routine metabolism, but under conditions of excessive cold or low activity an endotherm might
apply special mechanisms adapted specifically to heat production.
Examples
Examples include special-function muscular exertion such as shivering, and uncoupled oxidative
metabolism such as within brown adipose tissue. Only birds and mammals are extant universally
endothermic groups of animals. Certain lamnid sharks, tuna and billfishes are also endothermic.
Mechanisms
Generating and conserving heat:

Many endotherms have a larger number of mitochondria per cell than ectotherms. This enables
them to generate heat by increasing the rate at which they metabolize fats and sugars.
Accordingly, to sustain their higher metabolism, endothermic animals typically require several
times as much food as ectothermic animals do, and usually require a more sustained supply of
metabolic fuel. In many endothermic animals, a controlled temporary state
of hypothermia conserves energy by permitting the body temperature to drop nearly to ambient
levels. Such states may be brief, regular circadian cycles called torpor, or they might occur in much
longer, even seasonal, cycles called hibernation. The body temperatures of many small birds
(e.g. hummingbirds) and small mammals (e.g. tenrecs) fall dramatically during daily inactivity,
such as nightly in diurnal animals or during the day in nocturnal animals, thus reducing the energy
cost of maintaining body temperature.
Sustained energy output of an endothermic animal (mammal) and an ectothermic animal

(reptile) as a function of core temperature.
Characteristics of Endotherms
 High rate of metabolism
 Generate heat from body cellular activities
 Body insulation by fur or feather
Topic No.70
Torpor
Torpor is a state of decreased physiological activity in an animal, usually by a reduced body

temperature and metabolic rate. Torpor is a mechanism that is under physiological control.Animals
can regain its normal body activities in a short period of time after remaining in a state of
torpor.Torpor enables animals to survive periods of reduced food availability. A torpor bout can
refer to the period of time a hibernator spends at low body temperature, lasting days to weeks, or
it can refer to a period of low body temperature and metabolism lasting less than 24 hours, as in
"daily torpor".
Examples
 Animals that undergo daily torpor include birds (even tiny hummingbirds, including
many marsupial species. During the active part of their day, such animals maintain normal
body temperature and activity levels, but their metabolic rate and body temperature drops
during a portion of the day (usually night) to conserve energy. Torpor is often used to
help animals survive during periods of colder temperatures, as it allows them to save the
energy that would normally be used to maintain a high body temperature.
 Torpor is generally found in small birds mammals and bats because they have to expend
less energy to return to normal body functions.
 Torpor is a well-controlled thermoregulatory process and not, as previously thought the

result of switching off thermoregulation. Marsupial torpor differs from non-marsupial
mammalian (Eutherial) torpor in the characteristics of arousal. Eutherial arousal relies on
a heat-producing brown adipose tissue as a mechanism to accelerate rewarming. The
mechanism of marsupial arousal is unknown, but appears not to rely on brown adipose
tissue.
Topic No.71
Hibernation
Hibernation is a state of inactivity and metabolic depression in endotherms. Hibernation refers to

a season of heterothermy that is characterized by low body temperature, slow breathing and heart
rate, and low metabolic rate. Although traditionally reserved for "deep" hibernators such
as rodents, the term has been redefined to include animals such as bears and is now applied based
on active metabolic suppression rather than based on absolute body temperature decline. Many
experts believe that the processes of daily torpor and hibernation form a continuum and utilize
similar mechanisms.
Hibernation process
o During hibernation the animal’s body temperature drops, and its heartbeat and its
breathing slow down so that it does not use much energy.
o Hibernating animals get ready for their winter sleep by eating extra food and storing it as
body fat which they then use as energy while sleeping. There are two types of fat –
regular white fat and brown fat. The brown fat forms patches near the animal’s brain,
heart and lungs. It sends a quick burst of energy to warm these organs first when it is time
to wake up.
o Some hibernators go into such a deep sleep that it is almost impossible to wake them, and
they appear to be dead.
o If the temperature falls too low some animals will awaken slightly and shiver to warm up
a bit. Even when the weather is severe, hibernators may wake up for a short period every
few weeks to use their ‘toilet rooms’ and eat a little food if it is available.
Examples
 True hibernation occurs in small mammals, such as rodents, shrews, and bats etc.
 Reptiles and Amphibians. Snakes hibernate during the cold of winter because they're cold
blooded animals.
 Most bees, wasps and their kin hibernate in one way or another.
Topic No.72
Hibernation
vs.
winter sleep
True hibernation occurs in small animals in which temperature substantially falls to remain alive
in cold environment. Animals remain inactive for weeks or even for months. Body temperature
does not falls substantially and sleeping animals can wake and active quickly. It lasts for short
period of time. Large animals have more energy reserves that enable them to survive in winter.
There are physiological aspects of sleep that are
similar to hibernation, such as a reduced heart and
breathing rate and lowered body temperature, but
these changes are very slight compared to
hibernation. Sleep is also pretty easy to break out
of; if you are awakened from even deep sleep you
can be fully awake within several minutes. Sleep is
a mostly mental change and is primarily
characterized by changes in brain activity.
The key difference between hibernation and

sleeping is that hibernating animals aren't just
sleeping. They undergo drastic physiological
changes. The most significant element of
hibernation is a drop in body temperature, which
can sometimes be as much as 18 C. The vital signs
of a hibernating animal are very different from the
vital signs of an awake animal. When an animal
awakes from hibernation, it exhibits many signs of
sleep deprivation and needs time over the next few
days to recover.
There are physiological aspects of sleep that are
similar.
Topic No.73
Aestivation
Aestivation is characterized by inactivity and a lowered metabolic rate that is entered in response

to high temperatures and arid conditions. It takes place during times of heat and dryness, the hot
dry season, which are often the summer months. Invertebrate and vertebrate animals are known
to enter this state to avoid damage from high temperatures and the risk of desiccation. Both
terrestrial and aquatic animals undergo aestivation.Aestivation is a kind of adaptation in some
animals that helps them to survive in extended periods of drying. The animal usually enters a
burrow as its environment begins to dry. It generally does not eat or drink and emerges again
after moisture returns.
1) Invertebrates
Molluscs
Gastropoda: Some air-breathing land snails, including species in the
genera Helix,Cernuella, Theba, Helicella, Achatina and Otala, commonly aestivate during
periods of heat. Some species move into shaded vegetation or rubble. Others climb up tall plants,
including crop species as well as bushes and trees, and will also climb man-made structures such
as posts, fences, etc.
Arthropods
a) Insecta: Lady beetles (Coccinellidae) have been
reported to aestivate. Mosquitoes also are
reported to undergo aestivation.
b) Crustacea: Many land crabs spend dry seasons in

an inactive state at the bottom of their burrows.
2) Vertebrates
Mammals and reptiles

Mammals
Although relatively uncommon, a small number of mammals aestivate. According to the
Oakland Zoo in California, East African hedgehogs are thought to aestivate during the dry
season
Reptiles
A reptile like chuckwalla (Sauromalus obesus) survives in summer temperatures of 40° C (104°
F). To withstand these hot and dry conditions, chuckwallas disappear below ground and
aestivate.
Topic No.74
Light (abiotic factor)
Light
Light is the main source of energy for organisms. Natural light has an important part to play in
the life of most plants as it is utilized by them for the process of photosynthesis where light
energy is converted into chemical energy and into complex organic substances important for
growth, flowering and germination. Plants as food source indirectly transfer the energy to
animals. For animals the intensity of light affects their skin color, sensitivity, sight etc. There are
insects that use UV light to distinguish between flowers and many experts believe that birds too
orient themselves in a specific direction depending on the slight difference of UV light reflected
from object such as trees. Light not only is an energy source but an important factor for
maintaining the biological rhythm of life.
Plants receive light energy directly from sun to produce food by the process of photosynthesis.
With the help of light energy plants can produce food and also oxygen for all living organisms
which are dependent on plants for this purpose.
Product of photosynthesis is food and oxygen. Both these are valuable for animals survival.
Animals take oxygen and expel carbon dioxide which is turning used by the plants for
photosynthesis.
Measuring Light Intensity
Light meters can be used to measure light intensity. The meter is held at the soil surface and
pointed in the direction of the maximum light intensity, and then the meter is read. Errors can be
made when measuring light intensity by accidentally shading the light meter. Results can be
made more reliable by taking many samples.
Role of light
i. The quality of light affects the aquatic ecosystems, the blue and red light is absorbed here
and it does not penetrate deep into the water. Some algae have specialized pigments that
absorbs the other colors of light.
ii. The intensity of light depends upon the latitude and the season of the year. During the
period from March to September the Southern Hemisphere receives less than 12 hours of
sunlight while it receives more than 12 hours of sunlight during the rest of the year.
iii. Some plants flower only during a certain time of the year. One of the factors is due to the
length of dark period. Depending on the intensity of light the plants are classified as
short-day plants (Example Chrysanthemum sp., Datura stramoniumetc.) Long-day plants
(Examples - Spinach, barley, wheat, radish, clover, etc.) Day-neutral plants (Examples -
Tomato, maize, etc.)
Topic No.75
Electromagnetic radiations
Electromagnetic radiation (EM radiation or EMR) is the radiant energy released by

certain electromagnetic processes. Visible light is an electromagnetic radiation. Other familiar
electromagnetic radiations are invisible to the human eye, such as radio waves, infrared light and
X-rays.
Classically, electromagnetic radiation consists of electromagnetic waves, which are synchronized
oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate at the speed of light through a vacuum.
The oscillations of the two fields are perpendicular to each other and perpendicular to the
direction of energy and wave propagation, forming a transverse wave. Electromagnetic waves
can be characterized by either the frequency or wavelength of their oscillations to form
the electromagnetic spectrum, which includes, in order of increasing frequency and decreasing
wavelength: radio waves, microwaves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation, X-
rays and gamma rays.
This diagram shows a plane linearly polarized EMR wave propagating from left to right. The
electric field is in a vertical plane and the magnetic field in a horizontal plane. The electric and
magnetic fields in EMR waves are always in phase and at 90 degrees to each other.
Properties
 Electrodynamics is the physics of electromagnetic radiation, and electromagnetism is the

physical phenomenon associated with the theory of electrodynamics. Electric and
magnetic fields obey the properties of superposition. Thus, a field due to any particular
particle or time-varying electric or magnetic field contributes to the fields present in the
same space due to other causes. Further, as they are vector fields, all magnetic and electric
field vectors add together according to vector addition.
 Electromagnetic radiations of short wavelength have more energy content than the
electromagnetic radiations of long wavelength. Visible light makes up most of the
spectrum of electromagnetic radiation emitted by the sun.
 The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation released by the sun consists mostly of visible
light.
Topic No.76
Energy quality
The quality of energy is defined as the relative amount of mechanical work that can be generated
in a theoretical conversion process. In the literature we can find several terms that refer to the
mechanical work content of a certain quantity such as the energy or availability. Analysis based
on this concept can be called energy analysis or second law analysis. This refers to the basic
thermodynamic laws of energy where the first law tells us that the energy is always conserved
while the second law tells us that all irreversible processes increase the entropy of the total
energy of the system or in other words the quality, or the ability of the energy of the system to
generate mechanical work is lost. Since energy demanding processes require energy quality on
different levels minimum loss of quality for one process will make the energy flow useful for
other processes. If we instead use a heat pump which can generate 3 times more heat at low
quality than the electricity put in the total electrical energy needed has been reduced to 1/9 of the
output.
The need for high quality energy can be radically reduced with good energy quality management
along with energy conservation.
Two types of energy on the base of energy

Quality,
1. High quality energy
2. Low quality energy
High quality energy is organized or concentrated to perform useful work. High-

quality energy is concentrated form of energy and has a high capacity to do useful
work.
Examples are,
 Very high-temperature heat
 Nuclear fission
 Concentrated sunlight
 High-velocity wind
 Energy released by burning natural gas, gasoline, or coal.
Low-quality energy
Low quality energy is any form of energy which is dispersed and disorderly, and has less
potential or ability to be utilized for work. It is directly contrasted with high quality kinds of
energy. This perception of energy quality is linked to the concept of entropy, which is a measure
of how disorderly a kind of energy may be. The more disorderly, the less useful it is. The total
amount of heat stored in the Atlantic Ocean is greater than the amount of high quality chemical
energy stored in all the oil deposits of Saudi Arabia. But wide dispersion of this ocean’s heat
energy makes it unable to do useful work.
Topic No.77
Community ecology
Community ecology is the study of the interactions between species in communities on many
spatial and temporal scales, including the distribution, structure, abundance, demography,
and interactions between coexisting populations. The primary focus of community ecology is on
the interactions between populations as determined by specific genotypic and phenotypic
characteristics. Community ecology has its origin in European plant sociology. Modern
community ecology examines patterns such as variation in species richness,
equitability, productivity and food web structure (see community structure); it also examines
processes such as predator–prey population dynamics, succession, and community assembly.
Predation
The most obvious form of species interaction is when one species eats another, predation being
the technical term for this unfortunate fate. The predator is the organism that does the eating,
the prey the one that gets eaten. A simple way to depict who eats what is by drawing a food
chain, with the arrows pointing in the direction the food is going, i.e. to the predator. For
example, take this food chain found off the shore of Nanortalik. The algae get eaten by the
herring, which in turn gets eaten by the cod, which gets eaten by the seal, which is devoured by
the orca.
The organisms at the bottom of food chains (or far left when drawn horizontally), usually plants,
are called producers. They produce food by converting carbon in the atmosphere, i.e.
through photosynthesis. The herbivores that eat the plants, or the algae in this case, are
called primary consumers (like the herring), and the carnivores that eat the primary consumers
are secondary consumers (like the cod). Tertiary consumers such as seals eat secondary
consumers, and so on. The orca is said to be 'at the top of the food chain' because it has no
natural predators. It is considered a quaternary consumer, or top predator.
For example, from the diagram we can see that the herring mentioned above is also part of other
food chains involving the humpback whale or the Greenland shark as secondary consumers.
Competition
Another way, in which populations within a community interact, without eating each other, is
through competition. Two species that share the same diet will compete for their food. From the
food web diagram above, we can see that the wolfish, sand eels, cod, and walrus will all be
competing for small invertebrates such as crabs, while the krill, herring, and small invertebrates
compete for algae.
Organisms also compete for space with both, members of their own species as well as member of
other species. They also compete for the natural resources like nutrients and shelter etc.
Topic No.78
Species composition
Species composition is all the different living organisms that develop or compose a community
within an ecosystem. Species composition is an important tool for the determination of
community structure of a specific place.
Species composition refers to all of the living things within a specific environment. Study of
species composition tells us how an ecosystem works as well as the importance of each species
in that ecosystem.It is expressed as a percent. Species composition can be expressed on either an
individual species basis, or by species groups.
It is used as an important
indicator for
analyzing ecological
and management
processes occurring at a particular site.
Species composition can be used as an indicator by two ways,
 Ecological indicators
 Management indicators
1. Ecological indicators
Species composition provides the essential description of the character of the vegetation at a
site. Certain images are readily understood when major species are mentioned, eg pinon
(Pinus sp.) - juniper (Juniperus sp.) woodland, and other common species are also presumed to
be present as one becomes familiar with the vegetation.
These distinctions form the basis of rangeland mapping and the delineation of range site
boundaries.
The relative contribution of a species also signifies its dominance in the vegetation and its ability
to capture resources. Slightly different inferences of competitive ability are suggested if species
composition is expressed on the basis of cover, density, or biomass measurements.
2. Management indicators
Most objectives in rangeland management are directly concerned with the assessment or
manipulation of species composition. For example, carrying capacity is influenced by the relative
abundance of desirable forage species at a site. Wildlife habitat is also influenced by the relative
contribution of various species that provide sources of shelter and food. Species composition is
used to determine range condition and range trend, which are valuable tools to judge the impact
of previous management and guide future decisions.
Topic No.79
Species richness
Species richness is the number of different species represented in an ecological community,
landscape or region. Species richness is simply a count of species, and it does not take into
account the abundances of the species or their relative abundance distributions. Species diversity takes
into account both species richness and species evenness. Species richness is a common measure of
variety of life on earth
1. Species abundance
Species abundance is the percent composition of an organism of a particular kind relative to the
total number of organisms in the area. Relative species abundance and species richness describe
key elements of biodiversity. Relative species abundance refers to how common or rare a species
is relative to other species in a given location or community.
Usually relative species abundances are described for a single trophic level. Because such
species occupy the same trophic level they will potentially or actually compete for similar
resources. For example, relative species abundances might describe all terrestrial birds in a forest
community or all planktonic copepods in a particular marine environment.
2. Species evenness
Species evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species that contribute to
the richness of an area. As species richness and evenness increase, species diversity also
increases. Evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the different species making up the
richness of an area. To give an example, we might have sampled two different fields for
wildflowers. The sample from the first field consists of 300 daisies, 335 dandelions and 365
buttercups. The sample from the second field comprises 20 daisies, 49 dandelions and 931
buttercups (see the table below). Both samples have the same richness (3 species) and the same
total number of individuals (1000). However, the first sample has more evenness than the
second. This is because the total number of individuals in the sample is quite evenly distributed
between the three species. In the second sample, most of the individuals are buttercups, with only
a few daisies and dandelions present. Sample 2 is therefore considered to be less diverse than
sample 1.
Numbers of individuals
Flower Species Sample 1 Sample 2
Daisy 300 20
Dandelion 335 49
Buttercup 365 931
Total 1000 1000

Topic No.80
Species diversity and dominance
individuals per species in a community.
Communities with more species are considered more diverse than those with fewer. A
community with less variation in the relative abundance of individuals per species is considered
more even than one with more variation. Communities that are more even are also said to be
more diverse. Several mathematical equations exist that incorporate evenness and abundance to
measure species diversity.
1. Species dominance
Species dominance refers to the biological supremacy of species that influence the ecosystem by
controlling the energy flow in that ecosystem. Species dominance has an inverse relation with
species diversity. Communities with low diversity usually have low evenness and are often high-
dominance assemblages.
2. Species hotspots
Species hotspots are geographic regions that support high level of species diversity. Tropical
rainforests are one of important species hotspots region in the world because they are home to
more than 50% species. A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region that is both a significant
reservoir of biodiversity and is threatened with destruction. The term biodiversity hotspot
specifically refers to 25 biologically rich areas around the world that have lost at least 70 percent
of their original habitat.The remaining natural habitat in these biodiversity hotspots amounts to
just 1.4 percent of the land surface of the planet, yet supports nearly 60 percent of the world's
plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species.
Topic No.81
Succession
Succession is the process of change in the species structure of an ecological community over

time. The time scale can be decades (for example, after a wildfire), or even millions of years
after a mass extinction.
The community begins with relatively few pioneering plants and animals and develops through
increasing complexity until it becomes stable or self-perpetuating as a climax community. The
ʺengineʺ of succession, the cause of ecosystem change, is the impact of established species upon
their own environments. A consequence of living is the sometimes subtle and sometimes overt
alteration of one's own environment .Succession after disturbance: a boreal forest one year (left)
and two years (right) after a wildfire.
During succession some species colonize an area and their populations become more numerous,
while populations of other species decline and may even disappear.
Factors
 Successional change can be influenced by site conditions, by the character of the events
initiating succession (perturbations), by the interactions of the species present, and by
more stochastic factors such as availability of colonists or seeds or weather conditions at
the time of disturbance. Some of these factors contribute to predictability of succession
dynamics; others add more probabilistic elements. Two important perturbation factors
today are human actions and climatic change
 In general, communities in early succession will be dominated by fast-growing, well-
dispersed species (opportunist, fugitive, or r-selected life-histories). As succession proceeds,
these species will tend to be replaced by more competitive (k-selected) species.
1. Autogenic succession
Autogenic succession is driven by the biotic components of an ecosystem. Autogenic succession is
brought about by internal biological processes
o Shading by development of a tree canopy
o Accumulation of litter
2. Allogenic succession
Allogenic succession is succession driven by the abiotic components of an ecosystem. An
allogenic succession can be brought about in a number of ways which can include:
 Volcanic eruptions
 Meteor or comet strike
 Flooding
 Drought
 Earthquakes
 Non-anthropogenic climate change
Ecological succession is a process of gradual changes that causes the plants, animals, fungi and
microorganism to become established in an area.
Types of succession
Succession is of two types
1. Primary succession
2. Secondary succession
Succession benefits
1. Development of an ecosystem.
2. Sustainability of ecosystem.
3. Recovery of ecosystem from damage caused by humans or any other natural disaster.
4. Balance of nature
Topic No.82
Primary succession
The process by which a new community is propagated or initiated in an area where previously no
life forms exist is termed as primary succession. Primary succession takes thousands of years to
develop by the gradual accumulation of nutrients. Primary succession is one of two types of
biological and ecological succession of plant life, occurring in an environment in which
new substrate devoid of vegetation and other organisms usually lacking soil, such as a lava flow
or area left from retreated glacier, is deposited. In other words, it is the gradual growth of an
ecosystem over a longer period.
 A good example of primary succession takes place after a volcano has erupted. The lava
flows into the ocean and hardens into new land. The resulting barren land is first
colonized by pioneer plants which pave the way for later, less hardy plants, such
as hardwood trees, by facilitating pedogenesis, especially through the biotic acceleration
of weathering and the addition of organic debris to the surface regolith.
Attributes of primary succession

1. Pioneer community
The variety of plants, animals and fungi that first colonize a barren habitat is known as a
pioneer community. These organisms are the first in the order of biological succession for that
habitat and are followed first by seral communities and then by climax communities. Generally,
some drastic change to the habitat occurs, destroying the previous biological community, before
the pioneer community organisms enter.
2. Pioneers
The organisms that develop this pioneer community are called pioneers.
3. Seral stage
A phase in the sequential development of a climax community
4. Sere
Sere is an intermediate stage found in ecological succession in an ecosystem advancing towards
its climax community. In many cases more than one seral stage evolves until climax conditions are
attained. A prisere is a collection of seres making up the development of an area from non-
vegetated surfaces to a climax community.
5. Climax community
The relatively stable and uniform community developed by the pioneers through different
successional stages is named as climax community. It is a final and mature stage of any
community.
Primary succession on a sand dune. Beach grass is the first species to become established. It
stabilizes the dune so that shrubs, and eventually trees, can grow.
Topic No.83
Secondary succession
Secondary succession is one of the two types of ecological succession of plant life. As opposed
to the first, primary succession, secondary succession is a process started by an event (e.g. forest
fire, harvesting, hurricane) that reduces an already established ecosystem (e.g. a forest or a wheat
field) to a smaller population of species, and as such secondary succession occurs on
preexisting soil whereas primary succession usually occurs in a place lacking soil.
Simply put, secondary succession is the ecological succession that occurs after the initial
succession has been disrupted and some plants and animals still exist. It is usually faster than
primary succession as:
1. Soil is already present, so there is no need for pioneer;

2. Seeds, roots and underground vegetative organs of plants may still survive in the soil.
Secondary succession begins in an area where an ecosystem has been disturbed, removed, or
destroyed, but some soil or bottom sediment remains. This remaining soil or sediments provide a
framework that initiates the pioneers to grow.
Examples of secondary succession include
1. The renewal of a forest after a fire:
The fire itself destroys a majority of different types of trees and plant life. Because seeds and
roots and other plant and tree parts remain in and on the soil, gradually the plants and trees begin
to grow again and eventually return to the state of the original ecosystem.
2. The renewal of a crop after harvesting:

A crop is completely harvested when it becomes ripe. Without new seeds being planted, the crop
can regenerate the following year due to the plants and seeds that remained after harvesting.
3. A forest renews after logging:

A large amount of trees were chopped down by loggers in order to create building materials.
Over time, trees grow in and the area returns to its previous state.
Candidates for secondary succession include

 Abandoned farmland
 Burned or cut forests
 Heavily polluted streams
 Flooded lands
Topic No.84
How Living systems are sustained
Living systems are open self-organizing living things that interact with their environment. These
systems are maintained by flows of information, energy and matter.
 Some scientists have proposed in the last few decades that a general living systems theory
is required to explain the nature of life. Such a general theory, arising out of
the ecological and biological sciences, attempts to map general principles for how all
living systems work. Instead of examining phenomena by attempting to break things
down into components, a general living systems theory explores phenomena in terms of
dynamic patterns of the relationships of organisms with their environment.
 All living systems from a cell to the biosphere are dynamic systems that are constantly
changing in response to changing environmental conditions. Living systems contain
complex networks of positive and negative feedback loops that interact to provide some
degree of stability, or sustainability, over each system’s expected life span.
Positive feedback loop

A positive feedback loop causes a system to change further in the same direction from which it is
moving. For example when vegetation is removed from a stream valley, flowing water from
precipitation causes erosion and loss of nutrients, which causes more vegetation to die. With
even less vegetation to hold soil in place, flowing water causes even more erosion and nutrient
loss, which causes even more plants to die.
Negative feedback loop

A negative, or corrective, feedback loop causes a system to change in the opposite direction from
which it is moving. A simple example is a thermostat, a device that controls how often, and how
long a heating or cooling system runs.
It is useful to distinguish among two aspects of stability in living systems.

1. Inertia or persistence
The ability of a living system, such as grassland or a forest, to survive in conditions of moderate
disturbances.
2. Resilience
The ability of a living system to be restored through secondary succession after a moderate
disturbance.
Topic No.85
Interspecific competition
Interspecific competition is a form of competition in which individuals of

different species compete for the same resource in an ecosystem (e.g. food or living space). The
other form of competition is intraspecific competition, which involves organisms of the same
species.
If a tree species in a dense forest grows taller than surrounding tree species, it is able to absorb
more of the incoming sunlight. However, less sunlight is then available for the trees that are
shaded by the taller tree, thus interspecific competition. Leopard sand lions can also be in
interspecific competition, since both species feed on the same prey, and can be negatively
impacted by the presence of the other because they will have less food.
Intraspecific competition
Intraspecific competition is an interaction in population ecology, whereby members of the
same species compete for limited resources. This leads to a reduction in fitness for both
individuals. By contrast, interspecific occurs when members of different species compete for a
shared resource. Members of the same species have very similar resources requirements whereas
different species have a smaller contested resource overlap , resulting in intraspecific competition
generally being a stronger force than interspecific competition.
Individuals can compete for food, water, space, light, mates or any other resource which is required for
survival or reproduction. The resource must be limited for competition to occur; if every member
of the species can obtain a sufficient amount of every resource then individuals do not compete
and the population grows exponentially.
When members of different species compete for resources, one species may be forced to move or
become extinct, or the two species may share the resource and coexist. Most studies have shown
that competing species can coexist. Coexistence can occur when species utilize resources in
slightly different ways.
Robert MacArthur studied five species of warblers that all used the same caterpillar prey.
Warblers partitioned their spruce tree habitats by dividing a tree into preferred regions for
foraging. Although foraging regions overlapped, competition was limited, and the five species
coexisted.
Topic No.86
Coevolution
Coevolution is used to describe cases where two (or more) species reciprocally affect each other's
evolution. So for example, an evolutionary change in the morphology of a plant, might affect the
morphology of an herbivore that eats the plant, which in turn might affect the evolution of the
plant, which might affect the evolution of the herbivore.
Coevolution is likely to happen when different species have close ecological interactions with
one another. These ecological relationships include:
1. Predator/prey and parasite/host

2. Competitive species
3. Mutualistic species
 Plants and insects represent a classic case of coevolution one that is often, but not always,
mutualistic. Many plants and their pollinators are so reliant on one another and their
relationships are so exclusive that biologists have good reason to think that the "match"
between the two is the result of a co-evolutionary process.
 But we can see exclusive "matches" between plants and insects even when pollination is
not involved. Some Central American Acacia species have hollow thorns and pores at the
bases of their leaves that secrete nectar (see image at right). These hollow thorns are the
exclusive nest-site of some species of ant that drink the nectar. But the ants are not just
taking advantage of the plant they also defend their acacia plant against herbivores.
 Flowers pollinated by hummingbirds, are often tubular and red. Hummingbirds have a
poor sense of smell but see red very well. The long beak of hummingbirds is an
adaptation that allows them to reach far into tubular flowers.
 An example of antagonistic coevolution is the old world swallowtail (Papilio machaon)

caterpillar living on the fringed rue (Ruta chalepensis) plant. The rue produces etheric oils
which repel plant-eating insects. The old world swallowtail caterpillar developed
resistance to these poisonous substances, thus reducing competition with other plant-
eating insects.
Topic No.87
Symbiosis
Symbiosis is a close and often long-term interaction between two different biological species. In
1877 Albert Bernhard Frank used the word symbiosis (which previously had been used to depict
people living together in community) to describe the mutualistic relationship in lichens. Some
symbiotic relationships are obligate, meaning that both symbionts entirely depend on each other
for survival.
For example, many lichens consist of fungal and photosynthetic symbionts that cannot live on
their own. Others are facultative (optional): they can, but do not have to live with the other
organism. In some instances, one member of the association benefits and the other is harmed. In
other cases, life without the partner would be impossible for both.
1. Endosymbiosis
Endosymbiosis is any symbiotic relationship in which one symbionts lives within the tissues of
the other, either within the cells or extracellularly. Examples include
diverse microbiomes, rhizobia, nitrogen-fixing bacteria that live in root
nodules on legume roots; actinomycete nitrogen-fixing bacteria called Frankia, which live
in alder root nodules; single-celled algae inside reef-building corals; and bacterial endosymbionts

that provide essential nutrients to about 10%–15% of insects.
2. Ectosymbiosis
Ectosymbiosis, also referred to as exosymbiosis, is any symbiotic relationship in which the
symbionts lives on the body surface of the host, including the inner surface of the digestive tract
or the ducts of exocrine glands. Examples of this include ectoparasites such
as lice, commensal ectosymbionts such as the barnacles that attach themselves to the jaw of baleen
whales, and mutualistic ectosymbionts such as cleaner fish.
Common forms of symbiosis are

 Commensalism
 Mutualism
Topic No.88
Commensalism
Commensalism is a relationship between two organisms where one receives a benefit or benefits
from the other and the other is not affected by it. In other words, one is benefited and the other is
neither benefited nor harmed.
The commensal (the species that benefits from the association) may obtain nutrients, shelter,
support, or locomotion from the host species, which is substantially unaffected. The commensal
relation is often between a larger host and a smaller commensal; the host organism is
unmodified, whereas the commensal species may show great structural adaptation consonant
with its habits, as in the remoras that ride attached to sharks and other fishes. Both remora and pilot
fish feed on the leftovers of their hosts’ meals.
Remoras is specially adapted to attach themselves to larger fish (sharks) that provide locomotion
and food scraps.
Examples
 Commensal pathway animals include dogs, cats, fowl, and possibly pigs. The dog was
the first domesticant, and
this animal was
domesticated and
widely established
across Eurasia before the
end of the Pleistocene, well
before cultivation or the
domestication of other
animals. The dog is a
classic example of a domestic animal that likely traveled a commensal pathway into
domestication. Ancient DNA supports the hypothesis that dog domestication preceded the
emergence of agriculture.
 In tropical forests certain kinds of silverfish insects move along with columns of army
ants to share the food obtained by the ants in their raids. The army ants receive no
apparent harm or benefit from the silverfish.
 They also live in an elevated spot that gives them better access to sunlight, water from the
humid air and rain, and nutrients falling from the tree’s upper leaves and limbs. Their
presence apparently does not harm the tree
 Epiphytic plants such as certain types of orchids and bromeliads attach themselves to the
trunks or branches of large trees in tropical and subtropical forests. These air plants
benefit by getting a solid base on which they grow.
Topic No.89
Mutualism
Mutualism is the way two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each
individual benefits from the activity of the other. Similar interactions within a species are known
as co-operation. Mutualism can be contrasted with interspecific competition, in which each species
experiences reduced fitness, and exploitation, or parasitism, in which one species benefits at
the expense of the other. Symbiosis involves two species living in close proximity and includes
relationships that are mutualistic, parasitic, and commensal. Symbiotic relationships are
sometimes, but not always, mutualistic.
Examples
o Mutualism is the relationship between ungulates (such as bovines) and bacteria within
their intestines. The ungulates benefit from the cellulose produced by the bacteria, which
facilitates digestion; the bacteria benefit from having a stable supply of nutrients in
the host environment. This can also be found in many different symbiotic relationships.
o Mutualistic interactions are vital for terrestrial ecosystem function as more than 48% of
land plants rely
on mycorrhizal relationships
with fungi to provide them with
inorganic compounds and trace
elements. In addition, mutualism is
thought to have driven the
evolution of much of the
biological diversity we see, such
as flower forms (important
for pollination mutualisms) and co-
evolution between groups of
species.
o Oxpeckers or tickbirds feed on parasitic ticks that infest large, thick skinned animals such
as the endangered black rhinoceros.
o A clownfish gains protection and food by living among deadly stinging sea anemones
and helps protect the anemones from some of their predators.
Some other forms of mutualism are,

1. Lichen
2. Mycorrhizae
3. Root nodules
Topic No.90
Lichens
A mutualistic association between algae and fungus in which both the partners get benefits from
each other is known as lichen. The combined life form has properties that are very different from
the properties of its component organisms. Lichens come in many colors, sizes, and forms
Lichens are composite, symbiotic organisms made up from members of as many as three
kingdoms. The dominant partner is a fungus. Fungi are incapable of making their own food.
They usually provide for themselves as parasites.
Growth forms of Lichens

1. Crustose
2. Foliose
3. Fruticose
1. Crustose
Crustose is a habit of some types of algae and lichens in which the plant grows tightly appressed
to a substrate forming a biological layer of the adhering organism. Crustose adheres very closely
to the substrates at all points. Crustose is found on rocks and tree bark. Some species of
marine algae of the Rhodophyta, in particular members of the order Corallinales,
family Corallinaceae, subfamily Melobesioideae with cell walls containing calcium
carbonate grow to great depths in the intertidal zone, forming crusts on various substrates.
2. Foliose
A foliose lichen is one of a variety or lichens, which are complex organisms that arise from
the symbiotic relationship between fungi and a photosynthetic partner, typically algae. This
partnership allows lichen to live in diverse climates that can range from cold, dry mountains to
wet, warm valleys. Lichens develop quite slowly with recorded growth rates of 0.01-27mm/year
depending on the species. Their lifespan averages between 30 and 60 years.
3. Fruticose
Fruticose lichen is a form of lichen fungi that is characterized by a coral-like shrubby or bushy
growth structure. It is composed of a thallus and a holdfast. The lichen is formed from
a symbiotic relationship of a photobiont such as cyanobacteria and two mycobionts such as
fungus. Fruticose lichen is characterized by an ascending, bushy or pendulous appearance, and
composed of a complex
vegetation structure. While
lichen communities are mainly
controlled by water and light,
vegetative dispersal and
filamentous growth in fruticose
lichen is often associated with
areas of low elevation. Fruticose lichens can endure high degrees of desiccation. They grow very
slowly and will often occur in extreme habitats such as on tree barks, on rock surfaces and on
soils in the Arctic and mountain regions.
Benefits of Lichens
 Bio indicators
 Ecosystem sustainability
 Medicines
 Animal food
 Dye for clothes

Topic No.91
Mycorrhizae
A Mycorrhizae association is a symbiotic association composed of a fungus and roots of a vascular

plant. In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus colonizes the host plant's roots,
either intracellularly as in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF or AM), or extracellularly as
in ectomycorrhizal fungi. They are an important component of soil life and soil chemistry. The
association is generally mutualistic, but occasionally weakly pathogenic. A very remarkable group
of Ascomycetes fungi, the Clavicipitaceae, grow in the tissues of many species of grass.
The fungal networks in Mycorrhizae capture minerals from the soil and transport them to the
plants while in turn a plant provides nutrients like sugars to fungus.
Major types of Mycorrhizae

1. Endomycorrhizas or Arbuscular mycorrhizas
2. Ectomycorrhizas
3. Ericoid Mycorrhizae
1. Endomycorrhizas or Arbuscular mycorrhizas

Endomycorrhizas are variable and have been further classified as arbuscular, ericoid, arbutoid,
monotropoid, and orchid mycorrhizas. Arbuscular mycorrhizas, or AM (formerly known as
vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizas, or VAM), are mycorrhizas whose hyphae enter into the plant
cells, producing structures that are either balloon-like (vesicles) or dichotomously branching
invaginations (arbuscules). The fungal hyphae do not in fact penetrate the protoplast (i.e. the
interior of the cell), but invaginate the cell membrane. The structure of the arbuscules greatly
increases the contact surface area between the hypha and the cell cytoplasm to facilitate the
transfer of nutrients between them.
2. Ectomycorrhizas
Ectomycorrhizas, are typically formed between the roots of around 10% of plant families, mostly
woody plants including the birch, dipterocarp, eucalyptus, oak, pine, and rose families, orchids, and
fungi belonging to the Basidiomycota ,Ascomycota, and Zygomycota. Some ECM fungi, such as
many Leccinum and Suillus, are symbiotic with only one particular genus of plant, while other
fungi, such as the Amanita, are generalists that form mycorrhizas with many different plants. An
individual tree may have 15 or more different fungal ECM partners at one time. Thousands of
ectomycorrhizal fungal species exist, hosted in over 200 genera.
3. Ericoid mycorrhizas
Ericoid Mycorrhizae are the third of the three more ecologically important types. They have a
simple intraradical (grow in cells) phase, consisting of dense coils of hyphae in the outermost
layer of root cells. There is no periradical phase and the extraradical phase consists of sparse
hyphae that don't extend very far into the surrounding soil. They might form sporocarps
(probably in the form of small cups), but their reproductive biology is little understood.
Topic No.92
Root nodules
It is a mutualistic association between nitrogen fixing bacteria and roots of plants of legume
family. Root nodules occur on the roots of plants (primarily Fabaceae) that associate
with symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Under nitrogen-limiting conditions, capable plants form a
symbiotic relationship with a host-specific strain of bacteria known as rhizobia. This process has
evolved multiple times within the Fabaceae, as well as in other species found within
the Rosid clade. The Fabaceae include legume crops such as beans and peas.
Legume family
 Plants that contribute to nitrogen fixation include the legume family – Fabaceae – with taxa

such as kudzu, clovers,soybeans, alfalfa, lupines, peanuts,and rooibos.They
contain symbiotic bacteria called rhizobia within the nodules, producing nitrogen
compounds that help the plant to grow and compete with other plants. When the plant
dies, the fixed nitrogen is released; making it available to other plants and this helps to
fertilize the soil. The great majority of legumes have this association, but a few genera
(e.g., Styphnolobium) do not.
 A special vascular system develops in the host, supplying the products of photosynthesis
to the nodule tissue and carrying away fixed nitrogen compounds to other parts of the
plant. The nodule tissue provides shelter and carbon to bacteria.
 This whole picture summarizes the process of nitrogen fixation.
Types of nitrogen fixing bacteria

1) Azobactor
- Free living aerobic bacteria
2) Clostridium
- Free living anaerobic bacteria
3) Chlorobium
- Photosynthetic bacteria
4) Thiobacillus
- Chemosynthetic bacteria
5) Nostoc
- Blue green algae
Topic No.93
Parasitism
Parasitism is a non-mutual symbiotic relationship between species, where one species, the parasite,

benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Traditionally parasite (in biological usage) referred
primarily to organisms visible to the naked eye, or macroparasites (such as helminths). Parasites
can be microparasites, which are typically smaller, such as protozoa, viruses, and bacteria. Examples
of parasites include the plants mistle toe and cuscuta, and animals such as hookworms.
Parasites can be microparasites, which are typically smaller, such as protozoa, viruses, and
bacteria. Examples of parasites include the plants mistletoe and cuscuta, and animals such
as hookworms.
Endoparasite
Parasites that live on the outside of the host, either on the skin or the outgrowths of the skin, are
called ectoparasites (e.g. lice, fleas, and some mites).
Ectoparasites
Some parasites that live inside the host are called endoparasites (including all parasitic worms).
Endoparasites can exist in one of two forms: intercellular parasites (inhabiting spaces in the
host's body) or intracellular parasites (inhabiting cells in the host's body). Intracellular parasites,
such as protozoa, bacteria or viruses, tend to rely on a third organism, which is generally known as
the carrier or vector. The vector does the job of transmitting them to the host. An example of this
interaction is the transmission of malaria, caused by a protozoan of the genus Plasmodium, to
humans by the bite of an anopheline mosquito.
 Healthy tree on the left and an unhealthy one on the right, which is infested with parasitic
mistletoe.
 Blood-sucking parasitic sea lampreys attached to an adult lake trout. The definitive or
final host is the host that
harbors the sexual
stages of the parasite. A
fertile female in a
definitive host may
produce thousands of
eggs in its lifetime.
Each egg gives rise to an immature stage that may be a parasite of a second host. This
second host is called an intermediate host, and asexual reproduction may occur in this
host.
Topic No.94
Interspecific adaptations
Predators exert selective pressure on their prey, leading them to have better adaptations to
survive and evade capture. In turn, the predators themselves evolve to become better hunters.
This back-and-forth evolutionary process between predator and prey generally leaves both
species more refined.By gaining certain kinds of adaptations predator and prey both become
more active in their responses.
Interspecific interactions have shaped many other characteristics of animals.
Camouflage occurs when an animal’s color patterns help hide the animal, or a developmental
stage, from another animal.
Cryptic coloration (L. crypticus, hidden) is a type of camouflage that occurs when an animal
takes on color patterns in its environment to prevent the animal from being seen by other
animals.
Countershading is a kind of camouflage common in frog and toad eggs. These eggs are darkly
pigmented on top and lightly pigmented on the bottom. When a bird or other predator views the
eggs from above, the dark of the top side hides the eggs from detection against the darkness
below. On the other hand, when fish view the eggs from below, the light undersurface blends
with the bright air-water interface.
Aposematic coloration
Some animals that protect themselves by being dangerous or distasteful to predators advertise
their condition by conspicuous coloration. The sharply contrasting white stripe(s) of a skunk and
bright colors of poisonous snakes give similar messages. These color patterns are examples of
warning or aposematic coloration.
Mimicry
Mimicry (occurs when a species resembles one, or sometimes more than one, other species and
gains protection by the resemblance.
Topic No.95
Camouflage
Camouflage is a kind of coloration or patterns that help an animal to appear to blend with its
surroundings. Many prey species use the camouflage (the ability to change color) of certain
shapes or colors or (chameleons and cuttlefish).
Examples
Include the leopard's spotted coat, the battledress of a modern soldier, and the leaf-mimic katydid's
wings. A third approach, motion dazzle, confuses the observer with a conspicuous pattern,
making the object visible but momentarily harder to locate. The majority of camouflage methods
aim for crypsis, often through a general resemblance to the background, high contrast disruptive
coloration, eliminating shadow, and countershading.
Cryptic coloration
Cryptic coloration is a type of camouflage that occurs when an animal takes on color patterns in
its environment to prevent the animal from being seen by other animals.
Coloration that allows an organism to match its background and hence
become less vulnerable to predation or recognition by prey.

 The color pattern of this tiger (Panthera Tigris) provides effective camouflage that helps
when stalking prey.
 Praying mantises sit in flowers of a similar color and ambush visiting insects.
 Some insect species have shapes that make them look like twigs, bark, thorns, or even
bird droppings on leaves.
 A leaf insect can be almost invisible against its background, as can an arctic hare in its
white winter fur.
Topic No.96
Counter-shading
Countershading is a kind of camouflage common in frog and toad eggs. These eggs are darkly pigmented
on top and lightly pigmented on the bottom. When a bird or other predator views the eggs from above, the
dark of the top side hides the eggs from detection against the darkness below. Counter shading helps an
animal to blend in with its surrounding environment. Counter shading is a kind of camouflage
common in frog and toad eggs.
1. These eggs are darkly pigmented on top and lightly pigmented on the bottom. When a
bird or other predator views the eggs from above, the dark of the top side hides the eggs
from detection against the darkness below.
2. On the other hand, when fish view the eggs from below, the light undersurface blends
with the bright air-water interface.
1) Penguins are another example that exhibit phenomenon of counter shading.

Reverse countershading
If countershading paints out shadows, the reverse, darkening the belly and lightening the back,
would maximise contrast by adding to the natural fall of light. This pattern of animal
coloration is found in animals like the skunk and honey badger with strong defenses—the
offensive stink of the skunk, and the sharp claws, aggressive nature and stink of the honey
badger. These animals do not run when under attack, but move slowly, often turning to face the
danger, and giving deimatic or threat displays either to startle inexperienced predators, or as
an aposematic signal, to warn off experienced ones.
Topic No.97
Aposematic coloration
Some animals that protect themselves by being dangerous or distasteful to predators advertise
their condition by conspicuous coloration. Biologist Edward O. Wilson Described two rules
based on coloration. These rules evaluate possible danger from an unknown animal species we
encounter in nature. First, if it is small and strikingly beautiful, it is probably poisonous. Second,
if it is strikingly beautiful and easy to catch, it is probably deadly.
Some animals protect themselves by being dangerous or distasteful to predators by using

prominent coloration. These color patterns are examples of warning or aposematic coloration.
1) The sharply contrasting white stripes of a skunk and bright colors of poisonous snakes
give similar messages.
2) They flash a warning: “Eating me is risky.” Examples are brilliantly colored poisonous
frogs is another example.
3) When a bird such as a blue jay eats a foul-tasting monarch butterfly it usually vomits and
learns to avoid them.
Topic No.98
Mimicry
Mimicry is a similarity of one species to another that protects one or both. In the case of prey
species, it is a class of antipredator adaptation. This similarity can be in appearance, behavior,
sound or scent. Mimics occur in the same areas as their models. Mimicry occurs when a group of
organisms, the mimics, evolve to share perceived characteristics with another group,
the models. The evolution is driven by the selective action of a signal-receiver or dupe. Birds, for
example, use sight to identify palatable insects (the mimics), whilst avoiding the noxious models.
 These six species of Heliconius are all distasteful to bird predators. A bird that consumes
any member of the six species is likely to avoid all six species in the future.
 Some butterfly species, such as the non-poisonous viceroy, gain protection by looking
and acting like the monarch, a protective device known as mimicry.
 Viceroy butterfly mimics
 Monarch butterfly.
 Some
moths have
wings that
look like the
eyes of much larger animals. Hind wings of Io moth resemble eyes of a much larger
animal.
 When touched, snake caterpillar changes shape to look like head of snake.
Topic No.99
Chemical warfare
Chemical warfare (CW) involves using the toxic properties of chemical substances as weapons. This

type of warfare is distinct from nuclear warfareand biological warfare, which together make up
NBC, the military acronym for nuclear, biological, and chemical (warfare or weapons), all of
which are considered "weapons of mass destruction" (WMDs). None of these fall under the
term conventional weapons which are primarily effective due to their destructive potential. With
proper protective equipment, training, and decontamination measures, the primary effects of
chemical weapons can be overcome. Many nations possess vast stockpiles of weaponized agents
in preparation for wartime use. The threat and the perceived threat have become strategic tools in
planning both measures and counter-measures.
o Some predators use chemical warfare to attack their prey. For example, spiders and
poisonous snakes use venom to paralyze their prey and to deter their predators.
o Some prey species discourage predators with chemicals that are poisonous (oleander
plants) and irritating (stinging nettles and bombardier beetles).
o Some possess foul smelling (skunks, skunk cabbages, and stinkbugs), or bad tasting
(buttercups and monarch butterflies).
o When attacked, some species of squid and octopus emit clouds of black ink, allowing
them to escape by confusing their predators.
Topic No.100
Biome
Biomes are very large ecological areas on the earth’s surface, with fauna and flora (animals and
plants) adapting to their environment. Biomes are often defined by abiotic factors such as
climate, relief, geology, soils and vegetation. A biome is NOT an ecosystem, although in a way it
can look like a massive ecosystem. If you take a closer look, you will notice that plants or
animals in any of the biomes have special adaptations that make it possible for them to exist in
that area. You may find many units of ecosystems within one biome.
There are five major categories of biomes on earth. In these five, there are many sub-biomes,
under which are many more well defined ecosystems.
1. The Desert Biome: They are the Hot and Dry Deserts, Semi-Arid Deserts, Coastal
Deserts and Cold Deserts
2. The Aquatic Biome: Aquatic biomes are grouped into two, Freshwater Biomes (lakes
and ponds, rivers and streams, wetlands) and Marine Biomes (oceans, coral reefs and
estuaries).
3. The Forest Biome: There are three main biomes that make up Forest Biomes. These are
the Tropical Rainforest, Temperate and Boreal Forests (also called the Taiga)
4. The Grassland Biome: There are two main types of grassland biomes: the Savanna
Grasslands and the Temperate Grasslands.
5. The Tundra Biome: There are two major tundra biomes—The Arctic Tundra and the
Alpine Tundra.
Role of biome on earth

Biomes play a crucial role in sustaining life on earth. For example, the Aquatic biome is home to
millions of fish species and the source of the water cycle. It also plays a very important role in
climate formation. The terrestrial biomes provide foods, enrich the air with oxygen and absorb
carbon dioxide and other bad gases from the air. They also help regulate climate and so on.
Topic No.101
Biogeochemical cycles
Biogeochemical cycle is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through both biotic
(biosphere) and abiotic (lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere) components of Earth. A cycle is a
series of change which comes back to the starting point and which can be repeated. Water, for
example, is always recycled through the water cycle, as shown in the diagram. The water
undergoes evaporation, condensation, and precipitation, falling back to Earth. Elements, chemical
compounds, and other forms of matter are passed from one organism to another and from one
part of the biosphere to another through biogeochemical cycles. A nutrient is any element
essential for life. Approximately 97% of living matter is made of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and
hydrogen.
Biogeochemical Cycles are of two main types

1. Gaseous cycles
2. Sedimentary cycles
1. Gaseous cycles
 Carbon cycle
 Nitrogen cycle
 Oxygen cycle
 Hydrogen cycle
2. Sedimentary cycles
In Sedimentary cycles the nonliving reservoir for these nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, calcium
etc.) is the earth, and the cycles involving these elements are called sedimentary cycles.
 Sulfur cycle
 Phosphorus cycle
 Calcium cycle
 These elements are less abundant than those of gases.
Nutrient cycles connect past, present, and future forms of life. Some of the carbon atoms in
your skin may once have been part of an oak leaf, a dinosaur’s skin, or a layer of limestone
rock.
1) Carbon cycle
2) Nitrogen cycle
3) Phosphorus cycle
4) Sulfur cycle
5) Water cycle
Topic No.102
Carbon cycle
Carbon is the basic building block of the carbohydrates, fats, proteins, DNA, and other organic
compounds necessary for life. The carbon cycle is based on carbon dioxide (CO2) gas, which
makes up 0.038% of the volume of the atmosphere and is also dissolved in water. Carbon
dioxide is a key component of nature’s thermostat. The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle
by which carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere,
and atmosphere of the Earth. Along with the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle, the carbon cycle
comprises a sequence of events that are key to making the Earth capable of sustaining life; it
describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, including
carbon sinks.
The global carbon budget is the balance of the exchanges (incomes and losses) of carbon
between the carbon reservoirs or between one specific loops (e.g., atmosphere) of the carbon
cycle. An examination of the carbon budget of a pool or reservoir can provide information about
whether the pool or reservoir is functioning as a source or sink for carbon dioxide.
Main components of carbon cycle

The global carbon cycle is now usually divided into the following major reservoirs of carbon
interconnected by pathways of exchange:
1) The atmosphere
2) The terrestrial biosphere
3) The oceans, including dissolved inorganic carbon and living and non-living marine biota
4) The sediments, including fossil fuels, fresh water systems and non-living organic material.
5) The Earth's interior, carbon from the Earth's mantle and crust. These carbon stores interact
with the other components through geological processes
The carbon exchanges between reservoirs occur as the result of various chemical, physical,
geological, and biological processes. The ocean contains the largest active pool of carbon near
the surface of the Earth. The natural flows of carbon between the atmosphere, ocean, terrestrial
ecosystems, and sediments is fairly balanced, so that carbon levels would be roughly stable
without human influence
Topic No.103
Nitrogen cycle
The nitrogen cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which nitrogen is converted into various

chemical forms as it circulates among the atmosphere and terrestrial and marine ecosystems. The
conversion of nitrogen can be carried out through both biological and physical processes.
Important processes in the nitrogen cycle include fixation, ammonification, nitrification,
and denitrification. The majority of Earth's atmosphere (78%) is nitrogen, making it the largest pool
of nitrogen. However, atmospheric nitrogen has limited availability for biological use, leading to
a scarcity of usable nitrogen in many types of ecosystems. The nitrogen cycle is of particular
interest to ecologists because nitrogen availability can affect the rate of key ecosystem processes,
including primary production and decomposition. Human activities such as fossil fuel combustion,
use of artificial nitrogen fertilizers, and release of nitrogen in wastewater have
dramatically altered the global nitrogen cycle.
Steps in nitrogen cycle

1) Fixation
2) Nitrification
3) Assimilation
4) Ammonification
5) Denitrification
1. Fixation
Atmospheric nitrogen must be processed, or "fixed", in a usable form to be taken up by plants.

Between 5x1012 and 10x1012 g per year are fixed by lightning strikes, but most fixation is done by
free-living or symbiotic bacteria known as diazotrophs. These bacteria have
the nitrogenase enzyme that combines gaseous nitrogen with hydrogen to produce ammonia, which
is converted by the bacteria into other organic compounds. An example of the free-living bacteria
is Azotobacter. Symbiotic nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium usually live in the root
nodules of legumes (such as peas, alfalfa, and locust trees). Here they form
a mutualistic relationship with the plant, producing ammonia in exchange for carbohydrates
2. Nitrification
The conversion of ammonia to nitrate is performed primarily by soil-living bacteria and other
nitrifying bacteria. In the primary stage of nitrification, the oxidation of ammonium (NH 4+) is
performed by bacteria such as the Nitrosomonas species, which converts ammonia to nitrites
(NO2−). Other bacterial species such as Nitrobacter are responsible for the oxidation of the nitrites
into nitrates (NO3−). It is important for the ammonia to be converted to nitrates or nitrites because
ammonia gas is toxic to plants. Due to their very high solubility and because soils are highly
unable to retain anions, nitrates can enter groundwater. Elevated nitrate in groundwater is a
concern for drinking water use because nitrate can interfere with blood-oxygen levels in infants
and cause methemoglobinemia or blue-baby syndrome
3. Assimilation
Plants take nitrogen from the soil by absorption through their roots as amino acids,
nitrate ions, nitrite ions, or ammonium ions. Most nitrogen obtained by terrestrial animals can be
traced back to the eating of plants at some stage of the food chain.
Plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil via their root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it
is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium ions for incorporation into amino acids,
nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. In plants that have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some
nitrogen is assimilated in the form of ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known
that there is a more complex cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants.
4. Ammonification
When a plant or animal dies or an animal expels waste (in the form of gas), the initial form of
nitrogen is organic. Bacteria or fungi convert the organic nitrogen within the remains back
into ammonium (NH4+), a process called ammonification or mineralization.
5. Denitrification
Denitrification is the reduction of nitrates back into nitrogen gas (N 2), completing the nitrogen
cycle. This process is performed by bacterial species such as Pseudomonas and Clostridium in
anaerobic conditions. They use the nitrate as an electron acceptor in the place of oxygen during
respiration. These facultatively anaerobic bacteria can also live in aerobic conditions.
Denitrification happens in anaerobic conditions e.g. waterlogged soils. The denitrifying bacteria
use nitrates in the soil to carry out respiration and consequently produce nitrogen gas, which is
inert and unavailable to plants.
Topic No.104
Phosphorus cycle
The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement

of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Unlike many other
biogeochemical cycles, the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of
phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are usually solids at the
typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on Earth. The production of phosphine gas
occurs only in specialized, local conditions.
On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less available to plants over
thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff. Low concentration of P in soils reduces
plant growth, and slows soil microbial growth - as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass.
Soil microorganisms act as both sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical
cycle. Locally, transformations of P are chemical, biological and microbiological: the major
long-term transfers in the global cycle, however, are driven by tectonic movements in geologic
time.
Ecological function
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is a limiting nutrient for
aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of important life-sustaining molecules that are very
common in the biosphere. Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere, remaining mostly on land
and in rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to make fertilizers.
Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can cause pollution in lakes and streams.
Over enrichment of phosphate in both fresh and inshore marine waters can lead to massive algae
blooms which, when they die and decay, leads to eutrophication of fresh waters only. An example
of this is the Canadian Experimental Lakes Area.
Biological function
The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component of nucleotides, which serve
as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when linked together, form the nucleic
acids DNA and RNA. The double helix of our DNA is only possible because of the phosphate
ester bridge that binds the helix. Besides making biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bone
and the enamel of mammalian teeth, whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate in the form
of Hydroxylapatite. It is also found in the exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids (found in
all biological membranes). It also functions as a buffering agent in maintaining acid
base homeostasis in the human body
Process of the cycle
Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the processes that move them
through the soil or ocean are very slow, making the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest
biogeochemical cycles.
Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most common mineral being apatite.
Overall small losses occur in terrestrial environments by leaching and erosion, through the action
of rain. In soil, phosphate is absorbed on iron oxides, aluminium hydroxides, clay surfaces, and
organic matter particles, and becomes incorporated (immobilized or fixed). Plants and fungi can
also be active in making P soluble.
Topic No.105
Sulfur cycle
Sulfur circulates through the biosphere in the sulfur cycle. Much of the earth’s sulfur is stored
underground in rocks and minerals, including sulfate (SO42-) salts buried deep under ocean
sediments. The sulfur cycle is the collection of processes by which sulfur moves to and from
minerals (including the waterways) and living systems. Such biogeochemical cycles are
important in geology because they affect many minerals. Biochemical cycles are also important
for life because sulfur is an essential element, being a constituent of many proteins and cofactors.
Sulfur cycle process
The sulfur cycle has four steps.

1. Sulfur Assimilation:
When organic sulfur is mineralized into inorganic forms. In other words, sources of sulfur in
rocks and minerals or salts like gypsum and magnesium sulfate are reduced by plants, fungi, and
prokaryotes into hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, and sulfide minerals.
2. Desulfurization:
3. When inorganic forms of sulfur are oxidized. So, the hydrogen sulfide (H2S), elemental
sulfur (S), and sulfide minerals created in the last step become sulfate (SO42−). This
process does not occur readily in poorly aerated soils. Sulfate is the form of sulfur that is
absorbed by plants.
Here is an example of this oxidation process:
2S + 3O2 + 2HOH ——> 2H2SO4
4. Oxidation of Hydrogen Sulfide:
When sulfate is reduce to sulfide.
5. Dissimilative Sulfur Reduction:
When sulfide is incorporated into organic compounds. In this process either elemental sulfur or
sulfate is changed to hydrogen sulfide
Occurrence of sulfur
Sulfur is found in oxidation states ranging from +6 in SO42− to -2 in sulfides. Thus elemental sulfur
can either give or receive electrons depending on its environment. Minerals such as pyrite (FeS2)
comprise the original pool of sulfur on earth. Owing to the sulfur cycle, the amount of mobile
sulfur has been continuously increasing through volcanic activity as well as weathering of
the crust in an oxygenated atmosphere. Earth's main sulfur sink is the oceans SO 42-, where it is
the major oxidizing agent.
When SO42− is assimilated by organisms, it is reduced and converted to organic sulfur, which is
an essential component of proteins. However, the biosphere does not act as a major sink for
sulfur, instead the majority of sulfur is found in seawater or sedimentary rocks especially pyrite
rich shales and evaporite rocks (anhydrite and baryte). The amount of sulfate in the oceans is
controlled by three major processes:
1) Input from rivers
2) Sulfate reduction and sulfide re-oxidation on continental shelves and slopes
3) Burial of anhydrite and pyrite in the oceanic crust.
Topic No.106
Water cycle
The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the H2O cycle, describes the continuous
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth
remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of
ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range
of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean,
or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes
of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the
water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice), and gas (vapor).
The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For
instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the
environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat
exchanges influence climate.
The water cycle is powered by energy from the sun and involves three major processes,
1) Evaporation
2) Transpiration
3) Precipitation
Evaporation:
Evaporation changes liquid water into water vapor in the atmosphere. Incoming solar energy
causes evaporation of water from the oceans, lakes, rivers, and soil.
About 84% of water vapor in the atmosphere comes from the oceans, which cover almost three-
fourths of the earth’s surface; the rest comes from land.
Transpiration:
Over land, about 90% of the water that reaches the atmosphere evaporates from the surfaces of
plants through a process called transpiration.
Condensation:
As water vaporizes into water vapor, it rises up in the atmosphere. At high altitudes the water
vapors changes into very tiny particles of
ice /water droplets because the
temperature at high altitudes is low. This
process is called condensation. These particles come close together and form clouds and fogs in
the sky.
Precipitation:
Precipitation returns the water back to earth’s surface. Most precipitation becomes surface runoff
that flows into streams and lakes and eventually in to the oceans. From oceans it can evaporate to
repeat the water cycle. Some precipitation is converted to ice that is stored. Some precipitation
sinks to underground layers of rock, sand, and gravel called aquifers, where it is stored as
groundwater. Some precipitation is converted to ice that is stored. Some precipitation sinks to
underground layers of rock, sand, and gravel called aquifers, where it is stored as groundwater. A
small amount of the earth’s water is absorbed by roots of plants. Some of this water is used to
make food for consumers by photosynthesis, while most of water is evaporated through process
of transpiration. Consumers get their water from their food or by drinking it.
Topic No.107
Pollution
Pollution is anything in the environment that is harmful to the health, survival, or activities of
humans or other organisms. Pollution is any detrimental change in an ecosystem. Pollution can
take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants, the
components of pollution, can be either foreign substances or naturally occurring contaminants.
Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution. Most kinds of pollution are
the results of human activities. Large human populations and demands for increasing goods and
services contribute to pollution problems.
The pollutants come from two types of sources.

1. Point sources
2. Non point sources
1. Point sources
A point source of pollution is a single identifiable source of air, water, , noise or light pollution.
A point source has negligible extent, distinguishing it from other pollution source geometries. The
sources are called point sources because in mathematical modeling, they can be approximated as
a mathematical point to simplify analysis.
Examples are,
1. Smokestack of a coal-burning power or industrial plant,

2. The drainpipe of a factory,
3. The exhaust pipe of an auto mobile
Nonpoint sources
Nonpoint sources are dispersed and often difficult to identify. Non-point source water pollution
affects a water body from sources such as polluted runoff from agricultural areas draining into a
river, or wind-borne debris blowing out to sea. Non-point source air pollution affects air quality
from sources such as smokestacks or car tailpipes. Although these pollutants have originated from
a point source, the long-range transport ability and multiple sources of the pollutant make it a
non-point source of pollution. Non-point source pollution can be contrasted with point source
pollution, where discharges occur to a body of water or into the atmosphere at a single location.
Examples are pesticides blown from the land into the air and the runoff of fertilizers and
pesticides from farmlands, lawns, gardens, and golf courses into streams and lakes.
There are two main types of pollutants

1. Biodegradable pollutants
2. Non-degradable pollutants
1. Biodegradable pollutants:
Those pollutants which can be broken down into simpler, harmless, substances in nature in due
course of time (by the action of micro-organisms like certain bacteria) are called biodegradable
pollutants. Domestic wastes (garbage), urine, fecal matter, sewage, agriculture residues, paper,
wood, cloth, cattle dung, animal bones, leather, wool, vegetable stuff or plants are biodegradable
pollutants.
2. Non-biodegradable pollutants:
Those pollutants which cannot be broken down into simpler, harmless substances in nature are
called non-biodegradable pollutants. DDT, plastics, polythene, bags, insecticides, pesticides,
mercury, lead, and arsenic, metal articles like aluminum cans, synthetic fibres, glass objects, iron
products and silver foils are non-biodegradable pollutants.
Topic No.108
Organic pollutants: Bio stimulants
Organic pollutants occur when large quantities of organic compounds, which act as substrates for
microorganisms, are released into water courses. During the decomposition process the dissolved
oxygen in the receiving water may be used up at a greater rate than it can be replenished, causing
oxygen depletion and having severe consequences for the stream biota. Organic effluents also
frequently contain large quantities of suspended solids which reduce the light available to
photosynthetic organisms and, on settling out, alter the characteristics of the river bed, rendering
it an unsuitable habitat for many invertebrates. Toxic ammonia is often present.
Organic pollutants consist of proteins, carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids in a multiplicity of
combinations. Raw sewage is 99.9 per cent water and of the 0.1 percent solids, 70 percent of
which is organic (65 per cent proteins, 25 per cent carbohydrates, 10 per cent fats). Organic
wastes from people and their animals may also be rich in disease-causing (pathogenic)
organisms.
Organic pollutants (POPs) are toxic chemicals that adversely affect human health and the
environment around the world. Because they can be transported by wind and water, most POPs
generated in one country can and do affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and
released. They persist for long periods of time in the environment and can accumulate and pass
from one species to the next through the food chain.
Origins of organic pollutants

Organic pollutants originate from domestic sewage (raw or treated), urban run-off, industrial
(trade) effluents and farm wastes. Sewage effluents are the greatest source of organic materials
discharged to freshwaters. In England and Wales there are almost 9000 discharges releasing
treated sewage effluent to rivers and canals and several hundred more discharges of crude
sewage, the great majority of them tot the lower, tidal reaches of rivers or, via long outfalls, to
the open sea.
Effects of organic effluents on receiving waters
When an organic polluting load id discharged into a river it is gradually eliminated by the
activities of microorganisms in a way very similar to the processes in the sewage treatment
works. This self-purification requires sufficient concentrations of oxygen, and involves the
breakdown of complex organic molecules into simple in organic molecules. Dilution,
sedimentation and sunlight also play a part in the process. Attached microorganisms in streams
play a greater role than suspended organisms in self-purification.
Eutrophication
A long-term increase in excess nutrients into an ecosystem causes higher biological activity this
is known as eutrophication or harmful algal blooms. It decreases the oxygen content rapidly.
Topic No.109
Water pollution
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies

(e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater). This form of environmental
degradation occurs when pollutants are directly or indirectly discharged into water bodies
without adequate treatment to remove harmful compounds.
Water pollution affects the entire biosphere plants and organisms living in these bodies of water.
In almost all cases the effect is damaging not only to individual species and population, but also
to the natural biological communities. Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is
impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and either does not support a human use, such
as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support its constituent biotic
communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and
earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the ecological status of water.
Sources of water pollution

There are many causes for water pollution but two general categories exist: direct and indirect
contaminant sources.
1) Direct sources include effluent outfalls from factories, refineries, and waste treatment plants
etc that emit fluids of varying quality directly into urban water supplies. In the United States and
other countries, these practices are regulated, although this doesn't mean that pollutants can't be
found in these waters.
2) Indirect sources include contaminants that enter the water supply from soils/groundwater
systems and from the atmosphere via rain water. Soils and ground waters contain the residue of
human agricultural practices (fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) and improperly disposed of industrial
wastes. Atmospheric contaminants are also derived from human practices (such as gaseous
emissions from automobiles, factories and even bakeries).
Effects of water pollution

The effects of water pollution are varied. They include poisonous drinking water, poisonous food
animals (due to these organisms having bioaccumulated toxins from the environment over their
life spans), unbalanced river and lake ecosystems that can no longer support full biological
diversity, deforestation from acid rain, and many other effects. These effects are, of course,
specific to the various contaminants.
Topic No.110
Air pollution
Air pollution is the introduction of particulates, biological molecules, or other harmful materials

into Earth's atmosphere, causing diseases, allergies, death to humans, damage to other living
organisms such as animals and food crops, or the natural or built environment. Air pollution may
come from anthropogenic or natural sources. Air pollution also presents serious problems that are
fatal to human and other living things. The atmosphere is a complex natural gaseous system that
is essential to support life on planet Earth.
Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
Kinds of air pollutants

Sulfur oxides (SOx)
Particularly sulfur dioxide, a chemical compound with the formula SO 2. SO2 is produced by
volcanoes and in various industrial processes. Coal and petroleum often contain sulfur
compounds, and their combustion generates sulfur dioxide. Further oxidation of SO2, usually in
the presence of a catalyst such as NO2, forms H2SO4, and thus acid rain
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Nitrogen oxides, particularly nitrogen dioxide, are expelled from high temperature combustion,
and are also produced during thunderstorms by electric discharge. They can be seen as a
brown haze dome above or a plume downwind of cities. Nitrogen dioxide is a chemical
compound with the formula NO2. It is one of several nitrogen oxides. One of the most prominent
air pollutants, this reddish-brown toxic gas has a characteristic sharp, biting odor.
Carbon monoxide (CO)
CO is a colorless, odorless, toxic yet non-irritating gas. It is a product by incomplete

combustion of fuel such as natural gas, coal or wood. Vehicular exhaust is a major source of
carbon monoxide.
Particulates
Alternatively referred to as particulate matter (PM), atmospheric particulate matter, or fine

particles, are tiny particles of solid or liquid suspended in a gas. In contrast, aerosol refers to
combined particles and gas. Some particulates occur naturally, originating from volcanoes, dust
storms, forest and grassland fires, living vegetation, and sea spray. Human activities, such as the
burning of fossil fuels in vehicles, power plants and various industrial processes also generate
significant amounts of aerosols.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Harmful to the ozone layer; emitted from products are currently banned from use. These are
gases which are released from air conditioners, refrigerators, aerosol sprays, etc. CFC's on being
released into the air rises to stratosphere. Here they come in contact with other gases and damage
the ozone layer. This allows harmful ultraviolet rays to reach the earth's surface. This can lead to
skin cancer, disease to eye and can even cause damage to plants.
Effects of Air pollution

 Acid rain
 Greenhouse effect
 Global warming
 Ozone layer destruction
Acid rain
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
possesses elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants,
aquatic animals and infrastructure. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen
oxide, which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Nitrogen oxides
can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes, and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic
eruptions. The chemicals in acid rain can cause paint to peel, corrosion of steel structures such as
bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and statues.
Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the
planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.
If a planet's atmosphere contains radioactively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) the
atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the
surface, warming it. The downward component of this radiation – that is, the strength of the
greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of
greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.
Global warming
Global warming is the term used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of the
Earth's atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be permanently changing the
Earth’s climate. There is great debate among many people, and sometimes in the news, on
whether global warming is real (some call it a hoax). But climate scientists looking at the data
and facts agree the planet is warming. While many view the effects of global warming to be
more substantial and more rapidly occurring than others do, the scientific consensus on climatic
changes related to global warming is that the average temperature of the Earth has risen between
0.4 and 0.8 °C over the past 100 years.
Ozone layer destruction

The release of chlorinated fluorocarbons from aerosol cans, air conditioners, and refrigerators
contributes to the depletion of ozone layer (the earth’s ultraviolet filter). It will increase the
chance of skin cancer. When wastes and poisons enter food webs, organisms at the highest
trophic levels usually suffer the most. The accumulation of matter in food webs is called
biological magnification.
Topic No.111
Noise pollution
Noise pollution is the disturbing or excessive noise that may harm the activity or balance of
human or animal life. The source of most outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused
by machines and transportation systems, motor vehicles, aircraft, and trains. Outdoor noise is
summarized by the word environmental noise. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise
pollution, since side-by-side industrial and residential buildings can result in noise pollution in
the residential areas. Documented problems associated with urban noise go back as far as
Ancient Rome.
Outdoor noise can be caused by machines, building activities, and music performances,
especially in some workplaces. Noise can be caused by outside (e.g. trains) or inside (e.g. music)
noise. High noise levels can contribute to cardiovascular effects in humans and an increased
incidence of coronary artery disease. In animals, noise can increase the risk of death by altering
predator or prey detection and avoidance, interfere with reproduction and navigation, and
contribute to permanent hearing loss
Effects of noise pollution

Hearing Problems:
Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause problems within the
body. Our ears can take in a certain range of sounds without getting damaged. Man made noises
such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes and even vehicles can be too loud for our
hearing range. Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can easily result in the damage of our
ear drums and loss of hearing. It also reduces our sensitivity to sounds that our ears pick up
unconsciously to regulate our body’s rhythm.
Health Issues:
Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction sites, bars and even in
our homes can influence psychological health. Studies show that the occurrence of aggressive
behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue and hypertension can be linked to
excessive noise levels. These in turn can cause more severe and chronic health issues later in life.
Sleeping Disorders:
Loud noise can certainly hamper your sleeping pattern and may lead to irritation and
uncomfortable situations. Without a good night sleep, it may lead to problems related to fatigue
and your performance may go down in office as well as at home. It is therefore recommended to
take a sound sleep to give your body proper rest.
Cardiovascular Issues:
Blood pressure levels, cardio-vascular disease and stress related heart problems are on the rise.
Studies suggest that high intensity noise causes high blood pressure and increases heart beat rate
as it disrupts the normal blood flow. Bringing them to a manageable level depends on our
understanding noise pollution and how we tackle it.
Trouble Communicating:
High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow two people to communicate freely. This
may lead to misunderstanding and you may get difficult understanding the other person.
Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and disturb your emotional balance.
Effect on Wildlife:
Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because noise pollution since they are more
dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of hearing than us since their survival
depends on it. The ill effects of excessive noise begin at home. Pets react more aggressively in
households where there is constant noise.
Topic No.112
Climate change
Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of weather patterns when that change
lasts for an extended period of time (i.e., decades to millions of years). Climate change may refer
to a change in average weather conditions, or in the time variation of weather around longer-term
average conditions (i.e., more or fewer extreme weather events).
Climate change is caused by factors such as biotic processes, variations in solar
radiation received by Earth, plate tectonics, and volcanic eruptions. Certain human activities
have also been identified as significant causes of recent climate change, often referred to
as warming Climate change, also called global warming, refers to the rise in average surface
temperatures on Earth. An overwhelming scientific consensus maintains that climate change is
due primarily to the human use of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide and other
greenhouse gases into the air. The gases trap heat within the atmosphere, which can have a range
of effects on ecosystems, including rising sea levels, severe weather events, and droughts that
render landscapes more susceptible to wildfires.
Causes of climate change

The primary cause of climate change is the burning of fossil fuels, such as oil and coal, which
emits greenhouse gases into the atmosphere—primarily carbon dioxide. Other human activities,
such as agriculture and deforestation, also contribute to the proliferation of greenhouse gases that
cause climate change.
While some quantities of these gases are a naturally occurring and critical part of Earth’s
temperature control system, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 did not rise above 300
parts per million between the advent of human civilization roughly 10,000 years ago and 1900.
Today it is at about 400 ppm, a level not reached in more than 400,000 years.
Effects of climate change
Even small increases in Earth’s temperature caused by climate change can have severe effects.
The earth’s average temperature has gone up 1.4° F over the past century and is expected to rise
as much as 11.5° F over the next. That might not seem like a lot, but the average temperature
during the last Ice Age was about 4º F lower than it is today.
Rising sea levels due to the melting of the polar ice caps (again, caused by climate change)
contribute to greater storm damage; warming ocean temperatures are associated with stronger
and more frequent storms; additional rainfall, particularly during severe weather events, leads to
flooding and other damage; an increase in the incidence and severity of wildfires threatens
habitats, homes, and lives; and heat waves contribute to human deaths and other consequences.
Topic No.113
Greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect is the process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere warms the
planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without its atmosphere.
If a planet's atmosphere contains radioactively active gases (i.e., greenhouse gases) the
atmosphere will radiate energy in all directions. Part of this radiation is directed towards the
surface, warming it. The downward component of this radiation – that is, the strength of the
greenhouse effect – will depend on the atmosphere's temperature and on the amount of
greenhouse gases that the atmosphere contains.
On Earth, the atmosphere is

warmed by absorption
of infrared thermal radiation from
the underlying surface, absorption
of shorter wavelength radiant
energy from the sun,
and convective heat fluxes from
the surface. Greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere radiate energy,
some of which is directed to the
surface and lower atmosphere. The
mechanism that produces this
difference between the actual
surface temperature and the
effective temperature is due to the
atmosphere and is known as the
greenhouse effect.
Causes of Greenhouse
effect
Burning of Fossil Fuels:
Fossil fuels like coal, oil and
natural gas have become an
integral part of our life. They are
used on large basis to produce
electricity and for transportation.
When they are burnt, the carbon stored inside them is released which combines with oxygen in
the air to create carbon dioxide. With the increase in the population, the number of vehicles has
also increased and this has resulted in increase in the pollution in the atmosphere. When these
vehicles run, they release carbon dioxide, which is one the main gas responsible for increase in
greenhouse effect.
Deforestation:
Forests hold a major green area on the planet Earth. Plants and trees intake carbon dioxide and
release oxygen, through the process of photosynthesis, which is required by humans and animals
to survive. Large scale development has resulted in cutting down of trees and forests which has
forced people to look for alternate places for living. When the wood is burnt, the stored carbon is
converted back into carbon dioxide.
Increase in Population:
Over the last few decades, there have been huge increase in the population. Now, this has
resulted in increased demand for food, cloth and shelter. New manufacturing hubs have come up
cities and towns that release some harmful gases into the atmosphere which increases the
greenhouse effect. Also, more people mean more usage of fossil fuels which in turn has
aggravated the problem.
Farming:
Nitrous oxide is one the greenhouse gas that is used in fertilizer and contributes to greenhouse
effect which in turn leads to global warming.
Industrial Waste and Landfills:

Industries which are involved in cement production, fertilizers, coal mining activities, oil
extraction produce harmful greenhouse gases. Also, landfills filled with garbage produce carbon
dioxide and methane gas contributing significantly to greenhouse effect.
Topic No.114
El-Nino effect
El Nino is a climate cycle in the Pacific Ocean with a global impact on weather patterns.
The cycle begins when warm water in the western tropical Pacific Ocean shifts eastward along
the equator toward the coast of South America. Normally, this warm water pools near Indonesia
and the Philippines. During an El Nino, the Pacific's warmest surface waters sit offshore of
northwestern South America.
Forecasters declare an official El Nino when they see both ocean temperatures and rainfall from
storms veer to the east. Experts also look for prevailing trade winds to weaken and even reverse
direction during the El Nino climate phenomenon. These changes set up a feedback loop
between the atmosphere and the ocean that boosts El Nino conditions. The El Nino forecast for
2015 is expected to be one of the strongest on record, according to Mike Halpert, the deputy
director of the Climate Prediction Center, part of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration.
The warm water produces heavy rain over the coastal deserts, subjecting them to disastrous
flooding and erosion. The western United States also experiences major flooding events as a
result of El Nino.
1. This temporary influx of rain on arid and semiarid regions creates the conditions for
disastrous down slope movements in the form of mud slides, destroying entire villages.
2. One result of this temporary climate change is the occurrence of major brush fires, which
destroy not only vegetation but also wild and domestic animals.
3. Shifts in warm water in the southern Pacific and Indian Oceans cause cooler water to
move along the coast of Australia, resulting in decreased rainfall.
4. The warm water El Nino brings to the coasts of North and South America substantially
reduces the upwelling of cold, deep water, adversely affecting the cold water fisheries.
Topic No.115
Global warming
Global warming is the term used to describe a gradual increase in the average temperature of the
Earth's atmosphere and its oceans, a change that is believed to be permanently changing the
Earth’s climate. There is great debate among many people, and sometimes in the news, on
whether global warming is real (some call it a hoax). But climate scientists looking at the data
and facts agree the planet is warming. While many view the effects of global warming to be
more substantial and more rapidly occurring than others do, the scientific consensus on climatic
changes related to global warming is that the average temperature of the Earth has risen between
0.4 and 0.8 °C over the past 100 years.
The increased volumes of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases released by the burning of
fossil fuels, land clearing, agriculture, and other human activities, are believed to be the primary
sources of the global warming that has occurred over the past 50 years. Scientists from the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate carrying out global warming research have recently
predicted that average global temperatures could increase between 1.4 and 5.8 °C by the year
2100.
Causes of Global warming

Global warming is primarily a problem of too much carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere—
which acts as a blanket, trapping heat and warming the planet. As we burn fossil fuels like coal,
oil and natural gas for energy or cut down and burn forests to create pastures and plantations,
carbon accumulates and overloads our atmosphere. Certain waste management and agricultural
practices aggravate the problem by releasing other potent global warming gases, such as methane
and nitrous oxide.
 Burning of fossil fuels

 Volcanic eruption
 Industrial effluents
 Deforestation
 Transportation
 Power plants
Effects of Global warming
The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused (directly or
indirectly) by human emissions of greenhouse gases. There is a scientific consensus that
climate change is occurring, and that human activities are the primary driver. Many impacts of
climate change have already been observed, including glacier retreat, changes in the timing of
seasonal events (e.g., earlier flowering of plants), and changes in agricultural productivity.
 Rise in temperature
 Rise in Sea Level
 Climate change
 Extinction
 Droughts
 Loss of biodiversity
Topic No.116
Effects of Global warming
The effects of global warming are the environmental and social changes caused (directly or
indirectly) by human emissions of greenhouse gases. There is a scientific consensus that climate
change is occurring, and that human activities are the primary driver. Many impacts of climate
change have already been observed, including glacier retreat, changes in the timing of seasonal
events (e.g., earlier flowering of plants), and changes in agricultural productivity.
Future effects of climate change will vary depending on climate change policies and social
development. The two main policies to address climate change are reducing human greenhouse
gas emissions (climate change mitigation) and adapting to the impacts of climate change.
Some major effects are

1) Rise in temperature
2) Rise in Sea Level
3) Climate change
4) Extinction
5) Droughts
6) Loss of biodiversity
Rise in Temperature:
The intense heat waves and rising temperatures are becoming more common as greenhouse gases
are trapped in the atmosphere. The greenhouse effect thus leads to a rise in temperature, and as it
becomes stronger, more heat is trapped within the planet.
Rise in Sea Level:

Warm surface temperatures cause glaciers, polar ice to melt. This in turn increases the amount of
water in the world’s oceans thus contributing to a rise in sea levels.
It threatens populations of coastal areas because of their higher vulnerability to flooding.
Climate change:
Gradual increase in temperature has also severely influenced the climate pattern of the earth
surface. El Nino effect is an example of changing climate due to Global warming.
Extinction:
The polar bear is considered to be an endangered species whose numbers are falling because of
their inability to adapt to the volatile temperature changes in the Polar Regions.
Droughts:
A warmer climate will cause shortage of water supply and ultimately crop failure. If these water
shortages are persistent it will cause a lot of disruptions in global food production by affecting
agriculture and thus leading to situations such as starvation.
Loss of biodiversity:
Global warming causes drastic and irreversible changes both in the upper atmosphere and within
the planet thus affecting it’s every component including land, water, air etc.
It makes the organisms unable to survive in their native environments.
Topic No.117
Ozone layer
The ozone layer or ozone shield is a region of Earth's stratosphere that absorbs most of

the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation. It contains high concentrations of ozone (O3) in relation to
other parts of the atmosphere, although still small in relation to other gases in the stratosphere.
The ozone layer contains less than 10 parts per million of ozone, while the average ozone
concentration in Earth's atmosphere as a whole is about 0.3 parts per million. The ozone layer is
mainly found in the lower portion of the stratosphere, from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres
(12 to 19 mi) above Earth, although the thickness varies seasonally and geographically.
On the base of production ozone is divided into two types,

 Stratospheric ozone
 Tropospheric ozone
1. Stratospheric ozone:
Earth's stratospheric ozone layer, which contains about 90 percent of the ozone in the
atmosphere, makes the planet habitable by absorbing harmful solar ultraviolet (UV) radiation
before it reaches the planet's surface. UV radiation damages cells and causes sunburn and
premature skin aging in low doses. At higher levels, it can cause skin cancer and immune system
suppression. Earth's stratospheric ozone layer absorbs 99 percent of incoming solar UV
radiation.
Scientists have worked to understand the chemistry of the ozone layer since its discovery in the
1920s. In 1930 British geophysicist Sydney Chapman described a process in which strong UV
photons photolysis oxygen molecules (O2) into highly reactive oxygen atoms. These atoms
rapidly combine with O2 to form ozone (O3). This process is still recognized as the only
significant source of ozone to the stratosphere. Research and controversy have focused on
identifying stratospheric ozone sinks.
2. Tropospheric ozone:
Ozone (O3) is a constituent of the troposphere (it is also an important constituent of some regions
of the stratosphere commonly known as the ozone layer). The troposphere extends from
the Earth's surface to between 12 and 20 kilometers above sea level and consists of many layers.
Ozone is more concentrated above the mixing layer, or ground layer. Ground-level ozone,
though less concentrated than ozone aloft, is more of a problem because of its health effects.
Photochemical and chemical reactions involving it drive many of the chemical processes that
occur in the atmosphere by day and by night. At abnormally high concentrations brought about
by human activities (largely incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, such as gasoline, diesel, etc.),
it is a pollutant, and a constituent of smog. Many highly energetic reactions produce it, ranging
from combustion to photocopying. Often laser printers will have a smell of ozone which in high
concentrations is toxic. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent readily reacting with other chemical
compounds to make many possibly toxic oxides.
Tropospheric ozone is a greenhouse gas and initiates the chemical removal of methane and
other hydrocarbons from the atmosphere. Thus, its concentration affects how long these
compounds remain in the air.
Topic No.118
Ozone-layer destruction
Ozone destruction describes two distinct but related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a
steady decline of about four percent in the total amount
of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in
stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as
the ozone hole. In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also
springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.
The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning but the most
important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main source
of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photo dissociation of man-
made halocarbon refrigerants, solvents, propellants, and foam blowing
agents (Chlorofluorocarbon(CFCs), HCFCs, halons). These compounds are transported into the
stratosphere by winds after being emitted at the surface. Both types of ozone depletion were
observed to increase as emissions of halocarbons increased.
This increase in release of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) has created a large area of thinned ozone
layer in Antarctic region, commonly called as the ozone hole.
Effects of Ozone depletion
Stratospheric ozone filters out most of the sun's potentially harmful shortwave ultraviolet (UV)
radiation. If this ozone becomes depleted, then more UV rays will reach the earth. Exposure to
higher amounts of UV radiation could have serious impacts on human beings, animals and
plants, such as the following:
Harm to human health:
1. More skin cancers, sunburns and premature aging of the skin.

2. More cataracts, blindness and other eye diseases: UV radiation can damage
several parts of the eye, including the lens, cornea, retina and conjunctiva.
3. Cataracts (a clouding of the lens) are the major cause of blindness in the world. A
sustained 10% thinning of the ozone layer is expected to result in almost two
million new cases of cataracts per year, globally (Environment Canada, 1993).
4. Weakening of the human immune system (immunosuppression). Early findings
suggest that too much UV radiation can suppress the human immune system,
which may play a role in the development of skin cancer.
Adverse impacts on agriculture, forestry and natural ecosystems:
1. Several of the world's major crop species are particularly vulnerable to increased
UV, resulting in reduced growth, photosynthesis and flowering. These species
include wheat, rice, barley, oats, corn, soybeans, peas, tomatoes, cucumbers,
cauliflower, broccoli and carrots.
2. The effect of ozone depletion on the Canadian agricultural sector could be
significant.
3. Only a few commercially important trees have been tested for UV (UV-B)
sensitivity, but early results suggest that plant growth, especially in seedlings, is
harmed by more intense UV radiation.
Damage to marine life:

1. In particular, plankton (tiny organisms in the surface layer of oceans) is threatened by
increased UV radiation. Plankton is the first vital step in aquatic food chains.
2. Decreases in plankton could disrupt the fresh and saltwater food chains, and lead to a
species shift in Canadian waters.
3. Loss of biodiversity in our oceans, rivers and lakes could reduce fish yields for
commercial and sport fisheries.
Animals:
1. In domestic animals, UV overexposure may cause eye and skin cancers. Species of
marine animals in their developmental stage (e.g. young fish, shrimp larvae and crab
larvae) have been threatened in recent years by the increased UV radiation under the
Antarctic ozone hole.
Materials:
1. Wood, plastic, rubber, fabrics and many construction materials are degraded by UV
radiation.
2. The economic impact of replacing and/or protecting materials could be significant.
Topic No.119
Solid Waste
Solid waste means any garbage, refuse, sludge from a wastewater treatment plant, water supply
treatment plant, or air pollution control facility and other discarded materials including solid,
liquid, semi-solid, or contained gaseous material, resulting from industrial, commercial, mining
and agricultural operations, and from community activities, but does not include solid or
dissolved materials in domestic sewage, or solid or dissolved materials in irrigation return flows
or industrial discharges.In countries with limited space, solid waste is burned at high
temperatures that creates very hazardous ash, and pollutes the air with toxic chemicals.
Hospitals generate hazardous wastes that contain disinfectants and other harmful chemicals, and
also pathogenic micro-organisms. Such wastes also require careful treatment and disposal. The
use of incinerators is crucial to disposal of hospital waste. Irreparable computers and other
electronic goods are known as electronic wastes (E-wastes). E-wastes are buried in landfills or
incinerated. Recycling involves manual participation thus exposing workers to toxic substances
present in e-wastes.
Waste can be classified in several ways but the following list represents a typical classification:
Biodegradable waste:
Food and kitchen waste, green waste, paper (most can be recycled although some difficult to
compost plant material may be excluded).
Recyclable materials:
paper, cardboard, glass, bottles, jars, tin cans, aluminum cans, aluminum foil, metals,

certain plastics, fabrics, clothes, tires, batteries, etc.
Inert waste:
Construction and demolition waste, dirt, rocks, debris
Electrical and electronic waste (WEEE) - electrical appliances, light bulbs, washing

machines, TVs, computers, screens, mobile phones, alarm clocks, watches, etc.
Composite wastes:
Waste clothing, Tetra Packs, waste plastics such as toys.
Hazardous waste:
Including most paints, chemicals, tires, batteries, light bulbs, electrical appliances, fluorescent

lamps, aerosol spray cans, and fertilizers
Toxic waste:
Including pesticides, herbicides, and fungicides
Biomedical waste:
Expired pharmaceutical drugs, etc.

Topic No.120
Strategy to Protect Ecosystems
Strategies for protecting the ecosystem likely will affect all other segments of the community —
businesses, residents, tourists, and others. As a result, the strategies produce positive results not
only for the ecosystem, but also for the local economy and the community’s quality of life. For
most communities, a wide range of ecosystem protection strategies is available. For example,
should a local effort to protect endangered plant species.
Because it is likely that most of the projects the community undertakes will concentrate on local
activities, strategies that call upon volunteers to protect or restore the ecosystems are potentially
useful. Working through the laws and programs that affect the ecosystem and are administered
by the city, town, county, or other local government is another option. Finally, certain programs
and laws administered by the state and federal governments provide ecosystem protection and
may provide a basis for a local protection effort.
A lot of protected areas or reserves were created mainly to protect the habitat for one species.
Giant pandas, African elephants, and Bengal tigers were all lucky enough to be focal species of
reserves. Since these are all species that are big and beautiful, this approach works pretty well.
Try creating a reserve dedicated to earthworms or grasshoppers though, and see how many
people are in favor of it.
Usually, reserves are created for one of three reasons:
• Protect a single species

• Preserve biodiversity in areas of high species richness
• Protect a whole ecosystem
Single species:
Tule elk are endemic to California and once were the dominant grazer on California grasslands.
They were thought to be extinct in the 1800s, until a rancher found a small herd on his land and
preserved them. A Tule elk reserve was created in northern California in the 1970s and 10
animals were relocated to the reserve. Over 40 years, an initial population of 10 has grown into a
population of 450 Tule elk, and elk can now be spotted outside of the reserve.
This ecosystems approach generally would employ the following four point plan:
 Map global ecosystems and create an inventory of the species contained in each of them
and the ecosystem services they provide.
 Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems and species, with emphasis on
protecting plant biodiversity and ecosystem services.
 Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible.
 Make development biodiversity-friendly by providing significant financial incentives
(such as tax breaks and write-offs) and technical help to private landowners who agree to
help protect endangered ecosystems.
Topic No.121
Stabilize Global Population
Most people consider the main challenge of achieving a sustainable global population to be
finding acceptable means of reducing the population growth rate, to allow the world population
to stabilize. Many others, however, argue that in order to live sustainably on the Earth, we must
eventually reduce human numbers through humane, socially acceptable means.
Stabilizing the global Population: Some Strategies
Stabilizing the global population will require a number of measures besides access to
contraception and family planning that attack the root causes of rampant population growth.
1. Economic Development and the Demographic Transition
Economic development can be a powerful force for reducing population growth. Although
economic development caused a shift in population growth in the more developed nations, this
change took many decades and substantial resources, which the less developed nations of the
world do not have.
2. Family Planning and Population Stabilization
Family planning measures permit couples to determine the number and spacing of children to
determine family size and are vital to global efforts to reach a sustainable human population.
3. Small-Scale, Sustainable Economic Development, Jobs for Women, Better Health Care,
and Improvements in the Status of Women
Small-scale sustainable economic development, jobs for women, efforts to promote equality, and
improvements in health care for women are all seen as vital components of a global strategy to
reduce fertility and population growth.
4. Sustainable Populations in the More Developed Countries
Although most of the attention on curbing population growth is focused on the less developed
nations – the largest sector of the global population – the more developed nations have an
important role because of their high level of per capita consumption and environmental impact.
The impact of a population depends on many factors, most importantly, the size of the
population, per capita consumption (how much citizens consume on average), and the resources
used and pollution produced to meet needs.
5. Psychological Barriers
In the less developed countries of the world, children are often seen as an asset to their parents,
and childbearing enhances a woman’s social status. Having many children seems desirable
because mortality tends to be high, too. These psychological factors contribute to larger family
size and rapid growth. In more developed nations, children are valued, but are viewed as a bit of
an economic drain, and a woman’s status is not so heavily dependent on childbearing.
6. Educational Barriers
As a general rule, the higher the level of education in a population, the lower its fertility rate.
Education and careers that follow decrease the number of childbearing years and open up many
options besides childbearing.
7. Religious Barriers
Religions influence population both positively and negatively. Some religions openly denounce
efforts to control population growth; others openly support smaller families. Some have no
official view.
Topic No.122
Waste management
Waste management is all the activities and actions required to manage waste from its inception
to its final disposal. This includes amongst other things, collection, transport, treatment and
disposal of waste together with monitoring and regulation. It also encompasses the legal and
regulatory framework that relates to waste management encompassing guidance on recycling etc.
The term usually relates to all kinds of waste, whether generated during the extraction of raw
materials, the processing of raw materials into intermediate and final products, the consumption
of final products, or other human activities, including municipal (residential, institutional,
commercial), agricultural, and social (health care, household hazardous wastes, sewage sludge).
Waste management is intended to reduce adverse effects of waste on health,
the environment or aesthetics.
Collection and Disposal

Domestic wastes are collected in small bins, which are then transferred to community bins by
private or municipal workers. From these community bins, these are collected and carried to the
disposable site.
At the site, garbage is sorted out and separated into biodegradable and non-biodegradable
materials. Non-biodegradable materials such as plastic, glass, metal scraps etc. are sent for
recycling. Biodegradable wastes are deposited in landfills and are converted into compost. The
waste if not collected in garbage bins, finds its way into the sewers. Some of it is eaten by cattle.
Non-biodegradable wastes like polythene bag, metal scraps, etc. if swallowed by cattle can cost
their lives. All domestic wastes should be properly collected and disposed. The poor
management causes health problems leading to epidemics due to contamination of ground water.
It is especially hazardous for those who are in direct contact with the waste.
Life-cycle of a product
The life-cycle begins with design, then proceeds through manufacture, distribution, use and then
follows through the waste hierarchy's stages of reuse, recovery, recycling and disposal. Each of
the above stages of the life-cycle offers opportunities for policy intervention, to rethink the need
for the product, to redesign to minimize waste potential, to extend its use. [4] The key behind the
life-cycle of a product is to optimize the use of the world's limited resources by avoiding the
unnecessary generation of waste.
Resource efficiency
Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that current, global, economic growth and
development cannot be sustained with the current production and consumption patterns.
Globally, we are extracting more resources to produce goods than the planet can
replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production
and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to last use and disposal. This
process of resource efficiency can address sustainability.
Polluter pays principle
The Polluter pays principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact caused to
the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for
a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material.
Topic No.123
Introduction-to biodiversity
Biodiversity is defined as the variety of living species on Earth plants, animals and
microorganisms and the ecosystems they form.
Conservation of global biodiversity is important to sustaining human life at local and global
levels. Humans depend on the healthy functionality of other life forms to sustain food growth,
water resources and a healthy environment. Many argue that preservation of biodiversity is
important because all species have intrinsic value, while others focus on the inherent value of
nature in general.
In a complex world, no one argument can solve the threats to biodiversity all arguments are
important to addressing the issue of preserving and conserving biodiversity.
Types of biodiversity
Biodiversity is a generic term that can be related to many environments and species, for
example, forests, freshwater, marine and temperate environments, the soil, crop plants,
domestic animals, wild species and micro-organisms.
Basically it can be classified according to three types of diversity:

 Ecosystems and landscapes (habitat diversity)
 Animal, plant, bacterial species (species diversity)
 All genes (genetic diversity)
The importance of biodiversity

Biodiversity is often used to draw attention to issues related to the environment. It can be
closely related to,
1. The health of ecosystems.
For example, the loss of just one species can have different effects ranging from the
disappearance of the species to complete collapse of the ecosystem itself. This is due to
every species having a certain role within an ecosystem and being interlinked with other
species.
2. The health of mankind.
Experiencing nature is of great importance to humans and teaches us different values. It
is good to take a walk in the forest, to smell flowers and breathe fresh air. More
specifically, natural food and medicine can be linked to biodiversity.
Components of biodiversity
 Species diversity
 Population diversity
 Community diversity
 Ecosystem diversity
 Genetic diversity
 Biogeographic diversity
 Functional diversity
Topic No.124
Species diversity
individuals per species in a community. The effective number of species refers to the number of
equally abundant species needed to obtain the same mean proportional species abundance as that
observed in the dataset of interest (where all species may not be equally abundant).
For example, there might be 100 mountain beavers that live in a forest. You can talk about
species diversity on a small scale, like a forest, or on a large scale, like the total diversity of
species living on Earth.
Species Diversity of Earth

There are approximately 1.8 million different species classified on Earth. Of all the species
identified, nearly one million are insects! New species are being discovered each year. Scientists
estimate that there may be between 5 to 30 million species that actually live on Earth. Each year,
approximately 13,000 more species are added to this growing list of known species. For
example, in 2013, a species of a venomous snake called the green palm-pit viper was discovered
in the country of Honduras.
Importance of Species Diversity

There are numerous reasons why species diversity is essential. Each species has a role in the
ecosystem. For example, bees are primary pollinators. Imagine what would happen if bees went
extinct. Fruits and vegetables could be next, and subsequently the animals that feed off them -
this chain links all the way to humans. Various species provide us not only with food but also
contribute to clean water, breathable air, fertile soils, climate stability, pollution absorption,
building materials for our homes, prevention of disease outbreaks, medicinal resources.
Topic No.125
Ecosystem diversity
All species depend on other species for survival. Ecosystems vary in size. A large stand of forest
or a small pond can each be described as an ecosystem.
Ecosystem diversity refers to the variety of ecosystems in a given place. Within any broader
landscape there is a mosaic of interconnected ecosystems.
To conserve biodiversity, conservation at the landscape level is critical. This enables the
protection of a representative array of interacting ecosystems and their associated species and
genetic diversity. The earth’s variety of deserts, grasslands, forests, mountains, oceans, lakes,
rivers, and wetlands is another major component of biodiversity.
Each of these ecosystems is a storehouse of genetic and species diversity.
An ecosystem is a community of organisms (living things) which depend upon each other for
their existence. The variety of processes such as matter cycling and energy flow takes place
within ecosystems as species interact with one another in food chains and webs.
Ecosystems can be managed or unmanaged. Most agricultural landscapes are managed
ecosystems. Ecosystems exist at different scales. Interactions between living and non-living
things occur at all these scales at the same time.
Ecological diversity can also take into account the variation in the complexity of a biological
community, including the number of different niches, the number of trophic levels and other
ecological processes. An example of ecological diversity on a global scale would be the variation
in ecosystems, such as deserts, forests, grasslands, wetlands and oceans. Ecological diversity is
the largest scale of biodiversity, and within each ecosystem, there is a great deal of both
species and genetic diversity
Ecosystems develop in response to local conditions, which are influenced by

1. Climate patterns
2. Soil types
3. Topography
Topic No.126
Genetic diversity
Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species.
It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic
characteristics to vary.
Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments. With more
variation, it is more likely that some individuals in a population will possess variations
of alleles that are suited for the environment. Those individuals are more likely to survive to
produce offspring bearing that allele. The population will continue for more generations because
of the success of these individuals
The academic field of population genetics includes several hypotheses and theories regarding
genetic diversity. The neutral theory of evolution proposes that diversity is the result of the
accumulation of neutral substitutions. Diversifying is the hypothesis that two subpopulations of a
species live in different environments that select for different alleles at a particular locus. This
may occur, for instance, if a species has a large range relative to the mobility of individuals
within it. Frequency-dependent selection is the hypothesis that as alleles become more common,
they become more vulnerable. This occurs in host–pathogen interactions, where a high frequency
of a defensive allele among the host means that it is more likely that a pathogen will spread if it is
able to overcome that allele.
Importance of genetic diversity

A 2007 study conducted by the National Science Foundation found that genetic diversity
and biodiversity (in terms of species diversity) are dependent upon each other—that diversity
within a species is necessary to maintain diversity among species, and vice versa. According to
the lead researcher in the study, Dr. Richard Lankau, "If any one type is removed from the
system, the cycle can break down, and the community becomes dominated by a single species.
Genotypic and phenotypic diversity have been found in all species at the protein, DNA,
and organismal levels; in nature, this diversity is nonrandom, heavily structured, and correlated
with environmental variation and stress.
Genetic diversity enables life on the earth to adapt to and survive dramatic environmental
changes.
In other words, genetic diversity is vital to the sustainability of life on earth.
Because our environment is constantly changing, we need a diverse range of genes to be able to
adapt. Preserving variety within populations of species is essential for preserving the ability of
that species to cope with environmental change.
Genetic diversity will help the individuals to survive under following conditions of
environmental stress,
 Climate change
 Drought
 Fire
 famine
 Invasive species
Topic No.127
Types of biodiversity over spatial scale
Robert Whittaker (1972) created a system to describe biodiversity over different spatial scales.
 Alpha diversity
 Beta diversity
 Gamma diversity
1.Alpha diversity
Alpha diversity refers to the diversity within a particular area or ecosystem, and is usually
expressed by the number of species (species richness) in that ecosystem. For example, if we are
monitoring the effect that British farming practices have on the diversity of native birds in a
particular region of the country, then we might want to compare species diversity within
different ecosystems, such as an undisturbed deciduous wood, a well-established hedgerow
bordering a small pasture, and a large arable field. We can walk a transect in each of these three
ecosystems and count the number of species we see; this gives us the alpha diversity for each
ecosystem;
2. Beta diversity
If we examine the change in species diversity between these ecosystems then we are measuring
the beta diversity. We are counting the total number of species that are unique to each of the
ecosystems being compared. For example, the beta diversity between the woodland and the
hedgerow habitats is 7 (representing the 5 species found in the woodland but not the hedgerow,
plus the 2 species found in the hedgerow but not the woodland). Thus, beta diversity allows us to
compare diversity between ecosystems.
3. Gamma diversity
Gamma diversity is a measure of
the overall diversity for the
different ecosystems within a
region. Hunter (2002) defines
gamma diversity as
"geographic-scale species
diversity". In the figure species
diversity is shown in three
different geographic areas
which represent the gamma
diversity.
Thus, if we chose to survey all the reefs of a coast side of an ocean and measure species diversity
over the whole area, then that would be gamma diversity. We could expand the survey even
further to include the reefs of the neighbouring Islands.
The gamma diversity would then include the species for all those islands.
Topic No.128
Importance of biodiversity
Biodiversity performs important biological services.

 Regulation of Climate
 Soil formation and protection
 Water resources protection
 Education and scientific value
 Recreation and ecotourism
 Pollution breakdown and absorption
 Economic value
Regulation of Climate
Undisturbed forests maintain the rainfall in their immediate environment by contributing to the
hydrological cycle.
Soil formation and protection
Biodiversity plays an important role in the formation of soil and the maintenance of soil structure
and the retention of moisture and nutrient levels.
Water resources protection
Natural vegetative cover in watersheds protects ecosystems from extreme events such as flood
and drought, and regulates and stabilizes water runoff thereby maintaining water cycles and
water quality.
Education and scientific value
The natural environment has been the basis for many books, television programs and movies
produced for entertainment and educational purposes, as well as in scientific ecological
observations.
Recreation and ecotourism
The natural environment is used for recreation through activities, such as hiking, bird watching,
nature walks and SCUBA diving. Ecotourism, as an industry, is growing rapidly in many
developing countries.
Pollution breakdown and absorption

Ecosystems and ecological processes play an important role in the breakdown and absorption of
many pollutants created by humans and their activities. Some such pollutants are garbage sewage
and oil spills.
Economic value
1) Goods
2) Food
3) Wood and Forest Products
Topic No.129
Threats to biodiversity
Biodiversity is under serious threat as a result of human activities. The main dangers worldwide
are population growth and resource consumption, climate change and global warming, habitat
conversion and urbanization, invasive alien species, over-exploitation of natural resources and
environmental degradation. The biological wealth of our planet has been declining rapidly and
the accusing finger is clearly pointing to human activities. The colonization of tropical Pacific
Islands by humans is said to have led to the extinction of more than 2,000 species of native birds.
Many species persist on a greatly reduced area of their former range and on increasingly
fragmented landscapes.
Ecosystems suitable for agriculture, such as tropical dry forests and tall-grass prairie, have
almost completely disappeared from our planet.
Human influence reaches even the farthest corners of the globe; species in the Arctic and
Antarctic are contaminated by pollutants created thousands of miles away and carried through
the atmosphere.
We are modifying the functioning of the entire planet, changing the earth’s atmosphere through,
• Industrial release of carbon dioxide
• Diminishing the ozone layer by the production of chlorofluorocarbons.
In general, loss of biodiversity in a region may lead to,
 Decline in plant production.
 Lowered resistance to environmental distresses such as drought.
 Increased variability in certain ecosystem processes such as plant productivity, water use,
and pest and disease cycles.
Main threats to biodiversity are,

1. Habitat loss and fragmentation
2. Over-exploitation
3. Invasive species
4. Extinction
5. Pollution
Topic No.130
Habitat loss & fragmentation
Habitat loss is the permanent conversion of land to other uses. Habitat loss drives habitat
fragmentation, and the two are tightly linked. Fragmentation of habitats is typically a
consequence of habitat loss. Habitat loss due to destruction, fragmentation or degradation of
habitat is the primary threat to the survival of wildlife in the United States.
1. Habitat loss and fragmentation is a process that describes the emergences of discontinuities
(fragmentation) or the loss (destruction) of the environment inhabited by an organism.
Marine ecosystems are experiencing high rates of habitat loss and degradation, and these
processes are considered as the most critical threat to marine biodiversity. It is estimated that
every day between 1960 and 1995, a kilometer of coastline was developed, causing permanent
losses of valuable habitats, such as coastal wetlands, sea grass meadows and rocky shores [2].
Approximately 20% of the world’s coral reefs were lost and an additional 20% degraded in the
last several decades of the twentieth century, and approximately 35% of mangrove area was lost
during this time.
2. Habitat can be defined as predominant features that create structural complexity in the
environment, such as plants (e.g., sea grass meadows, kelp forests), or animals
(e.g. Sabellaria reefs, burrowing fauna in sandflats).
Habitat loss and biodiversity

1) The loss of resident species.
There is a unique plant and animal diversity living in close association with specifics habitats or
habitat forming species. For example, invertebrate assemblages associated with mussel beds,
epiphytic and epibenthic assemblages communities living in kelp forests or fish communities
associated with coral reefs. It has been predicted that the consequences of habitat loss would
probably be much more profound than the loss of individual species, because of the ecological
interactions between species leading to a chain of impacts.
2) The loss of food resources.

Most biogenic habitats are highly productive compared to simpler habitats. They produce large
amounts of nutrients and organic matter that can be directly used by other organisms as food
resources. The habitat loss also implies the loss of these food resources having a negative effect
in the survival of other species and the productivity of individual species or communities, with
more profound effects that are likely to propagate along food chains [4].
3) The loss of ecosystem functions provided by the habitat.

Structurally complex habitats provide a wide range of ecosystem functions to the environment
including food and refuge provision for other species, trapping sediment, modifying light and
hydrodynamic conditions, providing resilience to the system. When the habitats are lost this
functions are lost with them. For example, the replacement of macroalgal canopies by turfs
affects sediment dynamics on rocky coasts, where fronds prevents accumulation of sediments
while turfs tend to trap sediments even on exposed coasts.
Topic No.131
Invasive species
An invasive species is a plant, fungus, or animal species that is not native to a specific location

(an introduced species), and which has a tendency to spread to a degree believed to cause damage
to the environment, human economy or human health.
Invasive species are a major threat to our environment because they
(1) Can change habitats and alter ecosystem function and ecosystem services,
(2) Crowd out or replace native species,
(3) Damage human activities, costing the economy millions of dollars. For example, costs to
agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and other human activities by introduced species are estimated at
$137 billion per year to the U.S. economy alone.
Non-native species can be added to a community either by natural range extensions or because
they are introduced as a result of human activity. Most non-native species have harmful
ecological effects; these are referred to as invasive species. Virtually all ecosystems are at risk
from the harmful effects of introduced invasive species (also see exotic species, marine invasive
species, and aquatic invasive species).
Threats to Biodiversity
Invasive species rank second only to habitat destruction, such as deforestation, as a threat to
biodiversity. Almost half of the species in the United States that are at risk of extinction are
endangered because of the effects introduced species alone or because of their impacts combined
with other processes. In fact, introduced species are considered a greater threat to native
biodiversity than pollution, harvest, and disease combined. Invasive species threaten biodiversity
by
Causing disease,
Acting as predators or parasites,
Acting as competitors,
Altering habitat,
Hybridizing with local species.
Predators
Invasive predators can severely reduce the population sizes of native species, or even drive them
extinct, because native prey species may not have evolved defenses against the novel predators:
 The predatory brown tree snake was introduced to Guam in cargo from the
Admiralty Islands. Predation by brown tree snakes eliminated ten of the eleven
native bird species endemic to the forests of Guam.
 The Nile perch, a voracious predator, was introduced to Lake Victoria in Africa as
a food fish. Predation from the Nile perch has eliminated over one hundred species
of the spectacular native cichlid fishes of Lake Victoria.
 Invasive herbivores can cause great damage. For example, goats were introduced
by sailors to many remote oceanic islands during the age of European seafaring
exploration, to provide a source of food when the islands were revisited. Goats
introduced to the island of St. Helena in the 16th century eliminated over half the
endemic plant species.
Topic No.132
Overexploitation
Overexploitation, also called overharvesting, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to

the point of diminishing returns. Sustained overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the
resource. The term applies to natural resources such as: wild medicinal plants, grazing
pastures, game animals, fish stocks, forests, and water aquifers.
In ecology, overexploitation describes one of the five main activities threatening
global biodiversity. Ecologists use the term to describe populations that are harvested at a rate
that is unsustainable, given their natural rates of mortality and capacities for reproduction. This
can result in extinction at the population level and even extinction of whole species.
In conservation biology the term is usually used in the context of human economic activity that
involves the taking of biological resources, or organisms, in larger numbers than their
populations can withstand. The term is also used and defined somewhat differently
in fisheries, hydrology and natural resource management.
Overexploitation can be divided into two major categories:

o Direct exploitation
o Indirect exploitation
1. Direct exploitation
Direct exploitation occurs through general logging (deforestation), selective logging or the
use of forest non-timber products (FNTP’s). General logging is the biggest threat to conifer
species whereby forest habitats are often replaced by plantations, settlements or agricultural
land. Selective logging involves the removal of individual tree species for their valuable
timber, for charcoal production or fire wood. This practice is often considered to be a
sustainable alternative to clear-cutting however for every tree removed, 30 more will become
severely damaged because the practice of selective logging is inherently destructive. Conifers
play an important role in the production of non-timber products; one example is the use of
the foliage and bark of Taxus species for the production of the anti-cancer drug Taxol.
2. Indirect exploitation
Fishing not only has direct effects on target populations but also results in indirect effects such as
effect of "goast fishing", trophic cascading effects and food web-completion.
Trophic cascading effects has been observed when top-level predators are removed resulting in
indirect effects throughout the ecosystem On many temperate reefs shifts from macroalgae-
dominated habitats to habitats grazed by sea urchins, termed ‘urchin barrens’, have been linked
to the over-harvesting of top predators . Perhaps the best known example of this is the interaction
between sea otters, sea urchins and kelp. The importance of the sea otter-urchin-kelp trophic
cascade was demonstrated after sea otters are wiped out by harvesting for their fur, allowing their
prey, sea urchins, to overgraze kelps and dominate many benthic ecosystems. After the
repopulation of areas by otters, kelp and its associated communities became much more
abundant.
Topic No.133
Pollution
Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that causes adverse
change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or
light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or
naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or non-point source
pollution.
Pollution is the process of making land, water, air or other parts of the environment dirty and
unsafe or unsuitable to use. This can be done through the introduction of a contaminant into a
natural environment, but the contaminant doesn't need to be tangible. Things as simple as light,
sound and temperature can be considered pollutants when introduced artificially into an
environment.
Toxic pollution affects more than 200 million people worldwide, according to Pure Earth, a non-
profit environmental organization. In some of the world’s worst polluted places, babies are born
with birth defects, children have lost 30 to 40 IQ points, and life expectancy may be as low as 45
years because of cancers and other diseases. Read on to find out more about specific types of
pollution.
Sulfur and nitrogen oxides are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels, such as coal in
power plants, or oil in vehicles, or wood, are burned. These combine with water in the
atmosphere to create sulfuric and nitric acid, which fall to earth as “acid rain.
Acid rain also dissolves other harmful metals, such as mercury, which plants and animals then
absorb. On land, pollution by acid rain and other air pollutants tends to affect plants more than
animals. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as the insecticide DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloro
ethane) and PCB (polychlorobenzene), are renowned for their toxic effects on the environment.
A particularly troubling characteristic of these pollutants is their ability to persist over long time
frames and spread over large areas. A phenomenon called bio magnification is well known for
mercury and DDT.A few toxic substances, often present in industrial waste waters, can undergo
biological magnification (Bio magnification) in the aquatic food chain. Bio magnification refers
to increase in concentration of the toxicant at successive trophic levels.
Topic No.134
Deforestation
Deforestation is clearing Earth's forests on a massive scale, often resulting in damage to the
quality of the land. Forests still cover about 30 percent of the world’s land area, but swaths the
size of Panama is lost each and every year.
The world’s rain forests could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current rate of
deforestation.
Forests are cut down for many reasons, but most of
them are related to money or to people’s need to
provide for their families. The biggest driver of
deforestation is agriculture. Farmers cut forests to
provide more room for planting crops or grazing
livestock. Often many small farmers will each clear a
few acres to feed their families by cutting down
trees and burning them in a process known as
“slash and burn” agriculture.
Logging operations, which provide the world’s
wood and paper products, also cut countless trees
each year. Loggers, some of them acting illegally,
also build roads to access more and more remote
forests—which lead to further deforestation. Forests are also cut as a result of growing urban
sprawl.
Not all deforestation is intentional. Some is caused by a combination of human and natural
factors like wildfires and subsequent overgrazing, which may prevent the growth of young trees.
Effects of deforestation:
1) Deforestation has many negative effects on the environment. The most dramatic impact is
a loss of habitat for millions of species. Seventy percent of Earth’s land animals and
plants live in forests, and many cannot survive the deforestation that destroys their
homes.
2) Deforestation also drives climate change. Forest soils are moist, but without protection
from sun-blocking tree cover they quickly dry out. Trees also help perpetuate the water
cycle by returning water vapor back into the atmosphere. Without trees to fill these roles,
many former forest lands can quickly become barren deserts.
3) Removing trees deprives the forest of portions of its canopy, which blocks the sun’s rays
during the day and holds in heat at night. This disruption leads to more extreme
temperatures swings that can be harmful to plants and animals.
4) Trees also play a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global warming.
Fewer forests mean larger amounts of greenhouse gases entering the atmosphere—and
increased speed and severity of global warming.
5) The quickest solution to deforestation would be to simply stop cutting down trees.
Though deforestation rates have slowed a bit in recent years, financial realities make this
unlikely to occur.
6) A more workable solution is to carefully manage forest resources by eliminating clear-
cutting to make sure that forest environments remain intact. The cutting that does occur
should be balanced by the planting of enough young trees to replace the older ones felled
in any given forest. The number of new tree plantations is growing each year, but their
total still equals a tiny fraction of the Earth’s forested land.
Reforestation:
Reforestation is the process of restoring a forest that once existed but was removed at some point
of time in the past. It is basically a rehabilitation process of forests.
Reforestation may occur naturally in a deforested area.
However, we can speed it up by planting trees with due consideration to biodiversity that earlier
existed in that area.
Topic No.135
Resource depletion & biodiversity
Our current global population is 7.2 billion and growing. Earth’s total resources are only good
for 2 billion people at the current demand.
The way we’re living, we are already using 2 to 3 times more of the Earth’s natural resources.
The geometric rise in human population levels during the twentieth century is the fundamental
cause of the loss of biodiversity. It exacerbates every other factor having an impact on rainforests
(not to mention other ecosystems). It has led to an unceasing search for more arable land for food
production and livestock grazing, and for wood for fuel, construction, and energy. Previously
undisturbed areas (which may or may not be suitable for the purposes to which they are
constrained) are being transformed into agricultural or pasture land, stripped of wood, or mined
for resources to support the energy needs of an ever-growing human population. Humans also
tend to settle in areas of high biodiversity, which often have relatively rich soils and other
attractions for human activities. This leads to great threats to biodiversity, especially since many
of these areas have numerous endemic species. Balmford, et al., (2001) have demonstrated that
human population size in a given tropical area correlates with the number of endangered species,
and that this pattern holds for every taxonomic group. Most of the other effects mentioned below
are either consequent to the human population expansion or related to it.
Only 2.5% of the world’s total water volume is fresh water. Of that 2.5%, 70% is frozen .The
depletion of our water resources is more serious that the current oil depletion. There are
substitutes for oil but nothing can replace our drinking water. 70% of the available fresh water
that remains in used in agriculture, 20% in industry and only 10% is being used for human
consumption.
Rainforests are losing species, not only because of the disappearance of their habitat, but also
because essential ecological processes are being interrupted by fragmentation. Fragments are
much more easily accessible to human incursions than are intact forests. This leads to a variety
of extractive activities within the forest interior. Intensive hunting, by depleting animal
populations, inhibits plant reproduction, since many seeds can neither be dispersed, nor flowers
be pollinated without them. Where these seed dispersers have been eliminated, are at low
population densities, or cannot move between forest fragments, seed dispersal will be very
limited, and as a result tree species dependent upon animal dispersers may become locally
extinct. In the remnants of the Atlantic forest of Brazil, the seeds of 71% of tree species are
dispersed by vertebrates (birds and mammals), and about 48% of these dispersers are birds which
are deep-forest dwellers. As this forest becomes more and more fragmented, these birds are
disappearing, so eventually the trees dependent upon them will be unable to replace themselves.
Humans are the main cause of rainforest destruction. We are cutting down rainforests for many
reasons, including:
 Wood for both timber and making fires;

 Agriculture for both small and large farms;
 Land for poor farmers who don’t have anywhere else to live;
 Grazing land for cattle;
 Pulp for making paper;
 Road construction; and
 Extraction of minerals and energy.
Rainforests are also threatened by climate change which is contributing to droughts in parts of
the Amazon and Southeast Asia. Drought causes die-offs of trees and dries out leaf litter,
increasing the risk of forest fires, which are often set by land developers, ranchers, plantation
owners, and loggers.
An estimated 18 million acres of forests are destroyed each year. Half of the world’s forest has
been cleared. Deforestation contributes 12 to 17% of global greenhouse gas emissions annually.
Topic No.136
Five-kingdom classification
Two Kingdoms Classification:

In 1735, Carolus Linnaeus distinguished two kingdoms of living things: Animalia for animals
and Plantae (Vegetabilia) for plants. He classified all living organisms into two kingdoms – on
the basis of nutrition and locomotion (mobility).
Linnaeus placed unicellular Protozoans and multicellular animals (metazoans) under animal
kingdom because of their compact body, holozoic nutrition (ingestion of food) and locomotion.
All other organisms were grouped under plant kingdom because of their immobility, spread out
appearance and autotrophic mode of nutrition. Thus, the traditional plant kingdom comprised
bacteria, algae, plants and fungi.
Limitations:
The two kingdom system of classification did not indicate any evolutionary relationship
between plants and animals.
 It grouped together the prokaryotes (bacteria, BGA) with other eukaryotes.

 It also grouped unicellular and multi-cellular organisms together.
 This system did not distinguish the heterotrophic fungi and the autotrophic green plants.
 Dual organisms like Euglena and lichens did not fall into either kingdom.
 Slime mould, a type of fungi, can neither be grouped in fungi nor plants. This is because
they are wall less and holozoic in vegetative stage, but develop cell wall in the
reproductive stage.
 It did not mention some acellular organisms like viruses and viroids.
Five Kingdoms Classification:

R.H. Whittaker (1969), an American Taxonomist, classified all organisms into five kingdoms:
Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animal.
He used following criteria for classification:
 Complexity of cell structure

 Complexity of body organization
 The mode of nutrition
 Life style (ecological role) and
 Phylogenetic relationship.
The classification of living organisms according to Whittaker into five kingdoms namely is as
follows:
Kingdom Monera:
Monera are single-celled organisms that don’t have a nucleus. Bacteria make up the entire
kingdom. There are more forms of bacteria than any other organism on Earth. Some bacteria are
beneficial to us, such as the ones found in yogurt. Others can cause us to get sick.
Kingdom Protista:
Protists are mostly single-celled organisms that have a nucleus. They usually live in water.
Some protists move around, while others stay in one place. Examples of protists include some
algae, paramecium, and amoeba.
Kingdom Fungi:
Fungi are usually motionless organisms that absorb nutrients for survival. They include
mushrooms, molds, and yeasts.
Kingdom Plantae:
Plants contain chlorophyll, a green pigment necessary for photosynthesis, a process in which
plants convert energy from sunlight into food. Their cell walls are made sturdy by a material
called cellulose, and they are fixed in one place. Plants are divided into two groups: flower- and
fruit-producing plants and those that don’t produce flowers or fruits. They include garden
flowers, agricultural crops, grasses, shrubs, ferns, mosses, and conifers.
Kingdom Animalia:
Animals are the most complex organisms on Earth. Animals are multi-celled organisms, eat food
for survival, and have nervous systems. They are divided into vertebrates and invertebrates and
include mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds and fish.
Topic No.137
Kingdom-Monera: Concept
The Monera Kingdom consists of unicellular life forms. Unicellular means that they only have
one cell. Moneran cells are far simpler and more basic than the cells of other life forms. These
cells have no nucleus, and are also missing many of the organelles, or parts, commonly found in
other cells. For this reason, monerans are thought to be very distantly related to other life forms.
Bacteria are commonly placed in the Monera Kingdom. Monera are considered by many
scientists to be the oldest life forms on Earth, and the ancestors of all the other types of life that
have since evolved
Bacterial Habitats:
Bacteria are so widespread that it is possible only to make the most general statements about
their life history and ecology. They may be found on the tops of mountains, the bottom of the
deepest oceans, in the guts of animals, and even in the frozen rocks and ice of Antarctica. One
feature that has enabled them to spread so far, and last so long is their ability to go dormant for
an extended period.
Mode of nutrition
Monera are classified into two phyla, or groups, autotrophs and heterotrophs. Autotrophs are able
to create their own food, similar to plants. Heterotrophs cannot create their own food, and so
must rely on autotrophs as their food source.
Autotrophs, fix carbon dioxide to make their own food source; this may be fueled by light energy
(photoautotrophic), or by oxidation of nitrogen, sulfur, or other elements (chemoautotrophic).
While chemoautotrophs are uncommon, photoautotrophs are common and quite diverse. They
include the cyanobacteria, green sulfur bacteria, purple sulfur bacteria, and purple nonsulfur
bacteria. The sulfur bacteria are particularly interesting, since they use hydrogen sulfide as
hydrogen donor, instead of water like most other photosynthetic organisms, including
cyanobacteria.
Heterotrophs derive energy from breaking down complex organic compounds that they must take
in from the environment -- this includes saprobic bacteria found in decaying material, as well as
those that rely on fermentation or respiration.
Classification of bacteria by shape or cell structure:
Bacterial species are differentiated based on their shapes. They have different cell structure but
most of them come under four basic shapes.
Cocci
 Cocci may be oval, elongated, or

flattened on one side. Cocci may
remain attached after cell division.
These group characteristics are often used
to help identify certain cocci.
 Cocci that remain in pairs after

dividing are called diplococci.
 Cocci that remain in chains after

dividing are called streptococci.
 Cocci that divide in two planes and

remain in groups of four are called
tetrads.
 Cocci that divide in three planes and

remain in groups cube like groups of
eight are called sarcinae.
 Cocci that divide in multiple planes and

form grape like clusters or sheets are
called staphylococci.
Bacilli
 Bacillus is rod shaped bacteria.
 Most bacilli appear as single rods.
 Diplobacilli appear in pairs after division.

 Streptobacilli appear in chains after division.
 Some bacilli are so short and fat that they look like cocci and are referred to as
coccobacilli.
Vibrium
Vibrios look like curved rods.
Spirillum
Spirilla have a helical shape and

fairly rigid bodies.
Topic No.138
Archeobacteria
Archeobacteria is a group of prokaryotes, or single-celled organisms, that are thought to be

the link between bacteria and eukaryotes. They were first discovered in the 1970s. Although
they were initially thought to be quite similar to bacteria, scientists soon discovered radical
molecular differences that placed them in different categories.
General characteristics:
Most Archeobacteria (also called Archae) look bacteria-like when viewed under the microscope.
They have features that are quite different, however, from both bacteria and eukaryotic
organisms.
Archae are similar to eukaryotic organisms in that they lack a part of the cell wall called the
peptidoglycan. Also, Archae and eukaryotes share similarities in the way that they make a new
copy of their genetic material. However, Archae are similar to bacteria in that their genetic
material is not confined within a membrane, but instead is spread throughout the cell. Thus,
Archae represent a blend of bacteria and eukaryotes (some scientists call them the "missing
link"), although generally they are more like eukaryotes than bacteria.
Examples of Archeobacteria:
 Halophiles
 Thermophiles
 Psychrophiles
 Methanogens
Halophiles
Halophiles are phototrophs (producing their energy from light) that use a purple version of
chlorophyll called bacteriorhodosin. They live in extremely salty conditions such as those found
in the Great Salt Lake and the Dead Sea. Such environments present two challenges. First, the
difference in salt concentration inside and outside the cell is tremendous, creating huge osmotic
pressure. While other organisms would rapidly lose all of their water and die, halophiles have
adapted to survive within such a difference in water gradient. Second, the salty environments are
very alkaline, some having a pH of up to 11.5. Beyond simply surviving within these
inhospitable environments, halophiles have incorporated the conditions into their unique
photosynthetic pathway. Most halophiles are aerobes.
Thermophiles
Thermophiles are organism that live and grow optimally at extremely high temperatures,
typically over 40°C. The majority is prokaryotes, such as the Archeobacteria found in hot springs
and in undersea hydrothermal vents (Thermoacidophils); some of these
(called Hyperthermophiles) thrive at temperatures above 80°C and can survive at temperatures
above the boiling point of water. Some eukaryotes, especially certain protoctists and fungi, are
capable of surviving temperatures up to about 60°C. Thermophiles have various adaptations in
order to thrive at such high temperatures. For example, their proteins and nucleic acids have
structural modifications that give them much greater heat stability, so that the cell machinery is
able to function. Also, the chemical makeup of their cell membranes is adapted, for example by
inclusion of lipids rich in saturated fatty acids.
Psychrophiles
Psychrophiles are commonly described as microorganisms which exhibit a growth temperature

optimum of 15°C and lower. The recent discovery of cold-tolerant microorganisms in glaciated
and permanently frozen environments has broadened the known range of environmental
conditions which support microbial life. Psychrophilic bacteria belong to four phylogenetic
groups, the alpha and gamma subdivisions of the Proteobacteria, the Flexibacter-Bacteroides-
Cytophaga phylum and the gram-positive branch. Isolates from cold environments
include Arthrobacter sp., Psychrobacter sp., and members of the genera Halomonas,
Pseudomonas, Hyphomonas, and Sphingomonas.
Methanogens
Methanogens are anaerobic, feeding on decaying plant and other organic material, producing
water and methane gas. They can be found in bogs and marshes, deep in the oceans, and in the
gastrointestinal tracks of cellulose- fermenting herbivores where they aid in the digestion of
cellulose. Some methanogens thrive near volcanic vents. The ability of these Archeobacteria to
survive near such vents greatly interest scientists, since the water in these areas reaches
temperatures of up to 110 degrees Celsius. Most organisms are not able to endure these
conditions: their proteins lose shape and cease to function at around 45 degrees Celsius. How
methanogens have adapted to this extreme heat is not known.
Topic No.139
Eubacteria
Eubacteria, also known as the true bacteria, can be found almost everywhere.
Eubacteria, kill thousands upon thousands of people each year, but also serve as antibiotics
producers and food digesters in our stomachs. We use Eubacteria to produce drugs, wine, and
cheese.
General characteristics:
 Prokaryotic
 They lack mitochondria and chloroplasts.
 They have a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan (rather than cellulose as found in plant
cell walls)
 Flagella, if present, are made of single filament of the protein flagellin.
 A cell membrane composed of a phospholipid bilayer that lacks cholesterol and steroids
 No mitosis - mostly asexual reproduction by binary fission.
 Many eubacteria form spores, resistant to dehydration and most temperatures.
Mode of nutrition:
A great many of the most familiar eubacteria are heterotrophs, meaning they must take food in
from outside sources. Of the heterotrophs, the majority are saprophytes, which consume dead
material, or parasites, which live on or within another organism at the host's expense.
In addition to the heterotrophs, there are many kinds of autotrophic bacteria, able to produce
their own food. These autotrophs may be photosynthetic or chemosynthetic and may or may not
use oxygen in their synthetic pathways. Cyanobacteria are the largest group of photosynthetic
eubacteria. The cells of these bacteria are often much larger than other bacteria, which in the past
led this group to be classified as algae rather than bacteria. In fact, cyanobacteria are still
sometimes referred to as blue-green algae. These eubacteria possess pigment molecules,
including chlorophyll a, the same type of chlorophyll found in higher plants. Unlike plants, in
cyanobacteria the pigments are not contained within membrane-bound chloroplasts.
Reproduction:
Unlike eukaryotic cells, which divide

by mitosis or meiosis, eubacteria reproduce
by binary fission. In this process, the genetic
material is replicated, and the two copies
move to separate nucleoid regions. Next, the
plasma membrane pinches inward, producing
two equal daughter cells. While these
daughter cells are completely independent of
each other, in some species they remain
together, forming colonies and filaments.
Binary fission can take place very rapidly, on
the order of about one split every 20 minutes,
accounting for the amazing replicative ability
of eubacteria.
Mycoplasma:
A unique group of eubacteria that bears mentioning is the mycoplasmas. Classified as Gram-
positive based on their relatedness to other Gram-positives, because mycoplasmas lack a cell
wall they are functionally gram-negative. Mycoplasmas are both the smallest eubacteria and the
smallest organisms capable of independent reproduction. They are barely larger than
some viruses. Mycoplasmas have an extremely simple cell structure, a small genome, and are
therefore of special evolutionary interest.
Topic No.140
Kingdom-Protista: concept
Protists are a diverse group of organisms that are either unicellular or multicellular without
highly specialized tissues. They could be viewed as those eukaryotes that cannot be classified as
one of the other cell types. They include the one-celled animal-like protozoa, one-celled algae,
slime molds and water molds.
Plant-like protists make their own food, and many have cell walls made of cellulose. Animal-like
protists cannot make their own food and ingest it. Some animal-like protests have “shells,” called
tests, which are made of silica or calcium carbonate. Other animal-like protists lack a cell wall or
protective test. The fungi-like protists are actually not evolutionarily related to fungi, although
they do take in food by absorption. Like plants, however, their cell walls are made of cellulose.
General Characteristics of Protists
 They are mostly unicellular but some are multicellular and colonial organisms.
 They are either free-living or parasitic.
 They have aerobic mode of respiration and have mitochondria for cellular respiration.
 They are true eukaryotes and are nucleated.
 They have (9+2) arrangement of flagella and have membranous organelles.
 They reproduce both sexually (syngamy) and asexually.
 They are grouped into 3 categories: animal like (protozoa), fungus like, and plant-like.
 According to the categories, they have different modes of nutrition, like heterotrophy or
autotropohy.
 Plant-like protists (algae) have chlorophyll and accessory pigments, named xanthophylls,
phycobilins, and carotene.
Classification of Protists
1. Chrysophytes
2. Dinoflagellates
3. Euglenoids
4. Slime molds
5. Protozoans
Chrysophytes:
 Unicellular,
 Photosynthetic,
 Chlorophyll a and c
 Golden brown in colour
 Stores food in form of oil
 The diatoms and golden-brown algae are of great importance as components of the
plankton and nanoplankton that form the foundation of the marine food chain.
 Under some circumstances diatoms will reproduce sexually, but the usual form of
reproduction is cell division.
Dinoflagellates:
 They are di-flagellated
 Phosphorescent algae
 Covered with plates
 Color renders 'red tides'
 Possess toxins
Euglenoids:
 They are unicellular
 Animal like movement
 Flagellum present
 Presence of nucleus, chloroplasts, flagellum, and cell membrane
 Asexual reproduction.
Slime molds:
 They are multicellular
 Change forms during life cycle
 Tend to live in damp climate
 Plasmodial (acellular), slime molds (Myxomycetes).
Protozoans:
 Presence of pseudopodia
 Shell composed of calcium
 They are heterotrophs
 Free living, saprophytic, mutualistic or parasitic
Topic No.141
Chrysophytes
Chrysophytes are plant-like protists that can be found in marine and freshwater environments
which are often low in calcium. Chrysophytes mainly include diatoms which occur in aquatic
and moist habitats. They may float free or may occur at the bottom. They have gliding type of
movement with mucin. They have frustules made of silicon which do not decay easily.
There are over 1000 described species of Chrysophytes, and, because there are so many species,
there is no common cell structure shared by them. Some species have cell walls made of
cellulose strengthened by silica compounds, while others are amoeboid without any cell walls.
Types of Chrysophytes:
There are three main types of Chrysophytes:
Diatoms (bacillariophyta),
Golden-brown algae (chrysophyceae),
Yellow-green algae (xanthophyceae).
Characteristics of Chrysophytes:
 Unicellular and free swimming, some Chrysophytes, like the dynobryon above, join
together and form colonies.
 Chrysophytes are plant-like and have chloroplasts, so they are mainly autotrophic. If
there is inadequate lighting, though, they can become heterotrophic, especially in areas
with high concentrations of dissolved foods.
 Most Chrysophytes reproduce asexually through meiosis, as seen in the picture to the
right, but under certain conditions diatoms reproduce sexually, dividing and exchanging
parts.
 Being the main components of plankton and nanoplankton, diatoms and chrysophyceae
are the foundation of the marine food chain, functioning as the producers.
 Chrysophytes can be considered helpful to humans. We use them in toothpaste, scouring
products, and filters. As autotrophs, they provide a substantial amount of the oxygen in
the atmosphere, as well. Also, because Chrysophytes store their food as oils, they can be
used for biofuel.
Diatoms:
Diatoms are microscopic algae living in both fresh and salt water. They are unicellular
organisms with heavily silica impregnated cell walls. Living diatoms are amongst the most
abundant forms of plankton and represent an essential part of the food chain in the ocean. Once
dead, their shells accumulate on the seabed and eventually form siliceous sediment deposits.
Habitat
Diatoms are photosynthetic algae. They are restricted to the euphotic zone during the productive
phase of their live cycle. Therefore, they are highly sensitive to any environmental changes such
as light availability, temperature, salinity etc. In general, diatoms prefer cold, nutrient rich
waters. Diatoms are most abundant under these conditions and therefore, large diatom
biomasses are found in coastal areas and upwelling zones
Growth and reproduction
Diatoms are almost all photosynthetic. Diatoms represent a large fraction of the marine biomass
and thus are responsible for a large proportion of the total energy production of the oceans,
possibly as much as half. The few diatoms that don’t photosynthesize live on dissolved nutrients
from rich organic matter. Under the right conditions, diatoms can reproduce very rapidly and a
population of a small species cans double each day. Diatoms normally reproduce by binary
fission, where one ‘mother cell’ splits into two daughter cells.
Diatomaceous earth:
Diatomaceous earth is made from the fossilized remains of tiny, aquatic organisms called
diatoms. Their skeletons are made of a natural substance called silica. Over a long period of
time, diatoms accumulated in the sediment of rivers, streams, lakes, and oceans. Today, silica
deposits are mined from these areas.
Benefits of Diatomaceous earth:

Blood Pressure Control
Diatomaceous earth is also a great substance for people who are suffering from high blood
pressure. By incorporating food-grade diatomaceous earth into your diet, hypertension can be
regulated as it reduces the levels of your blood pressure by adjusting the levels of fat deposits
and bad cholesterol’s.
Natural Source of Silica
Food-grade diatomaceous earth is composed of approximately 85% silica. This important, trace
mineral is required by tendons, cartilage, blood vessels, and bones.
Enhances Health of Bones, Nails, Skin, and Hair
Another health benefit that makes diatomaceous earth so appealing is that it nourishes
dehydrated skin, damaged hair, weak nails, and brittle bones.
Parasite Control
Diatomaceous earth has been proven to be effective in killing internal parasites such as intestinal
worms and other harmful organisms in humans and animals. Because diatomaceous earth is
crushed into sharp shards, it can efficiently eradicate harmful organisms in the blood and
digestive system of mammals. These razor sharp shards work by slicing the joints of the
parasites, causing them to die and be expelled from the body. As a result, the body will
experience better bowel movements and further improve health and overall well-being.
Topic No.142
Dinoflagellates
Dinoflagellates are unicellular eukaryotic microorganisms. They are free swimming protests with
a forward spiraling motion propelled by two dimorphic flagella.
Dinoflagellates are microorganisms that are

regarded as algae. Their wide array of exotic
shapes and, sometimes, armored appearance
is distinct from other algae. The closest
microorganism in appearance is
the diatoms.
Dinoflagellates are single-celled organisms.
There are nearly 2000 known living species.
Some are bacterial in size, while the
largest, Noctiluca, can be up to two
millimeters in size.
Characteristics of Dinoflagellates:
Habitat
Dinoflagellates species are adapted to a variety of habitats: from pelagic to benthic, from
temperate to tropical seas, and from estuaries to freshwater. Many species are cosmopolitan and
can survive in variety of habitats: in the plankton, or attached to sediments, sand, corals, or
macroalgal surfaces. Some species produce resting cysts that can survive in sediments for an
extended period of time, and then germinate to initiate blooms
Locomotion
Dinoflagellates move by means of two flagella: the longitudinal flagellum, which points toward
the rear, and the transverse flagellum, which curves around the body of the organism. The two
flagella function separately, the former acting mainly as a rudder, and the latter as the propeller.
Mode of nutrition
The modes of nutrition vary according to individual species. Some Dinoflagellates can have a
parasitic mode of nutrition. They thrive on other organisms to meet their nutritional
requirements. Typically, Dinoflagellates kill their host organisms after feeding on their bodily
fluids and non-vital organs. Many Dinoflagellates are autotrophic in nature. They are capable of
producing their own food. They contain chlorophyll a & c, beta-carotene, neoperidinin,
xanthophyll, fucoxanthin, dinoxanthin, peridinin, neodinoxanthin, and diatoxanthin. Histones are
absent. Foods are reserved as starch and oil. These Dinoflagellates are known as "primary
producers" since they are not dependent on any other organism for their food supply.
Heterotrophic Dinoflagellates are potentially harmful organisms. They are usually carnivorous by
nature. They release deadly toxins in the water bodies to harm other marine organisms. They
obtain chloroplasts by ingesting autotrophic organisms. Symbiotic Dinoflagellates consume the
unused food of the host organism. These Dinoflagellates are also known as "zooxanthellae"
Bioluminescence
Some Dinoflagellates are bioluminescent, which means they are capable of producing their own
light. This phenomenon occurs as a result of a chemical reaction that takes place within the
organism, involving the compounds luciferin and luciferase. The effect is not unlike the light
produced by a firefly. Due to this ability to glow, Dinoflagellates are also sometimes referred to
as pyrrophyta, or “fire plants.” One example of the bioluminescent variety of Dinoflagellates is
the Noctiluca, whose name means “night light.”
Mode of reproduction
Sexual reproduction among Dinoflagellates is very uncommon. In this form of reproduction, two
different gametes fuse together to form a zygote.
Dinoflagellates essentially have two means of reproduction. During normal conditions, they
reproduce just like any cell, by asexual division. This means that new Dinoflagellates break off
from old Dinoflagellates and grow into a separate organism. But under certain stressful
conditions, like cold, starvation and lack of light, they undergo a different process to reproduce.
Two Dinoflagellates will join together in a process called fusion. They will stay together through
the stressful time in a semi-dormant state. Once conditions are again favorable, they break off
into small pieces called cysts and grow into full-sized new organisms.
Toxins production
Dinoflagellates are capable of producing quantities of potent toxins, which can have serious,
occasionally fatal, neurological and other consequences if consumed by humans. Human
consumption generally does not occur directly, but as a result of eating shellfish or other seafood
contaminated by the toxins.
Red tide:
When colony of Dinoflagellates blooms in ponds or other water bodies, they release some nasty
harmful toxins. These pigments change the color of water. It assumes a red color. This
phenomenon is colloquially known as red tide. Marine lives are heavily affected as a result of
this toxin. Red Tide can pose serious threats to the ecosystems and human society. If red
tide fish contaminated fishes are consumed by the local population, they may suffer from early
puberty, obesity, reproductive problems, and neurological problems. Phosphate and
Nitrate pollution encourage the growth of Dinoflagellates.
Topic No.143
Euglenoids
Euglena is unicellular organism classified into the Kingdom Protista, and the Phylum
Euglenophyta. All euglena have chloroplasts and can make their own food by photosynthesis.
They are not completely autotrophic though, euglena can also absorb food from their
environment; euglena usually lives in quiet ponds or puddles.
Characteristics of Euglenoids:
Habitat
Various species of the genus Euglena are found in freshwater eutrophic (rich in mineral and

organic nutrients) pools and ditches. Thriving proliferating organisms may render the water
green and soup-like appearance. Euglenoids are sometimes the dominant forms on the surface of
thick bottom deposits of ponds, especially if the organic content is high.
Optimum growth (E. gracilis) appears in the range of 25°-30°C with doubling time being about
10 hours.
Movement
Euglena move by a flagellum (plural ‚ flagella), which is a long whip-like structure that acts like
a little motor. The flagellum is located on the anterior (front) end, and twirls in such a way as to
pull the cell through the water.
Mode of nutrition
Euglena is a genus of single-celled, free living flagellated microorganisms that show both plant-
(photosynthesis) and animal-like (absence of cell wall) characteristics. The majority
of Euglena species are green due to the presence of chloroplasts containing
chlorophylls a and b. Euglena are able to use photosynthesis and heterotrophic oxidative
assimilation as interchangeable and apparently equivalent sources of carbon and energy.
Euglena is a mixotroph (or facultative photoautotroph). It is a photoautotrophic organism
because it can utilize carbon dioxide as a carbon source in the presence of light through
photosynthesis in chloroplasts and ammonium and nitrate as nitrogen sources; and it is also
a heterotrophic organism because it can utilize dissolved organic compounds as carbon source.
Many species of Euglena are obligatory photomesotrophs, i.e. organisms that apparently cannot
grow in inorganic media and require certain amino acids as a source of nitrogen.
Growth of most euglenoids is accelerated by certain lower organic acids (for example, acetate)
and in some species by lower alcohols.
Reproduction
There are no confirmed reports of sexual reproduction (production of haploid gametes and their
union) in Euglena.
The following methods of asexual reproduction are reported in euglenoids:
 Reproduction is usually by longitudinal binary fission of the flagellated stage.

 Division of non-flagellated cells contained within reproductive or division cysts. In E.
gracilis and E. viridis these cysts may contain up to 32 or even 64 cells.
 Division of cells in pallmeloid stage (non-motile cells covered with mucilage).
Documented for E. viridis, E. stellata, E. schmitzii, E. pisciformis and others.
Topic No.144
Slime molds
Slime-molds
Slime molds are the organism that exist as slimy masses and are commonly found on decaying
plant matter. They are classified among the protists as two distinct
phyla, Dictyolsteliomycota (the cellular slime molds) and Myxomycota (the Plasmodial slime
molds). The two phyla are not directly related to each other.
Cellular slime molds
They live as single, amoeba-like cells moving about feeding on bacteria. When food becomes
scarce, they combine into a large, slug-like, mobile colony. This migrates to a new area before
developing into a multicellular stalked structure that produces and releases spores. Each spore
then develops into a new amoeba-like cell.
Plasmodial slime molds
They exist as a mass of amoeba-like protoplasm (called a plasmodium) that contains many nuclei
within a single cell membrane. A single organism can spread out thinly and cover up to several
square meters. The slimy mass moves along ingesting bacteria, fungi, and other organic matter.
When food grows scarce, they stop moving and grow multicellular, spore-producing stalks. The
Plasmodial slime molds are also called Myxomycetes.
Life Cycle of slime molds
 Once a spore is released from the fruiting body it's dispersed, either by insects, animals,
and rain or air movement. On landing on a suitable location with appropriate moisture
and temperature, one to four protoplasts are germinated
 The protoplasts once released from the spore's wall through either a pore or fissure will
be either a flagellated swarm cell if conditions are wet, or a nonflagellated myxamoebae
cell in dryer conditions.
 If conditions for growth are not suitable, the cells can become microcysts to survive long
periods of time.
 A diploid zygote is formed
when two compatible
myxamoebae or swarm cells
fuse. This is known as
plasmogamy and karyogamy.
 After a time of feeding and
growing, the zygote develops
into a single celled
multinucleate structure
known as a plasmodium.
 If environmental conditions are not suitable, then the plasmodium can change into
another dormant state known as the sclerotium.
 When the conditions are right, the mature plasmodium produces one to many fruiting
bodies containing spores depending on species.
Topic No.145
Protozoans
All protozoan species are assigned to the kingdom Protista in the Whittaker classification.
General Characteristics of Protozoans
Protozoa are eukaryotic microorganisms. Although they are often studied in zoology courses,
they are considered part of the microbial world because they are unicellular and microscopic.
Protozoa are notable for their ability to move independently, a characteristic found in the
majority of species. They usually lack the capability for photosynthesis, although the
genus Euglena is renowned for motility as well as photosynthesis (and is therefore considered
both an alga and a protozoan). Although most protozoa reproduce by asexual methods, sexual
reproduction has been observed in several species. Most protozoan species are aerobic, but some
anaerobic species have been found in the human intestine and animal rumen.
Habitat
Protozoa are located in most moist habitats. Free-living species inhabit freshwater and marine
environments, and terrestrial species inhabit decaying organic matter. Some species are parasites
of plants and animals.
Protozoa play an important role as zooplankton, the free-floating aquatic organisms of the
oceans. Here, they are found at the bases of many food chains, and they participate in many food
webs.
Size and shape
Protozoa vary substantially in size and shape. Smaller species may be the size of fungal cells;
larger species may be visible to the unaided eye. Protozoan cells have no cell walls and therefore
can assume an infinite variety of shapes. Some genera have cells surrounded by hard shells,
while the cells of other genera are enclosed only in a cell membrane.
Many protozoa alternate between a free-living vegetative form known as atrophozoite and a
resting form called a cyst. The protozoan cyst is somewhat analogous to the bacterial spore, since
it resists harsh conditions in the environment. Many protozoan parasites are taken into the body
in the cyst form.
Most protozoa have a single nucleus, but some have both a macronucleus and one or more
micronuclei. Contractile vacuoles may be present in protozoa to remove excess water, and food
vacuoles are often observed.
Nutrition and locomotion
Protozoa are heterotrophic microorganisms, and most species obtain large food particles

by phagocytosis. The food particle is ingested into a food vacuole. Lysosomal enzymes then
digest the nutrients in the particle, and the products of digestion are distributed throughout the
cell. Some species have specialized structures called cytostomes, through which particles pass in
phagocytosis.
Classification of Protozoa:
The classification of protozoa is mainly based on their means of locomotion. They are
subdivided into the following four classes.
 Sarcodina (Amoeboid protozoans)
 Mastigophora (Flagellated protozoans)
 Ciliophora (Ciliated protozoans)
 Sporozoa (Sporozoans)
Sarcodina (Amoeboid protozoans)
Motility is due to the streaming of ectoplasm, producing protoplasmic projections called

pseudopodia (false feet). Examples: Free-living form like Amoeba proteus and parasitic form
like Entamoeba histolytica.
Mastigophora (Flagellated protozoans)
Locomotion is affected by one or more whip-like, thin structures called flagella. Examples: Free-
living forms like Euglena viridis, Cercomonas longicauda, Heteronema acus and parasitic forms
like Trichomonas vaginalis, Trypanosoma gambiense, Giardia lamblia.
Ciliophora (Ciliated protozoans)

Locomotion is carried out by means of short hair-like projections called cilia, whose
synchronous beating propels the organisms. Examples: Free-living forms like Paramecium
caudatum, Stentor polymorpha, Vorticella campanula and parasitic form like Balantidium coli.
Sporozoa (Sporozoans)
Unlike the above three classless of protozoa, members of the class Sporozoa do not have
locomotors organelles in their mature stage; however, immature forms exhibit some type of
movement. All the members of this group are parasites.
Topic No.146
Kingdom Fungi-Concept
The Kingdom Fungi includes eukaryotic, generally multicellular organisms with an unusual form
of multicellularity. Their cells are not entirely divided by cell walls, so cytoplasm and even
nuclei can flow between individual cells. The cell walls are made of chitin, a protein also found
in the exoskeletons of arthropods, which reflects the close relationship between the Fungi and
Animalia kingdoms. They are more closely related to each other than they are to plants.
Fungi are split between acting as parasites, which prey on insects, plants, and animals, and
saprophytes, which primarily aid in the breakdown of dead organic material. Fungi can also live
in symbiotic relationships with other organisms. Lichens are the result of a symbiotic
relationship between a fungus and a photosynthesizing organism. Other fungi live in symbiosis
with plant roots to increase the root surface area.
Structure of fungi
• The body of fungus consists of long, slender thread-like structures called Hyphae.
• The network of hyphae is known as Mycelium.
• Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm – these are called
Coenocytic hyphae.
• Others have septae or cross walls in their hyphae.
• The cell walls of fungi are composed of chitin and polysaccharides.
Mode of nutrition
o Saprophytes
o Parasites
o Symbionts
Saprophytes:
Most fungi are heterotrophic and absorb soluble organic matter from dead substrates and hence
are called saprophytes.
Parasites:
Those that depend on living plants and animals are called parasites.
Symbionts:
They can also live as symbionts – in association with algae as lichens and with roots of higher
plants as Mycorrhizae.
Reproduction
Asexual Reproduction
Fungi reproduce asexually by fragmentation, budding, or producing spores. Fragments of hyphae

can grow new colonies. Mycelial fragmentation occurs when a fungal mycelium separates into
pieces with each component growing into a separate mycelium. Somatic cells in yeast form buds.
During budding (a type of cytokinesis), a bulge forms on the side of the cell, the nucleus divides
mitotically, and the bud ultimately detaches itself from the mother cell.
The most common mode of asexual reproduction is through the formation of asexual spores,
which are produced by one parent only (through mitosis) and are genetically identical to that
parent. Spores allow fungi to expand their distribution and colonize new environments. They
may be released from the parent thallus, either outside or within a special reproductive sac called
a sporangium.
There are many types of asexual spores. Conidiospores are unicellular or multicellular spores

that are released directly from the tip or side of the hypha. Other asexual spores originate in the
fragmentation of a hypha to form single cells that are released as spores; some of these have a
thick wall surrounding the fragment. Yet others bud off the vegetative parent cell.
Sporangiospores are produced in a sporangium.
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction introduces genetic variation into a population of fungi. In fungi, sexual

reproduction often occurs in response to adverse environmental conditions. Two mating types
are produced. When both mating types are present in the same mycelium, it is called
homothallic, or self-fertile. Heterothallic mycelia require two different, but compatible, mycelia
to reproduce sexually.
Although there are many variations in fungal sexual reproduction, all include the following three
stages. First, during plasmogamy (literally, "marriage or union of cytoplasm"), two haploid cells
fuse, leading to a dikaryotic stage where two haploid nuclei coexist in a single cell. During
karyogamy ("nuclear marriage"), the haploid nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote nucleus.
Finally, meiosis takes place in the gametangia (singular, gametangium) organs, in
which gametes of different mating types are generated. At this stage, spores are disseminated
into the environment.
Classification of fungi
1. Phycomycetes
2. Ascomycetes
3. Basidiomycetes
4. Deuteromycetes
Phycomycetes:
These fungi are usually found on cheese, bread, and other decaying food. They are zygote
forming fungi, hence the name Zygomycota. The spores are produced in round-shaped case
called sporangium. The grayish fuzz seen on bread and decaying food is actually mass of mature
sporangia mold. Under the microscope they are seen as pinheads. When the sporangium breaks
open hundreds of spores are released. Example: Mucor, Rhizopus (the bread moulds)
and Albugo.
Ascomycetes:
The sac-fungi produce spores in small cup-shaped sacs called asci, hence the name Ascomycota.
The mature sac fungi spores are known as ascospores, they are released at the tip of the ascus
breaks open. Yeast is the most common one-celled fungi. Yeast reproduces through asexual
process called budding. The buds form at the side of the parent cell; they pinch-off and grow into
new yeast cell which is identical to the parent cell. Examples of sac-fungi are morels, truffles,
cup fungi and powdery mildews. Example: Aspergillus, Claviceps, Neurospora.
Basidiomycetes:
Basidiomycota includes the mushrooms, puff-balls, smuts, rusts and toadstools. The spores are
borne on a club-shaped spore case called basidium. In mushrooms the basidia are lined at the
gills under the cap. Huge numbers of spores are produced by the club fungi. In fact, an average
sized mushroom produces over 16 billion spores. These spores rarely germinate or mature.
Example: Agaricus (mushroom), Ustilago (smut), and Puccinia (rust fungus).
Deuteromycetes:
These organisms are known as imperfect fungi because they lack sexual reproduction. They
reproduce by asexual spores known as conidia. Most of the fungi cause diseases to humans like
ringworm, athlete's foot. Economically important imperfect fungi
are Penicillium and Aspergillus. Other examples are Alternaria, Colletotrichum and
Trichoderma.
Topic No.147
Phycomycetes
Phycomycetes in older classification schemes, all primitive fungi, many of which are found in
water (e.g. the water moulds, which may be parasitic on fish) or in damp areas. Many are
unicellular but those that form mycelia generally have hyphae lacking cross walls, which
distinguishes them from the Ascomycota and Basidiomycota. They include the Zygomycota.
Thallus or plant body is simple and ranges from simple isolated cell to a richly branched
mycelium. Hyphae are un-separate and coenocytic, septa occur either rarely or at the time of
formation of reproductive organs.
Classification of Phycomycetes
Recently Alexopuls divides Phomycetes into six classes.
o Oomycetes
o Zygomycetes
o Chytricomycetes
o Hyphochytridiomycetes
o Plasmodiophoromycetes
o Trichomycetes.
Reproduction
 Vegetative reproduction
 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual Reproduction
Vegetative reproduction:
It occurs by fragmentation, budding and oidia.
Asexual reproduction:
It takes place by zoospores or aplanospores produced in sporangia. Sporangia develop at tip of
reproductive hyphae the sporangiopore. Zoospore may be uni or bi ciliate. In some higer forms
spores are non-motile and secrete a wall all around known as aplanospores. In some forms spores
are formed exogenously in chains (e.g. Albugo) on conidiosphorangia. These spores are called
conidiosphores.
Sexual Reproduction:
It takes place by fusion of gametes and varies from isogamy to oogamy. The mycelium may be
either homothallic or heterothallic. In primitive forms like olipiduim viciae and synchytrium
endobiotricum it takes place by fusion of free swimming flagellated isogametes. In Allomyces
Javanicus there is anisogamy of two fusing flagellated gametes one is larger than the other. In
members of oomycetes like Albuno there is oogamy in which non motile oospore is fertilized by
free swimming flagellated antherozoid.
Product of sexual fusion is a zygote or zygospore or oospore which secretes a thick wall around
itself and un-goes a period of rest on germination it may give rise to zoospore or many produce a
mycelium or sporangiosphore.
Life cycle of Phycomycetes

Topic No.148
Ascomycetes
The Ascomycota are morphologically diverse. The group includes organisms from unicellular
yeasts to complex cup fungi. There are 2000 identified genera and 30,000 species of
Ascomycota. The unifying characteristic among these diverse groups is the presence of a
reproductive structure known as the ascus, though in some cases it has a reduced role in the life
cycle. As a group, they are economically important. Many are tree diseases, such as Dutch elm
disease and apple blights. The yeasts are used to produce alcoholic beverages and breads. The
mold Penicillium is used to produce the anit-biotic penicillin.
Structure
Like Basidiomycota, most
Ascomycota sprout from spores into
haploid mycelia. These mycelia can
produce two types of reproductive
structures. First, they can produce
conidiophores for asexual
reproduction. Conidiophores may
simply branch off from the mycelia or
they may be formed in fruiting
bodies. Secondly, Ascomycota
produce structures for sexual
reproduction called gametangia.
These structures are either male or
female. The male gametangia may be
anything from a detached cell (called
a spermatium) to a differentiated
region called an antheridium. The
female structure is always a
differentiated region known as the
ascogonium. Many Ascomycota form
a fruiting body, or ascoma, similar to
that of the Basidiomycota, but with an
important difference. The
Ascomycota fruiting body is
composed mainly of entangled
monokaryotic hyphae from the male
and female mycelia rather than of
dikaryotic hyphae formed from the
joining of hyphae from the two mycelia, as in the Basidiomycota. The only dikaryotic structures
in the fruiting body are those produced by the gametangia after plasmogamy.
Reproduction
Like all fungi, Ascomycota can undergo both asexual and sexual reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction among the different groups of fungi is very similar. Like Basidiomycota,
Ascomycota reproduce asexually through budding or the formation of conidia
Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction in the

Ascomycota differs from that in
the Basidiomycota and
Zygomycota because Ascomycota
have male and female gametangia
in their haploid stage.
Plasmogamy, or the transfer of
cytoplasm and nuclei, takes place
when a part of the ascogonium,
the trichogyne, fuses with the
antheridium. This produces a
binucleate, dikaryotic condition in
the ascogonium. This phase is
prolonged and a series of
dikaryotic cells called an
ascogonius hypha is produced. At
the tip of this hypha, karyogamy
or nuclear fusion takes place,
resulting in the formation of a
diploid ascus. Within this
structure, the diploid nucleus
undergoes meiosis, producing
four haploid nuclei. These nuclei
then undergo mitosis to form eight
haploid ascospores. Notice that
this is twice as many spores as
produced in the basidium.
Yeast Reproduction
The different kinds of yeast most commonly reproduce by budding and fission, both forms of
asexual reproduction. Budding occurs when a small portion of the cytoplasm of the parent cell
becomes separated into small daughter cell. Fission involves an equal division of the cytoplasm
into two daughter cells.
Yeast can also reproduce sexually, and usually do so under starvation conditions.
Topic No.149
Basidiomycetes
The fungi in the Phylum Basidiomycota are easily recognizable under a light microscope by their
club-shaped fruiting bodies called basidia (singular, basidium), which are the swollen
terminal cell of a hypha. The basidia, which are the reproductive organs of these fungi, are often
contained within the familiar mushroom, commonly seen in fields after rain, on the supermarket
shelves, and growing on the lawn. These mushroom-producing basidiomyces are sometimes
referred to as "gill fungi" because of the presence of gill-like structures on the underside of the
cap. The "gills" are actually compacted hyphae on which the basidia are borne. This group also
includes shelf fungus, which cling to the bark of trees like small shelves.
There are about 25,000 species in this division including the more familiar types of fungi whose
fruiting bodies are popularly known as mushrooms and toadstools. A number of these are edible
but also are included many which are toxic or hallucinogenic.
This group also contains those that decay wood or attack living trees, others, which rot down
forest litter. Plus the class of fungi known as rusts and smuts.
Basidiomycetes have many features in common with the Ascomycetes; mycelia with chitinous
cell walls that are regularly septate, cell division often accomplished by clamp formation, and the
presence of an extended dikaryon stage. This means that the two nuclei brought together in
mating do not fuse in the thallus of the fungus, but instead exist side-by-side in each cell.
Reproduction:
Basidium is the cell in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion)
and meiosis occur, and on which haploid basidiospores are
formed. The basidium produces four basidiospores, borne
on the tips of little prongs which project from the apex, and
which are called sterigmata. Conidia are produced if an asexual
stage is present.
Life cycle:
The lifecycle of basidiomycetes includes alternation of generations . Spores are generally

produced through sexual reproduction, rather than asexual reproduction. The club-shaped
basidium carries spores called basidiospores. In the basidium, nuclei of two different mating
strains fuse (karyogamy), giving rise to a diploid zygote that then undergoes meiosis. The
haploid nuclei migrate into basidiospores, which germinate and generate monokaryotic hyphae.
The mycelium that results is called a primary mycelium. Mycelia of different mating strains can
combine and produce a secondary mycelium that contains haploid nuclei of two different mating
strains. This is the dikaryotic stage of the basidiomyces life cycle and it is the dominant stage.
Eventually, the secondary mycelium generates basidiocarps, which is a fruiting body that
protrudes from the ground; this is what we think of as a mushroom. The basidiocarp bears the
developing basidia on the gills under its cap.
Topic No.150
Deuteromycetes
Deuteromycetes
Those fungi that lack a known sexual reproduction cycle are in the division Deuteromycetes.
This class of artificially grouped fungi have no sexual reproduction and are consequently called
the imperfect Fungi because their life cycles are "imperfect".
As far as we know, these fungi reproduce only by an asexual process. (When such an organism’s
sexual stage is discovered, the fungus is usually reclassified.)
Structure and reproduction
They are septate and are unicellular. They resemble to yeast with respect to its cellular structure.
Unlike basidiomycetes they have no clamp connection. They are classed by the colour and
structure of the conidia. Since most of the conidia structures look like Ascomycete type, they are
believed to be derived from ascos who lost the ability to reproduce sexually. In some cases
however their forms looks like they may have been derived from a basidiomycetes.
Most of the 17000 species reproduce by conidia. These organisms reproduce by fragmenting,
with hyphae segments commonly blown about in dust by air currents and the wind.
Many human pathogens are currently in this division. A familiar deuteromycetes is the athlete’s-
foot fungus, which can be picked up from fragments on towels and shower-room floors.
Most of the species are terrestrial and free-living saprobes but some are parasitic.
Diseases caused by Deuteromycetes
 Red rot is caused by Colletotrichum falcatum. It affects the sugarcane reduces juice
content and bring about falling of leaves.
 Helminthosporium affects rice and causes brown life spot of rice. Bengal famine occurred
due to Helminthosporium.
 Early Blight occurs in potato and tomato and is caused by Alternaria solani. The leaves
form brown spots with concentric rings. They have combination of longitudinal and
transverse septa.
 Tikka disease is caused by Crecospora which forms brown or black leaf spots. Conidia
are filamentous in shape and have septa. Wilts occur due to blockage of treachery
elements by fungal growth.
Commercially important species include those of the Penicillium genera:
 P. chrysogenum for commercial production of penicillin

 P. griseofulvum for its antibiotic used in ringworm & athlete’s foot treatment
 P. roquefortii and P.camembertii for their respective cheeses ( to be tasted in lab)
Below are some images of such type of fungus that were obtained in lab

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Ecology, Biodiversity & Evolution -I(BT-101) VU

Ecology, Biodiversity & Evolution-I

Prof. Dr. Muhammad Sharif Mughal

LESSONS #01 –150

The ecological niche……………...

Food pyramids …………………………………..

Trophic levels …………………………………

Population ecology: Dynamics …………………..

Lotic water bodies……………………………….

Lentic water bodies………………………………..

Ecological and economic services of a wetland

Importance of marine ecosystems ………………………

Aquatic life zones ……………………………………

Coral reefs: amazing centers of biodiversity …………..

Rocky and sandy shores ……………………………..

Hibernation vs winter sleep………………………

Species diversity and dominance……………..

How living systems are sustained………………….

Organic pollutants: Bio stimulants……………...

Effects of global warming……………………….

Strategy to Protect Ecosystems………………….

Stabilize Global Population…………………….

Introduction-to biodiversity …………………….

Types of biodiversity over spatial scale………….

Habitat loss & fragmentation……………………

Resource depletion & biodiversity………………….

Major components of ecology are

Sub fields of ecology are

membrane, rather than in separate cellular compartments. Bacteria, however, do possess protein-

Four basic concepts about species are

2. Ecological species concept

3. Morphological species concept

4. Phylogenetic species concept

A biological community consists of all the populations of different species that live in a given

The perspective of community dynamics or ecological succession enables us to manage whole

3. Decomposers are detritivores: e.g. fungi and bacteria, they break down chemicals from

Chemical components are

3. A useful extension of the niche concept is the distinction between fundamental and realized

Ecological habitats of Pseudomonas genus

example, P. fluorescens and P. putida ), from insects (for example, Pseudomonas entomophila)

Ecological niche of a black bear

Cockroaches: Nature’s Ultimate Survivors

Native species can be either endemic or indigenous

3. Impact of non-native species

An indicator species is an organism whose presence, absence or abundance reflects a specific

Some basic indicators

A keystone species is a plant or animal that plays a unique and crucial role in the way

Effects of keystone species

3) Some bat and bird

Foundation vs keystone species

An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation designed to show the biomass or bio

called trophic levels: 1) the autotrophs, and 2) the heterotrophs. To maintain their bodies, grow,

Taxonomy of a food web

2) Consumers (heterotrophs) are species that cannot manufacture their own food and need to

Level 2: Herbivores eat plants and are called primary consumers.

Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers.

Autotrophs are divided in to two types.

One example of a chemoautotroph would be iron bacteria (Thiobacillus Ferrooxidans).

The overall net chemical change can be summarized as follows: