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Linux Commands, C, C++, Java and Python Exercises For Beginners

An approachable manual for new and experienced programmers that introduces the programming languages C, C++, Java, and Python. This book is for all programmers, whether you are a novice or an experienced pro. It is designed for an introductory course that provides beginning engineering and computer science students with a solid foundation in the fundamental concepts of computer programming. It also offers valuable perspectives on important computing concepts through the development of programming and problem-solving skills using the languages C, C++, Java, and Python. The beginner will find its carefully paced exercises especially helpful. Of course, those who are already familiar with programming are likely to derive more benefits from this book. After reading this book you will find yourself at a moderate level of expertise in C, C++, Java and Python, from which you can take yourself to the next levels. The command-line interface is one of the nearly all well built trademarks of Linux. There exists an ocean of Linux commands, permitting you to do nearly everything you can be under the impression of doing on your Linux operating system. However, this, at the end of time, creates a problem: because of all of so copious commands accessible to manage, you don't comprehend where and at which point to fly and learn them, especially when you are a learner. If you are facing this problem, and are peering for a painless method to begin your command line journey in Linux, you've come to the right place-as in this book, we will launch you to a hold of well liked and helpful Linux commands. This book gives a thorough introduction to the C, C++, Java, and Python programming languages, covering everything from fundamentals to advanced concepts. It also includes various exercises that let you put what you learn to use in the real world.

© Copyright 2019 Manjunath.R

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

4.0 International License.

(CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)

Under the terms of the cc-4.0-by license, you may:

 Share – copy and distribute the content in any form or media

 Remix, alter, and build upon the content for any non-commercial objective

As long as you comply by the conditions of the license, the licensor cannot revoke these rights.

You have to

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 Cite the license by including a link to it (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/);
and
 Specify whether (and if so, which) changes were made from the original.
Dedication

I dedicate this book to every individual, programmer, teacher, educational institutions and
enterprise corporations in every country of the world for their immense contributions towards the
process of creating, designing, deploying and supporting software…
Acknowledgements

Without the amazing work of some renowned programmers, their creativity, and their inventiveness in the
field of software programming, this book would not have been accomplished. I would like to use this
opportunity to thank my dearest friend and well-wisher "Lawrence" for his unwavering support during
the COVID crisis and for giving me access to all the resources I needed to finish this book. I want to
express my gratitude to my family for their support and encouragement as I wrote this book, especially to
my mother, who has been a tremendous source of inspiration in my life. I owe a lot of gratitude to my
mother for teaching me how to be perseverant and strong in life. Finally, I want to emphasize how crucial
patience is when writing a book or taking on any other project in life.
Foreword

I'm neither the proprietor of a well-known publishing house or a top IT firm with hundreds of in-
house programmers who could easily produce anything I needed. I am a self-employed software
engineer who is passionate about what I do, and believe me when I say that a lot of work and
effort went into compiling this comprehensive edition. I'll be overjoyed if it helps even a few
others reach their ideal positions in their professions.

Thank You
− Manjunath.R
An Enjoyable Introduction to Coding
Introduction

Today's devices are mostly powered by software: almost everyone uses Facebook,
WhatsApp and Twitter to communicate, many phones have internet-connected desktops, and the
majority of office work requires using a computer to do tasks. As a response, there is a huge
increase in demand for programmers. Numerous books, interactive websites, and programmer
training courses make the bold claim that they can turn ambitious novices into software
engineers earning six figures. This book is for all programmers, whether you are a novice or an
experienced pro. Its numerous examples and well paced discussions will be especially beneficial
for beginners. Those who are already experienced with programming will probably gain more
from this book, of course. You will be at a modest level of programming proficiency when you
have finished this book, from where you can take yourself to next levels so that you can
automate simple tasks such as:

 Making a file backup

 Get rid of the irritating emails
 Completing online forms

This book will make an amazing complement to any tutorial and serve as a source of information
to your specific inquiries if you are just learning what kind of animals C, C+ +, Java, PHP,
Python, and JavaScript are. Even if your career has nothing to do with computers, the skills you
learn from programming can be valuable at school and at work. Programming is a pleasant,
occasionally difficult and perhaps frustrating activity. Creativity, logic, and problem-solving are
all enhanced through programming.

 Educational institutions are teaching it

 Corporate societies are employing it
 Pupils need it
 (Pedagogues desire it... ;)
 (Coders perceive it... :)
Have Fun!

As you progress through this book, keep in mind that programming can be enjoyable. Do not
consider of this as work. Consider programming as a means to develop entertaining games or
software applications that you can show off to others or your friends. Programming is a
tremendous brain workout and is essential today because so much of our everyday world is
automated. But above all, you have access to the quick-paced, creative world that depends on
machine connections.

"The only way to learn a new programming language is by writing programs in it."

– Dennis Ritchie

Note:

 Linux version used: CentOS Linux release 7.3.1611 (Core)

 Python version used: 3.7.3
The Basic Programming Principles That Every Programmer Should Know:

1. Always be aware of the purpose of your software program before beginning to write it.
2. Programming is not the solution; it is merely a means to achieve a solution.
3. Consider the problem rather than just the solution.
4. Always try to make things simpler; anyone can come up with a complicated answer to a
problem. To make a solution simple while remaining consistent, it requires extra work
and consideration.
5. Reduce Deeply Nested Ifs or Loops: When your software program is deeply nested, your
program becomes complicated and disorganized.
6. Delete Unnecessary Code. Make sure your software program is safe, secure, reliable,
testable and clear to read.
7. Give code reviews some attention so you can spot bugs early, before they cause serious
problems in your software application.
8. Reduce complexity. Software programs must have clear explanations.
9. Generalize your software program. Make sure your software program is documented.
Understanding the function of a certain component of the software application is greatly
aided by the documentation and comments.
10. Fancy algorithms and data structures are more difficult to implement. Use simple,
efficient, appropriate algorithms and data structures.
11. Refractor your software program frequently to improve its internal software attributes in
terms of upkeep, testing and comprehension.
12. Each time you make a change to your software program: check it, build it and test it.
13. Before being released, all software codes must pass each and every unit test.
14. Always use caution when using someone else's code. Maintain a standardized, orderly
and generally consistent coding style.
15. Avoid implementing a code style that is too hard to understand.
16. Because it makes the code more difficult to maintain, duplication is seen adversely in
software programming.
17. Look for bugs and flaws and fix them. Divide your software program into Brief, Concise
Units.
18. Avoid overdesigning. Focus your software design on the requirements of the clients.
19. Program defensively. Functions should be simple and do a distinct, defined task.
20. Create reusable functions and Keep the functions as simple, immutable and manageable
as possible.
21. When naming your variables and functions, choose names that are meaningful and
descriptive.
22. Put your software program's structure on view by using indentation.
23. Delete any unused variables and functions; do not comment them.
24. If you feel that a part of the software program is excessively unorganized, regroup and
modify it, or even split it up into different portions.
25. Avoid using GOTO statements because they cause the software program to be
unstructured, which makes it harder to understand and makes debugging more complex.
26. Avoid using the same identifier more than once.
27. The length of functions shouldn't be excessively long.
28. Think Twice, Code Once: Encourage yourself to consider the problem more before
coming up with a solution.
29. The very first step in making a software program readable by humans is to add
comments. Comments should be detailed explanations of a software program.
30. White space should be utilized regularly to increase code readability even though it has
little significance to compilers.
31. Coding standards must be followed while formatting code.
32. Avoid security pitfalls and Keep your software code portable.
33. All software design is redesign. Take advice from others' experience.
34. The writing of software program should make it simple for a future software developer
to correct errors or modify its functionality.
35. Never compromise clarity for a false sense of efficiency.

"More computing sins are committed in the name of efficiency (without necessarily
achieving it) than for any other single reason − including blind stupidity."

− W.A. Wulf

36. Enhance the appearance of software program by avoiding excessively long names or
ambiguous acronyms
37. Look for a method that employs a loop rather than duplicating lines. Compared to 100
individual blocks of code, one loop that can handle 100 repetitions is simpler to debug.
You're not coding to amaze strangers. You're in this
profession to find ways to resolve problems.
Important Programming Concepts Every Programmers and

Developer Should Be Familiar With:

1. Data Types: Understanding the various data types such as integers, floating-point numbers,
characters, and Booleans is crucial for any programmer.
2. Variables: Variables allow programmers to store and manipulate data in their programs.
3. Control Structures: Control structures such as if statements, loops, and switch statements allow
programmers to control the flow of their programs.
4. Functions: Functions allow programmers to break their programs down into smaller, more
manageable pieces.
5. Arrays: Arrays are a way to store multiple values in a single variable.
6. Pointers: Pointers are variables that hold memory addresses, and are used to manipulate memory
directly.
7. Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): OOP is a programming paradigm that focuses on
creating objects that encapsulate data and behavior.
8. Inheritance: Inheritance allows programmers to create new classes that inherit properties and
behaviors from existing classes.
9. Polymorphism: Polymorphism allows programmers to use the same method or operator to work
with different types of data.
10. Algorithms: Algorithms are step-by-step procedures for solving problems, and are a crucial part
of programming.
11. Debugging: Debugging is the process of finding and fixing errors in code, and is an essential
skill for any programmer.
12. Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC): SDLC is the process of developing software from
initial planning to final deployment.

Understanding these concepts and how to apply them will help programmers

write better code and create more robust software.

"The computer programmer is a creator of universes for which he alone is the lawgiver. No playwright,

no stage director, no emperor, however powerful, has ever exercised such absolute authority to arrange a

stage or field of battle and to command such unswervingly dutiful actors or troops."

− Joseph Weizenbaum
Top 10 Programming Languages and Their Applications

Python Artificial Intelligence, Deep learning and Machine Learning

JavaScript Rich Interactive Web Development
Java Enterprise Application Development
R Data Analysis
C/C++ Operating Systems and System Tools
Golang Server-Side Programming
C# Application and Web Development Using .NET
PHP Web Development
SQL Database Management
Swift For Mobile Application Development on iOS
How much time does it take to become a good programmer?

A skilled coder can identify the best solution to any problem and solve even the most challenging
issues. Being a good programmer requires constant knowledge upkeep and the acquisition of
new skills. A PhD isn't always necessary to become a skilled programmer, but discipline and
determination are. Being a successful programmer demands you to be one step ahead, while
becoming a respectable coder takes years of hard effort.
Image Credit: Wikipedia.org
Contents

LINUX COMMANDS 1

C Exercises 325

C++ Exercises 446

Java Exercises 575

Python Exercises 721

LINUX − OVERVIEW 866

C − OVERVIEW 870

C++ − OVERVIEW 915

JAVA – OVERVIEW 968

PYTHON − OVERVIEW 1027

"A language that doesn't affect the way you think

about programming is not worth knowing."

― Alan J. Perlis
LINUX COMMANDS

Linux is an open-source Unix-like operating system built on the Linux kernel, which Linus
Torvalds initially made available on September 17, 1991. People switching from Windows or
macOS may find Linux difficult to use and comprehend, and many people give up using it
because they are not aware of the commands and shortcuts that Linux offers. When using Linux,
you can accomplish tasks much more quickly than when using other operating systems by
becoming familiar with the useful commands and how to use them correctly. We'll examine a
few widely used Linux commands in this chapter.

When working with unstructured files in Linux, whether you are a sys admin or a database
administrator, there are a number of commands that will be very helpful to you in your everyday
job. Working as developers requires us to use the Linux command line occasionally. Linux is
typically considered to be dominant for public Internet servers, powering well over twice as
many servers as Windows Server. Linux has a monopoly on the supercomputer market,
powering all 500 of the TOP computers. It's quite easy to customize Linux. Your OS can be
modified. In this chapter, we'll look at some fundamental Linux commands that every
programmer should be familiar with.

1
17 Principles of the philosophy of UNIX

 Principle of Modularity: A system should be composed of several components that are

joined, collaborate well, and have clearly defined functions
 Principle of Clarity: Clearness is better than smartness
 Principle of Composition: Create software that can communicate with other software
 Principle of Separation: Programming mechanisms and rules should be kept distinct.
Keep front-end interfaces and back-end engines separate
 Principle of Simplicity: Build for simplicity and only add complexity where necessary
 Principle of Parsimony: Only write a large program when it is clear by demonstration
that nothing else will work
 Principle of Transparency: Design with visibility in view to simplify analysis and
troubleshooting
 Principle of Robustness: Transparency and ease of use produce robustness
 Principle of Representation: Create programs easier to understand for any programmer
involved in the project so that it can be maintained

When offered the choice, programmers should choose to

complicate the data rather than the procedural logic of
the software because complex data is simpler for us to
understand than complex logic

2
 Principle of Least Surprise: Developers should be encouraged to create user-friendly,
intuitive products
 Principle of Silence: Allow programmers and other programs to get the data they require
from a program's output without having to interpret unnecessary extensive and detailed
 Principle of Repair: Programmers should create software that fails in a way that is simple
to identify and diagnose
 Principle of Economy: Project development costs should be minimized
 Principle of Generation: Programmers should develop abstract, high-level programs that
produce code rather than writing code by hand to decrease human error and save time
 Principle of Optimization: Before you can optimize it, get it working. Software should
be developed and tested before being masterfully crafted by developers
 Principle of Diversity: Make programs flexible, enabling their use in ways other than
those that their creators intended
 Principle of Extensibility: Increase the usefulness and lifespan of the developer's written
code

3
Better skills come with increased learning.

Your main focus as a novice should be on becoming familiar with the ins and outs of
operating system architecture as well as discovering shortcuts and time-saving techniques.

4
CentOs is a wonderful option if you use Windows and want to learn Linux because it is one

of the best Linux distributions for beginners. Your first few days using CentOs won't be that
odd. But you must learn how to utilize Linux's command line interface if you want to
experience its full capabilities. You will initially experience some difficulty learning several
instructions. Although employing the instructions won't make you a genius, it will assist you in
carrying out certain fundamental tasks. Here are the most basic CentOs commands for new
users to ensure a smooth start. Let's get right into it!

5
"... being a Linux user is sort of like living in a
house inhabited by a large family of carpenters
and architects. Every morning when you wake
up, the house is a little different. Maybe there
is a new turret, or some walls have moved. Or
perhaps someone has temporarily removed the
floor under your bed."

~ Unix for Dummies, 2nd Edition

Linux Commands

Description:

Display system date and time.

Command:

date

Description:

Display calendar.

Command:

Description:

Tells you how long the system has been running.

Command:

uptime

Description:

Set current date as 02 Nov 1988.

Command:

12
date --set 1998-11-02

Report the process information.

377
13
Command:

Description:

Command:

15
Description:

17
Command:

Description:

Display the current directory.

Command:

pwd

Description:

Displays CPU architecture information (such as number of CPUs, threads, cores, sockets, and
more).

30
Description:

Reveal all the information about the user "root1" (user id, username, group id, group name etc.).

Command:

id root1

Description:

Print the machine's architecture.

Command:

arch

Description:

Display the list of available fonts.

Command:

fc-list

Command:

cal -3

39
Description:

Compare the contents of three files (1.txt, 2.txt, 3.txt) line by line.

Description:

Writes contents of a file (0.txt) to output, and prepends each line with line number.

Command:

nl 0.txt

Description:

Create a empty file (test1.txt) inside a directory (test).

Command:

mkdir test
cd test
pwd
touch test1.txt

42
Description:

Gather information about hardware components such as CPU, disks, memory, USB controllers
etc.

Command:

sudo lshw

Description:

Gather information about file system partitions.

Command:

sudo fdisk -l

Description:

Displays the line (good morning) in which the string (good) is found in the file (1.txt).

Command:

grep good 1.txt

Description:

Append contents of files (1.txt, 2.txt, 3.txt) into one file (0.txt) using for loop.

43
Command:

for i in {1..3}; do cat "$i.txt" >> 0.txt; done

Description:

Search for files (test.txt, test1.txt, test2.txt, test.php, test.html) in a directory as well as its sub-
directories.

Command:

find test*

Description:

Displays status related to a file (1.txt).

Command:

stat 1.txt

Description:

44
Download the file (file.txt) from url "http: //website.com/files/file.txt".

Command:

wget http://website.com/files/file.txt

Description:

Display host's numeric ID in hexadecimal format.

Command:

hostid

Description:

Display file type of the file (myfiles.txt).

Command:

file myfiles.txt

echo "this is 2nd line text" >> 1.txt
echo "last line!" >> 1.txt

Description:

Displays a single line description about a command (cal).

46
Command:

whatis cal

###
| Command | Description |
|: | : |
| vi | Open vi editor |
| i | Go to Insert mode |
| Type some text. | |
| Hit Escape to return to Normal mode. |
| :w test.txt | Save text |
| :q | Quit |
| :q! |Quit without saving |

Description:

Check the network connectivity between host (your connection) and server (Google server).

47
Command:

ping google.com

Description:

Find the location of source/binary file of a command (cal).

Command:

whereis cal

# Overwrite existing file

There are 2 ways to use the command: $ echo "Albert Einstein" > 1.txt
# Append a second line
$ echo "Alan Turing" >> 1.txt
 Numeric mode
 Symbolic mode

Numeric mode Permission Type Symbolic mode

0 No Permission ---
1 Execute --x
2 Write -w-
3 Execute + Write -wx
4 Read r--
5 Read + Execute r-x
6 Read + Write rw-
7 Read + Write + Execute rwx

[manju@localhost ~]$ ps -ef | grep sshd

root 988 1 0 06:14 ? 00:00:00 /usr/sbin/sshd
manju 3501 3461 0 06:24 pts/0 00:00:00 grep --color=auto sshd

# Check if the SSH server (sshd) is running

427
412

48
cd /etc && ls

# Execute ls after cd /etc

Print 'success' if myfiles.txt is

rm myfiles.txt && echo success || echo failed removed and print 'failed' if it is
not removed

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo This is the $SHELL shell

This is the /bin/bash shell

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo This is $SHELL on computer $HOSTNAME

This is /bin/bash on computer localhost.localdomain

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo The user ID of $USER is $UID

The user ID of manju is 1000

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo My home directory is $HOME

My home directory is /home/manju

[manju@localhost ~]$ bash -c 'echo $SHELL $HOME $USER'

/bin/bash /home/manju manju

[manju@localhost ~]$ env -i bash -c 'echo $SHELL $HOME $USER'

/bin/bash

env LANG=C bash -c 'ls test[a-z].txt'

testa.txt testb.txt testc.txt

env LANG=en_US.UTF-8 bash -c 'ls test[a-z].txt'

testa.txt testA.txt testb.txt testc.txt testC.txt

49
[manju@localhost ~]$ prefix=John

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Hello ${prefix}Dalton and ${prefix}Humphrys

Hello JohnDalton and JohnHumphrys

echo $(a=5;echo $a)

echo 'a=5;echo $a'

a=5;echo $a

[manju@localhost ~]$ touch myfiles.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfiles.txt

Hello World

[manju@localhost ~]$ !to

touch myfiles.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $HISTSIZE

1000

The number of commands that are stored in memory in

a history list while your bash session is ongoing

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $HISTFILE

/home/manju/.bash_history Holds the name and location

of your Bash history file

50
echo $HISTFILESIZE

1000

How many commands can be stored in the .bash_history file

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls *ile1.txt

file1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls f*ile1.txt

file1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls f*1.txt

file1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls file?.txt

file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls fil?1.txt

file1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls fil??.txt

file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls file??.txt

file23.txt file34.txt

51
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls test[5A].txt

testA.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls test[A5].txt

testA.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls file[!5]*.txt

file123.txt file1.txt file23.txt file2.txt file34.txt file3.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls file[!5]?.txt

file23.txt file34.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls [a-z]ile?.txt

file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls [A-Z]ile?.txt

file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo \*

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo '*'

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "*"

*
List all .txt files starting with a
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls [a-z]*[0-9].txt letter and ending in a number

file123.txt file1.txt file23.txt file2.txt file34.txt file3.txt

52
ls ?????

# List all files that have exactly five characters

ls [fF]*[3A].txt

# List all .txt files that start with f or F and end with 3 or A

ls f[iR]*[0-9].txt

# List all .txt files that start with f have i or R as second character and end in a number

ls [!f]*.txt

# List all .txt files that do not start with the letter "f"

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Einstein2 | sed 's/2/36/'

Einstein36

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Einstein36 | sed 's/Einstein/Hilbert/'

Hilbert36

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Hawking6 Lucy8 | sed 's/Hawking/Lucy/'

Lucy6 Lucy8

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Lucy3 Lucy6 | sed 's/Lucy/Hawking/g'

Hawking3 Hawking6

53
[manju@localhost ~]$ who | cut -d' ' -f1 | sort
Display a sorted list
manju of logged on users

manju

Display a sorted
[manju@localhost ~]$ who | cut -d' ' -f1 | sort | uniq list of logged on

manju users − but every

user only once

[manju@localhost ~]$ grep bash /etc/passwd

root:x:0:0:root:/root:/bin/bash

manju:x:1000:1000:su,root,yopp,hhhhh:/home/manju:/bin/bash

Display a list of all bash user accounts on this computer

grep bash /etc/passwd | cut -d: -f1 | sort > bu.txt

# Place a sorted list of all bash users in bu.txt

who | cut -d' ' -f1 | sort > users.txt

# Place a sorted list of all logged on users in users.txt

ls /etc | grep conf

# List of all filenames in /etc that contain the string "conf" in their filename

Display a sorted list of all files in /etc

ls /etc | grep -i conf | sort
that contain the case insensitive string
"conf " in their filename

54
90% of the public cloud workload is run on Linux distros.

The first ever Linux kernel just occupied only 65 KB.

import subprocess import os

subprocess.call ('linux command') os.system('linux command')

All of the 500 fastest supercomputers run Linux.

import os

os.system('ls')

import subprocess List all the files and directories in the

current directory
subprocess.call ('ls')

Execution of the linux command "ls" using the python program

59
428

55
Command:

last reboot

Description:

Show system reboot history

Command:

dmesg

Description:

Displays the messages from the kernel ring buffer (a data structure that records
messages related to the operation of the kernel)

Command:

host wikipedia.org

Description:

60
Display the IP address details of the specified domain (wikipedia.org)

Command:

netstat -nutlp

Description:

Display listening Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP) ports and corresponding programs

Command:

rpm -qa

Description:

64
Command:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String [] args) {
System.out.println("Hello, World!"); MyClass.java
}
}

javac MyClass.java

Description:

Compile the Java program saved in MyClass.java file using javac compiler

Command:

od -b myfiles.txt

Description:

Displays the contents of myfiles.txt file in octal format

Command:

od -c myfiles.txt

65
Description:

Displays the contents of myfiles.txt file in character format

Description:

Delete repeated lines in the file (myfiles.txt).

Command:

chkconfig --list

Description:

Displays a list of system services and whether they are started (on) or stopped
(off) in run levels 0−6

Command:

halt -p

Command:
Description:
xdg-open myfiles.txt

Power-off the system

Description:

Open a file (myfiles.txt).

442
69
Command:

lastlog

Description:

Prints the details of the last login (login-name, port and last login time)

Command:

lastlog -t 1

Description:

Displays the login information (1 day ago)

Command:

lastlog -u manju

Description:

Display lastlog information for a particular user (manju)

70
Command:

cat /etc/passwd

more /etc/passwd

less /etc/passwd

getent passwd

Description:

List all users on Linux

Command:

tail -5 /etc/passwd

head -5 /etc/passwd

71
Description:

List last 5 users on Linux

List first 5 users on Linux

Command:

wall "The system will be shutdown in 10 minutes."

Description:

The message (The system will be shutdown in 10 minutes.) will be broadcasted to

all users that are currently logged in

Command:

chage -l manju

Description:

List the password and its related details for a user (manju)

72
Command:

chage -M 10 manju

Display the hostname of the system

hostname

→ localhost.localdomain

nmtui

# Configure a network interface IPv4 address

yum check-update

# Check whether any updates are available for your installed packages

yum search httpd

# Find any packages containing the specified keyword "httpd"

ls /etc

# List the contents of /etc

ls /bin /sbin

# List the contents of /bin and /sbin

ls -al ~

# List all the files (including hidden files) in the home directory

ls -lh /boot

# List the files in /boot in a human readable format

74
mkdir ~/mydir

# Create a directory "mydir" under home directory

cd /etc ; mkdir ~/mydir

# Change to the /etc directory and create a directory "mydir" under home directory.

rm -i file.txt

rm: remove regular empty file ‘file.txt’?

If we type "yes"

file.txt is removed

If we type "no"

file.txt is not removed

rename .txt .backup *.txt

# Renames all .txt files replacing.txt with .backup

file.txt cod.txt conf.txt

file /bin/cat /etc/passwd /usr/bin/passwd

rename file FILE *
Display the type of file of /bin/cat, /etc/passwd and /usr/bin/passwd

FILE.txt cod.txt conf.txt

75
Command:

ftp 192.168.42.77

Description:

Connect to an FTP server at remote server IP address "192.168.42.77"

Command:

arp -a

Description:

Lists all the peers connected at various interfaces along with their MAC

Addresses and IP addresses

Command:

dnsdomainname

Description:

76
Display the system's DNS domain name

Command:

domainname

Description:

Display the name of the domain your machine belongs to

Command:

echo 'Hello World!' | base64

Output: SGVsbG8gV29ybGQhCg==

Description:

Encode text (Hello World!) to base64

Command:

echo 'SGVsbG8gV29ybGQhCg==' | base64 -d

Output: Hello World!

Description:

77
Decode (SGVsbG8gV29ybGQhCg==) to text (Hello World!)

Command:

fc-cache -f -v

Description:

Build font information cache files

Command:

cat 1.txt

Einstein
Newton
Albert

fmt 1.txt

Einstein Newton Albert

Description:

Formats text in a single line

78
df -h | sort -rnk 5 | head -3 | \

awk '{ print "Partition " $6 "\t: " $5 " full!" }'

Partition /boot : 51% full!

Partition / : 29% full!

Partition /run : 2% full!

awk 'BEGIN { FS=":" } { print $1 "\t" $5 }' /etc/passwd

# Display all the users on your system

ls *.xml

1.xml 2.xml

ls *.xml > list.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat list.txt

1.xml

2.xml

for i in `cat list.txt`; do cp "$i" "$i".md ; done

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls
12.txt 2.xml.md Documents file34.txt Music Pictures tree.cpio

13.txt 3.txt Downloads file3.txt mydi Public users.txt

145.txt all echo FILE.backup mydir SHOW Videos

1.txt allfiles.txt file file.md mydir1 Templates

1.xml bu.txt file123.txt first.bash myfiles.txt test

1.xml.md Desktop file1.txt first.txt myFILEs.txt.xz testA.txt

2.txt DICT file23.txt foo1.txt newdir testB.txt

2.xml dir file2.txt list.txt nohup.out text

79
[manju@localhost ~]$ df -h /
Check the actual
Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on used space on the
/dev/sda3 18G 5.2G 13G 29% / current root device

less /proc/modules

# Display information about what kernel−modules are loaded on your system

[manju@localhost ~]$ free −tm

total used free shared buff/cache available

Mem: 999936 511156 73480 8572 415300 284236

Swap: 2097148 0 2097148

Display the memory usage including

totals in megabytes

[manju@localhost ~]$ date --date="3 months 1 day ago"

Mon Jul 18 23:17:47 PDT 2022 Print the date 3 months and 1 day ago from the current date

[manju@localhost ~]$ date -d "3 days"

Fri Apr 22 23:20:01 PDT 2022 Print the date 3 days in the future from now

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfiles.txt

Hello World

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfiles.txt | tr 'H' 'A' > myfilesB.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfilesB.txt

Aello World

80
[manju@localhost ~]$ fgrep 'He' myfiles.txt

Hello World Look for the string "He" in the file "myfiles.txt"

Command:

lsattr

Description:

List the files in the current directory

Command:

cp {*.txt,*.md} ~

Description:

Copy the files ending with .txt or .md to the user's home directory

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfiles.txt

Hello World

[manju@localhost ~]$ grep --color -i Hello myfiles.txt

Hello World

ls file*

# List all files in the current directory starting with "file"

ls *file

# List all files in the current directory ending with "file"

81
cat phy.txt

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to

be one of the greatest physicists of all time. Einstein is known for developing
the theory of relativity, but he also made important contributions to the
development of the theory of quantum mechanics.

fmt -w 1 phy.txt

Albert
Einstein
was
a
German-born
theoretical
physicist,
widely
acknowledged
to
be
one
of
the
greatest
physicists
of
all
time.
Einstein
is
known
for
developing

82
the
theory
of
relativity,
but
he
also
made
important
contributions
to
the
development
of
the
theory
of
quantum
mechanics.

cat phy.txt

Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist, widely acknowledged to

fold -w 20 phy.txt

Albert Einstein was

83
a German-born theor
etical physicist, wi
dely acknowledged to
be one of the great
est physicists of al
l time. Einstein is
known for developing
the theory of relat
ivity, but he also m
ade important contri
butions to the devel
opment of the theory
of quantum mechanic
s.

Command:

traceroute google.com

Description:

Prints the route that a packet takes to reach the Google (172.217.26.206) host
from the local machine

Command:

cat 1.txt

84
Einstein
Newton
Albert

gzip 1.txt

Command:

apropos editor

Description:

Display information about the editing programs that are available on a system

89
Command:

apropos pstree

Description:

Provide information about the pstree command (which displays the names of the
processes currently on the system in the form of a tree diagram)

The apropos command is useful when you know what you want to do, but you have no idea what command
you should be using to do it. If you were wondering how to locate files, for example, the commands

apropos find

and

apropos locate

would have a lot of suggestions to offer.

basename /etc/passwd

Output: passwd

basename /usr/local/apache2/conf/httpd.conf

90
Output: httpd.conf

echo a b c d e f| xargs

Output: a b c d e f

echo a b c d e f| xargs -n 3

Output: display only 3 items per line

a b c
d e f

Command:

env

Description:

Print out a list of all environment variables

Command:

91
printenv HOME

Description:

Print HOME variable value

cat score.txt

Albert-30
John-50
William-80
Stephen-20
Justin-40

cut -d- -f2 score.txt

30
50
80
20
40

cut -d- -f1 score.txt

Albert
John
William
Stephen
Justin

92
cat 1.txt

Hello World

cat 2.txt

Computer Program

paste 1.txt 2.txt

Hello World Computer Program

cat 1.txt

Hello World

cat 2.txt

Computer Program

join 1.txt 2.txt

Hello World Computer Program

93
Command:

rev 1.txt

Description:

Reverse lines of a file (1.txt)

cat 3.txt

22
33
11
77
55

sort 3.txt

11
22 sorts numeric values in 3.txt file and displays sorted output
33
55
77

94
cat 1.txt

Hello World

cat 1.txt | tr "[a-z]" "[A-Z]"

convert from lower case to upper case
HELLO WORLD

cat 5.txt

zz
zz
yy
yy
yy
xx

uniq 5.txt

zz removes duplicate lines and displays unique lines

yy
xx

95
cat 6.txt

Einstein
Newton
Tesla

nl 6.txt

1 Einstein numbers the lines in a file (6.txt)

2 Newton
3 Tesla

Command:

ls -l *.txt

Description:

Lists the files with .txt extension

The thing with Linux is that the developers themselves are actually customers too: that has
always been an important part of Linux.

Linus Torvalds

96
ls /proc/bus/

# List the contents of the /proc/bus/ directory

Find irq's allocated at boot time

[manju@localhost ~]$ dmesg | grep "irq 1[45]"

[ 2.269581] ata1: PATA max UDMA/33 cmd 0x1f0 ctl 0x3f6 bmdma 0x1060 irq 14

[ 2.269585] ata2: PATA max UDMA/33 cmd 0x170 ctl 0x376 bmdma 0x1068 irq 15

cat /proc/ioports

# List system's IO ports

echo Albert > 1.txt ; echo Einstein > 2.txt

cat 1.txt
[manju@localhost home]$ echo $-
Albert
himBH
cat 2.txt

Einstein

[manju@localhost ~]$ s=01234567890abcdefgh; echo ${s:7}

7890abcdefgh

[manju@localhost ~]$ cd /home/manju; echo $PWD

/home/manju

[manju@localhost ~]$ cd ..; pwd

/home

97
[manju@localhost home]$ w | cut -d " " -f 1 - | grep -v USER | sort -u

manju Users currently connected

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "\\"

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo Al{ber,an,er}t

Albert Alant Alert

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo ${Albert:=Einstein}

Einstein

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $[5*5]

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls

12.txt allfiles.txt echo file3.txt mydi Pictures text

13.txt bu.txt file FILE.backup mydir Public tree.cpio

145.txt Desktop file123.txt file.md mydir1 SHOW users.txt

1.txt DICT file1.txt first.bash myfiles.txt Templates Videos

2.txt dir file23.txt first.txt myFILEs.txt.xz test

3.txt Documents file2.txt foo1.txt newdir testA.txt

all Downloads file34.txt Music nohup.out testB.txt

98
ls -ldh * | grep -v total | \
awk '{ print "Size is " $5 " bytes for " $9 }'

Size is 135K bytes for 12.txt

Size is 0 bytes for file34.txt

Size is 13M bytes for 13.txt

Size is 0 bytes for file3.txt

Size is 0 bytes for 145.txt

Size is 0 bytes for FILE.backup

Size is 7 bytes for 1.txt

Size is 3 bytes for file.md

Size is 9 bytes for 2.txt

Size is 13 bytes for first.bash

Size is 8 bytes for 3.txt

Size is 13 bytes for first.txt

Size is 20 bytes for all

Size is 66 bytes for foo1.txt

Size is 13M bytes for allfiles.txt

Size is 6 bytes for Music

Size is 11 bytes for bu.txt

Size is 31 bytes for mydi

Size is 6 bytes for Desktop

Size is 6 bytes for newdir

Size is 0 bytes for DICT

Size is 148 bytes for nohup.out

Size is 6 bytes for dir

Size is 6 bytes for Pictures

Size is 6 bytes for Documents

Size is 6 bytes for Public

Size is 6 bytes for Downloads

Size is 0 bytes for SHOW

Size is 0 bytes for echo

Size is 6 bytes for Templates

Size is 0 bytes for file

Size is 6 bytes for test

Size is 0 bytes for file123.txt

Size is 0 bytes for testA.txt

Size is 0 bytes for file1.txt

Size is 0 bytes for testB.txt

Size is 0 bytes for file23.txt

Size is 25 bytes for text

Size is 0 bytes for file2.txt

Size is 512 bytes for tree.cpio

Size is 45 bytes for mydir

Size is 12 bytes for users.txt

Size is 47 bytes for mydir1

Size is 6 bytes for Videos

Size is 12 bytes for myfiles.txt

Size is 68 bytes for myFILEs.txt.xz

99
Linux Unix

Free to use (open source) Licensed Operating System (closed source)

Linux is just the kernel Unix is a complete package of Operating System
Bash (Bourne Again SHell) is default shell for Linux Bourne Shell is default shell for Unix
Portable and is booted from a USB Stick Unportable

Source code is accessible to the general public Source code is not accessible to anyone
Uses Graphical User Interface with an optional Uses Command Line Interface
Command Line Interface

Command:

echo $SHELL

Description:

Print the Default shell of user

Command:

echo $0

Description:

Display the name of the currently running process ($0 is the name of the running process).
If you use it inside of a shell then it will return the name of the shell. If you use it inside of a
script, it will return the name of the script

100
Command:

echo *

Description:

Print all files and folders − similar to ls command

Command:

ps -p $$

Output:

PID TTY TIME CMD

3352 pts/0 00:00:00 bash

Description:

Print the process ID of the current shell ($$ is the process ID of the current shell)

sudo du -a Documents/ | sort -n -r | head -n 5

# List 5 biggest files from directory "Documents"

Command:

101
466
cat /etc/shells

Description:

List shells

Command:

echo m*

Description:

Display the files in the current folder that start with the letter "m".

Command:

last

Description:

List last logins of users and what happened such as "shutdown" or "crash" etc.

Command:
echo ~
Command:
Description:

Print your home folder path

102
bzip2 -k phy.txt

Description:

Compresses but does not deletes the original file

phy.txt → phy.txt.bz2

Command:

bzip2 -d phy.txt.bz2

Description:

Decompresses the compressed file (phy.txt.bz2)

phy.txt.bz2 → phy.txt

Command:

bzcat phy.txt.bz2

103
Description:

Display the contents of compressed file (phy.txt.bz2)

Command:

bunzip2 phy.txt.bz2

Description:

Decompresses the compressed file (phy.txt.bz2)

Command:

crontab –l

Description:

Display current logged-in user's crontab entries

cat /dev/null > phy.txt

104
cp /dev/null phy.txt

echo "" > phy.txt

Output:

3858 ping google.com

4200 ping google.com
4236 ping google.com

kill 3858

pgrep -a ping

Output:

4200 ping google.com

4236 ping google.com

Command:

who -b

Description:

Print when the system was booted

# Open phy.txt with nano

109
Command:

ls -al *.txt
nano phy.txt

Description:

# Open phy.txt with vim Display all .txt files, including its individual permission.

vim phy.txt

Command:

uname -i

Description:

Output:

Permissive

setenforce 1

getenforce

Output:

Enforcing

 Enforcing - SELinux security policy is enforced.

 Permissive - SELinux prints warnings instead of enforcing.
 Disabled - No SELinux policy is loaded.

115
[manju@localhost ~]$ let a="36 + 5" ; echo $a

[manju@localhost ~]$ let a="20 + 50/10" ; echo $a

[manju@localhost ~]$ let a="20 - 50/10" ; echo $a

[manju@localhost ~]$ let a="20 * 50/10" ; echo $a

100

[manju@localhost ~]$ grep ^PASS /etc/login.defs

PASS_MAX_DAYS 99999

PASS_MIN_DAYS 0

PASS_MIN_LEN 5

PASS_WARN_AGE 7

[manju@localhost ~]$ grep PASS /etc/login.defs

# PASS_MAX_DAYS Maximum number of days a password may be used.

# PASS_MIN_DAYS Minimum number of days allowed between password changes.

# PASS_MIN_LEN Minimum acceptable password length.

# PASS_WARN_AGE Number of days warning given before a password expires.

PASS_MAX_DAYS 99999

PASS_MIN_DAYS 0

PASS_MIN_LEN 5

PASS_WARN_AGE 7

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls -l $(which sudo)

---s--x--x. 1 root root 130776 Nov 5 2016 /bin/sudo

117
Command:

sestatus

Description:

Display the current status of the SELinux that is running on your system

Command:

ps -aef

Description:

Display full listing of processes on your system

Command:

sar

Description:

118
Display System Activity Report

Command:

ulimit

Description:

Report the resource limit of the current user

Output:

Unlimited The current user can consume all the resources the current system supports

2 types of resource limitation:

 Hard resource limit: The physical limit that the user can reach.
 Soft resource limit: The limit that is manageable by the user (its value can go up to the
hard limit)

124
firewalld is a firewall management tool for Linux operating systems

Command:

firewall-config

Description:

Start the graphical firewall configuration tool

firewall-cmd

Command:

firewall-cmd --list-all-zones

Description:

List all zones

Command:

125
firewall-cmd --get-default-zone

Description:

Check the currently set default zone

Command:

firewall-cmd --list-services

Description:

Display currently allowed service on your system

Command:

firewall-cmd --list-ports

Description:

List the ports that are open on your system

Command:

126
firewall-cmd --zone=work --list-services

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------

# zipcloak prompts you for a password, and then ask you to confirm it:

Enter password:
Verify password:

...if the passwords match, it encrypts q.zip file

----------------------------------------------------------------------------

unzip q.zip

# When you try to unzip the q.zip file, it prompts you for the password before
allowing you to extract the file (q.txt) it contains

129
Command:

zgrep -l "Einstein" *

Description:

Display the names of the files with the word (Einstein) present in it

Command:

zipsplit -n 1048576 q.zip

Description:

Split q.zip file to create a sequence of zipfiles (q1.zip, q2.zip…..) − each no larger
than 1048576 bytes (one megabyte)

You could concatenate (q1.zip, q2.zip…..) into a new file, w.zip, with the
command:

cat q*.zip > w.zip

130
Command:

mtr google.com

Description:

Test the route and connection quality of traffic to the destination host google.com

Description:

Display all active TCP connections together with their timers

Command:

type -a alias

Description:

Check Bash Aliases in Linux

# Difference between %Y and %y is %Y will print 4 digits while %y will print the last 2 digits of the year.

echo "We are in the year = $(date +%Y)"

echo "We are in the year = $(date +%y)"

# Difference between %B and %b is, %B will print full month name while %b will print abbreviated month
name.

echo "We are in the month = $(date +%b)"

133
echo "We are in the month = $(date +%B)"

# Difference between %A and %a is, %A will print full Weekday name while %a will print abbreviated weekday
name.

echo "Current Day of the week = $(date +%A)"

echo "Current Day of the week = $(date +%a)"

echo "Date using %D = $(date +%D)"

echo "Date using %F = $(date +%F)"

Date using %D = 08/15/21

Date using %F = 2021-08-15

echo "current time in 24 hour format = $(date +%T)"

current time in 24 hour format = 01:27:46

echo "current time in 12 hour format = $(date +%r)"

current time in 12 hour format = 01:27:47 AM

# Print yesterday's date and time.

echo "Yesterday = $(date -d "Yesterday")"

# Print Tomorrow date and time.

134
echo "tomorrow = $(date -d "tomorrow")"

# Find what is the date and time before 10 days from now.
echo "Before 10 days = $(date -d "tomorrow -10 days")"

# Find last month and next month

echo "Last month = $(date -d "last month" "%B")"
echo "Next month = $(date -d "next month" "%B")"

# Find last year and next year

echo "Last Year = $(date -d "last year" "+%Y")"
echo "Next Year = $(date -d "next year" "+%Y")"

Command:

ls -lai /

Description:

Get the number of inodes of files in a directory (root directory)

Command:

sudo du --inode /

Description:

135
Get the total number of inodes in the root directory

Command:

ss -o state established '( sport = :http or sport = :https )'

Description:

Get the list of all clients connected to HTTP (Port 80) or HTTPS (Port 443)

mkdir 20{09..11}-{01..12}

# Create directories to group files by month and year

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo {12..5}

12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo {12..05}

12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo {x..z}{1..3}

x1 x2 x3 y1 y2 y3 z1 z2 z3

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo {0..10..2}

0 2 4 6 8 10

[manju@localhost ~]$ for i in {a..z..5}; do echo -n $i; done

afkpuz

141
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls *.txt; echo $_

12.txt 1.txt 2.txt abc.txt my.txt phy.txt

13.txt 24.txt 3.txt marks.txt names.txt mphy.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cut -d, -f2,1 <<<'Albert,Bob,John'

Albert,Bob

[manju@localhost ~]$ cut -d, -f2,2 <<<'Albert,Bob,John'

Bob

[manju@localhost ~]$ cut -d, -f2,3 <<<'Albert,Bob,John'

Bob,John

Coding theory is a branch of mathematics and computer

science that studies the design, analysis, and application of
codes for the purpose of error detection, correction, and
confidentiality in communication, storage, and other
information processing systems. It involves the study of
methods for encoding data into codes that are resilient to
errors and noise that may occur during transmission or
storage, as well as methods for decoding received codes to
recover the original data. Coding theory has applications in
various fields, including telecommunications, computer
networks, data storage, and cryptography.

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="W X Y Z"; echo "$x"

W X Y Z

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="W X Y Z"; echo $x

W X Y Z

echo $x and echo "$x" yield different results

Quoting a variable preserves whitespace

142
[manju@localhost ~]$ let x=20+7; echo "The value of \"x\" is $x."

The value of "x" is 27.

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=100; let "x += 1"; echo "x = $x"

x = 101

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="a+b+c"; IFS=+; echo $x

a b c The "+" sign will be interpreted as a separator

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="a-b-c"; IFS=-; echo $x

a b c The "- " sign will be interpreted as a separator

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="a,b,c"; IFS=,; echo $x

a b c The "comma" will be interpreted as a separator

free | grep Mem | awk '{ print $4 }'

# Display the unused RAM memory

[manju@localhost ~]$ expr 5 \* 2 + 3

du -ach
13 # 10 + 3

# Display (disk) file usage [manju@localhost ~]$ expr 5 \* $ 2 + 3 $

25 # 5 * 5

readelf -h /bin/bash

# Display information and statistics about a designated elf binary

143
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "\033[4mAlbert Einstein.\033[0m"

5 5

145
# count number of lines in each .txt file

ls *.txt | xargs wc -l

# count number of words in each .txt file

ls *.txt | xargs wc -w

# count number of characters in each .txt file

ls *.txt | xargs wc -c

# count lines, words and characters in each .txt file

ls *.txt | xargs wc

Command:

lslogins –u

Description:

Displays user accounts

146
Command:

systemctl list-units --type=service

Description:

List all loaded services on your system (whether active; running, exited or failed)

Command:

systemctl --type=service

Description:

List all loaded services on your system (whether active; running, exited or failed)

Command:

148
systemctl --type=service --state=running

Description:

List all running services (i.e., all loaded and actively running services)

#scan a single port

nc -v -w 2 z 192.168.56.1 22

# scan multiple ports

nc -v -w 2 z 192.168.56.1 22 80

# scan range of ports

nc -v -w 2 z 192.168.56.1 20-25

Command:

cat /etc/resolv.conf

Command:

uptime –h

Description:

Display uptime's version information

(a + b) = 8

echo -e "The following users are logged on the system:\n\n $(who)"

manju :0 Aug 15 03:31 (:0)

manju pts/1 Aug 15 03:32 (:0)

155
date +%d\-%m\-%Y

# Display the current date in DD-MM-YY format

date +%m\/%d\/%Y

# Display the current date in MM/DD/YYYY format

date -d "-7 days"

# Display the date 7 days before current date

date -d "7 days"

# Display the date 7 days after current date

ls -a ~/

# Display all files − including the hidden files

[manju@localhost ~]$ gnome-calculator -s 23500*10%

2350
10
23500 × = 2350
100

shuf -i 1-5 -n 5

This command produces numbers, in this case

will generate 5 numbers between 1 and 5.

156
[manju@localhost ~]$ shuf -i 1-5 -n 5 | awk '{ sum+=$1;print $1} END {print "Sum";print sum}'

Sum

[manju@localhost ~]$ find ./ -name "*.zip" -type f

./1.zip
Find File with .zip extension
./––encrypt.zip

./my.zip

find -type f -mtime 0

# Find files updated in the last 24 hours

find -type f -newermt `date +%F`

# Find files updated today

find -type f -newermt `date +%F -d yesterday`

# Find files modified by yesterday

find -type f -mtime -3

# Find files updated in the last 72 hours

157
find -type f -newermt 2021-03-01

# Find files modified after March 1, 2021

find -type f -newermt `date +%F -d -3hours`

# Find files updated in the last 3 hours

find -type f -mmin -180

Shell Scripting

if [ 15 -gt 25 ]

then

echo "True" # Output:

else False

echo "False"

for i in 1 2 3 4 5 # Output:

do Albert

echo "Albert" Albert

done Albert

Albert

158
if test 5 -eq 6

then

echo "True" # Output:

False
else

echo "False"

yum deplist httpd

# List dependencies of a package "apache"

yum reinstall httpd

# Reinstall (corrupted) package "apache"

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "i=3;++i" | bc

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "i=3;--i" | bc

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "i=4;i" | bc

help cd

# Display the complete information about the cd command

help -d cd Display the short description about the cd command

159
help -s cd

# Display the syntax of the cd command

mkdir -m a=rwx myfiles

Create the myfiles directory, and set its file mode (-m) so that
all users (a) may read (r), write (w), and execute (x) it.

whatis -w make*

# Display the use of all commands which start with make

who -d -H

# Print out the list of all dead processes

finger -s manju

# Display login details and IDLE status about an user "manju"

last -F

# Display the login and logout time including the dates

locate --regex -i "(\.mp3|\.txt)"

# Search for all .mp3 and .txt files on your system and ignore case

160
systemctl -l -t service | less

# List all Systemd services

locate "*.txt" -n 20

# Display 20 results for the searching of file ending with .txt

locate -c [.txt]*

# Count files ending with .txt and display the result

ls -l . | egrep -c '^-'

# Count the number of files within a current directory

du -kx | egrep -v "\./.+/" | sort -n

# Search for the largest directories

ls -al --time-style=+%D | grep `date +%D`

# List today's files only

find . -name '*.gz'

# Find all the gzip archives in the present working directory

du -hsx * | sort -rh | head -10

# Check the top 10 files that are eating out your space

161
mpstat

# Display processor and CPU statistics

mpstat -P ALL

# Display processor number of all CPUs

mpstat 1 5

This command will print 5 reports with 1 second time interval

[manju@localhost ~]$ printf "%s\n" "Albert Einstein"

Albert Einstein

Extract the substring

find . -size 0k

# Find all empty files in current directory x=HelloWorld;

echo `expr substr $x 6 10`

ls -F | grep / | wc -l # Output: World

# Count the number of directories in a directory

fdisk -s /dev/sda

# Display the size of the disk partition in Linux

162
Command:

sh <(curl https://nixos.org/nix/install) --daemon

Description:

Install Nix Package Manager in Linux

Command:

locale

Description:

View System Locale in Linux

Command:

locale -a

Description:

163
Display a list of all available locales

cat score.txt

Justin-40

cat score.txt | tr [:lower:] [:upper:]

JUSTIN-40

cat score.txt | tr [a-z] [A-Z] >output.txt

cat output.txt

JUSTIN-40

cat domainnames.txt

www. google. com

www. fb. com
www. mactech. com
Remove the
cat domainnames.txt | tr -d '' spaces in the
www.google.com domain names
www.fb.com
www.mactech.com

164
cat domainnames.txt

www.google.....com
www.fb.com
www.mactech.Com

cat domainnames.txt | tr -s ''

www.google.com
www.fb.com
www.mactech.Com

echo "My UID is $UID"

My UID is 0

echo "My UID is $UID" | tr " " "\n"

My
UID
is
0

A space into a " : " character

echo "myw3schools.com =>Linux-Books,Src,Tutorials" | tr " " ":"

myw3schools.com:=>Linux-Books,Src,Tutorials

Command:

165
!sud

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "ALBERT" | awk '{print tolower($0)}'

albert
Convert text from upper case to lower case

Command:

169
find . -type f -name "phy.txt" -exec rm -f {} \;

Description:

Find and remove phy.txt File

File all Hidden Files

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Phone number: 55602369" | tr -d [:digit:]

Phone number:
Remove all digits from string

Command:

171
find / -mtime 50

Description:

Find Last 50 Days Modified Files

Command:

find / -atime 50

Description:

Command: Identifies whether the "cat" command is a shell built-in command, subroutine, alias, or keyword.

173
find / -size 50M

ls /usr/bin/d*

# List all files whose names begin with the letter "d" in the /usr/bin directory

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls .b*

.bash_history .bash_logout .bash_profile .bashrc

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls [a-h]*

all DICT file1 file2 file34.txt file.md foo1.txt

allfiles.txt echo file123.txt file23.txt file3.txt first.bash

bu.txt file file1.txt file2.txt FILE.backup first.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ touch hello.cpp; touch hello.f99

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls *.?[9p]?

hello.cpp hello.f99

175
ls /usr

# List the /usr directory

ls ~ /usr

# List the user's home directory and the /usr directory

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo f* Display any file beginning with "f"

file file1 file123.txt file1.txt file2 file23.txt file2.txt file34.txt file3.txt

file.md first.bash first.txt foo1.txt

Display any file beginning with "f" followed by

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo f*.txt any characters and ending with ".txt"

file123.txt file1.txt file23.txt file2.txt file34.txt file3.txt first.txt foo1.txt

sudo vim myfiles.txt

# Open a file "myfiles.txt" using Vim editor

Description:

Check swap usage information

# start recording of Linux terminal

script history_log.txt

Script started, file is history_log.txt

exit

Script done, file is history_log.txt

Command:

dir -shl

Description:

180
List files and their allocated sizes in blocks

Command:

less /proc/sys/dev/cdrom/info

Description:

Display information about CD-ROM

while true; do date >> date.txt ; sleep 5 ; done &

cat date.txt

Mon Aug 16 03:05:36 PDT 2021

Mon Aug 16 03:05:41 PDT 2021
Mon Aug 16 03:05:46 PDT 2021
Mon Aug 16 03:05:51 PDT 2021

"Don't write better error messages, write code that doesn't need them."

− Jason C. McDonald

181
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo hello > 1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo world > 2.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo program > 3.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.txt

hello

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 2.txt

world

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 3.txt

program

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.txt 2.txt 3.txt

hello

world

program

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.txt 2.txt 3.txt >all

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat all

hello

world

program

strings /usr/bin/passwd

# Display the readable character strings from the /usr/bin/passwd

ls -lrS /etc

# List the biggest file in /etc

182
cat /etc/passwd >> myfiles.txt
# Create a file named myfiles.txt that contains the contents of myfiles.txt followed by the contents of /etc/passwd

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls /etc/*.conf

/etc/asound.conf /etc/kdump.conf /etc/radvd.conf

/etc/autofs.conf /etc/krb5.conf /etc/request-key.conf

/etc/autofs_ldap_auth.conf /etc/ksmtuned.conf /etc/resolv.conf

/etc/brltty.conf /etc/ld.so.conf /etc/rsyncd.conf

/etc/cgconfig.conf /etc/libaudit.conf /etc/rsyslog.conf

/etc/cgrules.conf /etc/libuser.conf /etc/sestatus.conf

/etc/cgsnapshot_blacklist.conf /etc/locale.conf /etc/sos.conf

/etc/chrony.conf /etc/logrotate.conf /etc/sudo.conf

/etc/dleyna-server-service.conf /etc/man_db.conf /etc/sudo-ldap.conf

/etc/dnsmasq.conf /etc/mke2fs.conf /etc/sysctl.conf

/etc/dracut.conf /etc/mtools.conf /etc/tcsd.conf

/etc/e2fsck.conf /etc/nfsmount.conf /etc/updatedb.conf

/etc/fprintd.conf /etc/nsswitch.conf /etc/usb_modeswitch.conf

/etc/fuse.conf /etc/ntp.conf /etc/vconsole.conf

/etc/GeoIP.conf /etc/numad.conf /etc/wvdial.conf

/etc/host.conf /etc/oddjobd.conf /etc/yum.conf

/etc/idmapd.conf /etc/pbm2ppa.conf

/etc/ipsec.conf /etc/pnm2ppa.conf

Display configuration files located in /etc

ls /dev/sd*

/dev/sda /dev/sda1 /dev/sda2 /dev/sda3 Display SATA device files

183
echo \$USER

# $USER

echo -e "2+2\t=4" ; echo -e "12+12\t=24"

2+2 =4
echo Hello && echo World
12+12 =24
Hello

World
echo Hello ; echo World

Hello

World

echo Hello || echo Hi ; echo World

Hello

World

rm myfiles.txt && echo It worked! || echo It failed!

It worked!

rm files.txt && echo It worked! || echo It failed!

rm: cannot remove ‘files.txt’: No such file or directory

It failed!

pwd ; pwd

/home/manju Execute the pwd command twice

/home/manju

184
a=$(pwd)
echo "Current working directory is : $a"

/home/manju

Command:

echo *.jpeg

Description:

Print all .jpeg files

Command:

echo 'linux' | fold -w1

Description:

Break down a word (linux) into individual

185
l
i
n
u
x

Command:

find . -user root

Description:

Output the files with respect of the user (root) owned files in the current directory

Command:

strace pwd

Description:

Trace a command (pwd) execution

186
Command:

top -u manju

Description:

Display specific User (manju) process details

3 characteristics of big data:

 Volume — How much data is there?

 Variety — How diverse is different types of data?

 Velocity — At what speed is new data generated?

[manju@localhost ~]$ netstat -plunt

# print all listening ports

[manju@localhost ~]$ netstat -plunt | grep 8080

# check if server is listening on port 8080 or not

[manju@localhost ~]$ netstat -s

# list statistics of all ports

534

187
[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfiles.txt

Hello World

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfiles.txt | tr ' ' '\n'

Hello

World

find . -name "*.txt"

# Find files that end in .txt in the current directory and all subdirectories

find /etc > 12.txt

# Find all files in /etc and place the list in 12.txt

find . -newer file1.txt

# Find files that is newer than file1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ date +'%A %d-%m-%Y'

Tuesday 19-04-2022

[manju@localhost ~]$ date -d '2022-04-01 + 2000000000 seconds'

Thu Aug 16 03:33:20 PDT 2085

190
[manju@localhost ~]$ [ 50 -gt 15 ] && echo true || echo false

true

[manju@localhost ~]$ [ 5 -gt 15 ] && echo true || echo false

false

[manju@localhost ~]$ [ 100 -gt 10 -a 100 -lt 150 ] && echo true || echo false

true

[manju@localhost ~]$ [ 100 -gt 10 -a 100 -lt 15 ] && echo true || echo false

false

[manju@localhost ~]$ a=2; b=a; eval c=\$$b; echo $c

[manju@localhost ~]$ date

Tue Apr 19 02:55:39 PDT 2022

[manju@localhost ~]$ date --date="1 week ago"

echo "shutdown -h now" | at -m 23:55

chmod a+r myfiles.txt

Description: # Everyone can now read and write the file

chmod a+rw myfiles.txt

Shutdown the system at 23:55 today

# Others (not the owner, not in the same group of the
file) cannot read, write or execute the file

Command: chmod o-rwx myfiles.txt

echo "updatedb" | at -m 23.55

206
Command:

ls --format=comma

Description:

View the process of a specific user "manju".

Command:

ps -u manju

Description:

211
Command:

netstat --statistics --raw

Linux User Mode

Graphical user interface

Command Line Interface

Load Linux into memory and start the OS

LILO (Linux Loader)

Logical Volume Manager (LVM)

The maximum length for a filename under

Linux is 255 bytes.

Manage hard drives and other

storage devices on linux

212
[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="Please enter a command: "

Please enter a command: date

Thu Apr 21 20:51:19 PDT 2022

Please enter a command: cal

April 2022

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa ps -aux | grep 'httpd'

# Check for the httpd process

1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20 21 22 23

24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Please enter a command:

/var/spool holds spooled files such as those

generated for printing jobs and network transfers
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls /var/spool

abrt abrt-upload anacron at cron cups lpd mail plymouth postfix

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls /usr/share/man /usr/share/man holds the online Man files

ca en hu ko man1x man3p man5 man7 man9 pl ro tr zh_TW

cs es id man0p man2 man3x man5x man7x man9x pt ru uk

da fr it man1 man2x man4 man6 man8 mann pt_BR sk zh

de hr ja man1p man3 man4x man6x man8x overrides pt_PT sv zh_CN

213
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls /etc/gdm List the contents of GDM configuration directory

custom.conf Init PostLogin PostSession PreSession Xsession

ls /etc/gconf

# List the GConf configuration files

ls /usr/share/gnome

# List the files used by GNOME applications

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls /etc/sysconfig List the system configuration files

atd firewalld libvirt-guests qemu-ga samba

authconfig grub man-db radvd saslauthd

autofs init modules raid-check selinux

cbq ip6tables-config netconsole rdisc smartmontools

cgred iptables-config network readonly-root sshd

console irqbalance network-scripts rpcbind sysstat

cpupower kdump nfs rpc-rquotad sysstat.ioconf

crond kernel ntpd rsyncd virtlockd

ebtables-config ksm ntpdate rsyslog virtlogd

fcoe libvirtd pluto run-parts wpa_supplicant

ls /etc/rc.d

# List the system startup and shutdown files

/etc/init.d holds network scripts to start up

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls /etc/init.d network connections

functions netconsole network README

214
Important features of Linux Operating System

 Free and Open Source

 Portable and More secure
 Robust and Adaptable

Linux Kernel

The core interface between a computer's

hardware and its processes

Manage RAM memory.

Manage the processor time.

Manage access and use of the various peripherals that are connected to the computer.

A space on a hard disk that is used when the amount of

Swap space
physical memory (RAM) is full

215
[manju@localhost ~]$ cd /etc

[manju@localhost etc]$ pwd

/etc

[manju@localhost etc]$ cat /etc/hosts /etc/hosts contains hostnames with their ip address

127.0.0.1 localhost localhost.localdomain localhost4 localhost4.localdomain4

::1 localhost localhost.localdomain localhost6 localhost6.localdomain6

chmod u+w myfiles.txt

# Add user write privileges

chmod u-w myfiles.txt

# Remove user write privileges

chmod go-r myfiles.txt

chmod g+w myfiles.txt # Remove group and others read privileges
# Add group write privileges

chmod g=r myfiles.txt

# Allow only the group read privileges

chmod o+x myfiles.txt

# Add execute privileges for others

chmod a+x myfiles.txt

# Add execute privileges for everyone

chmod a=xr myfiles.txt

# Allow read and execute only to everyone

216
ps -L 3315

# List all threads for a particular process (with process ID 3315)

ps aux --sort pmem

# Check the memory status

awk '/Hello/' myfiles.txt

# Find "Hello" in myfiles.txt

awk -F: '{ print $1 }' /etc/passwd | sort

# Display a sorted list of the login names of all users

awk 'END { print NR }' myfiles.txt

# Counts lines in myfiles.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk 'BEGIN { for (i = 1; i <= 7; i++) print int(101 * rand()) }'

29
Prints seven random numbers from zero to 100
85

15
ls -lg *.txt | awk '{ x += $5 } ; END {print "total bytes:" x }'
59
# Prints the total number of bytes used by all .txt files
19

217
Random-access memory Virtual memory
The internal memory of the CPU for storing A storage area that holds the files on your hard drive
data, program and program result. for retrieval when a computer runs out of RAM

Process States in Linux:

 Ready: a new process is created and is ready to run.

 Running: The process is being executed.

 Wait: The process is waiting for input from the user.

 Completed: The process has completed the execution.

 Zombie: The process is terminated but information regarding the process still exists

and is available in the process table.

Cron Anacron
A service that enables us to run scheduled jobs A service that only enables us to run scheduled jobs
in Linux/Unix systems every minute. in Linux/Unix systems on daily basis.

Command:

cat /etc/crontab

Description:

View system defined cron jobs

Command:

netstat --listen

218
Description:

Check which ports are in listening in Linux Server

Network Interface Card teaming is the process of combining

multiple network cards together for performance, load balancing
and to increase uptime.

Service Default Port

DNS 53
SMTP 25
FTP 20 (Data transfer), 21 (Connection established)
SSH 22
DHCP 67/UDP (dhcp server), 68/UDP (dhcp client)
squid 3128

Hard Link Soft Link

A mirror copy of the original file A symbolic link to the original file

Contains the original content Does not contain the actual

of the file content but contains the location
of the original file

219
ls /bin

# List the binaries and other executable programs

ls /boot

# List the files needed to boot the operating system

ls /dev

# List the device files − typically controlled by the operating system and the system administrators

ls /etc

# List the System configuration files

ls /lib mkdir mydir{1,2,3,4,5}

# List the System Libraries

Create 5 new directories:

 mydir1  mydir4
ls /lib64
 mydir2  mydir5
# List the System Libraries (64 bit)
 mydir3

ls /proc

# List the information about running processes

ls /sbin

# List the System administration binaries

ls /var/log

# List the Log files

220
[manju@localhost ~]$ ls -l myfiles.txt

-rw-r--r--. 1 manju nath 12 Apr 19 20:22 myfiles.txt

Display the permissions for the file "myfiles.txt"

find . -mtime +1 -mtime -3

# Display files that are more than 1 day old − but less than 3 days old in the current directory

find . -name "s*" –ls

# Find files that start with the letter "s" and perform the command "ls" on them

find . -size +3M

# Find files that is larger than 3 megabytes

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfile.txt

ffff [manju@localhost ~]$ touch file1; touch file2

b [manju@localhost ~]$ ls file{1,2}

eee
file1 file2

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat myfile.txt | sort

b
[manju@localhost ~]$ NUMLOGINS=$(who | grep $USER | wc -l)
cc
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo You have $NUMLOGINS login sessions
eee
You have 2 login sessions
ffff

221
Command:

chmod go-rwx myfiles.txt

Description:

Remove read write and execute permissions on the file "myfiles.txt" for the group and others

Command:

chmod a+rw myfiles.txt

Description:

Command:

getfacl myfiles.txt

Description:

Check ACL (Access control list) configured on a file (myfiles.txt)

SSH (Secure Shell or Secure Socket Shell) is a network protocol that gives users and
system administrators a secure way to access a computer over an unsecured network.

223
3 standard streams in Linux:

Text terminal
Standard input
(stdin)
Keyboard Program

Standard output
(stdout)
Display

Standard error
(stderr)

Command:

du -sh /var/log/*

Description:

Check information of disk usage of files and directories on a machine.

Command:

ldd /bin/cp

224
Description:

Display dependencies of the "cp" command.

Command:

ldd -v /bin/cp

Description:

Display dependencies of the "cp" command with details.

Command:

ldd -u /bin/cp

Description:

Display unused direct dependencies of the "cp" command.

225
[manju@localhost ~]$ date; cal

Thu Apr 21 19:44:12 PDT 2022

April 2022

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa
date command is executed
1 2 followed by a cal command

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-gt Greater than

10 11 12 13 14 15 16
-lt Lesser than
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 -ge Greater than or equal to
-le Lesser than or equal to
24 25 26 27 28 29 30
-eq Equal to
-ne Not equal to

[manju@localhost ~]$ date && cal

Thu Apr 21 19:44:21 PDT 2022

April 2022

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa cal command is executed

only if the date command is
1 2
successfully executed
3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16

17 18 19 20 21 22 23

24 25 26 27 28 29 30

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls *.c

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls *.[co]
hello.c vim.c hello.c hello.o vim.c

226
[manju@localhost ~]$ a=`ls *.c`; echo $a

hello.c main.c vim.c

227
Command:

cat /proc/net/dev

Description:

Display network adapters and statistics

Command:

cat /proc/mounts

Description:

Display the mounted file system

Command:

telinit 0

Description:

Shutdown the system

cd /home

# Takes you to the home directory

cd ..

# Takes you one folder back

Display the files and folders that contain numbers 0 to 9

ls * [0-9] *

228
iconv -l

# Display the lists of known ciphers

ls -lSr | more

# Display the size of the files and directories ordered by size

du -sk * | sort -rn

# Display the size of the files and directories ordered by size

Command:

ls -lh

Description:

Display permissions

Command:

yum list

Description:

Search for core files in the entire directory tree and delete them as found without
prompting for confirmation

Command:

who -r

Description:

Check current run level of a Linux server

231
Bash script:

for i in linux; do rm $i; done

Description:

Delete all the files in the current directory that contains the word "linux"

Command:

awk '{print}' myfiles.txt

Description:

Display the content of file (myfiles.txt)

# Wait for 5 seconds

sleep 5s

# Wait for 5 minutes

sleep 5m Sleep commands used to introduce

wait time in scripts
# Wait for 5 hours

sleep 5h

# Wait for 5 days

sleep 5d

232
Command:

ln myfiles.txt hardF1

Description:

Create hard-link to myfiles.txt

Command:

cat hardF1

Description:

Check content of the hard link - hardF1

Command:

ln myfiles.txt softF1

Description:

Create Soft-link to myfiles.txt

Command:

cat softF1

Description:

Check content of the soft link - softF1

233
Foreground processes Background processes
Require a user to start them or to interact Run independently of a user.
with them.

Command:

ps -p 13

Description:

Display information about the process with process ID – 13

Command:

ulimit -f 100

Description:

Set the file size limit to 51,200 bytes

Command:

lsmod

Description:

234
Find out what kernel modules are currently loaded

Absolute path Relative path

The path of a file or directory from the The path of a file or directory from the
root directory. present working directory.

Command:

cal -j

Description:

Print the calendar in day numbers

237
Command:

ps -eo pid,ppid,cmd,%mem,%cpu --sort=-%mem

# Display the processes using highest memory

sudo yum list --installed | more

# Lists installed packages on CentOS

Command:

sudo rpm -qa

file /etc/passwd

Description:

Displays the file type of a given file

[root@localhost manju]# file /etc/passwd

/etc/passwd: ASCII text

240
Command:

wc /etc/passwd

Output:

46 91 2373 /etc/passwd

The /etc/passwd file has 46 lines, 91 words and 2373 letters present in it

Command:

last | head

Description:

Displays information about the users who logged in and out of the system

(Display the top 10 lines only)

lastb

# Display the last unsuccessful login attempts

du /etc/passwd

# Display the disk usage of a /etc/passwd file

killall proc

# Kill all the process named proc

wget https://repo.mysql.com/mysql80-community-release-el8-1.noarch.rpm

# Download the RPM file to install

sudo yum localinstall mysql80-community-release-el8-1.noarch.rpm

# Install the RPM file

242
sudo yum localinstall https://repo.mysql.com/mysql80-community-release-el7-1.noarch.rpm

# Install the RPM package via URL

curl --version

# Display curl Version

curl -O http://website.com/myfiles.tar.gz

# Download the file (myfiles.tar.gz) from url "http://website.com/myfiles.tar.gz"

# Saved as myfiles.tar.gz

curl -o files.tar.gz http://website.com/myfiles.tar.gz

# Download the file (myfiles.tar.gz) from url "http://website.com/myfiles.tar.gz"

# Saved as files.tar.gz

echo 'https://repo.mysql.com/mysql80-community-release-el8-1.noarch.rpm' > urls.txt

xargs -n 1 curl -O < urls.txt

# Download files from a list of URLs in "urls.txt" file

exit 110

# Exit from the terminal window

sudo -l

# know which commands are permitted and not permitted on the current host

243
Command:
echo -e "\thello\nworld"

hello
world

history | grep cd | head -12

Searches history of first 12 commands which have cd word match

 Difficulty to use
Disadvantages of Open Source Operating System:
 Compatibility Issues

Command:

rpm -qa | grep ftp

Description:

Check all installed packages of ftp

Command:

find /home -mtime +120

Description:

Find files in the /home directory which were modified more than 120 days ago

244
Samba enables Linux / UNIX machines to communicate with

Windows machines in a network.

 The /etc directory contains configuration files in Linux.

 The Network File System (NFS) is a mechanism for storing files on a network.
 "init" is the first process in linux which is started by the kernel and its process id is 1.

egrep "Hello|Einstein" file.txt

Returns line with Hello or Einstein in the file.txt

date "+%s"

Prints the date in seconds

cat file.txt | uniq

Display duplicate record only once

245
Command:

cd ../../..

Takes you three folders back

Command:

ps -ef | grep xlogo

Description:

List all the processes on the system containing the string 'xlogo'

echo -n "abc";echo "def"

abcdef

echo "abc";echo "def"

abc

def

ls -ltr /etc List the files in /etc in order of last modification

246
Command:

ls -Rlh /var | grep [0-9]M

Description:

List the files in /var larger than 1 megabyte but less than 1 gigabyte

Command:

ls -lhS

Description:

List files by size

cat /etc/passwd /etc/group

# Display the contents of multiple files (/etc/passwd and /etc/group)

find /tmp -name *.txt -exec rm -f {} \;

# Searches for all files in the /tmp directory named *.txt and deletes them

echo "use" "of" "Linux"

use of Linux

247
watch -n 5 tail -n 3 /etc/passwd

# Display the end of the /etc/passwd file every 5 seconds

watch -n 1 'ls -l | wc -l'

# Monitor the number of files in a folder

watch -t -n 1 date

# Display the clock

find / -name "*.txt"

# Search all files with .txt extension

find . -name "file"

# Search all files containing "file" in the name

find /home -name "file"

# Search all files in /home containing "file" in the name

grep -nre "hello computer" ./*

# Search for files containing the string "hello computer" in the current directory

In Linux
(echo In Linux; exit 0) && echo OK || echo exit
OK

In Linux
(echo In Linux; exit 4) && echo OK || echo exit
exit

248
Command:

free -t -m

Display free memory size in MB

Command:

gnome-system-monitor

Description:

Displays what programs are running and how much processor time, memory and disk space are being used

lsblk -m

Display device permissions and ownership

lsblk -S

Display SCSI (Small Computer Systems Interface) devices

lsblk -n List devices without the header

249
Command:

ls -l ~

Description:

Check the file and folder permissions

Command:

ls ./Documents

Description:

Display the list of files that reside in the Documents folder

ls -R

# List out all the contents of subdirectories

compgen -c

# Displays the list of all commands which we can use in the command-line interface

 pwd -L → Prints a symbolic path

 pwd -P → Prints the actual full path

hostnamectl

# Display system information including operating system, kernel and release version

250
Command:

find . -type f

Find files

Command:

find . -type d

Description:

Find directories

find . -iname "*.jpg"

Find files by case-insensitive extension (ex: .jpg, .JPG, .jpG)

find . -type f -perm 777

Find files by octal permission

cd logs; ls -lt | head; du -sh ; df -h

Concatenating all of the above tasks in a
single line using the "; " operator

251
{ echo "Albert Einstein"; pwd; uptime; date; }

Albert Einstein

/home/manju

00:26:53 up 28 min, 2 users, load average: 0.00, 0.01, 0.05

Tue Mar 29 00:26:53 PDT 2022

cal; { date; uptime; }; pwd

March 2022

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 25 26

27 28 29 30 31

Tue Mar 29 00:52:38 PDT 2022

00:52:38 up 54 min, 2 users, load average: 0.00, 0.01, 0.05

/home/manju

shutdown -r

# Kicks off a reboot

shutdown +0

# Shuts down the system immediately

shutdown -r +5

# Begins a reboot of the system in five minutes

252
Command:

kill 12838

Terminate the process with process ID 12838

shutdown -Fr now

Command:

ss -t -r state established
Force the file system check during
Description: reboot

List all the established ports

ss -t -r state listening

List all sockets in listening state

mtr google.com

Diagnose Network Issues

sudo tcpdump --list-interfaces

List all network interfaces

253
ls -al --time-style=+%D | grep `date +%D`

List today's files only

mpstat -P 0

# Print processor statistics and helps to monitor CPU utilization on the system

chmod 777 myfiles.txt

# Assign (read, write and execute) permission to everyone

chmod 766 myfiles.txt

# Assign full permission to the owner and read and write permission to group and others

chmod -x myfiles.txt

# Remove the execution permission of myfiles.txt file

history 30

# List the last 30 commands we have entered on the system

find ~ -empty

# Find all empty files in home directory

gzip -l *.gz

# Display compression ratio of the compressed file

254
Command:

ps -efH | more

View current running processes in a tree structure

Command:

df -T

Description:

Display what type of file system

mkdir ~/temp

Creates a directory called temp under home directory

ls *py

# List all Python files

chsh -l

# Display the list of all shells

ipcs -a

# Display details about message queue, semaphore and shared memory

255
ipcs -q

Lists only message queues for which the current process has read access

ipcs -s

# List the accessible semaphores

ipcs -m

# List all the Shared Memory

quotastats

# Display the report of quota system statistics gathered from the kernel

rpcinfo

# Display all of the RPC (Remote Procedure Call) services of the local host

slabtop

# Display kernel slab cache information in real-time

tload

# Display a graph of the current system load average to the specified tty

256
cat /proc/devices

# Display the device drivers configured for the currently running kernel

cat /proc/dma

# Display the DMA channels currently used

cat /proc/filesystems

# Display the file systems configured into the kernel

cat /proc/kmsg

# Display the messages generated by the kernel

cat /proc/loadavg

# Display the system load average

ls /proc/net

# List the network protocols

ls /etc/udev

# List the contents of udev configuration directory

cat /proc/stat

# Display the system operating statistics

cat /proc/uptime

# Display the time the system has been up

257
Command:

poweroff -i -f

Shutdown the system

[2 = 2 ] ; echo $?

# 0 (logically TRUE)

[ 2 = 6 ] ; echo $?

# 1 (logically FALSE)

type echo

# echo is a shell builtin

find /usr -print

systemctl list-timers
# Find and print all files under "/usr"
# List all timer units in memory

systemctl list-units --type=target

systemctl list-dependencies --all
# List all target unit configuration
# List dependency of all unit services

systemctl list-units --type=service

systemctl poweroff
# List all service unit configuration
# Shut down the system

systemctl list-sockets

# List all socket units in memory

258
systemctl reboot

# Shut down and reboot the system

netstat -ln --tcp

systemctl suspend
# Find listening TCP ports (numeric)
# Suspend the system

systemctl hibernate

# Hibernate the system

loginctl user-status

# Display terse runtime status information of the user of the caller's session

loginctl session-status

# Display terse runtime status information of the caller's session

ip route show

# Display all the routing table in numerical addresses

ip neigh

# Display the current content of the ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) cache tables

netstat -l --inet

# Find listening ports

259
Command:

atq

Lists the user's pending jobs

lsof | grep deleted

# Print all deleted files which are claiming disk space

echo $$

# Display the Process ID of the current process

echo $!

# Display the Process ID of most recently started background job

date --date="yesterday"

# Display yesterday 's date sudo parted -l

# Lists out the partition details

date --date="10 days ago"

# Display date 10 days ago df -h | grep ^/dev

# Filter out real hard disk partitions/file systems

ls / | wc -w

# List the number of directories in the root directory

sudo sfdisk -l -uM

# Display the size of each partition in MB

260
sudo blkid

# Displays information about available block devices

export NAME="Albert Einstein"

ls / > info.txt Albert Einstein
echo $NAME
cat info.txt

bin

boot TZ=US/Pacific date

dev # Display the current date/time in US/Pacific time zone

etc

home

lib ls -l /etc/shadow

lib64 # Display the user password stored in an encrypted form and the password expiry data

media

mnt sudo journalctl --since yesterday

opt
# Display all the logs since yesterday
proc

root

run
sudo journalctl --since "2019-12-10 13:00:00"
sbin
# Display all the logs since 2019-12-10 13:00:00
srv

sys

tmp
journalctl -disk-usage
usr

var # Display the total size of the journal logs

261
Command:

ls -m

Prints out directories and files separated by a comma

ls -Q

# Add quotation marks to all directories and files

ss -f unix echo *.desktop

# List Unix Sockets # Lists all of the .desktop files in the current directory

ss --raw

# List Raw Sockets

tracepath www.google.com

# Traces a path to a network host (www.google.com) discovering MTU along the path

echo -e "123\b4" 124 3 is over-written by 4

echo -e "123\r456" 456

123 is overwritten by 456

echo D*

# Lists all of the files and directories in the current directory whose name starts with letter D

262
echo $'I\'m a Linux Learner.'

I'm a Linux Learner.

echo $USER

# Print the name of the currently logged in user

echo -e "\033[0;32mGREEN"

GREEN

echo -e "\033[0;31mRED"

RED

echo -e 'Hello, \vWorld!'

Hello,

World!

echo "This is the list of directories and files on this system: $(ls)"

This is the list of directories and files on this system: Desktop

Documents

Downloads

Music

Pictures

Public

Templates

Videos

263
echo *s

# Print all files and folders that end by letter "s"

echo [[:upper:]]*

# Print all files and folders that start by upper case character

echo $((2 + 3))

→ 5

echo $(($((2**2)) * 3))

→ 12

echo Four divided by two equals $((4/2))

→ Four divided by two equals 2

echo Capital-{A,B,C}-Letter

→ Capital-A-Letter Capital-B-Letter Capital-C-Letter

echo {1..5}

→ 1 2 3 4 5

echo {A..Z}

→ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z

echo x{P{1,2},Q{3,4}}y

→ xP1y xP2y xQ3y xQ4y

264
echo The total price is $500.00

→ The total price is 00.00

echo -e "\aMy Laptop shut \"down\"."

echo "$USER $((3*2)) $(cal)" →My Laptop shut "down".

manju 6 March 2022 echo -e "C:\\WIK2N\\LINUX_OS.EXE"

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa → C:\WIK2N\LINUX_OS.EXE

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 25 26

27 28 29 30 31

March 2022 Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
echo $(cal)
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

echo "$(cal)" March 2022

Su Mo Tu We Th Fr Sa

1 2 3 4 5

6 7 8 9 10 11 12

13 14 15 16 17 18 19

20 21 22 23 24 25 26

27 28 29 30 31

echo The total price is \$500.00

→The total price is $500.00

265
sudo lsof -i -P -n | grep LISTEN
Check ports in use
sudo netstat -tulpn | grep LISTEN

sudo ss -tulw

# Check what ports are open

netstat -ap | grep ssh

# Find out on which port a program is running

[root@localhost manju]# ipcs -m -l

Lists the Limits for Inter-process
------ Shared Memory Limits --------
Communication facility
max number of segments = 4096

max seg size (kbytes) = 18014398509465599

max total shared memory (kbytes) = 18014398442373116

min seg size (bytes) = 1

[root@localhost manju]# ipcs -m -p

------ Shared Memory Creator/Last-op PIDs --------

shmid owner cpid lpid

Display the process ids that accessed
131072 manju 2998 3135 Inter-process Communication facility
recently
163841 manju 2998 3135

327682 manju 3277 6920

360451 manju 2827 1406

266
[root@localhost manju]# ipcs -u

------ Messages Status --------

allocated queues = 0

used headers = 0 Display the status of current usage

of Inter-process Communication facility
used space = 0 bytes

------ Shared Memory Status --------

segments allocated 4

pages allocated 2432

pages resident 319

pages swapped 0

Swap performance: 0 attempts 0 successes

------ Semaphore Status --------

used arrays = 0

allocated semaphores = 0

dmidecode -t 16

# Display the maximum RAM supported by the system

dmidecode -t baseboard

# Display all the system baseboard related information

dmidecode -t bios

# Display the BIOS information

267
Command:

dmidecode -t system

Description:

Display the information about the manufacturer, model and serial number of the system

The Linux philosophy is 'Laugh in the face of danger'. Oops. Wrong One. 'Do it
yourself'. Yes, that's it.

Linus Torvalds

268
nmcli con show -a

# Display the active network connections

netstat -r

# Display the kernel routing table

yum install nmap

# Install nmap on CentOS

nmap google.com

# Scan a hostname

nmap 193.169.1.1

# Scan a ip address

nmap --iflist

# Display host interfaces and routes

echo [![:digit:]]*

# Print all files and folders that are not beginning with a numeral

echo *[[:lower:]123]

# Print all files and folders ending with a lowercase letter or the numeral

echo g*

# Print all files and folders beginning with "g"

269
echo b*.txt

# Print all files and folders beginning with "b" followed by any characters and ending with ".txt"

echo [abc]*

# Print all files and folders beginning with either "a", "b" or "c"

netstat -t

# Display the download status of active connections

netstat -x

# Display Information about all connections, listeners and shared endpoints for Network Direct

netstat -n

# Numerical display of addresses and port numbers

echo $LANG

# Display the language of a Linux system

echo "AAA" | grep AAA

echo "BBB" | grep -E 'AAA|BBB'
→ AAA
→ BBB

echo "AAA" | grep BBB

echo "AAA" | grep -E 'AAA|BBB'

→ AAA

270
echo "albert einstein" | tr a-z A-Z

→ ALBERT EINSTEIN

echo "albert einstein" | tr [:lower:] E

→ EEEEEE EEEEEEEE

echo " Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist." | fold -w 12

Albert Eins

tein was a G

erman-born t

heoretical p

hysicist.

echo " Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist." | fold -w 12 -s

Albert

Einstein

was a

German-born

theoretical

physicist.

printf "English theoretical physicist: %s\n" Hawking

→ English theoretical physicist: Hawking

271
ls /usr/bin | pr -3 -w 65 | head

# Display a directory listing of /usr/bin in a paginated, three-column output format

for i in A B C D; do echo $i; done

B Scientists=("Einstein" "Hawking" "Darwin"); for i

in ${Scientists[*]}; do echo $i; done
C

D Einstein

Hawking

Darwin
for i in {A..D}; do echo $i; done

B Scientists=("Einstein" "Hawking" "Darwin"); for i

in "${Scientists[*]}"; do echo $i; done
C

D Einstein Hawking Darwin

for i in file*.txt; do echo $i; done

file1.txt

file.txt

echo ${!BASH*}

# List all the variables in the environment with names that begin with BASH

bc <<< "6+6"

272
df -k

# Check the file system space Display disk space in

df -h
human-readable format

ls -alh

# List all folders in directory with details

find /home -name file.txt

# Check all files in /home directory with the name file.txt

find /home -iname File.txt

# Search all files in /home directory irrespective to case sensitive

find / -ctime +90

# Search for the files which were modified more than 90 days back

find / -size 0c

# Search all empty files

find / -size +1G

# Search all files and folders which are more than 1GB

df -a

# Display the file system's complete disk usage

df -i

# Display used and free inodes

273
du -ch *.png

# Display the size of each png file in the current directory

du -a /etc/ | sort -n -r | head -n 10

# List top 10 directories consuming disk space in /etc/

# Display the total amount of time users are connected to the system

ac --individual-totals

# Display a report on login times for individual users

cancel

# Cancels print jobs

yum install finger

# Install finger tool (CentOS)

finger manju

# Display the details of a user "manju"

chfn

# Allows you to modify user's information

finger -s manju

# Display idle status and login details of a user "manju"

274
groups

# List all Groups the Current User is a Member of

id -nG

# List all Groups the Current User is a Member of

groupadd mygroup

# Create a new group named "mygroup"

groupdel mygroup

# Delete a group named "mygroup"

less /etc/group

# List all Groups

getent group

# List all Groups

usermod -a -G mygroup manju

# Add an existing user "manju" to a group "mygroup"

userdel manju

# Delete a user "manju"

chgrp mygroup test.txt

# Change the owning group of the file test.txt to the group named "mygroup"

275
sudo depmod -a

# Generates a list of all kernel module dependences and associated map files

dirname /usr/bin

→ /usr

dirname /Desktop/root

→ /Desktop

dmesg > kernel_messages.txt

# Read all messages from kernel ring buffer to a file "kernel_messages.txt"

dmesg | grep -i memory

# Display the kernel messages which relate to memory usage

egrep -c '^Hello|World$' myfiles.txt

# Count the number of lines in myfiles.txt which begin with the word 'Hello' or end with the word 'World'

ex myfiles.txt

# Edits the file myfiles.txt

expand myfiles.txt

# Expand the file myfiles.txt − changing tabs to spaces − and display on standard output

expand --tabs=10 myfiles.txt > myfiles0.txt

# Convert the tabs in the file myfiles.txt to 10 spaces each, and write the output to myfiles0.txt

276
expr 2 = 5
Returns 0 (false)
# 0

fc -l

# Lists the history of commands

# Executes the most recently executed command that begins with the letter "l"

fc -e - l

# Executes the most recently executed command that begins with the letter "l"

fmt myfiles.txt

# Display a reformatted version of the file "myfiles.txt "

fmt < myfiles.txt > myfiles0.txt

# Reformat "myfiles.txt" and write the output to the file "myfiles0.txt"

finger -p manju

# Display information about the user "manju"

fold -w5 myfiles.txt > myfiles0.txt

# Wrap the lines of myfiles.txt to a width of 5 characters and writes the output to myfiles0.txt

for file in *.txt ; do wc -l $file ; done

# Performs a word count of all files in the current directory with the .txt extension

277
grep manju /etc/passwd

# Search /etc/passwd for user "manju"

groupmod -n group mygroup

# Change the group "mygroup" to "group"

head myfiles.txt

# Display the first 10 lines of "myfiles.txt"

head -15 myfiles.txt

# Display the first 15 lines of "myfiles.txt"

head myfiles.txt myfiles0.txt

# Display the first 10 lines of both myfiles.txt and myfiles0.txt − with a header before each that indicates the file name

head -n 5K myfiles.txt

# Display the first 5,000 lines of "myfiles.txt"

head -n 4 *.txt

# Display the first 4 lines of every file in the working directory whose file name ends with the .txt extension

iostat

# Display operating system storage input and output statistics

last reboot | less

# Display listing of last logged in users and system last reboot time and date

278
last -x | less

# Display last shutdown date and time

last shutdown

# Display last shutdown date and time

ldd /bin/bash

# Display the shared library dependencies of the program /bin/bash

less -N myfiles.txt

# View the file myfiles.txt − displaying a line number at the beginning of each line

ls *.{html,php,txt}

# List all files with .html, .php and .txt file extension
lsof -i 6

ls / List only open IPv6

network files
# List the contents of root directory

ls [aeiou]*

# List only files that begin with a vowel (a, e, i, o and u)

lsof -i -U

# List all open Internet, x.25 (HP-UX) and UNIX domain files

lsof -i 4 -a -p 555

# List all open IPv4 network files in use by the process whose Process ID is 555

279
xz myfiles.txt

# Compress the file "myfiles.txt" into "myfiles.txt.xz"

xz -dk myfiles.txt.xz

# Decompress "myfiles.txt.xz" into "myfiles.txt"

mkdir -m a=rwx dir

# Create the directory "dir" and set its file mode so that all users may read, write and execute it

modinfo snd

# Display all available information about the "snd" Linux kernel module

more +3 myfiles.txt

# Display the contents of file "myfiles.txt" beginning at line 3

more +/"Hello" myfiles.txt

# Display the contents of file "myfiles.txt" beginning at the first line containing the string "Hello"

netstat -g

# Display multicast group membership information for both IPv4 and IPv6

netstat -c

# Print netstat information every few second

netstat -natp

# Display statistics about active Internet connections

280
netstat -rn

# Display the routing table for all IP addresses bound to the server

netstat -an

# Display information about all active connections to the server

od -b myfiles.txt

# Display the contents of "myfiles.txt" in octal format

od -Ax -c myfiles.txt

# Display the contents of "myfiles.txt" in ASCII character format − with byte offsets displayed as hexadecimal

trap -l

# Display a list of signal names and their corresponding numbers

trap

# Display a list of the currently-set signal traps

yum list openssh

# Search for a package with a name "OpenSSH"

yum grouplist

# List all available Group Packages

yum repolist

# List all enabled Yum repositories

281
yum repolist all

# List all Enabled and Disabled Yum Repositories

paste 1.txt 2.txt

# Display the contents of 1.txt and 2.txt side-by-side

ls -a | pr -n -h "Files in $(pwd)" > dc.txt

cat dc.txt

2022-04-02 01:10 Files in /home/manju Page 1

1 .

2 ..

3 1.txt

4 2.txt

5 .bash_history

6 .bash_logout

7 .bash_profile

8 .bashrc

9 bio.txt

10 .cache

11 .config

12 Data.txt

13 Desktop

14 dir

15 Documents

282
printf "Hi, I'm %s.\n" $LOGNAME

→ Hi, I'm manju.

printf "%.*s" 6 "abcdefg"

→ abcdef

ps -eLf

# Get information about threads

ps axms

# Get information about threads

 ps -eo euser,ruser,suser,fuser,f,comm,label
Get security information
 ps axZ
 ps -eM

Command:

pstree -h

Description:

Display all processes as a tree, with the current process and its ancestors highlighted

rm -- 1.txt
rm ./1.txt
# Delete "1.txt" file in the current directory

rm /home/manju/2.txt

# Delete "2.txt" file in the directory "/home/manju"

283
ip route list

# List current routing table

route -n

# Display routing table for all IPs bound to the server

script -c 'echo "Hello, World!"' hello.txt

Script started, file is hello.txt

Hello, World!

Script done, file is hello.txt

cat hello.txt

Script started on Sat 02 Apr 2022 03:24:52 AM PDT

Hello, World!

Script done on Sat 02 Apr 2022 03:24:52 AM PDT

sfdisk -s

# List the sizes of all disks

ls -d ~/.ssh

# Check if the .ssh directory exists or not

sha224sum myfiles.txt

# Display the SHA224 checksum of the "myfiles.txt" file in the current directory

284
sha256sum myfiles.txt

# Display the SHA256 checksum of the "myfiles.txt" file in the current directory

sha384sum myfiles.txt

# Display the SHA384 checksum of the "myfiles.txt" file in the current directory

sha512sum myfiles.txt

# Display the SHA512 checksum of the "myfiles.txt" file in the current directory

shutdown 8:00

# Schedule the system to shut down at 8 A.M

shutdown 20:00

# Schedule the system to shut down at 8 P.M

shutdown +15 "The system will be shutdown in 15 minutes."

# Schedule the system to shut down in 15 minutes with the normal message alerting users that the system is shutting down

shutdown -P now

# Power off the system immediately

sleep 10

# Delay for 10 seconds

startx -- -depth 16

# Start an X session at 16 bits color depth

285
time cal

# Reports how long it took for the "cal" command to complete

tr "[:lower:]" "[:upper:]" < myfiles.txt

# Translate the contents of "myfiles.txt" to uppercase

tr -cd "[:print:]" < myfiles.txt

# Remove all non-printable characters from "myfiles.txt"

cat myfiles.txt xlsfonts

Hello World # Lists all fonts available to the default X server and display

tr -cs "[:alpha:]" "\n" < myfiles.txt

xset q
Hello

World

Display the values of all current X Window

uncompress myfiles.txt.xz
System preferences
# Uncompress the file "myfiles.txt.xz"

yes | rm -i *.txt
w manju

# Display information for the user named "manju"

Remove all files with the extension .txt

write albert
from the current directory
# Write a message to the user "albert"

286
What is Linux and why is it so popular?

Whether you know it or not you are already using Linux (the best-known and most-used open
source operating system) every day. From supercomputers to smartphones, the Linux operating
system is everywhere. As an operating system, Linux is a family of open source Unix-like
software based on the Linux kernel - that sits underneath all of the other software on a computer,
receiving requests from those programs and relaying these requests to the computer's hardware.
With regard to careers, it is becoming increasingly valuable to have Linux skills rather than just
knowing how to use Windows. In general, Linux is harder to manage than Windows, but offers
more flexibility and configuration options.

Every desktop computer uses an operating system. The most popular operating systems in use
today are: Windows, Mac OS, and LINUX. Linux is the best-known notoriously reliable and
highly secure open source portable operating system -- very much like UNIX -- that has become
very popular over the last several years -- created as a task done for pleasure by Linus Torvalds -
- computer science student at the University of Helsinki in Finland -- in the early 1990s and later
developed by more than a thousand people around the world.

Linux is fast, free and easy to use, that sits underneath all the other software on a computer −
runs your computer -- handling all interactions between you and the hardware i.e., whether
you're typing a letter, calculating a money budget, or managing your food recipes on your
computer, the Linux operating system (similar to other Operating Systems, such as Windows XP,
Windows 7, Windows 8, and Mac OS X) provides the essential air that your computer breathes.

Linux is the most important technology advancement of the twenty-first century and Licensed
under the General Public License (GPL) that Linux uses ensures that the software will always be
open to anyone and whose source code is open and available for any user to check, which makes
it easier to find and repair vulnerabilities and it power the laptops, development machines and

287
servers at Google, Facebook, Twitter, NASA, and New York Stock Exchange, just to name a
few. Linux has many more features to amaze its users such as: Live CD/USB, Graphical user
interface (X Window System) etc.

Why LINUX?

Although Microsoft Windows (which is the most likely the victim of viruses and malware) has
made great improvements in reliability in recent years, it considered less reliable than Linux.
Linux is notoriously reliable and secure and it is free from constant battling viruses and malware
(which may affect your desktops, laptops, and servers by corrupting files, causing slow downs,
crashes, costly repairs and taking over basic functions of your operating system) – and it keep
yourself free from licensing fees i.e., zero cost of entry ... as in free. You can install Linux on as
many reliable computer ecosystems on the planet as you like without paying a cent for software
or server licensing. While Microsoft Windows usually costs between $99.00 and $199.00 USD
for each licensed copy and fear of losing data.

Below are some examples of where Linux is being used today:

 Android phones and tablets

 Servers
 TV, Cameras, DVD players, etc.
 Amazon
 Google
 U.S. Postal service
 New York Stock Exchange

Linux Operating System has primarily three components:

288
 Kernel

Kernel is the core part of Linux Operating System and interacts directly with hardware. It is
responsible for all major activities of the Linux operating system.

 System Library

System libraries are special programs using which application programs accesses Kernel's
features.

 System Utility

System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized tasks.

Important features of Linux Operating System:

 Portable
 Open Source
 Multi-User
 Multiprogramming
 Hierarchical File System
 Security

Now Linux (successfully being used by several millions of users worldwide) has grown passed
the stage where it was almost exclusively an academic system, useful only to a handful of people
with a technical background. It provides more than the operating system: there is an entire
infrastructure supporting the chain of effort of creating an operating system, of making and
testing programs for it, of bringing everything to the users, of supplying maintenance, updates
and support and customizations, runs on different platforms including the Intel and Alpha
platform. Today, Linux is ready to accept the challenge of a fast-changing world to do various

289
types of operations, call application programs etc. Since the hiring focus is shifting more
and more toward DevOps type skills, a Linux skill set will be the types of things that will
make you very deployable.

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo al{an,bert,exander}

alan albert alexander

[manju@localhost ~]$ mkdir {txt,doc,pdf}files

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls

txtfiles docfiles pdffiles

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=Albert; y="$x won \$100.00"; echo $y

Albert won $100.00

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=5; test $x -eq 10; echo $?

1 exit status of the test command is 1

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=5; test $x -eq 5; echo $?

exit status of the test command is 0

cat /etc/profile

# Display System login initialization file

cat /etc/bashrc

# Display System BASH shell configuration file

cat .bash_profile

# Display Login initialization file

290
[manju@localhost ~]$ date

Wed Sep 28 08:14:17 PDT 2022

[manju@localhost ~]$ alias x=date

[manju@localhost ~]$ x

Wed Sep 28 08:14:27 PDT 2022

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $BASH_VERSION

4.2.46(1)-release Display the current BASH version number

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $HISTCMD

290 Display the number of the current command in the history list

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $HOSTTYPE

x86_64 Display the type of machine the host runs on

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $OSTYPE

linux-gnu Display the operating system in use

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $PPID

3563 Display the process ID for shell's parent shell

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $SHLVL

2 Display the current shell level

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $TERM

xterm-256color Display the terminal type

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo $EUID

1000
Display the Effective user ID

291
[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="\d"

Sun Oct 02 # Display the Current date

[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="\h"

localhost # Display the Hostname

[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="\s"

bash # Display the Shell type currently active

[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="\t"

18:42:10 # Display the Time of day in hours, minutes, and seconds

[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="\u"

manju # Display the Username

[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="\v"

4.2 # Display the Shell version

PS1="\w" Display the full pathname of the current working directory

PS1="\W" Display the name of the current working directory

[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="Hello\n World"

Hello

World

[manju@localhost ~]$ PS1="Hello \\ World"

Hello \ World

292
Directory Function

/ The top-level directory of a Linux system that holds all files, device

information, and system information organized into directories

/home Holds users ' home directories

/bin Contains every essential command and utility program

/usr Contains the commands and files that the system uses

/usr/bin Include utility programs and user-friendly commands

/usr/sbin Holds commands for system administration

/usr/lib Contains programming language libraries

/usr/share/doc Contains documentation for Linux

/usr/share/man Contains the online "man" files

/var/spool Contains spooled files, such as those produced for network transfers and

printing operations

/sbin Contains commands for system administration used to boot the system

/var Holds a variety of files, including mailbox files

/dev Holds file interfaces for devices like printers and terminals

/etc Holds all system files, including configuration files

find myfiles -name '*.c' -ls

Using the -ls command, all files in the "myfiles" directory

with the .c extension are searched and displayed

293
find / -user manju -print

Finds every file in a user's home directory and every

file that user owns in other user directories

ls /usr/share/X11

# List the system X11 configuration and support files

ls /etc/X11

# List the configuration files

ls /etc/gdm

# Display the contents of GDM configuration directory

ls /usr/share/gdm

# Display the contents of GDM configuration directory for default settings and themes

ls /etc/gconf

# List the GConf configuration files

ls /usr/share/gnome

# List the Files used by GNOME applications

ls /usr/share/doc/gnome*

# Display the contents of Documentation for various GNOME packages, including libraries

294
ls /usr/share/icons

# List the Icons used in KDE desktop and applications

rpm -qa | more

# Displays a list of all installed packages

ls /etc/cron.d

# List the directory with numerous crontab files that is only accessible to the root user

ls /etc/cron.hourly

# List the directory for tasks performed hourly

ls /etc/cron.daily

# List the directory for tasks performed daily

ls /etc/cron.weekly

# List the directory for tasks performed weekly

ls /etc/cron.monthly

# List the directory for tasks performed monthly

ls /etc/mtab

# List the currently mounted file systems

ls /etc/services

# List the services run on the system and the ports they use

295
ls /etc/cups

# List the CUPS printer configuration files

ls /proc/net

# List the Directory for network devices

free -s 3

# Display the current usage status of Memory continuously after regular interval

ls -lhR /var | grep \- | grep [1-9]*M

# List "/var" files larger than 1 MB but less than 1 GB

whereis -b ls

# Search only the binary file related to a command "ls"

whereis -m ls

# Searches only for man pages related to a command "ls"

whereis -s ls

# Searches only for source files related to a command "ls"

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Alan" "Mathison" "Turing"

Alan Mathison Turing

296
watch -t -n 1 date

# Display the date

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "Albert" > 1.txt && cat 1.txt

Albert

du -sh * --time

# Check each file's size and the date and time it was last edited

dmidecode -s system-serial-number

# Display the serial number of Linux server

ls -aril

# Display all the files with sequence number

yum search mod_

# Display all the modules

du -sch *

# Display the sum of size of all files and folders in present directory

dmidecode | grep -A3 '^System Information'

# Display the server hardware name and model

dmesg | grep -i firmware

# Display all firmware error

297
cat /proc/cpuinfo | grep processor | wc -l

# Display the number of cores

netstat -ap | grep 80

# Display the process id which is using port number 80

dmidecode --type memory

# Display the physical memory attached to the Server

dirs

# Display the list of currently remembered directories

blkid -i /dev/sda
# Display information about available block devices

crontab -e

This command runs crontab

[manju@localhost ~]$ df -h /home

Filesystem Size Used Avail Use% Mounted on

/dev/sda3 18G 5.2G 13G 29% /

Look for free disk space using the df command within

the /home directory

298
[manju@localhost ~]$ hostname -I

192.168.6.131 192.168.122.1

Display all local IP addresses of the host

badblocks -s /dev/sda

# Check for unreadable blocks on disk sda

tail -10 /var/log/messages

# Display the last 10 syslog messages

lsof -u manju

# List files opened by the user "manju"

sudo shutdown -r 2

# Shuts down and reboots the machine in 2 minutes

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.txt

albert

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.txt | tr a-z A-Z > 2.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 2.txt

ALBERT

cat /etc/passwd | column -t -s :

# Display the contents of "/etc/passwd" in column

299
nmcli d

# Display the status of all network interfaces

grep "^[[:alnum:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with alphanumeric characters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:alpha:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with alpha characters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:blank:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with blank characters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:digit:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with digit characters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:lower:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with lowercase letters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:punct:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with punctuation characters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:graph:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with graphical characters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:print:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with printable characters in "myfiles.txt"

300
grep "^[[:space:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with space characters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:upper:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with uppercase letters in "myfiles.txt"

grep "^[[:xdigit:]]" myfiles.txt

# Search for a line which will start with hexadecimal digits in "myfiles.txt"

vmstat -a

# Display active and inactive system memory

vmstat -s

# Display memory and scheduling statistics

vmstat -f

# Display number of forks created since system boot

vmstat -D

# Display a quick summary statistic of all disk activity

vmstat -d

# Display a detailed statistic on each disk usage

This command is used to update the statistics every five

vmstat 5 -S M seconds and change the display units to megabytes

301
[manju@localhost ~]$ free -h --total

total used free shared buff/cache available

Mem: 976M 566M 75M 8.7M 334M 209M

Swap: 2.0G 84K 2.0G

Total: 3.0G 566M 2.1G

 hostname -s
Display the short version of the hostname
 hostname --short

hostname --all-ip-addresses

# Display All Network Addresses

Albert Einstein

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat -e 1.txt

Albert Einstein$

sudo shutdown 08:00

# Shutdown the system at 8 AM in the morning

grep 'but\|is' phy.txt

# Search for the words "but" and "is" in the phy.txt file

grep 'is\|but\|of' phy.txt

# Search for the words "but", "is" and "of" in the phy.txt file

grep -e but -e is -e of phy.txt

303
echo "The system will be shutdown in 10 minutes." | wall

The message (The system will be shutdown in 10 minutes.) will

be broadcasted to all users that are currently logged in

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e 'Albert Einstein'

Albert Einstein

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e 'Albert \c Einstein'

Albert [manju@localhost ~]$

ss --all

# List all listening and non-listening connections

ss --listen

# List only listening sockets

ss -t state listening

# Find all listening TCP connections

[manju@localhost ~]$ hostname -I | awk '{print $1}'

192.168.6.131

System's IP address

304
yum erase httpd

# Uninstall apache

 read has the value of 4

 write has the value of 2
 execute has the value of 1
 no permission has the value of 0

chmod 644 1.txt

 User: 6 = 4 + 2 (read and write)

 Group: 4 = 4 + 0 + 0 (read)
 Others: 4 = 4 + 0 + 0 (read)

 7 = 4 + 2 + 1 (read, write and execute)

 6 = 4 + 2 + 0 (read and write)

 5 = 4 + 0 + 1 (read and execute)

 4 = 4 + 0 + 0 (read)

rpm -qi httpd

# Display information about a particular package (apache)

sudo rpm -qa | wc -l

# Display the total number of packages installed

sudo repoquery -a --installed

# List all installed packages with the repoquery command

305
cat /var/log/boot.log

# Display all information related to booting operations

cat /var/log/maillog

# Display all information related to mail servers and archiving emails

cat /var/log/yum.log

# Display Yum command logs

mkdir -m777 myfiles

# Create a directory "myfiles" with read, write and execute permissions

rpm -qa centos-release

# Display CentOS version

ps -AlFH

# Get information about threads (LWP and NLWP)

 ps -eM Get Security Information of Linux Process

 ps axZ

ps -auxf | sort -nr -k 4 | head -10

# Display the top 10 memory consuming process

306
ps -auxf | sort -nr -k 3 | head -10

# Display the top 10 CPU consuming process

sar -n DEV | more

# Monitor, collect and report Linux system activity

# create or overwrite "1.txt" file

echo "Albert Einstein" > 1.txt

# create or append to "1.txt" file

echo "Albert Einstein" >> 1.txt

grep -i "is" phy.txt

# Search for a given string in a file "phy.txt"

grep -A 3 -i "is" phy.txt

# Print the matched line and the following three lines

grep -r "is" *

# Recursively look for a given string in all files

export | grep ORACLE

# Display oracle related environment variables

307
chkconfig --list | grep network

# View the startup configuration of Linux network service

shutdown -r 18:30

# Shutdown the system immediately and reboot at 18:30

find /home -size +1024 -print

# Find files above 1MB in home directory

find /home -size +1024 -size -4096 -print

# Find files above 1Mb and below 4MB in home directory

netstat -ain

# Display the Kernel Interface table

sar -n SOCK | more

# Display networking Statistics

find /home -size +10000k

# Find files greater than 10000k in the home directory

ls -ld /home

# List information about the home directory instead of its contents

308
chmod go=+r 1.txt

# Add read permission for the owner and the group

chown manju 1.txt

# Change ownership of a file "1.txt" to user "manju"

du -sh *

# Display the disk usages of the files in the current directory

du -sh .[!.]* *

# Display the disk usages of the files (including hidden files) in the current directory

du -sch .[!.]* *

Display the total disk usage of the files

(including hidden files) in the current directory

du --threshold=1G -sh .[!.]* *

Display only files with more than 1GB in size which

located under current directory

309
iostat -kx

# Display general information about the disk operations in real time

Parted is a well-known command line

netstat -ntlp
tool that allows us to easily manage
# Display open TCP sockets hard disk partitions

netstat -nulp
sudo yum install parted
# Display open UDP sockets
# Install parted

netstat -nxlp
parted -v
# Display open Unix sockets
# Check Parted version

dmidecode -q | less
parted -l
# Display BIOS information
# Lists partition layout on all block devices

systemctl --failed
parted -m
# List failed services
# Displays machine parseable output

quit
losetup
# Exit the parted shell
# Display information about all loop devices

310
# Display the file access
 getfacl --access 1.txt
control list of a file "1.txt"
 getfacl -a 1.txt

 getfacl -n 1.txt
List the numeric user and
 getfacl --numeric 1.txt group IDs w.r.t file "1.txt"

sudo tcpdump -D

# List of all available network interfaces in the system

[manju@localhost ~]$ xz myfiles.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ ls | grep myfiles

Compress a file "myfiles.txt"

myfiles using xz command

myfiles.txt.xz

[manju@localhost ~]$ free -t | awk 'NR == 2 {print $3/$2*100}'

61.852

[manju@localhost ~]$ free -t | awk 'FNR == 2 {print $3/$2*100}'

61.852

Display Memory Utilization

311
[manju@localhost ~]$ free -t | awk 'NR == 3 {print $3/$2*100}'

2.54155

[manju@localhost ~]$ free -t | awk 'FNR == 3 {print $3/$2*100}'

2.54155
Display Swap Utilization

[manju@localhost ~]$ free -t | awk 'FNR == 2 {printf("%.2f% \n"), $3/$2*100}'

61.86%

[manju@localhost ~]$ free -t | awk 'NR == 2 {printf("%.2f% \n"), $3/$2*100}'

61.86%

Display Memory Utilization with Percent Symbol and two decimal places

[manju@localhost ~]$ free -t | awk 'FNR == 3 {printf("%.2f% \n"), $3/$2*100}'

2.65%

[manju@localhost ~]$ free -t | awk 'NR == 3 {printf("%.2f% \n"), $3/$2*100}'

2.65%

Display Swap Utilization with Percent Symbol and two decimal places

312
[manju@localhost ~]$ top -b -n1 | grep ^%Cpu | awk '{cpu+=$9}END{print 100-cpu/NR}'

100
Display CPU Utilization

[manju@localhost ~]$ top -b -n1 | grep ^%Cpu | awk '{cpu+=$9}END{printf("%.2f% \n"), 100-cpu/NR}'

100.00%

Display CPU Utilization with Percent Symbol and two decimal places

swapon -s

# Print swap usage summaries

alias -p

# List all Aliases

swapon -a

# Activate all of swap space

lsof -i :8080

# Check which process is running on port 8080

swapoff -a

# Deactivate all of swap space

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat /etc/system-release

CentOS Linux release 7.3.1611 (Core)

Display the version of CentOS

313
sudo netstat -anp | grep tcp | grep LISTEN

# Display the various in-use ports and the process using it

sudo netstat -anp | grep 8080

# Display the process listening on port 8080

printf "%s\n" *

# Prints the files and directories that are in the current directory

printf "%s\n" */

# Prints only the directories in the current directory

printf "%s\n" *.{gif,jpg,png}

# Lists only some image files

[manju@localhost ~]$ alias x='date' # create an alias

[manju@localhost ~]$ x # preview the alias

Fri Oct 7 03:51:39 PDT 2022

[manju@localhost ~]$ unalias x # remove the alias

[manju@localhost ~]$ x

bash: x: command not found...

314
[manju@localhost ~]$ x="alan"; printf '%s\n' "${x^}"

Alan

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="alan"; printf '%s\n' "${x^^}"

ALAN

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="alan"; declare -u name="$x"; echo "$name"

ALAN

find . -name "xyz[a-z][0-9]"

Find directories and files with names starting with "xyz" and
ending with an alpha character after a one-digit

find . -mmin -120

# Search for files changed during the previous two hours

find . -mmin +120

# Search for files that haven't been updated in the past two hours

find . -mtime -3

# Find files that have been modified within the last 3 days

find . -mtime +3

# Find files that have not been modified within the last 3 days

315
[manju@localhost ~]$ names="Albert Alan John Mary"; x=(${names// / }); echo ${x[0]}

Albert

[manju@localhost ~]$ names="Albert Alan John Mary"; x=(${names// / }); echo ${x[3]}

Mary

names="Albert+Alan+John+Mary";

x=(${names//+/ });

echo ${x[0]}
x=(hello world); echo "${x[@]/#/A}"
# Output: Albert
# Output: Ahello Aworld

names="Albert+Alan+John+Mary";

x=(${names//+/ });

echo ${x[3]}

# Output: Mary

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk '{print $2}' <<< "Alan Mathison Turing"

Mathison

[manju@localhost ~]$ awk '{print $1}' <<< "Alan Mathison Turing"

Alan

x='4 * 2'; echo "$x"

# prints 4 * 2

x='4 * 2'; echo $x

# prints 4, the list of files in the current directory, and 2

316
x='4 * 2'; echo "$(($x))"

# prints 8

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="ALAN"; printf '%s\n' "${x,}"

aLAN

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="ALAN"; printf '%s\n' "${x,,}"

alan

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="Alan"; echo "${x~~}"

aLAN

[manju@localhost ~]$ x="Alan"; echo "${x~}"

alan

[manju@localhost ~]$ x='You are a genius'; echo "${x/a/A}"

You Are a genius

[manju@localhost ~]$ x='You are a genius'; echo "${x//a/A}"

You Are A genius

[manju@localhost ~]$ x='You are a genius'; echo "${x/%s/N}"

You are a geniuN

[manju@localhost ~]$ x='You are a genius'; echo "${x/s/}"

You are a geniu

317
[manju@localhost ~]$ x='You are a genius'; echo "${x#*a}"

re a genius

[manju@localhost ~]$ x='You are a genius'; echo "${x#*g}"

enius

[manju@localhost ~]$ foo=25; i=foo; echo ${i}

foo

[manju@localhost ~]$ foo=25; i=foo; echo ${!i}

[manju@localhost ~]$ x='You are a genius'; echo "${x%a*}"

You are

[manju@localhost ~]$ x='You are a genius'; echo "${x%%a*}"

You

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=Bob-Dev-Fox; echo ${x%%-*}

Bob

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=Bob-Dev-Fox; echo ${x%-*}

Bob-Dev

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=Bob-Dev-Fox; echo ${x##*-}

Fox

[manju@localhost ~]$ x=Bob-Dev-Fox; echo ${x#*-}

Dev-Fox

318
find . -type f -path '*/Documents/*'

# Find only files within a folder called Documents

find . -type f -path '/Documents/' -o -path '/ Downloads/'

# Find only files within a folder called Documents or Downloads

find . -type f -not -path '/Documents/'

# Find all files except the ones contained in a folder called Documents

find . -type f -not -path 'log' -not -path '/Documents/*'

# Find all files except the ones contained in a folder called Documents or log files

[manju@localhost ~]$ find /dev -type b

/dev/sr0 [manju@localhost ~]$ echo '16 / 5' | bc

/dev/sda3
3
/dev/sda2 Block devices
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo '16 / 5' | bc -l
/dev/sda1
3.20000000000000000000
/dev/sda

find . -maxdepth 1 -type f -name "*.txt"

# Find every.txt file from the current directory alone

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "$(printf "%04d" "${x}")"

0000

319
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "$(printf "%05d" "${x}")"

00000

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "\"'\""

"'"

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo '3 5 + p' | dc

[manju@localhost ~]$ dc <<< '3 5 + p'

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo '3 5 * p' | dc

[manju@localhost ~]$ dc <<< '3 5 * p'

[manju@localhost ~]$ expr 'Alan Turing' : 'Ala$.*$ring'

n Tu

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo '12 == 12 && 18 > 12' | bc

1 (True)

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo '12 == 13 && 18 > 12' | bc

0 (False)

320
[manju@localhost ~]$ expr PQRSTUVWXYZ : PQRS

4 Display the number of matching characters

ls -ral

# Listing of all files in reverse alphabetical order

 ls -tl
 ls -trl

# List the files such that the one that was most recently edited is at the top of the list

find . -regex ".*$\.sh\|\.txt$$"

# Find .sh or .txt files

[manju@localhost ~]$ find . -iregex ".*$\.sh\|\.pdf$$"

./bc.pdf
find . -type f -print
./1.PDF
# List only regular files
./data.sh

./1.sh
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "alan+alan+alan+alan" | xargs -d +
./2.SH
alan alan alan alan
./1.pdf
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo "alan+alan+alan+alan" | xargs -d + -n 2
./2.sh
alan alan

alan alan

321
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "2\nalbert\n" > 1.txt

[manju@localhost ~]$ cat 1.txt

albert

 ps -eLf --sort -nlwp | head

 ps -eLf

Display information about process threads

systemctl -l -t service | less

# List all Systemd services

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "Albert\nTesla\nJohn"

Albert

Tesla

John

[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "Albert\nTesla\nJohn" | nl

1 Albert

2 Tesla

3 John

322
[manju@localhost ~]$ echo -e "Albert\nTesla\nJohn" | nl -s ": " -w 1

1: Albert

2: Tesla

3: John

whiptail --yesno "Do you wish to proceed?" 10 40

# Display a simple yes or no input box on the command-line with whiptail

du -h -d1

# Check only the current directory's file space usage.

sudo nmcli networking off Restart network service

using nmcli tools
sudo nmcli networking on

find / - manju

# Find files and directories owned by user "manju"

locate "*.png"

# Find all files containing '.png' in the name

find . -name '*.txt' -type f -delete

Find all files with '.txt' extension in the current

directory, including subdirectories and delete them

323
find . -type f -printf "\"%p\" " | xargs chmod 664

# Find all files in the current directory, including subfolders and assign rights 664

find . -type d -printf "\"%p\" " | xargs chmod 775

# Find all files in the current directory, including subfolders and assign rights 775

ll
ls -l
# List the files in current directory

sudo netstat -nltp

# Display all open ports by process

date +%j

# Convert current date into Julian format

date -d "2022/03/13" +%j

# Convert a specific date into Julian format

date +%Y%m%d

# Display current date in YYYYMMDD format

date +%d\/%m\/%Y

# Display current date in DD/MM/YYYY format

324
C Exercises

Dennis Ritchie, known as the "Father of C Low-Level Programming Language," created the
general-purpose, procedural, imperative computer programming language "C" in 1972 at the
Bell Telephone Laboratories to be used with the UNIX operating system. It now ranks among the
most popular programming languages after spreading to numerous different operating systems.
Many other well-known languages, including C++, which was initially created as an
improvement to C, have also been strongly inspired by C. Though it is also widely used for
creating applications, it is the most frequently used programming language for creating system
software. It is one of the programming languages that is most frequently used today. Since 1989,
C has been standardized by both the International Organization for Standardization and the
American National Standards Institute. Don't worry if you are a beginner; we have exercises for
you. We'll concentrate on beginner-level programming problems in this chapter to help you learn
C and develop your programming abilities.

325
Question 1

Question:

Write a program to print Hello, World!.

#include<stdio.h>
Solution:
int main() {

#include<stdio.h> int a = 6;
int main() {
{
printf("Hello, World!");
int a = 2;
return 0;
printf("%d\n", a);
} Output:
}
2
printf("%d\n", a);
6
}
Question 2

Question:

Write a program to compute the perimeter and area of a rectangle.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int height = 8;
int width = 5;

326
int perimeter = 2*(height + width);
printf("Perimeter of the rectangle is: %d cm\n", perimeter);
int area = height * width;
printf("Area of the rectangle is: %d square cm\n", area);
return 0;
}

Question 3

Question:

Write a program to compute the perimeter and area of a circle.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int radius = 4;
float perimeter = 2*3.14*radius;
printf("Perimeter of the circle is: %f cm\n", perimeter);
float area = 3.14*radius*radius;
printf("Area of the circle is: %f square cm\n", area);
return 0;
}

Numerous additional programming languages,

including C++, Java, JavaScript, Go, C#, PHP, Python,

Perl, C-shell, and many others, are based on C.

327
Question 4

Question:

Write a program that accepts two numbers from the user and calculate the sum of the two
numbers.
#include<stdio.h>

int main() { In C Language: if

the variable is not
int a;
Solution: assigned a value, it
printf("%d", a); takes a garbage
#include<stdio.h> return 0; value.
int main() {
}
int a, b, sum;
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");
scanf("%d", &b);
sum = a + b;
printf("\nSum of the above two numbers is: %d", sum);
return 0;
}

Question 5

Question:

Write a program that accepts two numbers from the user and calculate the product of the
two numbers.

328
#include<stdio.h>

int Message() {

printf("Hello, World!");
Solution:
return 0;
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {
int a, b, mult;
int main() { Output:

printf("\nEnter the first number: "); Message();

Hello, World!
scanf("%d", &a); }
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");
scanf("%d", &b);
mult = a * b;
printf("\nProduct of the above two numbers is: %d", mult);
return 0;
}

Question 6

Question:

Write a program that accepts three numbers and find the largest of three.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y, z;
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
scanf("%d", &x);

329
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");
scanf("%d", &y);
printf("\nEnter the third number: ");
scanf("%d", &z);

// if x is greater than both y and z, x is the largest

if (x >= y && x >= z)
printf("\n%d is the largest number.", x);

// if y is greater than both x and z, y is the largest

if (y >= x && y >= z)
printf("\n%d is the largest number.", y);

// if z is greater than both x and y, z is the largest

if (z >= x && z >= y)
printf("\n%d is the largest number.", z);

return 0;
}

Question 7

Question:

Write a program that reads three floating values and check if it is possible to make a

triangle with them. Also calculate the perimeter of the triangle if the entered values are
valid.

330
Solution: /* Hello World /* Program in C*/ */

#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>

int main() { int main() {

float x, y, z; Comments cannot
printf("Hello World");
be nested.
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
return 0;
scanf("%f", &x);
}
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");
scanf("%f", &y);
printf("\nEnter the third number: "); Error
scanf("%f", &z);

if(x < (y+z) && y < (x+z) && z < (y+x)) {

printf("\nPerimeter of the triangle is: %f\n", x+y+z);
}
else {
printf("\nIt is impossible to form a triangle.");
}
return 0;
}

Question 8

Question:

Write a program that reads an integer between 1 and 7 and print the day of the week in
English.

Solution:

331
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int day;
printf("\nEnter a number between 1 to 7 to get the day name: ");
scanf("%d", &day);
switch(day) {
case 1 : printf("Monday\n"); break;
case 2 : printf("Tuesday\n"); break;
case 3 : printf("Wednesday\n"); break;
case 4 : printf("Thursday\n"); break;
case 5 : printf("Friday\n"); break;
case 6 : printf("Saturday\n"); break;
case 7 : printf("Sunday\n"); break;
default : printf("Enter a number between 1 to 7.");
}
return 0;
}

Question 9

Question:

Write a program to find the sum of two numbers.

As it only supports scalar operations, C is now

often regarded as a low level language among

Solution:
programmers, contrary to how it was once
#include<stdio.h> thought to be a high level language.
int main() {
int a, b, sum;

332
a=1;
b=2;
sum = a + b;
printf("The sum of a and b = %d", sum);
return 0;
}

Question 10

Question:

Write a program to find the square of a number.

Solution:

Linux, has a C-based kernel.

Question:

Write a program that prints all odd numbers between 1 and 50.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Odd numbers between 1 to 50:\n");
for(int i = 1; i <= 50; i++) {
if(i%2 != 0) {
printf("%d ", i);
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {
}
return 0; char c = 'a';

} putchar(c);

return 0;

}
Output:

336
Question 15

Question:

Write a program to print the first 10 numbers starting from one together with their
squares and cubes.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
for(int i=1; i<=10; i++) {
printf("Number = %d its square = %d its cube = %d\n", i , i*i, i*i*i);
}
return 0;
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {

int a, b;

for(a=1; a<=5; a++) {

Question 16
for(b=1; b<=a; b++)

printf("%d", b);
Output:
Question:
printf("\n");
1
Write a program: }
12
If you enter a character M return 0;

Output must be: ch = M. } 123

1234

12345

Solution:

337
#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>

int main() { int main() {

char M; int x = 50, y, z;
printf("Enter any character: ");
if(x >= 50) {
scanf("%c", &M);
y = 15;
printf("ch = %c", M);
return 0; z = 28;

} printf("\n%d %d", y, z);

return 0; Output:

Question 17 } 15 28

Question:

Write a program to print the multiplication table of a number entered by the user.

#include<stdio.h>
Solution:
int main () {
#include<stdio.h> float a;
int main() {
a = (float) 51/4;
int n, i;
printf("%f", a);
printf("Enter any number: ");
scanf("%d", &n); return 0;

for(i=1; i<=5; i++) { }

printf("%d * %d = %d\n", n, i, n*i);
}
Output:
return 0;
} 12.750000

338
Question 18

Question:

Write a program to print the product of the first 10 digits.

The only ternary operator in

Solution:
the C language is "?:"
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int i, product = 1;
for(i=1; i<=10; i++) {
product = product * i;
}
printf("The product of the first 10 digits is: %d", product);
return 0;
}

Question 19

Question:

Write a program to print whether the given number is positive or negative.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>

339
int main() {
int a; #include<stdio.h>
a = -35;
int main() {
if(a>0) {
char name[] = "Einstein";
printf("Number is positive");
} printf("%c", name[0]);

else { return 0;
printf("Number is negative");
}
}
return 0;
Output:
}
E

Question 20

Question:

Write a program to check the equivalence of two numbers entered by the user.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y;
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
scanf ("%d", &x);
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");
scanf ("%d", &y);
if(x-y==0) {
printf("\nThe two numbers are equivalent");

340
}
else {
printf("\nThe two numbers are not equivalent");
}
return 0;
}

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>

342
int main() {
char str[1000];
printf("Enter a string to calculate its length: ");
scanf("%s", str);
printf("The length of the entered string is: %ld", strlen(str));
return 0;
}

Question 24

Question:

Write a program to check whether the given character is a lower case letter or not.

int i = 6;

Solution: while(i == 3) {
Output:
i = i - 3;
#include<stdio.h>

?
printf ("%d\n", i);
#define x 2.54
int main() { --i;

double inch, cm; }

printf("Enter the distance in cm: ");
return 0;
scanf("%lf", &cm);
}

345
inch = cm / x;
printf("\nDistance of %0.2lf cms is equal to %0.2lf inches", cm, inch);
return 0;
}

#include<stdio.h>
Question 28
int main() {

Question: const int i = 54;

printf("%d", i);
Write a program to print the output:
return 0;
Einstein [0] = E
}
Einstein [1] = I
Einstein [2] = N
Output:
Einstein [3] = S
54
Einstein [4] = T
Einstein [5] = E

Einstein [6] = I
Einstein [7] = N

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
char name [8] = {'E' , 'I', 'N', 'S', 'T', 'E', 'I', 'N'};
for(int i=0; i<8; i++) {
printf("\nEinstein [%d] = %c", i, name[i]);
}
return 0;

346
}

Question 29

Question:

Write a program to print "Hello World" 10 times.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Solution:
int num[] = {5, 7, 9, 42};

#include<stdio.h> printf("%d", num[0]);

int main() { return 0;
for(int i=1; i<=10; i++) {
}
printf("Hello World \n");
} Output:
return 0;
5
}

Question 30

Question:

349
Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch ='A';
printf("The ASCII value of %c is: %d", ch, ch);
return 0;
}

Because it enables bit fields and dynamic

memory allocation, the C programming language

Question 34
helps with memory management.

Question:

Write a program that will print all numbers between 1 to 50 which divided by a specified
number and the remainder will be 2.

#include<stdio.h>
Solution:
int main() {
#include<stdio.h>
int i = 25; Program to get the memory
int main() {
printf("%p", &i); address of a variable "i"
int x, i;
printf("Enter a number: "); return 0;

scanf("%d", &x); }
for(i=1; i<=50; i++) {
if((i%x)==2) {
printf("%d\n", i);
}

350
}
return 0;
}

Question 35

Question:

Write a program to determine whether two numbers in a pair are in ascending or

descending order.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b;
printf("\nEnter a pair of numbers (for example 22,12 | 12,22): ");
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");
scanf("%d", &b);
if (a>b) {
printf("\nThe two numbers in a pair are in descending order.");
}
else {
printf("\nThe two numbers in a pair are in ascending order.");
}
return 0;
}

351
Question 36

Question:

Write a program that reads two numbers and divides one by the other. Specify "Division
not possible" if that is not possible.
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

int a = 6;
Solution:
float b = 6.0;

#include<stdio.h> if(a == b) {
int main() { printf("\na and b are equal");
int a, b;
}
float c;
else {
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
scanf("%d", &a); printf("\na and b are not equal");

printf("\nEnter the second number: "); }

scanf("%d", &b);
return 0;
if(b != 0) {
}
c = (float)a/(float)b;
printf("\n%d/%d = %.1f", a, b, c);
Output:
}
else { a and b are equal
printf("\nDivision not possible.\n");
}
return 0;
}

352
Question 37

Question:

Write a program that will print all numbers between 1 to 50 which divided by a specified
number and the remainder is equal to 2 or 3.

Solution: #include<stdio.h>

int main() {
#include<stdio.h>
int a = 15, b, c;
int main() {
int x, i; b = a = 25;

printf("Enter a number: "); c = a < 25;

scanf("%d", &x); printf ("\na = %d b = %d c = %d", a, b, c);
for(i=1; i<=50; i++) {
return 0;
if((i%x)==2 || (i%x) == 3) {
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}
} Output:
return 0;
a = 25 b = 25 c = 0
}

Question 38

Question:

Write a program that adds up all numbers between 1 and 100 that are not divisible by 12.

353
Solution:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h> int main() {
int main() {
int x = 67;
int x =12, i, sum = 0;
char y = 'C';
for(i=1; i<=100; i++) {
if((i%x)!= 0) { if(x == y) {

sum += i; printf("Albert Einstein");

} }
}
else {
printf("\nSum: %d\n", sum);
printf("Elsa Einstein");
return 0;
} }

return 0; Output:

} Albert Einstein

Question 39

Question:

Write a program to calculate the value of x where x = 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + … + 1/50.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
float x = 0;
for(int i=1; i<=50; i++) {
x += (float)1/i;
}
printf("Value of x: %.2f\n", x);

354
return 0;
}

Question 40

Question:

Write a program that reads a number and find all its divisor.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, i;
printf("\nEnter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("All the divisor of %d are: ", x);
for(i = 1; i <= x; i++) {
if((x%i) == 0) { #include<stdio.h>
printf("\n%d", i);
int main() {
}
int a = 20, b = 25;
}
if(a % 2 == b % 5) {
return 0;
} printf("\nPeru");

return 0; Output:

} Peru

355
Question 41

Question:

Write a program to find the incremented and decremented values of two numbers.

Graph theory is an essential field of study in computer science that

Solution: deals with the mathematical modeling and analysis of networks or
graphs. In computer science, graphs are used to represent and analyze
#include<stdio.h> various real-world systems such as communication networks, social
int main() { networks, transportation networks, and many others. Graph theory
int a, b, c, d, e, f; provides a set of tools and techniques for solving complex problems
a = 10; that arise in computer science, including algorithm design, network

b=12; analysis, data structures, and many others.

c=a+1;
d=b+1;
e=a-1;
f=b-1;
printf("\nThe incremented value of a =%d", c);
printf("\nThe incremented value of b =%d", d);
printf("\nThe decremented value of a =%d", e);
printf("\nThe decremented value of b =%d", f);
return 0;
}

Question 42

Question:

Write a program to find square of a entered number using functions.

356
Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int square();
int main() {
int answer;
answer = square();
printf("The square of the entered number is: %d", answer);
return(0);
} #include<stdio.h>

int square() { int main() {

int x; int a = 6, b, c;
printf("Enter any number: ");
b = ++a;
scanf("%d", &x);
c = a++;
return x*x;
} printf ("%d %d %d\n", a, b, c);

return 0;

} Output:

Question 43 877

Question:

Write a program that accepts principal amount, rate of interest, time and compute the

simple interest.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>

357
int main() { Mathematical logic and Boolean logic are two
int p,r,t,SI; different branches of logic, although they share some
similarities.
printf("\nEnter the principal amount: ");
scanf("%d",&p); The formal study of mathematical reasoning and proof
is what mathematical logic is all about. It includes
printf("\nEnter the rate of interest: "); propositional logic, predicate logic, set theory, and
scanf("%d",&r); other related areas. Mathematical logic is used to
develop rigorous mathematical proofs and to study the
printf("\nEnter the time: ");
foundations of mathematics.
scanf("%d",&t);
Boolean logic, on the other hand, is a type of algebraic
SI=(p*r*t)/100;
logic that deals with the manipulation and evaluation of
printf("\nSimple interest is: %d", SI); logical statements. It is based on the binary values of
return 0; true and false, or 1 and 0, and uses logical operators
such as AND, OR, and NOT to combine and
} manipulate logical statements. Boolean logic is widely
used in computer science, digital electronics, and other
areas where logical reasoning is important.

To sum up, mathematical logic is concerned with the

study of mathematical reasoning and proof, while
Question 44
Boolean logic is concerned with the manipulation and
evaluation of logical statements. Both branches of logic
have important applications in various fields, including
Question: computer science and mathematics.

Write a program that swaps two numbers without using third variable.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b;
printf("\nEnter the value for a: ");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("\nEnter the value for b: ");
scanf("%d",&b);
printf("\nBefore swapping: %d %d",a,b);

358
a=a+b;
b=a-b;
a=a-b;
printf("\nAfter swapping: %d %d",a,b);
return 0;
}

Question 45

Question:

Write a program to find the greatest of two entered numbers using pointers.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Solution: int a = 15, b = 30;

#include<stdio.h> if(a == b) {

int main() { printf("a = b");

int x, y, *p, *q; }
printf("Enter the value for x: ");
else if(a > b) {
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("a > b");
printf("Enter the value for y: ");
scanf("%d", &y); }

p = &x; else if(a < b) {

q = &y;
printf("a < b");
if(*p>*q) {
}
printf("x is greater than y");
} return 0;
Output:
if(*q>*p) { }
a<b
printf("y is greater than x");

359
}
return 0;
}

Question 46
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Question:
int i = 60;
Write a program to print the output:
if(i > 70 && i < 100) {
body [b] = b
printf("i is greater than 70 and less than 100");
body [o] = o
}
body [d] = d
else {
body [y] = y
printf("%d", i);

}
Output:
return 0;
Solution: } 60

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
char i;
char body [4] = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'};
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
printf("\n body[%c] = %c", body[i] , body[i]);
return 0;
}

360
Question 47

Question:

Write a program to calculate the discounted price and the total price after discount
Given:

If purchase value is greater than 1000, 10% discount

If purchase value is greater than 5000, 20% discount
If purchase value is greater than 10000, 30% discount.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Solution:
printf("%%15s = %15s\n", "albert");

#include<stdio.h> printf("%%14s = %14s\n", "albert");

int main() { printf("%%13s = %13s\n", "albert");

double PV;
printf("%%12s = %12s\n", "albert");
printf("Enter purchased value: ");
printf("%%11s = %11s\n", "albert");
scanf("%lf", &PV);
if(PV>1000) { printf("%%10s = %10s\n", "albert");

printf("\n Discount = %lf", PV* 0.1); printf(" %%9s = %9s\n", "albert");

printf("\n Total = %lf", PV - PV* 0.1); printf(" %%8s = %8s\n", "albert");
}
printf(" %%7s = %7s\n", "albert");
else if(PV>5000) {
printf(" %%6s = %6s\n", "albert");
printf("\n Discount = %lf", PV* 0.2);
printf("\n Total = %lf", PV - PV* 0.2); printf(" %%5s = %5s\n", "albert");

} printf(" %%4s = %4s\n", "albert");

else {

?
return(0);
printf("\n Discount = %lf", PV* 0.3);
}
printf("\n Total = %lf", PV - PV* 0.3);
}
return 0;

361
}

Question 48

Question:

Write a program to print the first ten natural numbers using while loop statement.

Solution: #include<stdio.h>

int main() {
#include<stdio.h>
int i = 12;
int main() {
int i = 1; if(i == 12 && i != 0) {

while (i<=10) { printf("\nHi");

printf("%d\n", i++); printf("\nEinstein");
}
}
return 0;
else {
}
printf( "Bye Elsa" ); Output:

} Hi
return 0;
Question 49 Einstein
}

Question:

Write a program to shift inputted data by two bits to the left.

362
An algorithm is a set of precise, step-by-
Solution: step instructions or procedures for solving
a problem or achieving a specific goal.
Algorithms are used in many areas of
#include<stdio.h>
science, engineering, and computing,
int main() { where they help to automate processes
int x; and enable efficient computation.

printf("Enter the integer from keyboard: "); An algorithm takes some input and
scanf("%d",&x); produces some output, often involving
some form of data manipulation or
printf("\nEntered value: %d ",x); transformation. Algorithms are designed
printf("\nThe left shifted data is: %d ", x<<=2); to be efficient and accurate, and they can
be expressed in various forms, such as
return 0;
Pseudocode, flowcharts, or programming
} languages. Algorithms can range in
complexity from simple calculations to
complex machine learning models. Some
examples of algorithms include sorting
algorithms, search algorithms, encryption
algorithms, and optimization algorithms.
Question 50 The development and analysis of
algorithms are central to the fields of
computer science and mathematics.
Question:

Write a program to shift inputted data by two bits to the Right.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x;
printf("Enter the integer from keyboard: ");
scanf("%d",&x);
printf("\nEntered value: %d ",x);
printf("\nThe right shifted data is: %d ", x>>=2);
return 0;
}

363
Question 51

Question:

Write a program to calculate the exact difference between x and 21. Return three times
the absolute difference if x is greater than 21.

Because C is a structured (modular) programming

Solution:
language, programmers can divide their code into smaller
#include<stdlib.h> chunks to make it easier to comprehend and, as a result,
#include<stdio.h>
make their programs simpler and less redundant.
int main() {
int x;
printf("Enter the value for x: ");
scanf("%d",&x);
if(x<=21){
printf("%d", abs(x-21));
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {
else if(x>=21) {
printf("%d", abs(x-21)*3); int x = 25, y;

} x >= 16 ? (y = 25) : (y = 30);

return 0;
printf ("\n%d %d", x, y);
}
return 0;

} Output:

25 25

364
Question 52

Question:

Write a program that reads in two numbers and determine whether the first number is a
multiple of the second number.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y;
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");
scanf("%d", &y);
if(x % y == 0) {
printf("\n%d is a multiple of %d.\n", x, y);
}
else {
printf("\n%d is not a multiple of %d.\n", x, y);
}
return 0; #include<stdio.h>

} int main() {

int x = 10;

(x == 10 ? printf( "True" ) : printf( "False" ));

return 0;
Output:
}

True

365
Question 53

Question:

Write a program to print the output:

Name of the book = B

Price of the book = 135.00

Number of pages = 300
Edition of the book = 8
using structures.
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Output:
int num, x, y, z;
Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
printf("Enter a three digit number: ");

scanf("%d", &num);
?
int main() {
x=num%10;
struct book {
y=(num/10)%10;
char name;
float price; z=(num/100)%10;

int pages; printf("%d is the sum of the digits of the number %d.", x+y+z, num);
int edition;
return 0;
};
}
struct book b1;
b1.name = 'B';
b1.price = 135.00;
b1.pages = 300;
b1.edition = 8;
printf("\n Name of the book = %c", b1.name);
printf("\n Price of the book = %f", b1.price);
printf("\n Number of pages = %d", b1.pages);
printf("\n Edition of the book = %d", b1.edition);

366
return 0;
}

Question 54

Question:

Write a program to convert Celsius into Fahrenheit.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
float fahrenheit, celsius;
celsius = 36;
fahrenheit = ((celsius*9)/5)+32;
printf("\nTemperature in fahrenheit is: %f", fahrenheit);
return 0;
}

Question 55

Question:

Write a program that will examine two inputted integers and return true if either of them

is 50 or if their sum is 50.

367
Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y;
printf("\nEnter the value for x: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("\nEnter the value for y: ");
scanf("%d", &y);
if(x == 50 || y == 50 || (x + y == 50)) {
printf("\nTrue");
} #include<stdio.h>
else {
int main() {
printf("\nFalse");
} while(!printf("Albert Einstein")){}

return 0; return 0;
}
}

Output:

Albert Einstein
Question 56

Question:

Write a program that counts the even, odd, positive, and negative values among eighteen
integer inputs.

Solution:

368
#include<stdio.h>
int main () {
int x, even = 0, odd = 0, positive = 0, negative = 0;
printf("\nPlease enter 18 numbers:\n");
#include<stdio.h>
for(int i = 0; i < 18; i++) {
scanf("%d", &x); int main() {

if (x > 0) { int x = 0, y = 1 ;
positive++;
if(x == 0) {
}
(y > 1 ? printf("\nHi") : printf ("\nAlbert"));
if(x < 0) {
negative++; }

} else {

if(x % 2 == 0) { printf("\nHi Albert!");

even++;
}
}
return 0; Output:
if(x % 2 != 0) {
odd++; } Albert
}
}
printf("\nNumber of even values: %d", even);
printf("\nNumber of odd values: %d", odd);
printf("\nNumber of positive values: %d", positive);
printf("\nNumber of negative values: %d", negative);
return 0;
}
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

switch(printf("Albert Einstein")){}

return 0;
Output:
}
Albert Einstein

369
Question 57

Question:

Write a program to check whether the person is a senior citizen or not.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Solution:
int x;

#include<stdio.h> printf("Enter any number: ");

int main() { scanf ("%d", &x);

int age;
if(x > 100) {
printf("Enter age: ");
printf ("\nAlbert");
scanf("%d", &age);
if(age>=60) { }

printf("Senior citizen"); else {

} if(x < 15)
else {
printf ("\nElsa");
printf("Not a senior citizen");
else
}
return 0; printf ("\nDavid");

} }

return 0; Output:

} David

Question 58

Question:

Write a program that reads a student's three subject scores (0-100) and computes the
average of those scores.

370
Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
float score, total_score = 0;
int subject = 0;
printf("Enter three subject scores (0-100):\n");
while (subject != 3) {
scanf("%f", &score);
if(score < 0 || score > 100) {
printf("Please enter a valid score.\n");
}
else {
total_score += score;
subject++;
}
}
printf("Average score = %.2f\n", total_score/3);
return 0;
}

Question 59

Question:

What results would the following programs produce?

371
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
for(int i=1; i<=5; i++) { int main() {

if(i==3) { int a = 15, b = 4;

break;
float c = (float)a/(float)b;
}
printf("%d/%d = %.2f\n", a, b, c);
printf("%d\n", i);
} return 0;

return 0; }
} Output:

15/4 = 3.75

Solution:

1
#include<stdio.h>
2
int main() {

int a = 6, b = 4, c;

c = a++ +b;
#include<stdio.h>
printf ("\n%d %d %d", a, b, c);
int main() {
for(int i=1;i<=5;i++) { return 0;
if(i==3) { }
goto HAI;
Output:
}
printf("\n %d ",i); 7 4 10
}
HAI : printf("\n Linux");
}

372
Solution:

1
2
Linux

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
for( ; ; ) {
printf("This loop will run forever.\n");
}
return 0; #include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {

float i = 5.5;

while(i == 5.5) {

Solution: i = i - 0.8;

printf("\n%f", i);
This loop will run forever.
}
This loop will run forever.
This loop will run forever. return 0;

This loop will run forever. }

This loop will run forever. Output:
This loop will run forever. .........
4.700000

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello,world!");
return 0;

373
printf("Hello,world!");
}

Solution:

Hello,world!
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

float i = 5.5;
#include<stdio.h>
while(i == 5.5) {
#include<stdlib.h>
printf("\n%f", i);
int main () {
printf("linux\n"); i = i - 0.8;

exit (0); }
printf("php\n");
return 0;
return 0;
}
}
Output:

5.500000

Solution:

linux

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
for(int i=1; i<=5; i++) {
if(i==3) {
continue;

374
}
printf("%d\n ", i);
}
return 0;
}

Solution:

1
2 #include<stdio.h>

4 int main() {
5
int a = 6, b = 2;

while(a >= 0) {

a--;

#include<stdio.h> b++;
int main() {
if(a == b) {
int a = 10, b = 20, c;
continue;
c = (a < b) ? a : b;
printf("%d", c); }

return 0; else {
} printf("\n%d %d", a, b);

}
Output:
}
35
return 0;

Solution: }
26

17
10
08

-1 9

375
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#define A 15 int main() {

int main() { int x = 0;

int x; for ( ; x ; )
x=A;
printf ("\nAlbert");
printf("%d", x);
return 0;
return 0;

?
} }

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int main() {
int i;
for(i=1; i <= 3; i++) {
printf((i&1) ? "odd\n" : "even\n");
}
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
}

376
Solution:

odd
even
odd

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int main() {
double a, b;
a = -2.5; int x;

b = fabs(a); float y = 2.0;

printf("|%.2lf| = %.2lf\n", a, b); switch (x = y + 3) {
return 0;
case 5:
}
printf("\nAlbert");

break;

default:

printf("\nElsa");
Solution:
}

|-2.50| = 2.50 return 0;

Output:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h> Albert
int main() {
int x=12, y =3;

377
printf("%d\n", abs(-x-y));
return 0;
}

#include<stdio.h>
Solution:
int main() {
15
int x = 5;

switch (x - 6) {

case -1 :

printf("\nAlbert");
#include<stdio.h>
case 0 :
#include<stdlib.h>
printf("\nJohn");
int main() {
int x=12, y =3; case 1 :

printf("%d\n", -(-x-y)); printf("\nMary");

return 0; default :
}
printf("\nJames");

return 0;

Solution: }

Output:
15
Albert

John

Mary
#include<stdio.h>
James
#include<stdlib.h>

378
int main() {
int x=12, y =3; #include<stdio.h>
printf("%d\n", x-(-y)); int main() {
return 0;
int y[] = {20, 40, 60, 80, 100};
}
for(int x = 0; x <= 4; x++) {

printf("\n%d", *(y + x));

}
Solution: Output:
return 0;

15 } 20

80
Question 60
100

Question:

Write a program to find the size of an array.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int num [] = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66};
int n = sizeof(num) / sizeof(num [0]);
printf("Size of the array is: %d\n", n);
return 0;
}

379
Question 61

Question:

Write a program that prints a sequence from 1 to a given integer, inserts a plus sign
between these numbers, and then removes the plus sign at the end of the sequence.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main () {
int x, i;
printf("\nEnter a integer: \n");
scanf("%d", &x);
#include<stdio.h>
if(x>0) {
printf("Sequence from 1 to %d:\n", x); int main() {

for(i=1; i<x; i++) { char i[2] = "B";

printf("%d+", i);
printf("\n%c", i[0]);
}
printf("\n%s", i);
printf("%d\n", i);
} return 0;

return 0; }
}

Output:

380
Question 62

Question:

Write a program to verify whether a triangle's three sides form a right angled triangle or
not.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int a,b,c;
printf("Enter the three sides of a triangle: \n");
scanf("%d %d %d",&a,&b,&c);
if((a*a)+(b*b)==(c*c) || (a*a)+(c*c)==(b*b) || (b*b)+(c*c)==(a*a)) {
printf("Triangle's three sides form a right angled triangle.\n");
}
else {
printf("Triangle's three sides does not form a right angled triangle.\n");
}
return 0;
}

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Output:
printf("%c", "einstein"[4]);
t
return 0;

381
Question 63

Question:

Write a program that will find the second-largest number among the user's input of three
numbers.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int a, b, c;
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");
scanf("%d", &b);
printf("\nEnter the third number: ");
scanf("%d", &c);
if(a>b && a>c) {
if(b>c)
printf("\n%d is second largest number among three numbers", b);
else
printf("\n%d is second largest number among three numbers", c);
}
else if(b>c && b>a) {
if(c>a)
printf("\n%d is second largest number among three numbers", c);
else
printf("\n%d is second largest number among three numbers", a);
}
else if(a>b)

382
printf("\n%d is second largest number among three numbers", a);
else
printf("\n%d is second largest number among three numbers", b);
return 0;
}

Question 64

Question:

Write a program to calculate the sum of the two given integer values. Return three times
the sum of the two values if they are equal.
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

int x = 53286, y=0, i;

Solution:
while(x!=0) {

#include<stdio.h> i=x%10;

int myfunc(); y=y*10+i;

int main() {
x/=10;
printf("%d", myfunc(3, 5));
}
printf("\n%d", myfunc(6, 6));
return 0; printf("%d", y);

} return 0;
int myfunc(int a, int b) { }
return a == b ? (a + b)*3 : a + b;
Output:
}
68235

383
Question 65

Question:

Write a program that accepts minutes as input, and display the total number of hours and
minutes.
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

float num[5] = { 11.5, 12.5, 13.5, 14.5, 15.5 };

Solution:
printf("%.1f\n", *(num+1));

#include<stdio.h> printf("%.1f\n", *(num+4));

int main() { return 0;
int mins, hrs;
} Output:
printf("Input minutes: ");
scanf("%d",&mins); 12.5
hrs=mins/60;
15.5
mins=mins%60;
printf("\n%d Hours, %d Minutes.\n", hrs, mins);
return 0;
}

Question 66

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a positive number entered by the user is a multiple
of three or five.

384
Solution:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
#define MULT(i) (i*i)
int main() {
int main() {
int x;
printf("\nEnter a number: "); int x = 6;

scanf("%d", &x); int a = MULT(x++);

if(x % 3 == 0 || x % 5 == 0) {
int b = MULT(++x);
printf("True");
printf("\n%d %d", a, b);
}
else { return 0;

printf("False"); }
Output:
}
return 0; 42 100
}

Question 67

Question:

Write a program to verify whether one of the two entered integers falls within the range

of 100 to 200 included.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y;

385
printf("\nEnter the value for x: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("\nEnter the value for y: ");
scanf("%d", &y);
if((x >= 100 && x <= 200) || (y >= 100 && y <= 200)) {
printf("True");
#include<stdio.h>
}
else { int main() {

printf("False"); char x[] = "Albert";

}
int i = 0;
return 0;

?
while(x[i]) {
}
printf("%c at %p\n", x[i], &x[i]);

i++;

return 0;
Question 68
}

Question:

Write a program to determine which of the two given integers is closest to the value 100.
If the two numbers are equal, return 0.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int myfunc();
int main() {
printf("%d", myfunc(86, 99));
printf("\n%d", myfunc(55, 55));

386
printf("\n%d", myfunc(65, 80));
return 0;
}
int myfunc(int a, int b) {
int x = abs(a - 100);
int y = abs(b - 100);
return x == y ? 0 : (x < y ? a : b);
}

Question 69

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a positive number entered by the user is a multiple
of three or five, but not both.
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

printf("%-9s al\n", "alan");

Solution:
printf("%-8s al\n", "alan");

#include<stdio.h> printf("%-7s al\n", "alan");

int main() { printf("%-6s al\n", "alan");
int x;
printf("%-5s al\n", "alan");
printf("\nEnter a number: ");
printf("%-4s al\n", "alan");
scanf("%d", &x);

?
if(x % 3 == 0 ^ x % 5 == 0) { return 0;

printf("True"); }
}
else {
printf("False");
}

387
return 0;
}

Question 70

Question:

Write a program to determine whether two entered non-negative numbers have the same

last digit.

Solution: #include<stdio.h>

#include<ctype.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
#include<stdlib.h>
int main() { char x;

int x, y; x = getchar();
printf("\nEnter the value for x: ");
if(islower(x)) {
scanf("%d", &x);
putchar(toupper(x));
printf("\nEnter the value for y: ");
scanf("%d", &y); }

if(abs(x % 10) == abs(y % 10)) { else {

printf("True");

?
putchar(tolower(x));
}
}
else {
return 0;
printf("False");
} }

return 0;
}

388
Question 71

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a given non-negative number is a multiple of 12 or

it is one more than a multiple of 12.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int main() {
int x = 43;
if(x % 12 == 0 || x % 12 == 1) {
printf("True");
}
else {
printf("False");
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {
return 0;
} printf(6 + "Albert Einstein");

return 0;

Output:

Einstein

389
Question 72

Question:

Write a program that accepts two integers and returns true when one of them equals 6, or
when their sum or difference equals 6.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h>
int main() {
int x, y;
printf("\nEnter the value for x: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
printf("\nEnter the value for y: ");
scanf("%d", &y);
if(x == 6 || y == 6 || x + y == 6 || abs(x - y) == 6) {
printf("True");
}
#include<stdio.h>
else {
printf("False"); int main() {

} printf("%f\n", (float)(int)10.5 / 4);

return 0; return 0;
}
}

Output:

2.500000

390
Question 73

Question:

Write a program to check whether it is possible to add two integers to get the third
integer from three entered integers.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y, z;
printf("\nEnter the value for x: ");
scanf("%d", &x); #include<stdio.h>
printf("\nEnter the value for y: ");
int myfunc();
scanf("%d", &y);
int main() {
printf("\nEnter the value for z: ");
scanf("%d", &z); printf("\nAlbert Einstein");

if(x == y + z || y == x + z || z == x + y) { myfunc();
printf("True"); return 0;
}
}
else {
int myfunc() {
printf("False");
} printf("\nElsa Einstein");

return 0; main();
}

?
}

391
Question 74

Question:

Write a program that converts kilometers per hour to miles per hour.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
float kmph;
printf("Enter kilometers per hour: ");
scanf("%f", &kmph);
printf("\n%f miles per hour", (kmph * 0.6213712));
return 0;
} #include<stdio.h>

int main() {

printf("Albert Einstein\n");

main();
Question 75
return 0;

?
Question:

Write a program to calculate area of an ellipse.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#define PI 3.141592

392
int main() {
float major, minor;
printf("\nEnter length of major axis: ");
scanf("%f", &major);
printf("\nEnter length of minor axis: ");
scanf("%f", &minor);
printf("\nArea of an ellipse = %0.4f", (PI * major * minor));
return 0;
}

Question 76

Question:

Write a program to calculate the sum of three given integers. Return the third value if the

first two values are equal.

Data structures are ways of organizing and storing data in a

computer program or system, so that it can be accessed and used
efficiently. They provide a way to manage and manipulate data in
Solution: a more organized and efficient manner, which is important for
many computer applications that deal with large amounts of data.
#include<stdio.h>
There are many different types of data structures, each with their
int myfunc(); own strengths and weaknesses. Some common examples of data
structures include arrays, linked lists, stacks, queues, trees, graphs,
int main() {
and hash tables. Each of these data structures has different
printf("\n%d", myfunc(11, 11, 11)); properties, such as the way they store and access data, the
printf("\n%d", myfunc(11, 11, 16)); complexity of their operations, and their suitability for different
types of applications.
printf("\n%d", myfunc(18, 15, 10));
return 0; Choosing the right data structure for a given problem is an
important part of designing efficient algorithms and software
} systems. By selecting the appropriate data structure, developers
int myfunc(int a, int b, int c) { can improve the performance, scalability, and maintainability of
their applications, and provide better user experiences for their
if (a == b && b == c) return 0; users

393
if (a == b) return c;
if (a == c) return b;
if (b == c) return a;
else return a + b + c;
}

Question 77

#include<stdio.h>
Question:
#include<stdlib.h>

Write a program to convert bytes to kilobytes. int main() {

int x = 1;

x++;

if(x <= 6) {
Solution:
printf("\nC language");
#include<stdio.h> exit(0);
int main() {
main();
double bytes;
}
printf("\nEnter number of bytes: ");
scanf("%lf",&bytes); return 0;

printf("\nKilobytes: %.2lf", (bytes/1024)); }

return 0;
}

Output:

C language

394
Question 78

Question:

Write a program to convert megabytes to kilobytes.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
double megabytes, kilobytes;
printf("\nInput the amount of megabytes to convert: ");
scanf("%lf",&megabytes);
kilobytes = megabytes * 1024;
printf("\nThere are %lf kilobytes in %lf megabytes.", kilobytes, megabytes);
return 0;
}

Question 79

Question:

Write a program to count the number of even elements in an integer array.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>

395
int main() {
int array[1000], i, arr_size, even=0;
printf("Input the size of the array: ");
scanf("%d", &arr_size);
printf("Enter the elements in array: \n");
for(i=0; i<arr_size; i++) {
scanf("%d",&array[i]);
}

for(i=0; i<arr_size; i++) {

if(array[i]%2==0) {
even++;
}
}
printf("Number of even elements: %d", even);
return 0;
}

Question 80

Question:

Write a program to count the number of odd elements in an integer array.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {

396
int array[1000], i, arr_size, odd=0;
printf("Input the size of the array: ");
scanf("%d", &arr_size); The ability of machines to carry out
printf("Enter the elements in array: \n"); operations that ordinarily require human
intelligence, such as speech recognition,
for(i=0; i<arr_size; i++) { decision-making, and language translation, is
scanf("%d",&array[i]); known as artificial intelligence (AI). AI
involves the development of computer
}
programs and algorithms that can learn from
data and experience to make predictions,
identify patterns, and solve problems. This
for(i=0; i<arr_size; i++) {
includes techniques such as machine
if(array[i]%2!=0) { learning, deep learning, natural language
processing, and robotics. AI is a rapidly
odd++;
evolving field that has the potential to
} transform many industries and aspects of
} everyday life.

printf("Number of odd elements: %d", odd);

return 0;
}

Question 81

Question:

Write a program that will accept two integers and determine whether or not they are
equal.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y;

397
Automated reasoning refers to the use of computer
programs and algorithms to automatically derive
printf("Input the values for x and y: \n");
logical conclusions from given premises. The goal of
scanf("%d %d", &x, &y); automated reasoning is to develop techniques that
can automate the process of reasoning and problem-
if(x == y) {
solving, enabling computers to perform tasks that
printf("x and y are equal\n"); would otherwise require human intelligence.
}
Automated reasoning systems typically use symbolic
else { logic and formal reasoning methods to analyze the
printf("x and y are not equal\n"); logical structure of a problem, identify potential
solutions, and generate a proof or a refutation. These
} systems can be used in a variety of applications, such
return 0; as software verification, theorem proving, expert
systems, and artificial intelligence.
}
Automated reasoning is a critical component of
many AI systems, particularly in domains that
require advanced logical reasoning and decision-
making, such as medicine, law, and finance. It is also
Question 82 an active area of research in computer science,
mathematics, and philosophy.

Question:

Write a program to find the third angle of a triangle if two angles are given.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int angle1, angle2;
printf("\nEnter the first angle of the triangle: ");
scanf("%d", &angle1);
printf("\nEnter the second angle of the triangle: ");
scanf("%d", &angle2);
printf("\nThird angle of the triangle is: %d", (180 - (angle1 + angle2)));
return 0;
}

398
Question 83

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a particular year is a leap year or not.

Solution: Computer vision is a field of artificial intelligence and

computer science that focuses on enabling machines to
#include<stdio.h> interpret and understand visual information from the
world around them. It involves the development of
int main() { algorithms and techniques that allow computers to
int year; analyze, process, and interpret digital images and
videos.
printf("Enter the year: ");
scanf("%d", &year); Computer vision encompasses a range of tasks,
including object detection and recognition, facial
if((year % 400) == 0) { recognition, image segmentation, scene reconstruction,
printf("\n%d is a leap year.", year); and motion analysis. It is used in a variety of
applications, such as autonomous vehicles, surveillance
}
systems, medical imaging, and augmented reality.
else if((year % 100) == 0) {
The primary goal of computer vision is to enable
printf("\n%d is a not leap year.", year);
machines to replicate and improve upon the abilities of
} human vision, allowing them to perceive, interpret, and
else if((year % 4) == 0) { understand the visual world in ways that were
previously impossible. It is a rapidly evolving field that
printf("\n%d is a leap year.", year); combines expertise from computer science,
} mathematics, physics, and neuroscience.

else {
printf("\n%d is not a leap year.", year);
}
return 0;
}

399
Question 84

Question:

Write a program that reads the candidate's age and determine a candidate's eligibility to
cast his own vote.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int age;
printf("\nEnter the age of the candidate: ");
scanf("%d",&age);
if(age<18) {
printf("\nWe apologize, but the candidate is not able to cast his vote.");
printf("\nAfter %d year, the candidate would be able to cast his vote.", (18-
age));
}
else {
printf("Congratulation! the candidate is qualified to cast his vote.\n");
}
return 0; #include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {

char *x = "Albert Einstein\n";

Machine learning is a subfield of artificial

Solution: intelligence that involves the development of
algorithms and statistical models that enable
#include<stdio.h> computer systems to automatically improve their
performance on a particular task or problem.
int main() { Machine learning algorithms use training data to
float kg, ounce; learn patterns and relationships in the data, which
are then used to make predictions or decisions on
printf("\nEnter Weight in Kilogram: "); new, unseen data.
scanf("%f", &kg);
Algorithms for machine learning can be classified
ounce = kg*35.274; into three categories: supervised learning,
printf("\n%f Kg = %f Ounce", kg, ounce); unsupervised learning, and reinforcement learning.
In supervised learning, the algorithm is trained
return 0;
with a labelled dataset in which the accurate output
} is given for each input. In unsupervised learning,
the algorithm is trained on an unlabeled dataset,
and it must discover patterns and structure in the
data without any guidance. Reinforcement learning
involves training an agent to make decisions based
on feedback received from its environment.

Question 89 Machine learning has applications in a wide range

of fields, including computer vision, natural
language processing, robotics, and finance, among
Question: others. Anomaly detection, regression, grouping,
and classification are just a few of the tasks it is
frequently used for.
Write a program to Convert Pounds to Grams.

Solution:

403
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
float pound, gram;
printf("\nEnter Weight in Pounds: ");
scanf("%f", &pound);
gram = pound*453.592;
printf("\n%f Pound = %f Grams", pound, gram);
return 0;
}

Question 90

Question:

Write a program to verify whether a triangle is valid or not using angles.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int angle1, angle2, angle3, sum;
printf("\nEnter the first angle of the triangle: ");
scanf("%d", &angle1);
printf("\nEnter the second angle of the triangle: ");
scanf("%d", &angle2);
printf("\nEnter the third angle of the triangle: ");
scanf("%d", &angle3);
sum = angle1 + angle2 + angle3;
if(sum == 180) {

404
printf("\nThe triangle is valid.");
}
else {
printf("\nThe triangle is not valid.");
}
return 0;
}

Question 91

Question:

Write a program to add the digits of a two-digit number that is entered by the user.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y, sum = 0;
printf("\nEnter a two-digit number: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
y = x;
while(y != 0) {
sum = sum + y % 10;
y = y / 10;
}
printf("\nSum of digits of %d is: %d", x, sum);
return 0;
}

405
Question 92

Question:

Write a program to verify if a character you entered is a vowel or a consonant.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch;
printf("\nEnter a character: ");
scanf("%c", &ch);
if(ch == 'a' || ch == 'e' || ch == 'i' || ch == 'o' || ch == 'u' ||
ch == 'A' || ch == 'E' || ch == 'I' || ch == 'O' || ch == 'U' ) {

Natural Language Processing (NLP) is a subfield of artificial

printf("\n%c is a vowel", ch); intelligence (AI) and computer science that deals with the
interaction between computers and human language. The goal
}
of NLP is to enable computers to understand, interpret, and
else { generate human language, both written and spoken.
printf("\n%c is a consonant", ch);
NLP involves a range of techniques, including statistical and
} machine learning algorithms, pattern recognition, semantic
analysis, and computational linguistics. It is used to build
return 0;
applications such as language translation, sentiment analysis,
} speech recognition, chatbots, and question-answering systems,
among others.

NLP is a rapidly evolving field, with new techniques and

applications being developed all the time. Its ultimate goal is
to enable seamless communication between humans and
computers, allowing us to interact with technology in more
natural and intuitive ways.

406
Question 93

Question:
#include<stdio.h>

Write a program to find factorial of a number. #define x 2

int main() {

int i;

for(i=24; i<28; i++) {

Solution:
printf("%d %% %d = %d\n", i, x, i%x);
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {
return 0;
int i, fact=1, num;
printf("\nEnter a number: "); }

scanf("%d",&num); Output:
for(i=1; i<=num; i++) {
24 % 2 = 0
fact=fact*i;
} 25 % 2 = 1

printf("\nFactorial of %d is: %d", num, fact); 26 % 2 = 0

return 0;
27 % 2 = 1
}

Question 94

Question:

Write a program to print number of days in a month.

Solution:

407
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x[12]={31,28,31,30,31,30,31,31,30,31,30,31}, m;
printf("\nEnter the month number: ");
scanf("%d",&m);
if(m>12 || m<1) {
printf("Invalid input");
}
else if(m==2) {
printf("\nNumber of days in month 2 is either 29 or 28");
}
else {
printf("\nNumber of days in month %d is %d", m, x[m-1]);
}
return 0; #include<stdio.h>

} int main() {

char *names[] = {

"Albert",

Question 95 "Alan",

"John",

Question: "James", Output:

"Mary" Albert
Write a program to concatenate two strings.
};
Alan
int i;
John
for(i=0;i<5;i++)
Solution: James
puts(*(names+i));

return(0); Mary
#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h> }
int main() {
char a[1000], b[1000];

408
printf("\nEnter the first string: ");
scanf("%s", a);
printf("\nEnter the second string: ");
scanf("%s", b);
strcat(a, b);
printf("\nString produced by concatenation is: %s", a);
return 0;
}

Question 96

Question:

Write a program to find maximum between two numbers.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Solution:
for(int x=2; x<=25; x=x+2) {

#include<stdio.h> printf("%d\t", x);

int main() { }
int a,b;
putchar('\n');

?
printf("Enter two numbers: \n");
return 0;
scanf("%d%d", &a, &b);
if(a>b) { }

printf("\n%d is a maximum number", a);

}
else {
printf("\n%d is a maximum number", b);
}

409
return 0;
}

Question 97 #include<stdio.h>

int main() {

Question: for(int x=3; x>=1; x--) {

for(int y=1; y<=x; y++) {

Write a program to compare two strings.
printf("%d ", y);

printf("*");
Solution:
}
#include<stdio.h>
return 0;
#include<string.h>
}
int main() {
char a[100], b[100];
Output:
printf("Enter the first string: \n");
scanf("%s", a); 1 2 3 *1 2 *1 *
printf("Enter the second string: \n");
scanf("%s", b);
if (strcmp(a,b) == 0) { #include<stdio.h>
printf("The 2 strings are equal.\n");
int main() {
}
puts("Albert Einstein");
else {
printf("The 2 strings are not equal.\n"); return 0;
} }
return 0;
} Output:

Albert Einstein

410
Question 98

Question:

Write a program to convert the upper case letter to lower case letter.

Solution:

#include<ctype.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
char ch;
ch = 'G';
printf("%c in lowercase is represented as %c", ch, tolower(ch));
return 0;
}

Question 99

Question:

Write a program to find the quotient and remainder of a entered dividend and divisor.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>

411
int main() {
int dividend, divisor;
printf("\nEnter dividend: ");
scanf("%d", &dividend);
printf("\nEnter divisor: ");
scanf("%d", &divisor);
printf("\nQuotient = %d\n", (dividend / divisor));
printf("\nRemainder = %d", (dividend % divisor));
return 0;
}

Question 100

Question:

Write a program to determine the Size of int, float, double and char.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Size of char is: %ld byte\n",sizeof(char));
printf("Size of int is: %ld bytes\n",sizeof(int));
printf("Size of float is: %ld bytes\n",sizeof(float));
printf("Size of double is: %ld bytes", sizeof(double));
return 0;
}

412
Question 101

#include<stdio.h>
Question:
int main() {
Write a program to verify the password until it is correct.
int i;

for(i=-3; i<3; i++)

printf("%d ", i);

Solution: for(; i>=-3; i--)

printf("%d ", i);

#include<stdio.h>
int main() { putchar('\n');

int pwd, i; return 0;

while (i!=0) { }
printf("\nEnter the password: ");
scanf("%d",&pwd);
if(pwd==1988) { Output:
printf("The password you entered is correct");
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 2 1 0 -1 -2 -3
i=0;
}
else {
printf("Incorrect password, try again");
} #include<stdio.h>

?
printf("\n");
int main() {
} Output:
int x, y;
return 0;
} printf("\nEnter the value for x: ");

scanf("%d", &x);

printf("\nEnter the value for y: ");

scanf("%d", &y);

(x>y)? printf("\nx is greater"): printf("\ny is greater");

return 0;

413
Question 102

Question:

Write a program to find absolute value of a number.

Solution:

25
The garbage values will be
printed after i = 5 26

-759135232

-1723617269

417
Question 106

Question:

Write a program that uses bitwise operators to multiply an entered value by four.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Solution: for(int x=5; x>=1; x--) {

#include<stdio.h> for(int y=1; y<=x; y++) {

int main() { printf("* ");
long x, y;
}
printf("Enter a integer: ");
scanf("%ld", &x); printf("\n");

y = x; }
Output:
x = x << 2;
return 0;
printf("%ld x 4 = %ld\n", y, x); *****
}
return 0;
****
}
***

Question 107 *

Question:

Write a program to check whether a number entered by the user is power of 2 or not.

Solution:

418
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x; #define A 16

printf("Enter a number: "); #define B 4

scanf("%d", &x);
int main() {
if((x != 0) && ((x &(x - 1)) == 0)) {
printf("A+B: %d\n", A+B);
printf("\n%d is a power of 2", x);
} printf("A-B: %d\n", A-B);
else { printf("A×B: %d\n", A*B);
printf("\n%d is not a power of 2", x);
printf("A/B: %d\n", A/B);
}
return 0; return 0;

} } Output:

A+B: 20

A-B: 12

A×B: 64
Question 108
A/B: 4

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a triangle is scalene, isosceles, or equilateral.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int side1, side2, side3;
printf("\nEnter the first side of the triangle: ");
scanf("%d",&side1);
printf("\nEnter the second side of the triangle: ");

419
scanf("%d",&side2);
printf("\nEnter the third side of the triangle: ");
scanf("%d",&side3);
if(side1 == side2 && side2 == side3) {
printf("\nThe given Triangle is equilateral.");
}
else if(side1 == side2 || side2 == side3 || side3 == side1) {
printf("\nThe given Triangle is isosceles.");
}
else {
printf("\nThe given Triangle is scalene.");
}
return 0;
}

Question 109

Question:

Write a program to print ASCII values of all the letters of the English alphabet from A to Z.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int i;
for(i='A'; i<='Z'; i++) {

420
printf("ASCII value of %c = %d\n", i, i);
}
return 0;
}

Question 110

Question:

Write a program to find sum of even numbers between 1 to n.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int i, num, sum=0;
printf("Enter a number: ");
scanf("%d", &num);
for(i=2; i<=num; i=i+2) {
sum = sum + i;
}
printf("\nSum of all even number between 1 to %d is: %d", num, sum);
return 0;
}

421
Networking refers to the process of connecting different
Question 111 devices, systems, and networks together in order to
facilitate communication and information exchange. It
involves the use of various hardware and software
technologies, protocols, and standards to enable devices
Question: to communicate with each other and access shared
resources.

Networking can take place at different levels, such as

Write a program to find sum of odd numbers between 1 to n. local area networks (LANs) that connect devices within a
single location, wide area networks (WANs) that connect
devices across different locations, and the internet, which
is a global network of networks that allows devices to
communicate with each other across different geographic
locations.

Solution: Networking technologies include wired and wireless

communication technologies such as Ethernet, Wi-Fi,
and Bluetooth, as well as network protocols such as
#include<stdio.h> TCP/IP, HTTP, and DNS. Networking also involves the
use of networking hardware such as routers, switches,
int main() { and hubs to connect devices and manage network traffic.
int i, num, sum=0; Networking has become an essential component of
printf("Enter a number: "); modern computing, enabling businesses, governments,
and individuals to communicate and exchange
scanf("%d", &num); information across different locations and devices. It has
revolutionized various industries, from finance and
for(i=1; i<=num; i=i+2) { healthcare to education and entertainment, and continues
to evolve with the development of new technologies such
sum = sum + i; as 5G and the Internet of Things (IoT).

}
printf("\nSum of all odd number between 1 to %d is: %d", num, sum);
return 0;
}

Question 112

Question:

Write a program to find maximum number using switch case.

Solution:

422
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, y; #include<stdio.h>

printf("Enter any two numbers: \n"); int main() {

scanf("%d%d", &x, &y);
for(int i=5; i>=0; i=i-1) {
switch(x > y) {
printf("%d\n", i);
case 0: printf("%d is Maximum number", y);
break; }

case 1: printf("%d is Maximum number", x); return 0;

break; Output:
}
}
5
return 0;
} 4

1
Question 113
0

Question:

Write a program that allows you to enter the cost price and the selling price of a product
and calculate profit or loss.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int cp, sp;
printf("\nInput Cost Price: ");
scanf("%d", &cp);

423
printf("\nInput Selling Price: ");
scanf("%d", &sp);
if(sp > cp) { #include<stdio.h>
printf("Profit = %d", (sp - cp)); int main() {
}
int x[25], a;
else if(cp > sp) {
for(a = 0; a <= 24; a++);
printf("Loss = %d", (cp - sp));
} {

else { x[a] = a;
printf("No Profit No Loss.");
printf("\n%d", x[a]);
}
}
return 0;
} return 0;

Output:

25
Question 114

Question:

Write a program that display the pattern like a right angle triangle using an asterisk.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int rows;
printf("Input the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d", &rows);
for(int x=1; x<=rows; x++) {

424
for(int y=1; y<=x; y++)
printf("*");
printf("\n");
}
return 0;
}

Question 115

Question:

Write a program that display the pattern like a right angle triangle using a number.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int rows;
printf("Input the number of rows: ");
scanf("%d",&rows);
for(int x=1; x<=rows; x++) {
#include<stdio.h>
for(int y=1; y<=x; y++)
static int b;
printf("%d", y);
printf("\n"); int main() {

} static int c;
return 0; printf("%d %d", b, c); Output:
}
return 0;
00
}

425
Question 116

Question:

Write a program to determine the number and sum of all integers between 50 and 100
which are divisible by 2.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x, sum=0;
printf("Numbers between 50 and 100, divisible by 2: \n");
for(x=51; x<100; x++) {
if(x%2==0) { #include<stdio.h>

printf("%5d", x); int main() {

sum+=x;
int z[] = { 1, 40, 1, 80, 6 };
}
int y, *x;
}
printf("\nThe sum: %d", sum); x = z;

return 0; for(y = 0; y <= 4; y++) {

Output:
} printf("\n%d", *x);
1
x++;
40
}

return 0; 1

} 80

426
Question 117

Question:

Write a program that uses the function to determine whether a entered number is even or
odd.
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

printf("Enter a character: ");

Solution: int c = getchar();

#include<stdio.h> printf("You have entered the character '%c'.\n", c);

int myfunc(int x) { return 0;

?
return (x & 1); }
}
int main() {
int x;
printf("Enter any number: ");
scanf("%d", &x);
if(myfunc(x)) {
printf("\nThe number you entered is odd.");
}
else {
printf("\nThe number you entered is even.");
}
return 0; #include<stdio.h>
} #include<math.h>

int main() {
Output:
printf("%f\n", log(50.0));

return 0; 3.912023

427
Question 118

Question:

Write a program to find square root of an entered number.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<math.h>
int main() {
int x;
printf("Enter any number: ");
scanf("%d",&x);
printf("Square root of %d is %.2lf", x, sqrt(x));
return 0;
}

Question 119

Question:

Write a program to find power of a entered number using library function.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>

428
Evolutionary computing is a subfield of artificial
#include<math.h> intelligence and computational intelligence that uses
evolutionary algorithms to solve complex optimization
int main() {
problems. It is inspired by the process of natural
int x, y; selection and evolution in biological organisms, and it
aims to mimic these processes in order to find optimal
printf("\nEnter the value for x: "); solutions to a wide range of problems.
scanf("%d", &x);
Evolutionary computing typically involves the use of
printf("\nEnter the value for y: "); genetic algorithms, which are a type of optimization
algorithm that uses principles of natural selection and
scanf("%d", &y);
genetics to evolve a population of potential solutions to
printf("\n%d^%d = %ld", x, y, (long)pow(x,y)); a problem. The algorithm generates a population of
candidate solutions, which are then evaluated and
return 0; selected for reproduction based on their fitness or
quality. Through a process of mutation, crossover, and
}
selection, the algorithm evolves the population towards
better solutions over successive generations.

Evolutionary computing has applications in various

domains, including engineering, finance, biology, and
artificial life. It can be used to solve problems such as
Question 120 optimization, scheduling, design, and control, among
others. The approach is particularly useful in situations
where traditional optimization techniques are not
Question: effective, or when there are complex, multi-objective
optimization problems to be solved.

Write a program to determine if the character entered is an alphabetic or numeric

character.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

Solution: printf("\"Hi,\" Albert, \"Elsa!\"\n");

return 0;
#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h> }

int main() {
char ch;
Output:
printf("Enter a character: ");
scanf("%c", &ch); "Hi," Albert, "Elsa!"
if(isdigit(ch)) {
printf("\n%c is a Digit", ch);
}

429
else if(isalpha(ch)) {
printf("\n%c is an Alphabet", ch);
}
else {
printf("\n%c is not an Alphabet, or a Digit", ch);
}
return 0;
}

Question 121

Question:

Write a program to determine whether the character entered is an alphanumeric character

or not.
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

printf("The Sum is: %f\n",16.0+17);

Solution:
return 0;

#include<stdio.h> }
#include<ctype.h>
int main() { Output:
char a;
The Sum is: 33.000000
printf("Enter a character: ");
scanf("%c", &a);
if(isalnum(a)) {
printf("\n%c is an alphanumeric character.", a);
}
else {

430
printf("\n%c is NOT an alphanumeric character.", a);
}
return 0;
}

Question 122

Question:

Write a program to determine whether the character entered is an punctuation character

or not.
#include<stdio.h>

?
#define SIZE 6

int main() {

Solution: char name[SIZE];

printf("Enter your name: ");

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h> fgets(name, SIZE, stdin);

int main() { printf("Pleased to meet you, %s.", name);

char a;
return 0;
printf("Enter a character: ");
}
scanf("%c", &a);
if(ispunct(a)) {
printf("\n%c is an punctuation character.", a);
}
else {
printf("\n%c is NOT an punctuation character.", a);
}
return 0;
}

431
Question 123

Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a graphic character or not.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
int main() {
char a;
printf("Enter a character: ");
scanf("%c", &a);
if(isgraph(a)) {
printf("\n%c is a graphic character.", a);
}
Output:
else {
printf("\n%c is NOT a graphic character.", a); 0
}
0
return 0; #include<stdio.h>
0
}
int main() {
0
static int x[8];
0
for(int i = 0; i <= 7; i++)
0
printf("\n%d", x[i]);

return 0; 0

} 0

432
Question 124

Question:

Write a program to list all printable characters using isprint() function.

#include<stdio.h>
In the switch condition,
int main() {
"i" is not an integer. We
Solution: float i = 6.1 ; cannot test floats in
switch statements.
switch (i) {
#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h> case 0.1 :

int main() { printf("\nAlan"); break;

int i; case 2.1 :
for(i = 1; i <= 127; i++)
printf("\nJohn"); break;
if(isprint(i)!= 0)
case 4.1 :
printf("%c ", i);
return 0; printf("\nMary"); break;

} case 6.1 :

printf("\nAlbert");

return 0;
Error
Question 125 }

Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a hexadecimal digit character

or not.

Solution:

433
Computer security refers to the
#include<stdio.h> protection of computer systems and
#include<ctype.h> networks from unauthorized access,
theft, damage, or other malicious
int main() { attacks. It involves implementing
char a; various measures such as firewalls,
encryption, antivirus software, access
printf("Enter a character: "); controls, and intrusion detection
scanf("%c", &a); systems to safeguard computers and
networks from security threats. The
if(isxdigit(a)) {
goal of computer security is to ensure
printf("\n%c is a hexadecimal digit character.", a); the confidentiality, integrity, and
availability of information stored on
}
or transmitted through computer
else { systems and networks. Computer
security is important for individuals,
printf("\n%c is NOT a hexadecimal digit character.", a);
businesses, governments, and other
} organizations that rely on computers
return 0; to store and process sensitive data.

Question 126

Question:

Write a program to print ASCII value of all control characters.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
int main() {
int i;
printf("The ASCII value of all control characters are: \n");

434
for(i=0; i<=127; i++) {
if(iscntrl(i)!=0) #include<stdio.h>
printf("\n %d ", i);
int main() {
}
if(printf("Albert Einstein")){}
return 0;
} return 0;

Output:

Albert Einstein
Question 127

Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a white-space character or not.

Solution:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<stdio.h>
typedef int var;
#include<ctype.h>
int main() { var main() {

char c; var i = 6;
printf("Enter a character: ");
printf("%d + %d = %d\n", i, i, i+i);
scanf("%c", &c);
return 0;
if(isspace(c) == 0) {
printf("Not a white-space character."); }
}
else { Output:
printf("White-space character.");
6 + 6 = 12
}
return 0;

435
}

Question 128

Question:

Write a program to illustrate isprint() and iscntrl() functions.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
int main() {
char ch = 'a';
if(isprint(ch)) {
printf("\n%c is printable character.", ch);
}
else {
printf("\n%c is not printable character.", ch);
}

if(iscntrl(ch)) {
printf("\n%c is control character.", ch);
}
else {
printf("\n%c is not control character.", ch);
}
return (0);

436
}

Question 129 #include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Question:
char name[10];

Write a program to calculate surface area of cube. printf("Enter your name: ");

fgets(name,10,stdin);

printf("Pleased to meet you, %s.\n",name);

return 0;
Solution:

?
}
#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int side;
long area;
printf("\nEnter the side of cube: ");
scanf("%d", &side);
area = 6*side*side;
printf("\nThe surface area of cube is: %ld", area);
return 0;
}

Question 130

Question:

Write a program to subtract 2 numbers without using subtraction operator.

437
#include<stdio.h>
Solution:
int main() {
#include<stdio.h> for(int i=12; i<=15; i=i+1) {
#include<stdlib.h>
printf("%d\t", i);
int main() {
int x =6, y=3; }

printf("%d", x+(~y)+1); putchar('\n');

return 0;
return 0;
}
}

Output:

Question 131 12 13 14 15

Question:

Write a program to add 2 numbers without using addition operator.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Solution: int i;

#include<stdio.h> for(i=0; i<5; i=i+1, printf("%d\n", i));

#include<stdlib.h> return(0);
int main() { Output:
}
int x =6, y=3; 1
printf("%d", x-(~y)-1);
2
return 0;
} 3

438
Question 132

Question:

Write a program to multiply a number by 2 without using multiplication operator.

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
Solution:
printf("%d\n", 49);
#include<stdio.h>
printf("%1.2f\n",3.15698222);
int main() {
printf("%d\n", 496596);
int x=2;
printf("%d", x<<1); printf("%1.1f\n",0.00056);
return 0; return 0;
Output:
}
}
49

3.16

Question 134 496596

0.0
Question:

Write a program to divide a number by 2 without using division operator.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int x=12;
printf("%d", x>>1);

439
return 0;
}

Question 135

Question:

Write a program to calculate volume of sphere.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int radius;
float PI = 3.141592;
printf("\nEnter the radius of sphere: ");
scanf("%d", &radius);
float volume = (4/3)*(PI*radius*radius*radius);

?
printf("\nThe volume of sphere is: %f", volume);
return 0;
#include<stdio.h>
}
int main() {

printf("Enter a character: ");

int c = getc(stdin);
Question 136
printf("You have entered the character '%c'.\n",c);

return 0;
Question:
}

Write a program to calculate volume of ellipsoid.

440
Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int r1, r2, r3;
float PI = 3.141592;
printf("\nEnter the radius of the ellipsoid of axis 1: ");
scanf("%d", &r1);
printf("\nEnter the radius of the ellipsoid of axis 2: ");
scanf("%d", &r2);
printf("\nEnter the radius of the ellipsoid of axis 3: ");
scanf("%d", &r3);
float volume = (4/3)*(PI*r1*r2*r3);
printf("\nThe volume of ellipsoid is: %f", volume);
return 0;
}

Question 137

Question:

Write a program that uses a for loop to determine power of a number entered by the

user.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>

441
int main() {
int x, y; #include<stdio.h>

long power = 1; int main() {

printf("\nEnter the value for x: ");
int x, y;
scanf("%d", &x);
x = 14;
printf("\nEnter the value for y: ");
scanf("%d", &y); y = x + 3;

for(int i=1; i<=y; i++) { if( x < y) {

power = power * x; printf("%d is greater than %d\n", x, y);
}
}
printf("%d ^ %d = %ld", x, y, power);
return(0);
return 0;
} }

Output:

14 is greater than 17
Question 138

Question:

Write a program to read three numbers and find average of numbers.

Solution:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int a,b,c;
float avg;
printf("\nEnter the first number: ");
scanf("%d", &a);
printf("\nEnter the second number: ");

442
scanf("%d",&b);
printf("\nEnter the third number: ");
scanf("%d",&c);
avg=(a+b+c)/3.0;
printf("\nAverage of three numbers is: %f", avg);
return 0;
}

Question 139

Question:

Write a program to read integer "n" and print first three powers (n1, n2, n3).

Cryptography is the practice of securing communication from

third-party intrusion or eavesdropping by converting plain text
into an encoded form that is unintelligible without a secret key.
Cryptography involves using mathematical algorithms and
Solution: protocols to transform messages into a secret code that can only be
read by someone who has the key to unlock it. The purpose of
cryptography is to ensure the confidentiality, integrity, and
#include<stdio.h> authenticity of information and to prevent unauthorized access,
modification, or interception of data. Cryptography is used
#include<math.h> extensively in computer security to protect sensitive information
such as passwords, credit card numbers, and other personal or
int main() {
financial data. It is also used in various communication protocols
int n; such as email, instant messaging, and virtual private networks to
ensure secure transmission of information over public networks.
printf("\nEnter a number: ");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("%f, %f, %f", pow(n, 1), pow(n, 2), pow(n, 3));
return 0;
}

443
static memory allocation dynamic memory allocation
allocation of memory done at allocation of memory done at the time of
compilation time and it stays the same running the program and it increases or
throughout the entire run of the decreases throughout the entire run of the
program program and it is released or freed when
not required or used

C Program:

#include<stdio.h>

int main()
{ create a file named myfiles.txt
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("myfiles.txt","w");
return 0;
}

The w means that the file is being opened for writing − and if the file

does not exist then the new file will be created.

C Program:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
The fprintf function writes the text C
FILE *fp;
fp = fopen("myfiles.txt","w"); Programming to the file myfiles.txt.
fprintf(fp, "%s", "C Programming");
return 0;
}

444
#include<bits/stdc++.h>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int a = 15, b = 25;

printf("Value of a: %d", a);

printf("\n Value of b: %d", b);

swap(a, b);

printf("\n After swapping, the values are: a = %d, b = %d", a, b);

return 0;

Output:

Value of a: 15

Value of b: 25

After swapping, the values are: a = 25, b = 15

Computer architecture refers to the design of computer systems, including their organization, components, and how they
operate together to perform tasks. It encompasses the hardware and software components of a computer system and their
interactions. Computer architecture defines the structure and behavior of a computer system, including the processing units,
memory, input or output devices, and communication protocols between the components.

The architecture of a computer system is critical in determining its performance, power consumption, and overall efficiency.
It is also important for determining the compatibility and interoperability of different hardware and software components.
Computer architecture plays a crucial role in the design and development of computer systems, including desktops, laptops,
servers, and mobile devices. Understanding computer architecture is essential for computer engineers, software developers, and
system administrators who are involved in designing, developing, and maintaining computer systems.

445
C++ Exercises

In the 1970s, Bjarne Stroustrup, a Danish computer scientist, created the C++ programming
language. The initial name of C++ was "C with classes." By practicing C++ programs, you can
learn the C++ programming language most effectively. An all-purpose programming language is
C++. It offers facilities for low-level memory manipulation together with imperative, object-
oriented, and generic programming features. It is used to create machine learning tools, web
browsers, video games, and operating systems. Examples on fundamental C++ ideas can be
found on this chapter. It is encouraged that you use the programs as references and test the
concepts on your own. Exercises in C++ are a great way to practise programming, develop your

abilities, and learn more about the language.

446
Question 1

Question:

Write a program to print Hello, World!.

Solution: #include<iostream>

using namespace std;

#include<iostream>
int main() { int main() {

int main() {
Solution:
int x= 26; // Now x is 15

x = 56; // Now x is 10
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; cout << x;

int main() { // Output: 56

float a, b, sum;
return 0;
cout<<"\nEnter the first number: ";
}
cin>>a;
cout<<"\nEnter the second number: ";
cin>>b;
sum = a+ b;
cout<<"\nSum of the above two numbers is: "<< sum;
return 0;
}

449
Question
450

Question:

Write a program that accepts two numbers from the user and calculate the product of the
two numbers.
A relational database is a type of database management
system (DBMS) that stores and organizes data in tables with
rows and columns. In a relational database, data is stored in
multiple related tables, and the relationships between these
Solution: tables are defined by their shared columns or keys. The most
common type of relational database is a Structured Query
Language (SQL) database, which allows users to manipulate
#include<iostream> and query the data stored within it using SQL commands.
using namespace std;
Relational databases are widely used in business and other
int main() { applications to manage large amounts of structured data,
int a, b, mult; such as customer information, sales records, and inventory
data. They offer several advantages over other types of
cout<<"\nEnter the first number: ";
databases, including their ability to support complex
cin>>a; relationships between data, their scalability, and their ability
to ensure data consistency and accuracy through the use of
cout<<"\nEnter the second number: ";
constraints and transaction processing.
cin>>b;
mult = a * b;
cout<<"\nProduct of the above two numbers is: " << mult;
return 0;
}

Question 6

Question:

Write a program that accepts three numbers and find the largest of three.

450
Structured storage refers to a type of file system that is designed to
store and manage structured data in a hierarchical and organized manner.
It is commonly used for storing and managing complex data types such
as multimedia files, large text documents, and database files.
Solution:
Structured storage systems typically use a hierarchical directory
#include<iostream> structure to organize data into folders and subfolders, with each folder
containing files that are related to a particular aspect of the data being
using namespace std; stored. These files can be of different sizes, types, and formats, and are
typically stored as binary data. One of the key features of structured
int main() { storage is that it allows applications to access data within files without
int x, y, z; having to read or write the entire file. This is accomplished by using a
mechanism called "streaming", which allows applications to access
cout<<"\nEnter the first number: "; specific sections of a file without loading the entire file into memory.
cin>>x;
Structured storage is commonly used in enterprise applications, such as
cout<<"\nEnter the second number: "; document management systems, content management systems, and
multimedia applications. It is also used in relational database systems,
cin>>y; where large amounts of structured data are stored in a hierarchical
cout<<"\nEnter the third number: "; manner for efficient retrieval and manipulation.

cin>>z;

// if x is greater than both y and z, x is the largest

if (x >= y && x >= z)
cout<<x<<" is the largest number.";

// if y is greater than both x and z, y is the largest

if (y >= x && y >= z)
cout<<y<<" is the largest number.";

// if z is greater than both x and y, z is the largest

if (z >= x && z >= y)
cout<<z<<" is the largest number.";

return 0;
}

451
Question
452

Question:

Write a program that reads three floating values and check if it is possible to make a
triangle with them. Also calculate the perimeter of the triangle if the entered values are
valid.
Data mining is the process of discovering hidden
patterns, correlations, and trends within large sets of
data using statistical and computational methods. It
involves extracting meaningful insights from complex
data sets by using automated or semi-automated
Solution: techniques to identify patterns and relationships that
may not be immediately apparent.

#include<iostream> Data mining typically involves several steps,

including data cleaning, data integration, data
using namespace std;
selection, data transformation, data mining, pattern
int main() { evaluation, and knowledge representation. The
process is often iterative, with the results of each
float x, y, z; iteration informing subsequent iterations and refining
cout<<"\nEnter the first number: "; the final output.

cin>>x; Data mining is used in a wide range of applications,

including marketing and advertising, healthcare,
cout<<"\nEnter the second number: ";
financial analysis, fraud detection, and scientific
cin>>y; research. It is particularly useful in situations where
there is a large amount of data available, and where
cout<<"\nEnter the third number: "; the relationships between the data are complex and
cin>>z; difficult to discern using traditional analytical
techniques.

The insights gained from data mining can be used to

if(x < (y+z) && y < (x+z) && z < (y+x)) { make better business decisions, improve customer
cout<<"\nPerimeter of the triangle is: " << x+y+z; service, reduce costs, and identify new opportunities
for growth and innovation. However, it is important to
} use data mining ethically, and to ensure that the
privacy and security of individuals' data are protected.
else {
cout<<"\nIt is impossible to form a triangle.";
}

return 0;
}

452
Question 8

Question:

Write a program that reads an integer between 1 and 7 and print the day of the week in
English.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int day;
cout<<"\nEnter a number between 1 to 7 to get the day name: ";
cin>>day; Compiler theory refers to the study of how programming
languages are translated into machine-readable code by a
switch(day) { compiler. It encompasses a range of topics, including syntax
analysis, semantic analysis, code generation, optimization, and
case 1 : cout<<"Monday\n"; break; debugging. There are various steps involved in the compilation
of a program. First, the source code of the program is analyzed
case 2 : cout<<"Tuesday\n"; break;
to check for syntax errors and to create a syntax tree that
case 3 : cout<<"Wednesday\n"; break; represents the structure of the program. Next, semantic analysis
is performed to check for semantic errors and to determine the
case 4 : cout<<"Thursday\n"; break; meaning of the program's constructs. After this, the code is
generated, which involves translating the high-level code into
case 5 : cout<<"Friday\n"; break; low-level code that can be executed by the computer. Finally,
the generated code is optimized to improve its performance.
case 6 : cout<<"Saturday\n"; break;
Compiler theory is an important area of study for computer
case 7 : cout<<"Sunday\n"; break; science and programming, as it is essential for developing
efficient and effective software. It also plays a critical role in
default : cout<<"Enter a number between 1 to 7.";
the development of new programming languages, as it provides
} insights into the design and implementation of language
constructs and the trade-offs between expressiveness, ease of
return 0; use, and performance. Some of the key topics within compiler
theory include parsing algorithms, language design and syntax,
} type systems, memory management, optimization techniques,
and debugging and error handling. Advances in compiler theory
have led to significant improvements in the performance and
reliability of software, and have helped to make programming
more accessible and easier to learn for beginners.

453
Question 9

Question:

Write a program to find the sum of two numbers.

Write a program that prints all even numbers between 1 and 25.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
cout<<"Even numbers between 1 to 25:\n"; #include<iostream>
for(int i = 1; i <= 25; i++) {
#include<cstring>
if(i%2 == 0) {
using namespace std;
cout<< i << endl;
} int main() {
} string x = "Albert";
return 0;
x[0] = 'E';
}
cout << x;

// Output: Elbert

return 0;
Question 14
}

Question:

Write a program that prints all odd numbers between 1 and 50.

Solution:

Write a program to print whether the given number is positive or negative.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
#include<iostream>
int main() {
int a; #include<cmath>

a = -35; using namespace std;

if(a>0) {
int main() {
cout<<"Number is positive";
cout << sqrt(36) << endl;
}
else { // Output: 6
cout<<"Number is negative"; cout << round(6.68) << endl;
}
// Output: 7
return 0;
} cout << log(4) << endl;

// Output: 1.38629

return 0;

461
Question 20

Question:

Write a program to check the equivalence of two numbers entered by the user.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, y;
cout<<"Enter the first number: ";
cin>>x;
cout<<"Enter the second number: ";
cin>>y;
if(x-y==0) {
cout<<"The two numbers are equivalent";
}
else {
cout<<"The two numbers are not equivalent"; #include<iostream>
} using namespace std;
return 0;
int main() {
}
cout << (20 > 19);

// Output: 1

return 0;

462
Question 21

Question:

Write a program to print the remainder of two numbers entered by the user.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int a, b, c;
cout<<"Enter the first number: ";
cin>>a;
cout<<"Enter the second number: ";
cin>>b;
c = a % b;
cout<<"The remainder of " << a << " and " << b << " = " << c;
return 0;
}

Question 22

Question:

Write a program to print the characters from A to Z.

463
Solution: #include<iostream>

#include<cstring>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
using namespace std;
int main() {
char i; void myfunc(string name, int age) {
for(i='A'; i<='Z'; i++) {
cout << name << " John. " << age << " years old. \n";
cout << i << endl;
}
}
return 0;

?
} int main() {

myfunc("Albert", 73);

myfunc("Elsa", 14);

myfunc("David", 30);
Question 23
return 0;

Question: }

Write a program to print the length of the entered string.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
#include<string.h>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char str[1000];
cout<<"Enter a string to calculate its length: ";
cin>>str;
cout<<"The length of the entered string is: "<< strlen(str);
return 0;

464
}

Question 24

Question:

Write a program to check whether the given character is a lower case letter or not.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char ch = 'a';
if(islower(ch))
cout<<"The given character is a lower case letter";
else
cout<<"The given character is a upper case letter";
return 0;
}

Question 25

Question:

Write a program to check whether the given character is a upper case letter or not.

465
Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char ch = 'A';
if(isupper(ch))
cout<<"The given character is a upper case letter";
else
cout<<"The given character is a lower case letter";
return 0;
}

Question 26

Question:

Write a program to convert the lower case letter to upper case letter.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char ch = 'a';
char b = toupper(ch);

466
cout<<"Lower case letter "<<ch<<" is converted to Upper case letter "<<b;
return 0;
}

Question 27

Question:

Write a program that takes a distance in centimeters and outputs the corresponding value
in inches.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
#define x 2.54
int main() {
double inch, cm;
cout<<"Enter the distance in cm: ";
cin>>cm;
inch = cm / x;
cout<<"\nDistance of "<< cm << " cms is equal to " << inch << " inches";
return 0;
}

467
Question 28 Procedural programming is a programming paradigm that is
based on the concept of procedures, also known as subroutines
or functions. A procedure is a group of instructions that
performs a specific task, and can be called or executed from
Question:
different parts of a program. In procedural programming, a
program is composed of one or more procedures, which can be
Write a program to print the output: organized into modules or libraries. The procedures are
typically organized in a step-by-step manner, with each
Einstein [0] = E procedure calling other procedures as needed to perform its
task.
Einstein [1] = I
Einstein [2] = N The primary focus of procedural programming is on the
procedures themselves, and how they interact with each other
Einstein [3] = S and with the data in a program. Data in a procedural program
is typically organized into data structures, such as arrays,
Einstein [4] = T
records, or linked lists. One of the main advantages of
Einstein [5] = E procedural programming is its simplicity and ease of use. It
is often used for small to medium-sized programs, and is
Einstein [6] = I particularly well-suited for applications that involve simple
data processing, such as mathematical calculations or file
Einstein [7] = N
manipulation.

However, procedural programming also has some

limitations. As programs become larger and more complex, it
can become difficult to manage the interactions between
Solution: procedures and the data in a program. Additionally,
procedural programming is not well-suited for applications
that require complex data structures or that involve user
#include<iostream>
interfaces. Overall, procedural programming remains an
using namespace std; important programming paradigm, and is still widely used
today in a variety of applications, particularly in the
int main() {
development of system software and scientific computing.
int i;
char name [8] = {'E' , 'I', 'N', 'S', 'T', 'E', 'I', 'N'};
for(i=0; i<8; i++)
cout<<"Einstein ["<< i <<" ] = "<< name[i] << endl;
return 0;
}

468
Question 29

Question:

Write a program to print "Hello World" 10 times.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
for(int i=1; i<=10; i++) {
cout<< "Hello World"<< endl;
}
return 0;
}

Question 30

Question:

Write a program to print first 5 numbers using do while loop statement.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

469
Formal semantics is a branch of theoretical linguistics that aims to provide a precise mathematical
framework for describing the meaning of natural language expressions. It is concerned with
int main() { developing formal models of the structure and interpretation of language, using tools from logic,
mathematics, and computer science. Formal semantics is based on the idea that the meaning of a
int i =1; sentence can be determined by a set of rules that specify how its component parts combine to form a
complete expression. These rules can be formalized using mathematical notation and logical symbols,
do {
and can be used to generate a precise semantic representation of the sentence. There are several
cout<<" \ni = "<< i++; different approaches to formal semantics, including:

} while(i<=5); • Model-theoretic semantics: This approach uses mathematical models to represent the meaning
return 0; of sentences. The models consist of sets of objects and relations between them, and the meaning
of a sentence is determined by whether it is true or false in the model.
} • Type-theoretic semantics: This approach uses type theory to provide a formal description of the
structure of language expressions. Each expression is assigned a type, which describes its
properties and how it can be combined with other expressions.
• Situation semantics: This approach is based on the idea that the meaning of a sentence depends
on the situation in which it is used. The situation is represented as a set of facts, and the meaning
of the sentence is determined by how it relates to these facts.
Question 31
Formal semantics is used in a range of applications, including natural language processing, machine
translation, and computational linguistics. It provides a rigorous framework for analyzing and
understanding the meaning of language, and has contributed to the development of new theories of
Question: syntax and semantics in linguistics.

Write a program to check whether a character is an alphabet or not.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int a = 2;
if(isalpha(a)) {
cout<<"The character a is an alphabet";
}
else {
cout<<"The character a is not an alphabet";
}
return 0;
}

470
Question 32

Question:

Write a program to check whether a entered number is even or odd.

Programming language pragmatics refers to the study of how

programming languages are used in practice, including their
implementation, performance, and design. It focuses on the
Solution: practical aspects of programming languages, such as how they
are used to solve real-world problems, and how they interact
with the hardware and operating system on which they are run.
#include<iostream> Programming language pragmatics is concerned with a range
using namespace std; of issues related to the use of programming languages, including:

int main() { • Language syntax and semantics: How programming

Question:

Write a program that adds up all numbers between 1 and 100 that are not divisible by 12.

Solution:
Software engineering is the systematic process of designing,
#include<iostream> developing, testing, and maintaining software. It is a discipline that
applies engineering principles to the creation of software products and
using namespace std;
systems, with the goal of developing high-quality, reliable, and efficient
int main() { software that meets the needs of users and stakeholders.
int x =12, i, sum = 0;
Software engineering involves a range of activities, including
for(i=1; i<=100; i++) { requirements analysis, software design, coding, testing, and maintenance.
It also includes project management and quality assurance activities,
if((i%x)!= 0) {
such as software configuration management, software metrics, and
sum += i; software process improvement.
}
The software engineering process typically involves several phases,
} such as planning, requirements gathering, design, implementation,
cout<<"\nSum: "<<sum; testing, and deployment. Each of these phases is essential to ensuring
that the software is developed to meet the needs of users and
return 0; stakeholders, is of high quality, and can be maintained over time.
}
Software engineering is a complex and interdisciplinary field, with
many sub-disciplines, such as software architecture, software testing,
software maintenance, and software project management. It requires
expertise in areas such as computer science, mathematics, and
engineering, as well as an understanding of business and user needs.

476
Question 39

Question:

Write a program to calculate the value of x where x = 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + … + 1/50.

Algorithm design is the process of creating a set of instructions, or steps, to solve a

particular problem or accomplish a specific task. Algorithms are essential in computer
science and programming because they provide a way to automate processes and make
Solution: them more efficient. The following are some general steps for designing an algorithm:

• Understand the problem: Before designing an algorithm, it is essential to have a

#include<iostream> clear understanding of the problem you are trying to solve. Analyze the problem,
break it down into smaller sub-problems, and identify the input and output
using namespace std;
requirements.
int main() { • Plan the algorithm: Once you have a clear understanding of the problem, plan the
algorithm by determining the steps required to solve the problem. Identify the data
float x = 0; structures and programming constructs that will be required, such as loops,
for(int i=1; i<=50; i++) { conditionals, and functions.
• Code the algorithm: Write the code for the algorithm using the programming
x += (float)1/i; language of your choice. Be sure to use clear and concise code that is easy to
understand and debug.
}
• Test the algorithm: Test the algorithm with different inputs to ensure that it works as
cout<<"Value of x: "<< x; expected. Debug any errors that are identified during testing.
• Optimize the algorithm: Once the algorithm is working correctly, optimize it to
return 0; improve its efficiency. This may involve reducing the number of operations required,
} using more efficient data structures, or optimizing the code for the specific hardware
and software environment.
• Document the algorithm: Finally, document the algorithm, including its purpose,
inputs, outputs, and any limitations or assumptions made during the design process.
This documentation will help others understand and use the algorithm in the future.

Question 40 Designing an algorithm can be a complex process, and it often requires a deep
understanding of the problem domain and the programming language being used.
However, with practice and experience, anyone can become proficient in algorithm design
and develop efficient and effective solutions to complex problems.
Question:

Write a program that reads a number and find all its divisor.

Solution:

477
Automata theory is a branch of computer science that deals
#include<iostream>
with the study of abstract machines or computational models
using namespace std; that can perform various operations on strings or symbols.
int main() { These machines are used to model and describe the behavior
of systems that exhibit complex behavior, such as natural
int x, i; language processing, computer languages, and artificial
cout<<"\nEnter a number: "; intelligence.

cin>>x; Automata theory includes the study of various types of

cout<<"All the divisor of "<<x<<" are: \n"; machines or models, such as finite automata, pushdown
automata, Turing machines, and more. Each of these models
for(i = 1; i <= x; i++) { has different computational power and can perform different
if((x%i) == 0) { types of operations on strings or symbols.

cout<<i<<endl;
The theory behind automata is to design computational
} models that can process and recognize patterns in strings
or symbols, and make decisions based on the input. The
}
different models of automata are used to study the different
return 0; levels of complexity in computation, and to design
algorithms that can efficiently solve complex problems.
}
Automata theory has many practical applications, including
in compiler design, natural language processing, artificial
intelligence, and database systems. By understanding the
computational power and limitations of different automata
Question 41 models, computer scientists can design efficient and
effective algorithms for solving complex problems in
various fields.
Question:

Write a program to find the incremented and decremented values of two numbers.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int a, b, c, d, e, f;
a = 10;
b=12;

478
c=a+1;
d=b+1;
e=a-1;
f=b-1;
cout<<"The incremented value of a = "<< c << endl;
cout<<"The incremented value of b = "<< d << endl;
cout<<"The decremented value of a = "<< e << endl;
cout<<"The decremented value of b = "<< f << endl;
return 0;
}

Question 42

Question:

Write a program to find square of a entered number using functions.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int square();
int main() {
int answer;
answer = square();
cout<<"The square of the entered number is: "<< answer;
return 0;
}
int square() {

479
int x;
cout<<"Enter any number: ";
cin>>x;
return x*x;
}

Question 43

Question:

Write a program that accepts principal amount, rate of interest, time and compute the
simple interest.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int P,T, R, SI;
cout<<"Enter the principal amount: ";
cin>>P;
cout<<"Enter the time: ";
cin>>T;
cout<<"Enter the rate of interest: ";
cin>>R;
SI = P*T*R/100;
cout<<"The simple interest is: "<<SI;
return 0;
}

480
Question 44

Question:

Write a program that swaps two numbers without using third variable.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int a, b;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for a: ";
cin>>a; Git is a distributed version control system that is
cout<<"\nEnter the value for b: "; open-source, free, and made to manage projects of
cin>>b; all sizes quickly and effectively. It was created by
cout<<"\nBefore swapping: " <<a <<" "<<b; Linus Torvalds in 2005 for development of the
a=a+b; Linux kernel, and since then has become one of the
b=a-b; most widely used version control systems in the
a=a-b;
software development industry. Git allows multiple
cout<<"\nAfter swapping: " <<a<<" "<<b;
users to work on the same project simultaneously,
return 0;
while keeping track of changes made to the
}
codebase and providing features for managing and
merging these changes. Git is used not only for
software development but also for managing
changes to any type of file, such as documentation,
configuration files, and even images.

481
Question 45

Question:

Write a program to find the greatest of two entered numbers using pointers.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, y, *p, *q;
cout<<"Enter the value for x: ";
cin>> x;
cout<<"Enter the value for y: ";
cin>> y;
Docker is a popular open-source platform for building,
p = &x;
deploying, and managing applications in containers. A
q = &y;
container is a lightweight and standalone executable package
if(*p>*q) {
that includes everything needed to run an application, such as
cout<<"x is greater than y";
code, libraries, and dependencies. Docker allows developers to
}
package their applications and dependencies into a container
else {
image, which can be easily shared and run across different
cout<<"y is greater than x";
environments, such as development, testing, and production.
}
Docker containers provide a consistent environment for
return 0;
applications, reducing compatibility issues and making it easier
}
to deploy and scale applications. Docker is widely used in
software development and deployment, particularly in modern
cloud-based and microservices architectures. With Docker,
developers can build, test, and deploy applications quickly and
efficiently, while operations teams can manage and scale these
applications with ease.

482
A computer's operating system, sometimes known as
Question 46 an OS, is a piece of software that controls the hardware
and software resources of the system and offers standard
services to applications running on the system. The
Question: primary function of an operating system is to act as an
intermediary between the computer hardware and the
applications that run on it. It provides a user interface,
***Write a program to print the output: manages the computer's memory and processing
body [b] = b resources, and controls input or output devices such as
keyboards, screens, and printers.
body [o] = o
The main functions of an operating system include
body [d] = d managing the allocation of resources, scheduling
body [y] = y processes, providing security and protection, managing
file systems, and providing a user interface. Operating
*** systems are essential for the functioning of modern
computer systems, including desktop computers,
servers, and mobile devices. Windows, macOS, Linux,
and Android are some common operating systems.
Operating systems play a crucial role in the performance
and reliability of computer systems and are a
Solution: fundamental component of computer science and
computer engineering.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char i;
char body [4] = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'};
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
cout<<"\n body ["<<body[i] <<" ] = "<< body[i] << endl;
return 0;
}
Computer graphics refers to the creation, manipulation, and display of visual content using computer
software and hardware. It involves the use of mathematical algorithms, digital tools, and techniques to
create images, animations, and visual effects. Computer graphics is used in a wide range of applications,
including digital art, video games, film and television, product design, scientific visualization, and more.

Computer graphics can be divided into two categories: raster graphics and vector graphics. Raster
graphics are composed of pixels and are used for creating images and photographs, while vector graphics
use mathematical formulas to create geometric shapes and are used for creating logos and illustrations.

The field of computer graphics encompasses various subfields, including computer-aided design (CAD),
3D modeling, computer animation, virtual reality, and augmented reality. Computer graphics is a rapidly
evolving field that is constantly advancing due to advancements in computer technology and software
development. It plays a crucial role in many industries and is an essential part of modern design and
communication.

483
Question 47

Question:

Write a program to calculate the discounted price and the total price after discount
Given:

If purchase value is greater than 1000, 10% discount

If purchase value is greater than 5000, 20% discount
If purchase value is greater than 10000, 30% discount.

Bootstrap is a free and open-source front-end web development

framework that is widely used to create responsive and mobile-
first websites and web applications. It was developed by Twitter
Solution: and is now maintained by the Bootstrap Core Team.

#include<iostream> Bootstrap provides a set of CSS and JavaScript components that

using namespace std; can be easily incorporated into web projects. These components
include navigation bars, forms, buttons, icons, and more. The
int main() {
framework also offers a grid system that allows developers to
double PV;
create flexible and responsive layouts for their web pages.
cout<<"Enter purchased value: ";
cin>>PV; One of the key benefits of Bootstrap is its focus on mobile-first
design. The framework includes CSS classes that are specifically
if(PV>1000) {
designed for smaller screens, making it easy to create websites
cout<<"Discount = "<< PV * 0.1 << endl;
that work well on both desktop and mobile devices.
cout<<"Total= "<< PV - PV * 0.1 << endl;
} Bootstrap is highly customizable and can be easily modified to
match the look and feel of a specific website or brand. It also
else if(PV>5000) {
offers a range of third-party themes and plugins that can be used
cout<<"Discount = "<< PV * 0.2 << endl;
to extend the functionality of the framework.
cout<<"Total= "<< PV - PV * 0.2 << endl;
} Overall, Bootstrap is a popular and powerful front-end web
development framework that provides a range of CSS and
else {
JavaScript components for creating responsive and mobile-first
cout<<"Discount = "<< PV * 0.3 << endl;
websites and web applications. Its focus on mobile-first design,
cout<<"Total= "<< PV - PV * 0.3 << endl; flexible grid system, and customization options make it a popular
} choice among web developers.

484
return 0;
}

Question 48

Question:

Write a program to print the first ten natural numbers using while loop statement.

#include<iostream>
Solution:
#include<cstring>
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
using namespace std;
void myfunc(string x) {
int main() {
int i = 1; cout << x << " Einstein\n";
while(i<=10) { }
cout<<"\n" << i++;
}

?
return 0; int main() {

} myfunc("David");

myfunc("Elsa");

myfunc("John");

Question 49 return 0;

}
Question:

Write a program to shift inputted data by two bits to the left.

485
Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x;
cout<<"Enter the integer from keyboard: ";
cin>>x;
cout<<"\nEntered value: "<< x;
cout<<"\nThe left shifted data is: " << (x<<=2);
return 0;
}

Question 50

Question:

Write a program to shift inputted data by two bits to the Right.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x;
cout<<"Enter the integer from keyboard: ";
cin>>x;

486
cout<<"\nEntered value: "<< x;
cout<<"\nThe right shifted data is: " << (x>>=2);
return 0;
}

Question 51

Question:

Write a program to calculate the exact difference between x and 21. Return three times
the absolute difference if x is greater than 21.

#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

Solution:

#include<iostream> void myfunc() {

using namespace std;
cout << "Einstein"<<endl;
int main() {
int x; }

cout<<"Enter the value for x: ";

# Output:
cin>>x;
int main() {
if(x<=21){ Einstein
myfunc();
cout<<abs(x-21); Einstein
} myfunc();
Einstein
else if(x>=21) { myfunc();
cout<<abs(x-21)*3;
return 0;
}
return 0; }

487
Question 52

Question:

Write a program that reads in two numbers and determine whether the first number is a
multiple of the second number.
Computational complexity theory is a branch of computer science
and mathematics that focuses on classifying computational problems
according to their level of difficulty, and studying the resources
required to solve them. It aims to understand the limitations and
capabilities of algorithms and computing systems in solving problems
Solution: efficiently.

One of the main concepts in computational complexity theory is the

#include<iostream> notion of a computational problem. A computational problem is a task
that can be performed by a computer, such as sorting a list of numbers
using namespace std; or finding the shortest path between two points. Problems are typically
int main() { defined by a set of inputs and a desired output.

int x, y; The difficulty of a computational problem is measured in terms of

its computational complexity. This includes the amount of time
cout<<"\nEnter the first number: "; required to solve the problem, the amount of memory needed, and the
cin>>x; number of computational steps required. Computational complexity is
often divided into different classes, such as polynomial time,
cout<<"\nEnter the second number: "; exponential time, or non-deterministic polynomial time.
cin>>y;
One of the most famous problems in computational complexity theory
if(x % y == 0) { is the P vs. NP problem. This problem asks whether every problem
that can be verified by a polynomial-time algorithm can also be solved
cout<<x<<" is a multiple of " <<y; by a polynomial-time algorithm. The answer to this problem is not yet
} known, and it is considered one of the most important open problems
in computer science.
else {
Another important concept in computational complexity theory is
cout<<x<<" is not a multiple of " <<y;
the notion of hardness. A problem is said to be hard if it is at least as
} difficult as the hardest problems in a particular complexity class. This
includes problems that are difficult to approximate or require non-
return 0; deterministic algorithms to solve.
}
Overall, computational complexity theory is a vital area of computer
science that seeks to understand the limits and possibilities of
computation. It has important applications in areas such as
cryptography, optimization, and algorithm design.

488
Question 53

Question:

Write a program to print the output:

Name of the book = B

Price of the book = 135.00

#include<iostream>
Number of pages = 300
using namespace std;
Edition of the book = 8
using structures.
int myfunc(int x) {

return 15 + x;

}
Solution:

?
#include<iostream>
int main() {
using namespace std;
int main() { cout << myfunc(13);

struct book { return 0;

char name;
}
float price;
int pages;
int edition;
};
struct book b1= {'B', 135.00, 300, 8};
cout<<"Name of the book = "<< b1.name<< endl;
cout<<"Price of the book = "<< b1.price<<endl;
cout<<"Number of pages = "<< b1.pages<<endl;
cout<<"Edition of the book = "<< b1.edition<< endl;
return 0;
}

489
Question 54

Question:

Write a program to convert Celsius into Fahrenheit.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
float fahrenheit, celsius;
celsius = 36;
fahrenheit = ((celsius*9)/5)+32;
cout<<"\nTemperature in fahrenheit is: "<<fahrenheit;
return 0;
}

Question 55

Question:

Write a program that will examine two inputted integers and return true if either of them
is 50 or if their sum is 50.

490
Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, y;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for x: ";
cin>>x;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for y: ";
cin>>y;
if(x == 50 || y == 50 || (x + y == 50)) {
cout<<"\nTrue";
}
else {
cout<<"\nFalse";
}
return 0;
}

Question 56

Question:

Write a program that counts the even, odd, positive, and negative values among eighteen

integer inputs.

Solution:

#include<iostream>

491
using namespace std;
int main () {
int x, even = 0, odd = 0, positive = 0, negative = 0;
cout<<"\nPlease enter 18 numbers: \n";
for(int i = 0; i < 18; i++) {
cin>>x;
if (x > 0) {
positive++;
}
if(x < 0) {
negative++;
}
if(x % 2 == 0) {
even++;
}
if(x % 2 != 0) {
odd++;
}
}
cout<<"\nNumber of even values: "<<even;
cout<<"\nNumber of odd values: "<<odd;
cout<<"\nNumber of positive values: "<<positive;
cout<<"\nNumber of negative values: "<<negative;
return 0;
}

SQL (Structured Query Language) is a programming language designed to manage and

manipulate data stored in relational databases. It provides a standardized way to interact with
databases, allowing users to create, modify, and retrieve data stored in them. SQL is used to
create and manage tables, define relationships between them, insert, update and delete data,
and perform queries to retrieve specific information from one or more tables. SQL is widely
used in various industries, including finance, healthcare, e-commerce, and government. It is a
powerful and flexible language that is relatively easy to learn and can be used with various
database management systems (DBMS) such as MySQL, Oracle, and Microsoft SQL Server.

492
Question 57

Question:

Write a program to check whether the person is a senior citizen or not.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() { Visual Studio Code, commonly known as VS Code, is

int age; a free source-code editor developed by Microsoft. It is

cout<<"Enter age: "; compatible with Linux, macOS, and Windows. VS

cin>>age; Code is designed to provide developers with a

if(age>=60) { lightweight and customizable tool for coding,

cout<<"Senior citizen"; debugging, and version control. It supports a wide

} range of programming languages and has a vast

else { collection of extensions that can be installed to enhance

its functionality. VS Code includes features such as
cout<<"Not a senior citizen";
syntax highlighting, code completion, debugging,
}
source control integration, and task automation. It also
return 0;
offers an integrated terminal, allowing developers to
}
run commands and scripts directly within the editor.
VS Code has gained popularity among developers due
to its versatility, speed, and ease of use, making it a

Question 58 popular choice for coding projects of all sizes and

types.

Question:

Write a program that reads a student's three subject scores (0-100) and computes the
average of those scores.

493
Solution:
Google Cloud Platform, also known as GCP, is a
#include<iostream> cloud computing platform and service provided by
using namespace std; Google. It provides a wide range of services and
solutions, including infrastructure as a service (IaaS),
int main() { platform as a service (PaaS), and software as a service
float score, total_score = 0; (SaaS). GCP enables developers to build, deploy, and
manage applications and services on Google's global
int subject = 0; network of data centers.
cout<<"Enter three subject scores (0-100):\n";
GCP provides a wide range of services and solutions,
while (subject != 3) { including virtual machines, container services,
cin>>score; serverless computing, data storage, database services,
analytics, and artificial intelligence. It also offers a
if(score < 0 || score > 100) {
variety of developer tools and services, including
cout<<"Please enter a valid score.\n"; Google Cloud SDK, Google Cloud Build, and Google
Cloud Functions.
}
else { GCP is designed to be flexible and scalable, making it
suitable for businesses of all sizes. It provides various
total_score += score;
pricing options, including pay-as-you-go, subscription-
subject++; based, and free plans, allowing businesses to choose the
} best pricing plan that meets their needs and budget.

} GCP also offers a wide range of security features and

cout<<"Average score = "<< (total_score/3); compliance certifications, ensuring that businesses can
securely and compliantly run their applications and
return 0; services on the platform.
}
Overall, GCP is a powerful and flexible cloud
computing platform that provides a wide range of
services and solutions for building, deploying, and
managing applications and services. It is widely used by
businesses of all sizes and industries, from startups to
Question 59 large enterprises, and is considered one of the leading
cloud computing platforms in the market.

Question:

What results would the following programs produce?

494
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
for(int i=1; i<=5; i++) {
if(i==3) { JIRA is a software development tool developed by Atlassian.

break; It is a project management tool that is designed to help teams

} plan, track, and manage their software development projects.

cout<<"\n"<< i; JIRA is primarily used for agile software development,

} including Scrum, Kanban, and other agile methodologies. It

return 0; provides teams with a centralized platform to track issues,

} bugs, and project progress, enabling better collaboration and

communication between team members.

JIRA offers various features such as customizable workflows,

Solution: agile boards, customizable dashboards, and reporting. It also

integrates with other Atlassian tools, such as Confluence,
1 Bitbucket, and Bamboo, to provide end-to-end software
2 development solutions. JIRA can be used by software
development teams of all sizes and is popular among both
small and large organizations. It is highly configurable and
can be customized to meet the specific needs of a
#include<iostream>
development team. Overall, JIRA is a powerful and flexible
using namespace std; tool that can help software development teams manage their
int main() { projects efficiently and effectively.
for(int i=1;i<=5;i++) {
if(i==3) {
goto HAI;
}
cout<<"\n "<<i;
}
HAI : cout<<"\n Linux";
}

495
Solution:
Azure, also known as Microsoft Azure, is a cloud
1 computing platform and service provided by Microsoft. It
2 provides a wide range of services and solutions, including
Linux infrastructure as a service (IaaS), platform as a service
(PaaS), and software as a service (SaaS). Azure enables
developers to build, deploy, and manage applications and
services on Microsoft's global network of data centers.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std; Azure provides a wide range of services and solutions,
int main() { including virtual machines, container services, serverless
for( ; ; ) { computing, data storage, database services, analytics, and
cout<<"This loop will run forever.\n"; artificial intelligence. It also offers a variety of developer
} tools and services, including Azure DevOps, Visual
return 0; Studio, and GitHub integration.
}

Azure is designed to be flexible and scalable, making it

suitable for businesses of all sizes. It provides various
pricing options, including pay-as-you-go, subscription-
Solution: based, and free plans, allowing businesses to choose the
best pricing plan that meets their needs and budget.
This loop will run forever.
This loop will run forever.
Overall, Azure is a powerful and flexible cloud computing
This loop will run forever.
platform that provides a wide range of services and
This loop will run forever.
solutions for building, deploying, and managing
This loop will run forever.
applications and services. It is widely used by businesses
This loop will run forever. .........
of all sizes and industries, from startups to large
enterprises, and is considered one of the leading cloud
computing platforms in the market.

#include<iostream>

496
using namespace std;
int main() {
cout<<"Hello,world!";
return 0;
cout<<"Hello,world!";
}
Apache Maven is a build automation tool and a powerful
project management tool developed by the Apache
Software Foundation. It is widely used for Java projects,
Solution: but can also be used for other programming languages like
C#, Ruby, and Scala. Maven simplifies the process of
Hello,world! building, testing, and deploying Java-based applications by
providing a standardized way to manage project
dependencies, versioning, and packaging.

#include<iostream>
Maven uses an XML-based project object model (POM) to
using namespace std;
define a project, its dependencies, and its build
int main () {
configuration. This makes it easier to manage complex
cout<<"linux\n";
projects and ensures that all developers are using the same
exit (0);
build processes and configurations. Maven manages
cout<<"php\n";
dependencies by automatically downloading and
return 0;
integrating them into the project build, reducing the need
} for manual management.

Maven can be used to automate the building, testing, and

deployment of Java applications, as well as generating
Solution:
documentation, creating reports, and generating code from
templates. It can also be used to manage multiple projects,
linux
making it a popular choice for larger development teams
working on multiple projects simultaneously. Overall,
Maven is a versatile and powerful tool that can help
developers manage the complexities of Java projects and
#include<iostream> streamline the software development process.

497
using namespace std;
int main() {
for(int i=1; i<=5; i++) { Jenkins is an open-source automation server that is used to

if(i==3) { automate the building, testing, and deployment of software. It is

continue; a popular tool used for continuous integration and continuous

} delivery (CI/CD) pipelines. Jenkins is written in Java and can

cout<<"\n "<<i; be installed on various operating systems, including Windows,

macOS, and Linux.
}
return 0;
Jenkins provides a web-based interface that enables developers
}
to create and manage workflows, including automated builds,
tests, and deployments. It integrates with various development
tools and services, including source code management systems
like Git and Subversion, build tools like Maven and Gradle, and
Solution:
testing frameworks like JUnit and Selenium. Jenkins can also
1 be used to orchestrate complex workflows, such as multi-stage
2 deployment pipelines that include testing and approvals.
4
5 One of the key benefits of Jenkins is its flexibility and
extensibility. It offers a large collection of plugins that can be
used to extend its functionality, and developers can also create
their own plugins to meet their specific needs. Jenkins is
#include<iostream> widely used in software development teams of all sizes, from
using namespace std; small startups to large enterprises, and is considered a critical
int main() { tool for implementing agile and DevOps practices. Overall,
int a = 10, b = 20, c; Jenkins is a powerful and flexible automation server that helps
c = (a < b) ? a : b; teams automate their software development processes and
cout<<c; deliver high-quality software faster.
return 0;
}

498
Solution:
Kubernetes, commonly referred to as K8s, is an open-source container
10
orchestration platform developed by Google. It automates the deployment,
scaling, and management of containerized applications. Kubernetes provides
a platform-agnostic way to manage containerized applications and services,
enabling developers to deploy and manage their applications across multiple
cloud providers and on-premise data centers.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
Kubernetes enables developers to deploy containerized applications and
#define A 15
services by defining a set of desired states in a Kubernetes manifest file.
int main() {
Kubernetes then automatically schedules and manages the containers,
int x;
ensuring that the desired state is maintained. It provides features such as
x=A;
automatic scaling, rolling updates, self-healing, and load balancing, making it
cout<<x;
easier to manage and scale containerized applications.
return 0;
}
Kubernetes is designed to be highly available, scalable, and fault-tolerant. It
can run on a cluster of machines, making it possible to manage large-scale
applications with ease. Kubernetes also provides an API that enables
developers to automate the management of their containerized applications,
making it a popular choice for DevOps teams.
Solution:

Overall, Kubernetes is a powerful and flexible platform for managing

15
containerized applications and services. It simplifies the management of
containerized applications, making it easier for developers to focus on
developing their applications rather than managing infrastructure.

#include<iostream>
#include<cmath>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x = 20;
cout<<"Inverse of tan x = "<< atan(x);

499
return 0;
}

Functional programming is a programming paradigm that

is focused on writing programs using pure functions, which
are functions that do not modify any data outside of their
scope, and have no side effects. Functional programming is
Solution: based on the principles of mathematical functions, and
emphasizes the use of expressions and immutability.

In functional programming, the emphasis is on writing

Inverse of tan x = 1.52084 code that is declarative rather than imperative. This means
that instead of telling the computer how to perform a task,
you specify what you want to accomplish, and the language
takes care of how to achieve it. This approach helps to
reduce complexity and increase readability, as the code is
more concise and easier to understand.

#include<iostream> Functional programming languages are often used in

applications that require high levels of concurrency or
#include<cmath>
parallelism, as they are well-suited to working with
using namespace std; immutable data and avoiding mutable state. Some popular
functional programming languages include Haskell, Lisp,
int main() {
Erlang, and Clojure. Many modern programming languages,
double a, b; such as JavaScript, Python, and Ruby, also support
functional programming paradigms to some extent.
a = -2.5;
b = fabs(a);
cout<<"|"<<a<<"|" << " = "<<b;
return 0;
}

Solution:

|-2.5| = 2.5

500
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() { Logic programming is a programming paradigm that is based on the use
of mathematical logic for problem-solving. In logic programming,
int x=12, y =3;
programs are written in terms of a set of rules and facts, and the execution
cout<<abs(-x-y); of the program involves deriving logical conclusions from these rules and
return 0; facts.

} The most well-known logic programming language is Prolog, which

stands for "Programming in Logic". In Prolog, the program consists of a
set of rules and facts that define relationships between objects. The
program is executed by making queries to the database of rules and facts,
and the system uses logical inference to derive answers to the queries.

One of the main advantages of logic programming is its ability to handle

Solution: complex symbolic data structures and relationships. Logic programming
languages are often used in areas such as natural language processing,
15 expert systems, and artificial intelligence.

However, logic programming can be challenging for programmers who

are used to imperative or object-oriented programming paradigms, as it
requires a different way of thinking about problem-solving. Additionally,
the efficiency of logic programming can be a concern in some cases, as the
inference process can be computationally expensive.
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x=12, y =3;
cout<<-(-x-y);
return 0;
}

Solution:

501
#include <iostream> A programming paradigm called "object-oriented programming"
(OOP) is founded on the idea that "objects" can hold both data and
using namespace std; the code needed to manipulate that data. In OOP, programs are
int main() { designed by creating classes, which are templates or blueprints for
creating objects. Each object created from a class has its own unique
int x=12, y =3; data and behavior, but shares the same structure and behavior
cout<< x-(-y); defined in the class.

return 0; The key concepts of OOP are inheritance, encapsulation, and

} polymorphism. Inheritance allows a class to inherit properties and
behaviors from a parent class, which can be useful for reusing code
and creating hierarchies of related objects. Encapsulation involves
hiding the details of an object's implementation from the outside
world, which can make it easier to modify and maintain code.
Polymorphism allows different objects to respond to the same
Solution: message or method in different ways, which can make code more
flexible and extensible.
15
OOP languages include Java, C++, Python, Ruby, and many others.
OOP is widely used in many areas of software development,
including desktop applications, web development, game
development, and mobile app development. OOP has many
advantages, including improved code organization, modularity, and
code reusability. However, it can also be more complex than other
Question 60 programming paradigms, and can be challenging for beginners to
learn.

Question:

Write a program to find the size of an array.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

502
int main() {
int num [] = {11, 22, 33, 44, 55, 66};
int n = sizeof(num) / sizeof(num [0]);
cout<<"Size of the array is: " << n;
return 0;
}

Question 61

Question:

Write a program that prints a sequence from 1 to a given integer, inserts a plus sign
between these numbers, and then removes the plus sign at the end of the sequence.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main () {
int x, i;
cout<<"\nEnter a integer: \n";
cin>>x;
if(x>0) {
cout<<"Sequence from 1 to "<< x << ":\n";
for(i=1; i<x; i++) {
cout<<i<<"+";
}
cout<<i<<"\n";
}

503
return 0;
}

Question 62

Question:

Write a program to verify whether a triangle's three sides form a right angled triangle or
not.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int a,b,c;
cout<<"Enter the three sides of a triangle: \n";
cin>>a;
cin>>b;
cin>>c;
if((a*a)+(b*b)==(c*c) || (a*a)+(c*c)==(b*b) || (b*b)+(c*c)==(a*a)) {
cout<<"Triangle's three sides form a right angled triangle.\n";
}
else {
cout<<"Triangle's three sides does not form a right angled triangle.\n";
}
return 0;
}

504
Question 63

Question:

Write a program that will find the second-largest number among the user's input of three
numbers.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int a, b, c;
cout<<"\nEnter the first number: ";
cin>>a;
cout<<"\nEnter the second number: ";
cin>>b;
cout<<"\nEnter the third number: ";
cin>>c;
if(a>b && a>c) {
if(b>c)
cout<<b<<" is second largest number among three numbers";
else
cout<<c<<" is second largest number among three numbers";
}
else if(b>c && b>a) {
if(c>a)
cout<<c<<" is second largest number among three numbers";
else

505
cout<<a<<" is second largest number among three numbers";
}
else if(a>b)
cout<<a<<" is second largest number among three numbers";
else
cout<<b<<" is second largest number among three numbers";
return 0;
}

Question 64

Question:

Write a program to calculate the sum of the two given integer values. Return three times
the sum of the two values if they are equal.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int myfunc();
int myfunc(int a, int b) {
return a == b ? (a + b)*3 : a + b;
}
int main() {
cout<<""<<myfunc(3, 5);
cout<<"\n"<<myfunc(6, 6);
return 0;
}

506
Question 65

Question:

Write a program that accepts minutes as input, and display the total number of hours and

minutes.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int mins, hrs;
cout<<"Input minutes: ";
cin>>mins;
hrs=mins/60;
mins=mins%60;
cout<<hrs<<" Hours,"<<mins<< " Minutes.\n";
return 0;
}

AWS stands for Amazon Web Services, which is a cloud computing platform offered by
Amazon. AWS provides a wide range of cloud-based services, including computing power,
storage, and databases, as well as machine learning, security, and analytics tools. These
services are available on-demand, allowing businesses and individuals to quickly and easily
access the resources they need without having to invest in and maintain their own physical
infrastructure. AWS is one of the leading cloud computing platforms in the world, used by
millions of customers in over 190 countries.

507
Question
508

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a positive number entered by the user is a multiple
of three or five.

Selenium is an open-source testing platform for web browser

Solution: automation. It provides a set of tools and libraries for automating
web browsers, enabling developers and testers to automate web
#include<iostream> application testing. Selenium can be used with various programming
using namespace std; languages such as Java, Python, Ruby, and C#.
int main() {
int x; Selenium can automate various web application testing tasks,
cout<<"\nEnter a number: "; including functional testing, regression testing, and user acceptance

cin>>x; testing. It can interact with web elements, simulate user actions, and
capture results, making it easier to automate web application testing.
if(x % 3 == 0 || x % 5 == 0) {
cout<<"True";
Selenium also provides a set of tools for testing web applications
}
across multiple browsers and platforms. It supports various web
else { browsers, including Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Microsoft
cout<<"False"; Edge, and can be used to test web applications on different operating
} systems, including Windows, macOS, and Linux.
return 0;
} Selenium is widely used in software development teams of all sizes
and is considered a critical tool for implementing agile and DevOps
practices. It enables developers to automate web application testing,
making it easier to ensure that web applications are tested thoroughly
and released with high quality. Overall, Selenium is a powerful and
flexible testing framework that helps developers and testers automate
web application testing and ensure the quality of their web
applications.

508
Question
509

Question:

Write a program to verify whether one of the two entered integers falls within the range
of 100 to 200 included.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, y;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for x: ";
cin>>x;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for y: ";
cin>>y;
if((x >= 100 && x <= 200) || (y >= 100 && y <= 200)) {
cout<<"True";
Ansible is an open-source IT automation tool that simplifies the management and orchestration
}
of complex IT infrastructure. It allows users to automate repetitive tasks, manage configuration
else { files, and deploy applications across multiple servers and environments. Ansible is designed to
cout<<"False"; be simple and easy to use, with a YAML-based scripting language that is human-readable and
} easily understood by both developers and non-developers. It uses a push-based model, meaning
that configuration changes are pushed out to the target hosts in a controlled and predictable
return 0;
manner.
}
Ansible uses SSH (Secure Shell) protocol to connect to remote hosts, making it easy to manage
and automate servers across a network. It also supports a wide range of modules, which are pre-
built pieces of code that perform specific tasks such as installing software packages, configuring
services, and creating users. Ansible can be used for a wide range of IT automation tasks,
including configuration management, application deployment, and orchestration of infrastructure
components such as cloud services, storage systems, and networking devices. Overall, Ansible is
a powerful and flexible IT automation tool that simplifies the management and orchestration of
complex IT infrastructure, allowing organizations to streamline their operations and reduce the
time and effort required to manage their IT resources.

509
Question
510

Question:

Write a program to determine which of the two given integers is closest to the value 100.
If the two numbers are equal, return 0.

Terraform is an open-source infrastructure as code (IaC) tool

that is used for building, changing, and versioning
infrastructure in a safe, efficient, and repeatable way. It
Solution: allows developers and infrastructure teams to define
infrastructure as code, which can be versioned and managed
#include<iostream> just like any other software code. Terraform works by
using namespace std; defining the desired state of the infrastructure in a declarative
int myfunc(); language called HashiCorp Configuration Language
int myfunc(int a, int b) { (HCL). The desired state is then applied to the infrastructure

int x = abs(a - 100); by running Terraform, which compares the desired state to
the current state and makes any necessary changes to bring
int y = abs(b - 100);
the infrastructure into compliance with the desired state.
return x == y ? 0 : (x < y ? a : b);
}
Terraform supports a wide range of cloud providers and
int main() {
services, including Amazon Web Services, Microsoft Azure,
cout<<" "<< myfunc(86, 99); Google Cloud Platform, and many others. It also supports on-
cout<<"\n "<<myfunc(55, 55); premises infrastructure, allowing teams to manage
cout<<"\n "<<myfunc(65, 80); infrastructure across multiple cloud and on-premises
return 0; environments. Terraform provides a range of benefits for

} infrastructure teams, including increased automation,

improved collaboration, and reduced risk of human error. It
also provides greater transparency and auditability, allowing
teams to easily track changes to infrastructure and roll back
changes if necessary. Overall, Terraform is a powerful
infrastructure as code tool that allows teams to define and
manage infrastructure in a safe, efficient, and repeatable way.
It is widely used in software development teams of all sizes
and is considered a critical tool for implementing modern
infrastructure practices such as DevOps and infrastructure
automation.

510
Question
511

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a positive number entered by the user is a multiple
of three or five, but not both.

Solution: Nagios is an open-source monitoring system that is used for monitoring the
health and performance of IT infrastructure. It provides a range of tools and
#include<iostream>
features for monitoring servers, network devices, applications, and services,
using namespace std; and can be used to detect and diagnose problems before they affect end-
int main() { users.
int x;
cout<<"\nEnter a number: "; Nagios works by monitoring various metrics and alerts, such as CPU usage,
cin>>x; memory usage, disk space, network traffic, and application availability. It

if(x % 3 == 0 ^ x % 5 == 0) { uses a web interface to display the status of monitored objects and provides
alerts and notifications when there are issues or failures.
cout<<"True";
}
Nagios is highly customizable and extensible, allowing users to create
else {
custom plugins and add-ons to monitor a wide range of systems and
cout<<"False"; services. It also supports various third-party plugins and integrations,
} making it a versatile and flexible monitoring system.
return 0;
} Nagios is widely used in IT operations teams of all sizes and is considered a
critical tool for monitoring and maintaining IT infrastructure. It provides a
range of benefits, including increased visibility and control, improved
uptime and reliability, and reduced mean time to repair (MTTR) in the event
of failures or incidents.

Overall, Nagios is a powerful and flexible monitoring system that provides

IT teams with the tools and features they need to monitor and maintain IT
infrastructure effectively. It is a critical tool for ensuring the performance,
availability, and reliability of IT infrastructure and services.

511
Question
512

Question:

Write a program to determine whether two entered non-negative numbers have the same
last digit.
Gradle is an open-source build automation tool that is used for
building, testing, and deploying software projects. It provides a
flexible and powerful build system that can be used to automate
various tasks in the software development process.
Solution:
Gradle uses a build script that is written in a Groovy or Kotlin-based
#include<iostream>
domain-specific language (DSL). The build script describes the
using namespace std; dependencies and tasks required to build the software project, and
int main() { Gradle uses this information to generate the build output.
int x, y;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for x: "; Gradle supports a wide range of programming languages and

cin>>x; platforms, including Java, Kotlin, Groovy, Android, and C++. It

provides a rich set of features for building and testing software
cout<<"\nEnter the value for y: ";
projects, including incremental builds, parallel builds, and dependency
cin>>y;
management.
if(abs(x % 10) == abs(y % 10)) {
cout<<"True"; Gradle also supports various third-party plugins and integrations,
} making it a versatile and flexible build tool. It can be used with
else { various IDEs, such as Eclipse and IntelliJ IDEA, and can be integrated
cout<<"False"; with various continuous integration and deployment (CI/CD) tools,

} such as Jenkins and Travis CI.

return 0;
Gradle is widely used in software development teams of all sizes and
}
is considered a critical tool for implementing modern software
development practices such as DevOps and continuous delivery. It
provides a range of benefits, including improved automation,
increased efficiency, and reduced build times.

Overall, Gradle is a powerful and flexible build automation tool that

provides developers and development teams with the tools and
features they need to build, test, and deploy software projects
effectively.

512
Question 71

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a given non-negative number is a multiple of 12 or

it is one more than a multiple of 12.

API (Application Programming Interface) testing is a type of software

testing that focuses on verifying the functionality, reliability, security, and
Solution: performance of an API. An API is a set of protocols and standards used to
build and integrate software applications. It provides a way for two
#include<iostream> different software systems to communicate with each other. API testing
involves sending requests to an API and receiving responses, then
using namespace std;
validating that the responses are correct and meet the expected
int main() {
requirements. Some common types of API tests include:
int x = 43;
if(x % 12 == 0 || x % 12 == 1) {  Functional testing: verifying that the API performs the intended

cout<<"True"; functions and behaves as expected.

 Performance testing: evaluating the response time, throughput, and
}
resource utilization of the API.
else {  Security testing: identifying vulnerabilities and weaknesses in the
cout<<"False"; API that could lead to unauthorized access or data breaches.

}  Compatibility testing: ensuring that the API works with various

operating systems, browsers, and devices.
return 0;
}
API testing can be done manually or using automated testing tools.
Automated testing tools can save time and increase efficiency by
automating repetitive tasks and providing quick feedback on the
performance and functionality of the API. To sum up, API testing is a
crucial step in the software development lifecycle to ensure that the API is
Question 72
working as intended and meets the desired quality standards.

Question:

Write a program that accepts two integers and returns true when one of them equals 6, or
when their sum or difference equals 6.

513
Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, y;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for x: ";
cin>>x;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for y: ";
cin>>y;
if(x == 6 || y == 6 || x + y == 6 || abs(x - y) == 6) {
cout<<"True";
}
else {
cout<<"False";
}
return 0;
}

Question 73

Question:

Write a program to check whether it is possible to add two integers to get the third

integer from three entered integers.

Solution:

514
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, y, z;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for x: ";
cin>>x;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for y: ";
cin>>y;
cout<<"\nEnter the value for z: ";
cin>>z;
if(x == y + z || y == x + z || z == x + y) {
cout<<"True";
}
else {
cout<<"False";
}
return 0;
}

Question 74

Question:

Write a program that converts kilometers per hour to miles per hour.

Solution:

#include<iostream>

515
using namespace std;
int main() {
float kmph;
cout<<"Enter kilometers per hour: ";
cin>>kmph;
cout<<(kmph * 0.6213712)<<" miles per hour";
return 0;
}

Question 75

Question:

Write a program to calculate area of an ellipse.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
#define PI 3.141592
int main() {
float major, minor;
cout<<"\nEnter length of major axis: ";
cin>>major;
cout<<"\nEnter length of minor axis: ";
cin>>minor;
cout<<"\nArea of an ellipse = "<< (PI * major * minor);
return 0;
}

516
Question 76

Question:

Write a program to calculate the sum of three given integers. Return the third value if the
first two values are equal.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int myfunc();
int myfunc(int a, int b, int c) {
#include<iostream>
if (a == b && b == c) return 0;
#include<cstring>
if (a == b) return c;
if (a == c) return b; using namespace std;
if (b == c) return a;
else return a + b + c;
void myfunc(string x= "John") {
}
int main() { cout << x;

cout<<"\n"<<myfunc(11, 11, 11); }

?
cout<<"\n"<<myfunc(11, 11, 16);
cout<<"\n"<<myfunc(18, 15, 10);
int main() {
return 0;
} myfunc();

return 0;

517
Question 77

Question:

Write a program to convert bytes to kilobytes.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int bytes;
cout<<"\nEnter number of bytes: ";
cin>>bytes;
cout<<"\nKilobytes: "<<(bytes/1024);
return 0;
}

Question 78

Question:

Write a program to convert megabytes to kilobytes.

Solution:

518
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
double megabytes, kilobytes;
cout<<"\nInput the amount of megabytes to convert: ";
cin>>megabytes;
kilobytes = megabytes * 1024;
cout<<"\nThere are "<<kilobytes<< " kilobytes in " <<megabytes<< "
megabytes.";
return 0;
}

Question 79

Question:

Write a program to count the number of even elements in an integer array.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int array[1000], i, arr_size, even=0;
cout<<"Input the size of the array: ";
cin>>arr_size;
cout<<"Enter the elements in array: \n";
for(i=0; i<arr_size; i++) {
cin>>array[i];

519
}

for(i=0; i<arr_size; i++) {

if(array[i]%2==0) {
even++;
}
}
cout<<"Number of even elements: "<< even;
return 0;
}

Question 80

Question:

Write a program to count the number of odd elements in an integer array.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int array[1000], i, arr_size, odd=0;
cout<<"Input the size of the array: ";
cin>>arr_size;
cout<<"Enter the elements in array: \n";
for(i=0; i<arr_size; i++) {
cin>>array[i];

520
}

for(i=0; i<arr_size; i++) {

if(array[i]%2!=0) {
odd++;
}
}
cout<<"Number of odd elements: "<< odd;
return 0;
}

Question 81

Question:

Write a program that will accept two integers and determine whether or not they are
equal.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, y;
cout<<"Input the values for x and y: \n";
cin>>x;
cin>>y;
if(x == y) {
cout<<"x and y are equal\n";

521
}
else {
cout<<"x and y are not equal\n";
}
return 0;
}

Question 82

Question:

Write a program to find the third angle of a triangle if two angles are given.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int angle1, angle2;
cout<<"\nEnter the first angle of the triangle: ";
cin>>angle1;
cout<<"\nEnter the second angle of the triangle: ";
cin>>angle2;
cout<<"\nThird angle of the triangle is: "<< (180 - (angle1 + angle2));
return 0;
}

522
Question 83

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a particular year is a leap year or not.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int year;
cout<<"Enter the year: ";
cin>>year;
if((year % 400) == 0) {
cout<<year<<" is a leap year.";
}
else if((year % 100) == 0) {
cout<<year<<" is a not leap year.";
}
else if((year % 4) == 0) {
cout<<year<<" is a leap year.";
}
else {
cout<<year<<" is not a leap year.";
}
return 0;
}

523
Question 84

Question:

Write a program that reads the candidate's age and determine a candidate's eligibility to
cast his own vote.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int age;
cout<<"\nEnter the age of the candidate: ";
cin>>age;
if(age<18) {
cout<<"\nWe apologize, but the candidate is not able to cast his vote.";
cout<<"\nAfter "<< (18-age) <<" year, the candidate would be able to cast his
vote.";
}
else {
cout<<"Congratulation! the candidate is qualified to cast his vote.\n";
}
return 0;
}

524
Question 85

Question:

Write a program to Convert Yard to Foot.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
float yard;
cout<<"\nEnter the Length in Yard: ";
cin>>yard;
cout<<yard<<" Yard in Foot is: "<<(3*yard);
return 0;
}

Question 86

Question:

Write a program to convert gigabytes to megabytes.

Solution:

525
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
double gigabytes, megabytes;
cout<<"\nInput the amount of gigabytes to convert: ";
cin>>gigabytes;
megabytes = gigabytes*1024;
cout<<"\nThere are "<<megabytes<<" megabytes in "<<gigabytes<<" gigabytes.";
return 0;
}

Question 87

Question:

Write a program to Convert Kilogram to Pounds.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
float kg, lbs;
cout<<"\nEnter Weight in Kilogram: ";
cin>>kg;
lbs = kg*2.20462;
cout<<kg<<" Kg = "<<lbs<<" Pounds";
return 0;

526
}

Question 88

Question:

Write a program to Convert Kilogram to Ounce.

532
Question 95

Question:

Write a program to concatenate two strings.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
#include<cstring>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char a[1000], b[1000];
cout<<"\nEnter the first string: ";
cin>>a;
cout<<"\nEnter the second string: ";
cin>>b;
strcat(a, b);
cout<<"\nString produced by concatenation is: "<< a;
return 0;
}

Question 96

Question:

Write a program to find maximum between two numbers.

#include<iostream>

537
using namespace std;
int main() {
int pwd, i;
while (i!=0) {
cout<<"\nEnter the password: ";
cin>>pwd;
if(pwd==1988) {
cout<<"The password you entered is correct";
i=0;
}
else {
cout<<"Incorrect password, try again";
}
cout<<"\n";
}
return 0;
}

Question 102

Question:

Write a program to find absolute value of a number.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

538
int main() {
int num;
cout<<"Input a positive or negative number: \n";
cin>>num;
cout<<"\nAbsolute value of "<<"|"<<num<<"|"<<" is: "<<abs(num);
return 0;
}

Question 103

Question:

Write a program that will accept a person's height in cm and classify the person based on
it.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
float ht;
cout<<"\nEnter the height (in cm): ";
cin>>ht;
if(ht < 150.0) {
cout<<"Dwarf.\n";
}
else if((ht >= 150.0) && (ht < 165.0)) {
cout<<"Average Height.\n";

539
}
else if((ht >= 165.0) && (ht <= 195.0)) {
cout<<"Taller.\n";
}
else {
cout<<"Abnormal height.\n";
}
return 0;
}

Question 104

Question:

Write a program to calculate the area of different geometric shapes using switch
statements.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int choice;
float r, l, w, b, h;
cout<<"\nEnter 1 for area of circle: ";
cout<<"\nEnter 2 for area of rectangle: ";
cout<<"\nEnter 3 for area of triangle: ";
cout<<"\nEnter your choice : ";
cin>>choice;

540
switch(choice) {
case 1:
cout<<"Enter the radius of the circle: ";
cin>>r;
cout<<"\nArea of a circle is: " << (3.14*r*r);
break;
case 2:
cout<<"Enter the length and width of the rectangle: \n";
cin>>l;
cin>>w;
cout<<"\nArea of a rectangle is: "<<(l*w);
break;
case 3:
cout<<"Enter the base and height of the triangle: \n";
cin>>b;
cin>>h;
cout<<"\nArea of a triangle is: "<<(0.5*b*h);
break;
default:
cout<<"\nPlease enter a number from 1 to 3.";
break;
Bitbucket is a web-based version control repository hosting service that is used to store and manage code
}
repositories. It is developed by Atlassian and provides Git and Mercurial-based distributed version control systems
return 0;
(DVCS) for source code management. With Bitbucket, teams can collaborate on software projects, manage code
} repositories, track changes, and perform code reviews. It offers a range of features, such as pull requests, code
branching, and commit history tracking, which allow developers to work together efficiently and effectively.

Bitbucket is integrated with other Atlassian products, such as Jira and Confluence, making it easy to manage issues
and track progress across the entire software development process. It also provides tools for continuous integration
and deployment (CI/CD), allowing teams to automate their build and deployment pipelines. Bitbucket is available
in both cloud-based and self-hosted versions. The cloud-based version offers a range of pricing plans, depending on
the number of users and repositories required. The self-hosted version can be installed on-premise or on a cloud-
based infrastructure, giving organizations greater control over their source code management. Overall, Bitbucket is
a powerful and flexible source code management tool that allows teams to collaborate on software development
projects, manage code repositories, and automate their build and deployment pipelines. It is a popular choice for
teams of all sizes and offers a range of features to support the entire software development process.

541
Question 105

Question:

Write a program to accept a character from the keyboard and print "Yes" if it is equal to y.
Otherwise print "No".

IntelliJ IDEA is an integrated development environment (IDE)

Solution: used primarily for developing software applications in the Java
programming language. It is developed by JetBrains and is
#include<iostream>
available in both community and commercial editions. IntelliJ
using namespace std; IDEA offers a range of features that make it a popular choice
int main() { among developers, including intelligent code completion, code
char ch; analysis, and refactoring tools. It also provides built-in support
cout<<"Enter a character: "; for a range of programming languages, including Java, Kotlin,

ch = getchar (); Groovy, Scala, and JavaScript.

if(ch == 'y' || ch == 'Y') {

One of the key strengths of IntelliJ IDEA is its support for a
cout<<"Yes\n";
wide range of frameworks and technologies, such as Spring,
}
Hibernate, and Maven. It also provides integrations with other
else { tools, such as Git, Subversion, and JUnit, allowing developers to
cout<<"No\n"; streamline their development workflows. IntelliJ IDEA offers a
} highly customizable user interface and supports a wide range of
return(0); plugins and extensions, making it possible to tailor the IDE to

} suit the specific needs of the developer. Overall, IntelliJ IDEA

is a powerful and feature-rich IDE that offers a range of tools
and technologies to support software development in the Java
programming language. It is highly customizable and provides
integrations with a range of tools and technologies, making it a
Question 106
popular choice among developers.

Question:

Write a program that uses bitwise operators to multiply an entered value by four.

542
Puppet is a configuration management tool that is widely used in the DevOps culture
Solution: to automate the management of IT infrastructure. DevOps is a software development
approach that emphasizes collaboration and communication between development
#include<iostream> and operations teams to streamline the software delivery process. In the context of
using namespace std; DevOps, Puppet allows teams to automate the management of infrastructure and

int main() { applications, ensuring that all systems are configured and deployed consistently and
reliably. It provides a centralized platform for managing configurations, deployments,
long x, y;
and updates across multiple environments, reducing the time and effort required to
cout<<"Enter a integer: "; manage complex IT infrastructure.
cin>>x;
Puppet works by defining infrastructure as code, which means that configurations
y = x;
and deployments are defined using code that can be version-controlled, tested, and
x = x << 2; audited. This approach helps to eliminate configuration drift and reduces the risk of
cout<< y<<" x 4 = "<< x; errors or inconsistencies in the infrastructure. Using Puppet as part of a DevOps

return 0; approach helps to promote collaboration and communication between development

and operations teams, enabling faster and more frequent software releases. It also
}
allows organizations to scale their infrastructure more easily and respond quickly to
changing business needs. To sum up, Puppet is a powerful tool that plays a key role
in the DevOps culture, providing a centralized platform for managing infrastructure
and applications, and helping to streamline the software delivery process. It promotes

Question 107 collaboration and communication between development and operations teams,
enabling organizations to deliver software more quickly and efficiently.

Question:

Write a program to check whether a number entered by the user is power of 2 or not.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x;
cout<<"Enter a number: ";

543
Chef is a configuration management tool that is widely used in the DevOps
cin>>x; culture to automate the management of IT infrastructure. DevOps is a

if((x != 0) && ((x &(x - 1)) == 0)) { software development approach that emphasizes collaboration and
communication between development and operations teams to streamline the
cout<<x<<" is a power of 2";
software delivery process. In the context of DevOps, Chef allows teams to
} automate the management of infrastructure and applications, ensuring that all
else { systems are configured and deployed consistently and reliably. It provides a

cout<<x<<" is not a power of 2"; centralized platform for managing configurations, deployments, and updates
across multiple environments, reducing the time and effort required to
}
manage complex IT infrastructure. Chef works by defining infrastructure as
return 0; code, which means that configurations and deployments are defined using
} code that can be version-controlled, tested, and audited. This approach helps
to eliminate configuration drift and reduces the risk of errors or
inconsistencies in the infrastructure. Using Chef as part of a DevOps
approach helps to promote collaboration and communication between
development and operations teams, enabling faster and more frequent
software releases. It also allows organizations to scale their infrastructure
more easily and respond quickly to changing business needs. Chef is highly

Question 108 extensible and can be used to manage a wide range of systems, including
servers, cloud infrastructure, and containers. It also integrates with a range of
other tools and technologies, such as Jenkins, Git, and Docker, allowing
Question: teams to build end-to-end software delivery pipelines.

Write a program to determine whether a triangle is scalene, isosceles, or equilateral.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int side1, side2, side3;
cout<<"\nEnter the first side of the triangle: ";
cin>>side1;
cout<<"\nEnter the second side of the triangle: ";
cin>>side2;
cout<<"\nEnter the third side of the triangle: ";

544
cin>>side3;
if(side1 == side2 && side2 == side3) {
cout<<"\nThe given Triangle is equilateral.";
}
else if(side1 == side2 || side2 == side3 || side3 == side1) {
cout<<"\nThe given Triangle is isosceles.";
}
else {
cout<<"\nThe given Triangle is scalene.";
}
return 0;
}

Question 109

Question:

Write a program to print ASCII values of all the letters of the English alphabet from A to Z.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int i;
for(i='A'; i<='Z'; i++) {
cout<<"ASCII value of "<<char(i)<<"="<<int(i)<<endl;

545
}
return 0;
}

Question 110

Question:

Write a program to find sum of even numbers between 1 to n.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int i, num, sum=0;
cout<<"Enter a number: ";
cin>>num;
for(i=2; i<=num; i=i+2) {
sum = sum + i;
}
cout<<"\nSum of all even number between 1 to " <<num<< " is: "<< sum;
return 0;
}

546
Question 111

Question:

Write a program to find sum of odd numbers between 1 to n.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int i, num, sum=0;
cout<<"Enter a number: ";
cin>>num;
for(i=1; i<=num; i=i+2) {
sum = sum + i;
}
cout<<"\nSum of all odd number between 1 to " <<num<< " is: "<< sum;
return 0;
}

Question 112

Question:

Write a program to find maximum number using switch case.

547
Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, y;
cout<<"Enter any two numbers: \n";
cin>>x;
cin>>y;
switch(x > y) {
case 0: cout<<y<<" is Maximum number";
break;
case 1: cout<<x<<" is Maximum number";
break;
}
return 0;
}

Question 113

Question:

Write a program that allows you to enter the cost price and the selling price of a product

and calculate profit or loss.

Solution:

#include<iostream>

548
using namespace std; Apache NetBeans is a free and open-source integrated development
int main() { environment (IDE) used primarily for developing software

int cp, sp; applications in the Java programming language. It is developed by

the Apache Software Foundation and is available for Windows,
cout<<"\nInput Cost Price: ";
Linux, and macOS operating systems. NetBeans offers a range of
cin>>cp;
features that make it a popular choice among developers, including
cout<<"\nInput Selling Price: ";
intelligent code completion, debugging tools, and refactoring tools.
cin>>sp; It also provides support for a range of programming languages,
if(sp > cp) { including Java, PHP, C++, and HTML/CSS/JavaScript.
cout<<"Profit = "<< (sp - cp);
} One of the key strengths of NetBeans is its support for a wide range

else if(cp > sp) { of frameworks and technologies, such as Spring, Hibernate, and
Maven. It also provides integrations with other tools, such as Git,
cout<<"Loss = "<< (cp - sp);
Subversion, and JUnit, allowing developers to streamline their
}
development workflows. NetBeans offers a highly customizable
else {
user interface and supports a range of plugins and extensions,
cout<<"No Profit No Loss."; making it possible to tailor the IDE to suit the specific needs of the
} developer. To sum up, Apache NetBeans is a powerful and feature-
return 0; rich IDE that offers a range of tools and technologies to support
} software development in the Java programming language and other
languages. It is highly customizable and provides integrations with a
range of tools and technologies, making it a popular choice among
developers.

Question 114

Question:

Write a program that display the pattern like a right angle triangle using an asterisk.

Solution:

#include<iostream>

549
using namespace std;
Red Hat is a software company that provides open source
int main() {
solutions to enterprises. The company was founded in 1993
int rows; and is headquartered in Raleigh, North Carolina, USA. Red
cout<<"Input the number of rows: "; Hat is best known for its distribution of the Linux operating

cin>>rows; system, which is used by businesses and organizations

around the world. Red Hat provides a wide range of software
for(int x=1; x<=rows; x++) {
products and services, including operating systems,
for(int y=1; y<=x; y++) middleware, storage, virtualization, and cloud computing
cout<<"*"; solutions. The company's products are designed to be

cout<<"\n"; flexible, scalable, and secure, and they are often used by
businesses to improve efficiency, reduce costs, and increase
}
agility. Red Hat is also known for its commitment to open
return 0; source software, which means that its products are based on
} freely available code that can be modified and distributed by
anyone. This approach has helped to create a vibrant
community of developers and users who collaborate to
improve the quality and functionality of the software.

Question 115

Question:

Write a program that display the pattern like a right angle triangle using a number.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int rows;
cout<<"Input the number of rows: ";
cin>>rows;
for(int x=1; x<=rows; x++) {
for(int y=1; y<=x; y++)

550
cout<<""<<y;
cout<<"\n";
}
return 0;
}

Question 116

Question:

Write a program to determine the number and sum of all integers between 50 and 100
which are divisible by 2.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x, sum=0;
cout<<"Numbers between 50 and 100, divisible by 2: \n";
for(x=51; x<100; x++) {
if(x%2==0) {
cout<<" "<<x;
sum+=x;
}
}
cout<<"\nThe sum: "<< sum;
return 0;

551
}

Question 117

Question:

Write a program that uses the function to determine whether a entered number is even or

odd.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int myfunc(int x) {
return (x & 1);
}
int main() {
int x;
cout<<"Enter any number: ";
cin>>x;
if(myfunc(x)) {
cout<<"\nThe number you entered is odd.";
}
else {
cout<<"\nThe number you entered is even.";
}
return 0;
}

552
Question 118

Question:

Write a program to find square root of a entered number.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
#include<cmath>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x;
cout<<"Enter any number: ";
cin>>x;
cout<<"Square root of "<<x<< " is: "<<(double)sqrt(x);
return 0;
}

Question 119

or not.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char a;
cout<<"Enter a character: ";
cin>>a;
if(ispunct(a)) {
cout<<a<<" is an punctuation character.";
}
else {

556
cout<<a<<" is NOT an punctuation character.";
}
return 0;
}

Question 123

Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a graphic character or not.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char a;
cout<<"Enter a character: ";
cin>>a;
if(isgraph(a)) {
cout<<a<<" is a graphic character.";
}
else {
cout<<a<<" is NOT a graphic character.";
}
return 0;
}

557
Question 124

Question:

Write a program to list all printable characters using isprint() function.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int i;
for(i = 1; i <= 127; i++)
if(isprint(i)!= 0)
cout<<" "<<char(i);
return 0;
}

Question 125

Question:

Write a program to check whether the entered character is a hexadecimal digit character

or not.

Solution:

558
#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char a;
cout<<"Enter a character: ";
cin>>a;
if(isxdigit(a)) {
cout<<a<<" is a hexadecimal digit character.";
}
else {
cout<<a<<" is NOT a hexadecimal digit character.";
}
return 0;
}

Question 126

Question:

Write a program to print ASCII value of all control characters.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int i;
cout<<"The ASCII value of all control characters are: \n";

559
for(i=0; i<=127; i++) {
if(iscntrl(i)!=0) #include<iostream>
cout<<"\n "<< i;
#include<cstring>
}
using namespace std;
return 0;
} int main() {

?
string x = "Joe";

string* ptr = &x;

cout << ptr << endl;

cout << *ptr << endl;

Question 127
return 0;

}
Question:

Write a program to check whether the given character is a white-space character or not.

Solution:

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char c;
char ch = ' ';
if(isspace(ch)) {
cout << "\nNot a white-space character.";
}
else {
cout << "\nWhite-space character.";
}
return 0;

560
}

Question 128

Question:

Write a program to illustrate isprint() and iscntrl() functions.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
char ch = 'a';
if(isprint(ch)) {
cout<<ch<<" is printable character."<<endl;
}
else {
cout<<ch<<" is not printable character."<<endl;
}

if(iscntrl(ch)) {
cout<<ch<<" is control character."<<endl;
}
else {
cout<<ch<<" is not control character."<<endl;
}
return (0);

561
}

Question 129

Question:

Write a program to calculate surface area of cube.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int side;
long area;
cout<<"\nEnter the side of cube: ";
cin>>side;
area = 6*side*side;
cout<<"\nThe surface area of cube is: "<< area;
return 0;
}

Question 130

Question:

Write a program to subtract 2 numbers without using subtraction operator.

562
Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int x =6, y=3;
cout<<x+(~y)+1;
return 0;
}

Question 131

Question:

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int radius;
float PI = 3.141592;
cout<<"\nEnter the radius of sphere: ";
cin>>radius;
float volume = (4/3)*(PI*radius*radius*radius);
cout<<"\nThe volume of sphere is: "<< volume;
return 0;
}

565
Question 136

Question:

Write a program to calculate volume of ellipsoid.

Solution:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;
int main() {
int r1, r2, r3;
float PI = 3.141592;
cout<<"\nEnter the radius of the ellipsoid of axis 1: ";
cin>>r1;
cout<<"\nEnter the radius of the ellipsoid of axis 2: ";
cin>>r2;
cout<<"\nEnter the radius of the ellipsoid of axis 3: ";
cin>>r3;
float volume = (4/3)*(PI*r1*r2*r3);

?
cout<<"\nThe volume of ellipsoid is: "<< volume;
return 0;
} #include<iostream>

#include<cstring>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string x[5] = {"Albert", "John", "Mary", "James", "Bob"};

for(int i = 0; i < 5; i++) { cout << x[i] << endl; }

return 0;

566
Question 137

#include<cstring>
int main() {
using namespace std;
string i[2][4] = {

{ "A", "L", "B", "E" },

int main() {
{ "R", "T", "J", "H" } string x = "Albert";

}; cout << &x;

?
return 0;
cout << i[0][2];
}
// Output: B

return 0;

569
#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string x="C++ ";

string y="programming";

x.append(y);

cout<<" \n "<<x<<'\n';

return 0;

// Output: C++ programming

#include<iostream>

using namespace std; #include<iostream>

int main() { using namespace std;

string x="Albert"; int main() {

cout<<*x.begin(); string x ="C language";

return 0; *x.begin()='J';

// Output: A cout<<x;

} return 0;

// Output: J language

570
#include<iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string x="This is a C++ Program.";

x.erase(8,1);

cout<<x;

// Output: This is C++ Program.

return 0;

#include<iostream>

#include<cstring>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string txt = "C++ Programming.";

cout << "The length of the text string is: " << txt.size();

// Output: The length of the text string is: 16

return 0;

571
#include<iostream>

#include<cstring>

using namespace std;

int main() {

string txt = "C++ Programming.";

cout << "The length of the text string is: " << txt.length();

// Output: The length of the text string is: 16

return 0;
Information visualization refers to the visual representation of data
or information to facilitate the understanding of complex concepts,
}
patterns, and relationships. It involves using visual elements such as
charts, graphs, maps, and other visual representations to convey
information and insights.
#include<iostream>
The main goal of information visualization is to make data and
using namespace std; information more accessible, understandable, and usable for a wide
range of users. By presenting information in a visually compelling
int main() { and interactive way, information visualization can help users to
identify trends, patterns, and insights that may not be apparent in
traditional data formats.
string x="c++ programming";
Information visualization is used in a wide range of applications,
x.erase(x.begin()+0); including business intelligence, scientific research, healthcare,
education, and more. It plays an important role in helping individuals
cout<<x; and organizations make informed decisions based on data-driven
insights. With the increasing availability of big data and
// Output: ++ programming advancements in data visualization tools and techniques, information
visualization is becoming an increasingly important field for data
return 0; scientists, designers, and other professionals who work with data.

C++ is an extension of C programming and the programs

written in C language can run in C++ compilers.

572
C++ Program:

#include<bits/stdc++.h>
using namespace std;

int main()
{ Output:
float a =2.33333;
2
cout << floor(a) << endl;
cout << ceil(a) << endl;
3
cout << trunc(a) << endl;
cout << round(a) << endl; 2
cout << setprecision(2) << a;
return 0; 2
}
2.3

C++ Program:

#include <cstdlib>
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main()
Output:
{
float a = -43; 43
cout << abs(a) << endl;
cout << labs(a) << endl; 43
cout << llabs(a) << endl;
43
return 0;
}

573
JDK JRE JVM

Java Development Kit Java Runtime Environment Java Virtual Machine

It is the tool necessary to compile, It provides the class libraries and A virtual machine that enables a

document and package Java other resources that a specific Java computer to run Java programs

programs. program needs to run.

Inheritance Abstraction

A mechanism in which one class The methodology of hiding the

acquires the properties of another implementation details from the user and
only providing the functionality to the
users.

Encapsulation
Polymorphism

A process of wrapping code and data

together into a single unit The ability of any data to be

processed in more than one form

Collection is a framework that is designed to store the objects and manipulate

the design to store the objects.

574
Java Exercises

Java is the mainstream technology for creating and delivering embedded and mobile software,
games, Internet entertainment, and business software. It serves as the foundation for almost any
sort of networked application. With over 9 million developers across the globe, Java makes it
simple to quickly create, distribute, and use new apps and services. Around 1992, James
Gosling was employed by Sun Labs. A set-top box was being built by Gosling and his team,
who began by "cleaning up" C++ and ultimately came up with a new language and runtime. As a
result, Java or Oak was created. C continues to be the top option among developers when it
comes to programming languages. However, Java is more popular among developers than C. The
second most popular programming language is Java. The common reason for this is because it
facilitates the creation of sophisticated applications that operate well and satisfactorily. In
addition, Java may be installed and operated on any platform. Approximately 3 billion mobile
phones, 125 million TV sets, and every Blu-Ray player currently use Java. You can learn Java
programming and advance your skills by practicing and working through problems. If you learn
best "by example," this is the chapter for you.

575
Question 1

Question:

Write a program to print Hello, World!.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.print("Hello, World!");
}
}

Question 2

Question:

Write a program to compute the perimeter and area of a rectangle.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int height = 8;
int width = 5;

576
int perimeter = 2 * (height + width);
System.out.println("Perimeter of the rectangle is: " + perimeter + " cm");
int area = height * width;
System.out.println("Area of the rectangle is: " + area + " square cm");
}
}

Question 3

Question:

Write a program to compute the perimeter and area of a circle.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int radius = 4;
float perimeter = (float)(2 * 3.14 * radius);
System.out.printf("Perimeter of the circle is: %f cm\n", perimeter);
float area = (float)(3.14 * radius * radius);
System.out.printf("Area of the circle is: %f square cm\n", area);
}
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String[] args) {

int x = 65;

x = 80;

System.out.println(x); // Output: 80

577
Question 4

Question:

Write a program that accepts two numbers from the user and calculate the sum of the two
numbers.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int a, b, sum;
System.out.print("\nEnter the first number: ");
a = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the second number: ");
b = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
sum = a + b;
System.out.print("\nSum of the above two numbers is: " + sum);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

String x = "Einstein";

System.out.println("Albert " + x);

}
// Output: Albert Einstein
}

578
Question 5

Question:

Write a program that accepts two numbers from the user and calculate the product of the
two numbers.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int a, b, mult;
System.out.print("\nEnter the first number: ");
a = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the second number: ");
b = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
mult = a * b;
System.out.print("\nProduct of the above two numbers is: " + mult);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 6

Question:

Write a program that accepts three numbers and find the largest of three.

579
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y, z;
System.out.print("\nEnter the first number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the second number: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the third number: ");
z = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();

// if x is greater than both y and z, x is the largest

if(x >= y && x >= z) {
System.out.print("\n" + x + " is the largest number.");
}

// if y is greater than both x and z, y is the largest

if(y >= x && y >= z) {
System.out.print("\n" + y + " is the largest number.");
}

// if z is greater than both x and y, z is the largest

if(z >= x && z >= y) {
System.out.print("\n" + z + " is the largest number.");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

580
Question 7

Question:

Write a program that reads three floating values and check if it is possible to make a

triangle with them. Also calculate the perimeter of the triangle if the entered values are
valid.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
float x, y, z;
System.out.print("\nEnter the first number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextFloat();
System.out.print("\nEnter the second number: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextFloat();
System.out.print("\nEnter the third number: ");
z = STDIN_SCANNER.nextFloat();

if(x < y + z && y < x + z && z < y + x) {

System.out.printf("\nPerimeter of the triangle is: %f\n", x + y + z);
} else {
System.out.print("\nIt is impossible to form a triangle.");

581
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 8

Question:

Write a program that reads an integer between 1 and 7 and print the day of the week in
English.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int day;
System.out.print("\nEnter a number between 1 to 7 to get the day name: ");
day = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
switch(day) {
case 1:
System.out.println("Monday");
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("Tuesday");

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Even numbers between 1 to 25:");
for(int i = 1; i <= 25; i++) {

586
if(i % 2 == 0) {
System.out.print(i + " ");
}
}
}
}

Question 14

Question:

Write a program that prints all odd numbers between 1 and 50.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Odd numbers between 1 to 50:");
for(int i = 1; i <= 50; i++) {
if(i % 2 != 0) {
System.out.print(i + " ");
}
} public class MyClass {
} public static void main(String[] args) {
}
byte x = 100;

System.out.println(x);

}
// Output: 100
}

587
Question 15

Question:

Write a program to print the first 10 numbers starting from one together with their
squares and cubes.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int product = 1;
for(int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
product = product * i;
}
System.out.print("The product of the first 10 digits is: " + product);
}
}

Question 19

Question:

Write a program to print whether the given number is positive or negative.

590
Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int a;
a = -35;
if(a > 0) {
System.out.print("Number is positive");
} else {
System.out.print("Number is negative");
}
}
}

Question 20

Question:

Write a program to check the equivalence of two numbers entered by the user.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y;

591
System.out.print("\nEnter the first number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the second number: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x - y == 0) {
System.out.print("\nThe two numbers are equivalent");
} else {
System.out.print("\nThe two numbers are not equivalent");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 21

Question:

Write a program to print the remainder of two numbers entered by the user.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int a, b, c;
System.out.print("\nEnter the first number: ");
a = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the second number: ");

592
b = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
c = a % b;
System.out.print("\n The remainder of " + a + " and " + b + " is: " + c);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 22

Question:

Write a program to print the characters from A to Z.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
for(byte i = 'A'; i <= 'Z'; i++) {
System.out.println((char)Byte.toUnsignedInt(i));
}
} public class MyClass {

} public static void main(String[] args) {

boolean x = true;

boolean y = false;

System.out.println(x); // Output: true

System.out.println(y); // Output: false

593
Question 23

Question:

Write a program to print the length of the entered string.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
String a;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter Your Name : ");
a = scan.nextLine();
System.out.println("The length of the String is: " + a.length());
}
}

Question 24

Question:

Write a program to check whether the given character is a lower case letter or not.

Solution:

594
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
char ch = 'a';
if(Character.isLowerCase(ch)) {
System.out.println("The given character is a lower case letter");
}
else {
System.out.println("The given character is a upper case letter");
}
}
}

Question 25

Question:

Write a program to check whether the given character is a upper case letter or not.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
char ch = 'A';
if(Character.isUpperCase(ch)) {
System.out.println("The given character is a upper case letter");
}
else {
System.out.println("The given character is a lower case letter");
}

595
}
}

Question 26

Question:

Write a program to convert the lower case string to upper case string.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String a = "albert einstein";
System.out.println(a.toUpperCase());
}
}

Question 27

Question:

Write a program that takes a distance in centimeters and outputs the corresponding value
in inches.

596
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public final static double X = 2.54;
public static void main(String[] args) {
double inch, cm;
System.out.print("Enter the distance in cm: ");
cm = STDIN_SCANNER.nextDouble();
inch = cm / X;
System.out.printf("\nDistance of %.2f cms is equal to %.2f inches", cm,
inch);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 28

Question:

Write a program to print the output:

Einstein [0] = E
Einstein [1] = I
Einstein [2] = N
Einstein [3] = S
Einstein [4] = T

Einstein [5] = E
Einstein [6] = I

Einstein [7] = N

597
Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{
int i;
char [] num = {'E' , 'I', 'N', 'S', 'T', 'E', 'I', 'N'};
for(i=0; i<8; i++)
System.out.println("Einstein [" + i + " ] = " + num[i]);
}
}

Question 29 public class MyClass {

static void myMethod(String x) {

Question:
System.out.println(x + " Einstein");

Write a program to print "Hello World" 10 times. }

public static void main(String[] args) {

Solution:
myMethod("David");

?
public class MyClass { myMethod("Albert");
public static void main(String[] args) {
myMethod("Elsa");
for(int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
System.out.println("Hello World "); }
}
}
}
}

598
Question 30

Question:

Write a program to print first 5 numbers using do while loop statement.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 1;
do {
System.out.println(i++);
} while(i <= 5);
}
}

Question 31

Question:

Write a program to check whether a character is an alphabet or not.

Solution:

599
import java.util.Scanner;

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any caracter: ");
char c = scanner.next().charAt(0);
if((c >= 'a' && c <= 'z') || (c >= 'A' && c <= 'Z')) {
System.out.println(c + " is a Alphabet.");
} else {
System.out.println(c + " is not a Alphabet.");
}
}
}

Question 32

Write a program that will print all numbers between 1 to 50 which divided by a specified
number and the remainder will be 2.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
for(int i = 1; i <= 50; i++) {
if(i % x == 2) {
System.out.println(i);
}
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Pointers are not used in Java because doing so would

weaken the language's security and robustness and

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
for(int i = 1; i <= 50; i++) {
if(i % x == 2 || i % x == 3) {
System.out.println(i);
}
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

double y = 9.78d;

int x = (int) y;

System.out.println(x); // Output: 9

605
Question 38

Question:

Write a program that adds up all numbers between 1 and 100 that are not divisible by 12.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 12, sum = 0;
for(int i = 1; i <= 100; i++) {
if(i % x != 0) {
sum += i;
}
}
System.out.println("\nSum: " + sum);
}
}

Question 39

Question:

Write a program to calculate the value of x where x = 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + … + 1/50.

Solution:

606
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
float x = 0;
for(int i = 1; i <= 50; i++) {
x += (float)1 / i;
}
System.out.printf("Value of x: %.2f\n", x);
}
}

Question 40

Question:

Write a program that reads a number and find all its divisor.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("\nEnter a number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("All the divisor of " + x + " are: ");
for(int i = 1; i <= x; i++) {
if(x % i == 0) {
System.out.print("\n" + i);

607
}
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 41

Question:

Write a program to find the incremented and decremented values of two numbers.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int a, b, c, d, e, f;
a = 10;
b = 12;
c = a + 1;
d = b + 1;
e = a - 1;
f = b - 1;
System.out.print("\nThe incremented value of a =" + c);
System.out.print("\nThe incremented value of b =" + d);
System.out.print("\nThe decremented value of a =" + e);
System.out.print("\nThe decremented value of b =" + f);
}
}

608
Question 42

Question:

Write a program to find square of a entered number using functions.

Question:

Write a program to compute the area of a hexagon.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter the length of a side of the hexagon: ");
double s = input.nextDouble();
double area = (6*(s*s))/(4*Math.tan(Math.PI/6));
System.out.print("The area of the hexagon is: " + area);
}
}

Question 46

Question:

Write a program to print the output:

body [b] = b
body [o] = o

612
body [d] = d
body [y] = y

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception{
int i;
char [] body = {'b', 'o', 'd', 'y'};
for(i=0; i<4; i++) {
System.out.println("body [" + body [i] + " ] = " + body [i]);
}
}
}

Question 47

Question:

Write a program to calculate the discounted price and the total price after discount
Given:
If purchase value is greater than 1000, 10% discount

If purchase value is greater than 5000, 20% discount

If purchase value is greater than 10000, 30% discount.

Solution:

613
import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
double pv;
System.out.print("Enter purchased value: ");
pv = STDIN_SCANNER.nextDouble();
if(pv > 1000) {
System.out.printf("\n Discount = %f", pv * 0.1);
System.out.printf("\n Total = %f", pv - pv * 0.1);
} else if(pv > 5000) {
System.out.printf("\n Discount = %f", pv * 0.2);
System.out.printf("\n Total = %f", pv - pv * 0.2);
} else {
System.out.printf("\n Discount = %f", pv * 0.3);
System.out.printf("\n Total = %f", pv - pv * 0.3);
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 48

Question:

Write a program to print the first ten natural numbers using while loop statement.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

614
public static void main(String[] args) { import java.util.ArrayList;

int i = 1; public class MyClass {

while(i <= 10) {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println(i++);
ArrayList<String> x = new ArrayList<String>();
}
x.add("Albert");
}
x.add("Joe");
}
x.add("Alan");

?
x.add("Mary");

System.out.println(x);
Question 49
}

}
Question:

Write a program to shift inputted data by two bits to the left.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("Enter the integer from keyboard: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEntered value: " + x + " ");
System.out.print("\nThe left shifted data is: " + (x <<= 2) + " ");
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

615
Question 50

Question:

Write a program to shift inputted data by two bits to the Right.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("Enter the integer from keyboard: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEntered value: " + x + " ");
System.out.print("\nThe right shifted data is: " + (x >>= 2) + " ");
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 51

Question:

Write a program to calculate the exact difference between x and 21. Return three times

the absolute difference if x is greater than 21.

616
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("Enter the value for x: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x <= 21) {
System.out.print(Math.abs(x - 21));
} else if(x >= 21) {
System.out.print(Math.abs(x - 21) * 3);
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 52

Question:

Write a program that reads in two numbers and determine whether the first number is a
multiple of the second number.

Solution:

617
import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y;
System.out.print("\nEnter the first number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the second number: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x % y == 0) {
System.out.println("\n" + x + " is a multiple of " + y + ".");
} else {
System.out.println("\n" + x + " is not a multiple of " + y + ".");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y;
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for x: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for y: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x == 50 || y == 50 || x + y == 50) {
System.out.print("\nTrue");
} else {
System.out.print("\nFalse");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

620
Question 56

Question:

Write a program that counts the even, odd, positive, and negative values among eighteen
integer inputs.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, even = 0, odd = 0, positive = 0, negative = 0;
System.out.println("\nPlease enter 18 numbers:");
for(int i = 0; i < 18; i++) {
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x > 0) {
positive++;
}
if(x < 0) {
negative++;
}
if(x % 2 == 0) {
even++;
}
if(x % 2 != 0) {
odd++;
}
}
System.out.print("\nNumber of even values: " + even);

621
System.out.print("\nNumber of odd values: " + odd);
System.out.print("\nNumber of positive values: " + positive);
System.out.print("\nNumber of negative values: " + negative);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 57

Question:

Write a program to check whether the person is a senior citizen or not.

import java.util.ArrayList;
Solution:
public class MyClass {

import java.util.Scanner; public static void main(String[] args) {

ArrayList<String> x = new ArrayList<String>();

public class MyClass { x.add("Albert");
public static void main(String[] args) {
x.add("Joe");
int age;
x.add("Alan");
System.out.print("Enter age: ");
age = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt(); x.add("Mary");

if(age >= 60) { System.out.println(x.get(0));

System.out.print("Senior citizen");
// Output: Albert
} else {
}
System.out.print("Not a senior citizen");
} }

}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);

public final static int A = 15;
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
x = A; import java.util.ArrayList;
System.out.print(x);
public class MyClass {
}
} public static void main(String[] args) {

ArrayList<String> x = new ArrayList<String>();

x.add("Albert");

x.add("Joe");

Solution: x.add("Alan");

x.add("Mary");
15
for(int i = 0; i < x.size(); i++) {

System.out.println(x.get(i));

?
}

public class MyClass { }

628
public static void main(String[] args) {
for(int i = 1; i <= 3; i++) {
System.out.print((i & 1) != 0 ? "odd\n" : "even\n");
}
System.exit(0);
}
}

Solution:

odd
even
odd

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
double a, b;
a = -2.5;
b = Math.abs(a);
System.out.printf("|%.2f| = %.2f\n", a, b);
}
}

Solution:

629
|-2.50| = 2.50

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 12, y = 3;
System.out.println(Math.abs(-x - y)); import java.util.ArrayList;

} import java.util.Iterator;
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

ArrayList<String> x = new ArrayList<String>();

Solution: x.add("Albert");

x.add("John");
15
x.add("James");

x.add("Mary");

public class MyClass { Iterator<String> it = x.iterator();

public static void main(String[] args) { System.out.println(it.next());

int x = 12, y = 3; // Output: Albert

System.out.println(-(-x - y));
}
}
}
}

Solution:

630
15

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 12, y = 3;
System.out.println(x - -y);
}
}

Solution:

public class MyClass {

static void myMethod() {
System.out.println("Anyone who has never made a mistake has never tried
anything new.");
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

myMethod();
myMethod();
myMethod();
}
}

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.print(myfunc(3, 5));

636
System.out.print("\n" + myfunc(6, 6));
}
public static int myfunc(int a, int b) {
return a == b ? (a + b) * 3 : a + b;
}
}

Question 65

Question:

Write a program that accepts minutes as input, and display the total number of hours and
minutes.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int mins, hrs;
System.out.print("Input minutes: ");
mins = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
hrs = mins / 60;
mins = mins % 60;
System.out.println("\n" + hrs + " Hours, " + mins + " Minutes.");
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

637
Question 66

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a positive number entered by the user is a multiple
of three or five.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("\nEnter a number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x % 3 == 0 || x % 5 == 0) {
System.out.print("True");
} else {
System.out.print("False");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

638
Question 67

Question:

Write a program to verify whether one of the two entered integers falls within the range
of 100 to 200 included.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y;
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for x: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for y: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x >= 100 && x <= 200 || y >= 100 && y <= 200) {
System.out.print("True");
} else {
System.out.print("False");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

639
Question 68

Question:

Write a program to determine which of the two given integers is closest to the value 100.
If the two numbers are equal, return 0.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.print(myfunc(86, 99));
System.out.print("\n" + myfunc(55, 55));
System.out.print("\n" + myfunc(65, 80));
}

public static int myfunc(int a, int b) {

int x = Math.abs(a - 100);
int y = Math.abs(b - 100);
return x == y ? 0 : (x < y ? a : b);
}
}
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int a = 15;

int b = 13;

// returns false because 15 is not equal to 13

System.out.println(a == b);

640
Question 69

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a positive number entered by the user is a multiple
of three or five, but not both.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("\nEnter a number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x % 3 == 0 ^ x % 5 == 0) {
System.out.print("True");
} else {
System.out.print("False");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int x = 15;

// returns true because 15 is greater than 13 AND 15 is less than 30

System.out.println(x > 13 && x < 30);

641
Question 70

Question:

Write a program to determine whether two entered non-negative numbers have the same
last digit.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y;
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for x: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for y: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(Math.abs(x % 10) == Math.abs(y % 10)) {
System.out.print("True");
} else {
System.out.print("False");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

642
Question 71

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a given non-negative number is a multiple of 12 or

it is one more than a multiple of 12.

import java.util.ArrayList;

public class MyClass {

Solution: public static void main(String[] args) {

ArrayList<Integer> x = new ArrayList<Integer>();

public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) { x.add(30);

int x = 43; x.add(45);

if(x % 12 == 0 || x % 12 == 1) {
x.add(50);
System.out.print("True");
} else { x.add(65);

?
System.out.print("False"); for(int i : x) {
}
System.out.println(i);
}
} }

Question 72

Question:

Write a program that accepts two integers and returns true when one of them equals 6, or
when their sum or difference equals 6.

643
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y;
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for x: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for y: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x == 6 || y == 6 || x + y == 6 || Math.abs(x - y) == 6) {
System.out.print("True");
} else {
System.out.print("False");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 73

Question:

Write a program to check whether it is possible to add two integers to get the third
integer from three entered integers.

Solution:

644
import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y, z;
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for x: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for y: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for z: ");
z = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x == y + z || y == x + z || z == x + y) {
System.out.print("True");
} else {
System.out.print("False");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 74

Question:

Write a program that converts kilometers per hour to miles per hour.

Solution:

645
import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
float kmph;
System.out.print("Enter kilometers per hour: ");
kmph = STDIN_SCANNER.nextFloat();
System.out.printf("\n%f miles per hour", kmph * 0.6213712);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 75

Question:

Write a program to calculate area of an ellipse.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public final static double PI = 3.141592;
public static void main(String[] args) {
float major, minor;
System.out.print("\nEnter length of major axis: ");
major = STDIN_SCANNER.nextFloat();
System.out.print("\nEnter length of minor axis: ");

646
minor = STDIN_SCANNER.nextFloat();
System.out.printf("\nArea of an ellipse = %.4f", PI * major * minor);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 76

Question:

Write a program to calculate the sum of three given integers. Return the third value if the
first two values are equal.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.print("\n" + myfunc(11, 11, 11));
System.out.print("\n" + myfunc(11, 11, 16));
System.out.print("\n" + myfunc(18, 15, 10));
}

public static int myfunc(int a, int b, int c) {

if(a == b && b == c) {
return 0;
}
if(a == b) {
return c;
}

647
import java.util.ArrayList;
if(a == c) {
public class MyClass {
return b;
public static void main(String[] args) {
}
if(b == c) { ArrayList<String> x = new ArrayList<String>();

return a; x.add("Apple");
} else {
x.add("Lemon");
return a + b + c;
x.add("Kiwi");
}
x.add("Orange");
}

?
} for(String i : x) {

System.out.println(i);

}
Question 77
}

Question:

Write a program to convert bytes to kilobytes.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
double bytes;
System.out.print("\nEnter number of bytes: ");
bytes = STDIN_SCANNER.nextDouble();
System.out.printf("\nKilobytes: %.2f", bytes / 1024);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);

648
}

Question 78

Question:

Write a program to convert megabytes to kilobytes.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
double megabytes, kilobytes;
System.out.print("\nInput the amount of megabytes to convert: ");
megabytes = STDIN_SCANNER.nextDouble();
kilobytes = megabytes * 1_024;
System.out.printf("\nThere are %f kilobytes in %f megabytes.", kilobytes,
megabytes);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

649
Question 79

Question:

Write a program to count the number of even elements in an integer array.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] array = new int[1000];
int arrSize, even = 0;
System.out.print("Input the size of the array: ");
arrSize = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter the elements in array: ");
for(int i = 0; i < arrSize; i++) {
array[i] = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
}

for(int i = 0; i < arrSize; i++) {

if(array[i] % 2 == 0) {
even++;
}
}
System.out.print("Number of even elements: " + even);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

650
Question 80

Question:

Write a program to count the number of odd elements in an integer array.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int[] array = new int[1000];
int arrSize, odd = 0;
System.out.print("Input the size of the array: ");
arrSize = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.println("Enter the elements in array: ");
for(int i = 0; i < arrSize; i++) {
array[i] = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
}

for(int i = 0; i < arrSize; i++) {

if(array[i] % 2 != 0) {
odd++;
}
}
System.out.print("Number of odd elements: " + odd);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);

651
}

Question 81

Question:

Write a program that will accept two integers and determine whether or not they are

equal.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y;
System.out.println("Input the values for x and y: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x == y) {
System.out.println("x and y are equal");
} else {
System.out.println("x and y are not equal");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

652
Question 82

Question:

Write a program to find the third angle of a triangle if two angles are given.

Question:

Write a program to add the digits of a two-digit number that is entered by the user.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

660
int x, y, sum = 0;
System.out.print("\nEnter a two-digit number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
y = x;
while(y != 0) {
sum = sum + y % 10;
y = y / 10;
}
System.out.print("\nSum of digits of " + x + " is: " + sum);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 92

Question:

Write a program to verify if a character you entered is a vowel or a consonant.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter a alphabet: ");
char ch = scanner.next().charAt(0);

661
if(ch == 'a' || ch == 'e' || ch == 'i' || ch == 'o' || ch == 'u' ||
ch == 'A' || ch == 'E' || ch == 'I' || ch == 'O' || ch == 'U' ) {
System.out.println(ch + " is vowel");
}
else {
System.out.println(ch + " is consonant"); import java.util.ArrayList;
}
public class MyClass {
}
} public static void main(String[] args) {

ArrayList<String> x = new ArrayList<String>();

x.add("Apple");

x.add("Lemon");

x.add("Kiwi");
Question 93
x.add("Mango");

System.out.println(x.size());
Question:
// Output: 4
Write a program to find factorial of a number.
}

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int fact = 1, num;
System.out.print("\nEnter a number: ");
num = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
for(int i = 1; i <= num; i++) {
fact = fact * i;

662
}
System.out.print("\nFactorial of " + num + " is: " + fact);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 94

Question:

Write a program to print number of days in a month.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "Albert";
String y = "Albert";
if(x == y) {
System.out.println("The 2 strings are equal.");
}
else {
System.out.println("The 2 strings are not equal.");
}
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "Albert";
String y = "Albert";
if(x.equals(y)) {
System.out.println("The 2 strings are equal.");

666
}
else {
System.out.println("The 2 strings are not equal.");
}
}
}

Question 98

Question:

Write a program to convert the upper case string to lower case string.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
String x = new String("ALBERT EINSTEIN");
System.out.println(x.toLowerCase());
}
} public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

String a = "20";

int b = 30;

String c = a + b;

System.out.println(c); // Output: 2030

667
Question 99

Question:

Write a program to find the quotient and remainder of a entered dividend and divisor.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int dividend, divisor;
System.out.print("\nEnter dividend: ");
dividend = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter divisor: ");
divisor = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.println("\nQuotient = " + (dividend / divisor));
System.out.print("\nRemainder = " + (dividend % divisor));
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 100

Question:

Write a program to determine the Size of int, float, double and char.

668
Solution:

public class MyClass {

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) throws Exception {
char ch;
System.out.println("Enter a character: ");
ch = (char)System.in.read();
if(ch == 'y' || ch == 'Y') {
System.out.println("Yes\n");
}
else {
System.out.println("No\n");
}
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String[] args) {
}
// return a random number between 0 and 1

System.out.println(Math.random());

674
Question 106

Question:

Write a program that uses bitwise operators to multiply an entered value by four.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
long x, y;
System.out.print("Enter a integer: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextLong();
y = x;
x = x << 2;
System.out.println(y + " x 4 = " + x);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 107

Question:

Write a program to check whether a number entered by the user is power of 2 or not.

675
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(x != 0 && (x & x - 1) == 0) {
System.out.print("\n" + x + " is a power of 2");
} else {
System.out.print("\n" + x + " is not a power of 2");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 108

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a triangle is scalene, isosceles, or equilateral.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

676
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int side1, side2, side3;
System.out.print("\nEnter the first side of the triangle: ");
side1 = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the second side of the triangle: ");
side2 = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the third side of the triangle: ");
side3 = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(side1 == side2 && side2 == side3) {
System.out.print("\nThe given Triangle is equilateral.");
} else if(side1 == side2 || side2 == side3 || side3 == side1) {
System.out.print("\nThe given Triangle is isosceles.");
} else {
System.out.print("\nThe given Triangle is scalene.");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 109

Question:

Write a program to print ASCII values of all the letters of the English alphabet from A to Z.

677
Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
for(int i = 'A'; i <= 'Z'; i++) {
System.out.println("ASCII value of " + ((char)Byte.toUnsignedInt((byte)i)) +
" = " + i);
}
}
}

Question 110

Question:

Write a program to find sum of even numbers between 1 to n.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int num, sum = 0;
System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
num = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
for(int i = 2; i <= num; i = i + 2) {
sum = sum + i;
}

678
System.out.print("\nSum of all even number between 1 to " + num + " is: " +
sum);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 111

Question:

Write a program to find sum of odd numbers between 1 to n.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int num, sum = 0;
System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
num = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
for(int i = 1; i <= num; i = i + 2) {
sum = sum + i;
}
System.out.print("\nSum of all odd number between 1 to " + num + " is: " +
sum);
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

679
Question 112

Question:

Write a program that accepts an integer (x) and computes the value of x+xx+xxx.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
Scanner in = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.print("Enter a number: ");
x = in .nextInt();
System.out.printf("%d + %d%d + %d%d%d\n", x, x, x, x, x, x);
}
}

Question 113

Question:

Write a program that allows you to enter the cost price and the selling price of a product
and calculate profit or loss.

680
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int cp, sp;
System.out.print("\nInput Cost Price: ");
cp = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nInput Selling Price: ");
sp = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(sp > cp) {
System.out.print("Profit = " + (sp - cp));
} else if(cp > sp) {
System.out.print("Loss = " + (cp - sp));
} else {
System.out.print("No Profit No Loss.");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 114

Question:

Write a program that display the pattern like a right angle triangle using an asterisk.

681
Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int rows;
System.out.print("Input the number of rows: ");
rows = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
for(int x = 1; x <= rows; x++) {
for(int y = 1; y <= x; y++) {
System.out.print("*");
}
System.out.println();
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 115

Question:

Write a program that display the pattern like a right angle triangle using a number.

Solution:

682
import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int rows;
System.out.print("Input the number of rows: ");
rows = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
for(int x = 1; x <= rows; x++) {
for(int y = 1; y <= x; y++) {
System.out.print(y);
}
System.out.println();
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 116

Question:

Write a program to determine the number and sum of all integers between 50 and 100
which are divisible by 2.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

683
int sum = 0;
System.out.println("Numbers between 50 and 100, divisible by 2: ");
for(int x = 51; x < 100; x++) {
if(x % 2 == 0) {
System.out.printf("%5d", x);
sum += x;
}
}
System.out.print("\nThe sum: " + sum);
}
}

Question 117

Question:

Write a program that uses the function to determine whether an entered number is even

or odd.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static int myfunc(int x) {
return x & 1;
}

public static void main(String[] args) {

684
int x;
System.out.print("Enter any number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
if(myfunc(x) != 0) {
System.out.print("\nThe number you entered is odd.");
} else {
System.out.print("\nThe number you entered is even.");
}
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 118

Question:

Write a program to find square root of a entered number.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x;
System.out.print("Enter any number: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.printf("Square root of %d is %.2f", x, Math.sqrt(x));

685
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

Question 119

Question:

Write a program to find power of a entered number using library function.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x, y;
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for x: ");
x = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\nEnter the value for y: ");
y = STDIN_SCANNER.nextInt();
System.out.print("\n" + x + "^" + y + " = " + ((long)Math.pow(x, y)));
}
public final static Scanner STDIN_SCANNER = new Scanner(System.in);
}

686
Question 120

Question:

Write a program to read 10 numbers from the keyboard and find their sum and average.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String [] args) {
int N1, N2, N3, N4, N5, N6, N7, N8, N9, N10, sum;
float X;
Scanner scan = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter any ten Numbers: ");
N1 = scan.nextInt();
N2 = scan.nextInt();
N3 = scan.nextInt();
N4 = scan.nextInt();
N5 = scan.nextInt();
N6 = scan.nextInt();
N7 = scan.nextInt();
N8 = scan.nextInt();
N9 = scan.nextInt();
N10 = scan.nextInt();
sum = N1 + N2 + N3 + N4 + N5 + N6 + N7 + N8 + N9 + N10;
X = sum /10;
System.out.println("The sum of 10 numbers = " + sum);
System.out.println("The average of 10 numbers = " + X);
}
}

687
Question 121

Question:

Write a program to determine whether the given character is an alphanumeric character

or not.

Write a program to get current working directory.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String path = System.getProperty("user.dir");
System.out.println("Current Working Directory: " + path);
}
}

Question 125

Question:

Write a program to split a sentence into words.

Solution:

public static void main(String[] args) {

692
String a=String.join("-","Java","Programming");
System.out.println(a);
}
}

Question 129

Question:

Write a program to calculate surface area of cube.

Solution:

Write a program to multiply a number by 2 without using multiplication operator.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 2;
System.out.print(x << 1);
}
}

Question 134

Question:

Write a program to divide a number by 2 without using division operator.

Solution:

695
public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int x = 12; public class MyClass {
System.out.print(x >> 1);
public static void main(String[] args) {
}
} String x = "Albert";

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("\nJava Version: "+System.getProperty("java.version"));
System.out.println("Java Runtime Version:
"+System.getProperty("java.runtime.version"));
System.out.println("Java Home: "+System.getProperty("java.home"));
System.out.println("Java Vendor: "+System.getProperty("java.vendor"));
System.out.println("Java Vendor URL:
"+System.getProperty("java.vendor.url"));
System.out.println("Java Class Path:
"+System.getProperty("java.class.path")+"\n");
}

704
}

Question 146

Question:

Write a program to get the current system environment and system properties.

Solution:

import java.lang.*;
public class Main {
public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("\nCurrent system environment:");
System.out.println(System.getenv());
System.out.println("\n\nCurrent system properties:");
System.out.println(System.getProperties());
}
}

Question 147

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String x = "abcde", y = "deabc";
if(x.length() != y.length()){
System.out.println("Second string is not a rotation of first string");
}
else {
x = x.concat(x);

if(x.indexOf(y) != -1)

711
System.out.println("Second string is a rotation of first
string");
else
System.out.println("Second string is not a rotation of first
string");
}
}
}

Question 156

Question:

Write a program to illustrate the isNaN method.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

/* The isNaN method returns true if the value is NaN. */

Float a = Float.NaN;
Float b = 6.0f;
System.out.println(a +" - " + a.isNaN());
System.out.println(a +" - " + Float.isNaN(a));
System.out.println(b +" - " + Float.isNaN(b));
}

712
}

Question 157

Question:

Write a program to illustrate the isNaN method.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

/* The isNaN method returns true if the value is NaN. */

Float a = Float.NaN;
Float b = 6.0f;
System.out.println(a +" - " + a.isNaN());
System.out.println(a +" - " + Float.isNaN(a));
System.out.println(b +" - " + Float.isNaN(b));
}
public class MyClass {
}
public static void main(String[] args) {

String[] x = {"Apple", "Orange", "Kiwi", "Lemon"};

for (String i : x) {

?
System.out.println(i);

713
Question 158

Question:

Write a program to Design Simple Calculator.

Solution:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

char operator;
Double number1, number2, result;
Scanner input = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Choose an operator: +, -, *, or /");
operator = input.next().charAt(0);

System.out.println("Enter first number:");

number1 = input.nextDouble();

System.out.println("Enter second number:");

number2 = input.nextDouble();

switch (operator) {

case '+':
result = number1 + number2;
System.out.println(number1 + " + " + number2 + " = " + result);

714
break;

case '-':
result = number1 - number2;
System.out.println(number1 + " - " + number2 + " = " + result);
break;

case '*':
result = number1 * number2;
System.out.println(number1 + " * " + number2 + " = " + result);
break;

case '/':
result = number1 / number2;
System.out.println(number1 + " / " + number2 + " = " + result);
break;

default:
System.out.println("Invalid operator!");
break;
}

input.close();
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

int[][] x = { {11, 12, 13, 14}, {15, 16, 17}};

System.out.println(x[1][2]); // Output: 17

715
Question 159

Question:

Write a program to print Invert Triangle.

Solution:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {
int x = 9;
while(x > 0) {
for(int i=1; i<=x; i++) {
System.out.print(" "+x+" ");
}
System.out.print("\n");
x--;
}
}
}

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

String[] x = {"Albert", "John", "James", "Mary"};

x[0] = "Elsa";

System.out.println(x[0]); // Output: Elsa

716
public class MyClass {

public static void main (String [] args) {

String x = "Einstein";

System.out.println(x.charAt(1));

// Output: i

public class MyClass {

public static void main (String [] args){

# Output:
String x = " Albert ";
Albert
System.out.println(x);
Albert
System.out.println(x.trim());

public class MyClass {

public static void main (String [] args){

double x =56.698;

double y =-56.898;

double z =56.45;

System.out.println(Math.round(x)); // Output: 57

System.out.println(Math.round(y)); // Output: -57

System.out.println(Math.round(z)); // Output: 56

717
public class MyClass {

public static void main (String [] args){

String x = "Most Important Programming Concepts";

System.out.println(x.substring(15));

// Output: Programming Concepts

System.out.println(x.substring(26));

// Output: Concepts

Parallel computing refers to the use of multiple

System.out.println(x.substring(15, 26));
processors or computing systems to solve a single
problem or perform a task. In parallel computing, a
// Output: Programming single task is divided into multiple smaller tasks, each of
which is executed simultaneously on multiple processors
System.out.println(x.substring(0, 5)); or computing systems.

// Output: Most The main goal of parallel computing is to improve the

speed and efficiency of computing systems by dividing a
large problem into smaller subproblems and processing
}
them simultaneously. Parallel computing is used in a
wide range of applications, including scientific
} computing, data analysis, machine learning, image and
signal processing, and more.

Parallel computing can be classified into two

categories: shared memory and distributed memory. In
shared memory systems, multiple processors share a
single memory space and can access the same data
directly. In distributed memory systems, each processor
has its own local memory, and communication between
processors is done via message passing.

Parallel computing is becoming increasingly important

as the demand for faster and more efficient computing
systems continues to grow. It requires specialized
hardware and software, as well as expertise in
programming and algorithm design. Parallel computing
is an important area of study for computer scientists,
engineers, and researchers who are involved in
designing and developing high-performance computing
systems.

718
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

Integer i = new Integer(10);

Output:

int a = i; 10

System.out.println(a);

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

StringBuffer buffer=new StringBuffer("Java");

buffer.append(" Programming");
Output:
System.out.println(buffer);
Java Programming
}

Overloading provides

 code clarity

 reduce complexity

 increases runtime presentation of a code

719
public class MyClass {

public static void main(String args[]) {

StringBuilder builder=new StringBuilder("Java");

builder.append(" Programming");

System.out.println(builder);

Output:

Java Programming

Function overloading Operator overloading

using a single name and giving adding extra functionality

more functionality to it for a certain operator

720
Python Exercises

Python is a well-known general-purpose, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level

programming language. Python is a dynamically typed, garbage-collected programming
language. Between 1985 and 1990, Guido van Rossum developed it. Python is a
wonderful introductory language since its code is clear and simple to read. Python is
capable of doing everything you ask of it. Python is the language for you if you're into
data research, machine learning, or web development. This chapter includes Python
programming language learning problems and solutions. Exercises are an excellent
approach to learn the Python programming language since you learn programming best
by doing. Python is a very well-liked programming language that enables you to create
anything from robotics to web applications.

721
Question 1

Question:

Write a program to add two numbers.

import numpy as np
Solution:
x= np.ones([2,4])
a = 1
b = 2 print(x)

c= a+b print(x.dtype)
print(c)
print(x.shape)

# Output:
a = int(input("Enter a number: "))
b = int(input("Enter a number: ")) [[1. 1. 1. 1.]
c= a+b [1. 1. 1. 1.]]
print(c)
float64

(2, 4)

Question 2

Question:

Write a program to find whether a given number (accept from the user) is even or odd,
print out an appropriate message to the user.

722
Solution:

import sys
a = int(input("Enter a number: "))
if a % 2 == 0: print("Albert (Einstein)")
print("This is an even number.")
# Output: Albert (Einstein)
else:
print("This is an odd number.") print("Elsa (Einstein)", file=sys.stderr)

# Output: Elsa (Einstein)

sys.stderr.write("David Einstein")
Question 3
# Output: David Einstein

Question:

Write a program to check whether a number entered by the user is positive, negative or
zero.

Solution:

a = int(input("Enter a number: "))

if a > 0:
for i in "albert":
print("Positive number")
elif a == 0: print(i)
# Output:
print("Zero")
else: a

print("Negative number") l

723
Question 4

Question:

Write a program to display the calendar of a given date.

names = ["Albert", "Paul", "John"]

Solution:

names[0] = "David"
import calendar
yy = int(input("Enter year: ")) print(names)
mm = int(input("Enter month: "))
# Output: ['David', 'Paul', 'John']
print(calendar.month(yy, mm))

Question 5

Question:

Write a program to ask the user to enter the string and print that string as output of the
program.
x = ("ball", "bag", "bat")

y = iter(x)
# Output:

ball
Solution: print(next(y))
bag
x= input("Enter string: ") print(next(y))
bat
print("You entered:", x) print(next(y))

724
Question 6

Question:

Write a program to concatenate two strings.

Solution:

x = input("Enter first string to concatenate: ")

y = input("Enter second string to concatenate: ")
z = x + y
print("String after concatenation = ", z)

Question 7

Question:

Write a program to check if an item exists in the list.

Solution: x = abs(-9.78)

print(x)
x = ["ball", "book", "pencil"]
i = input("Type item to check: ") # Output: 9.78
if i in x:
print("Item exists in the list.")
else:
print("Item does not exist in the list.")

725
Question 8

Question:

Write a program to join two or more lists.

Write a program to add a string to text file.

Solution: x = ["albert", "john", "david"]

for i in x:
file = open("testfile.txt","w")
file.write("Albert Einstein") print(i)
file.write("Elsa Einstein") if i == "john":
file.write("David Einstein.")
break
file.write("Why E=mc squared?.")
file.close()

# Output:

albert

john

730
Question 17

Question:

Write a program to read a file and display its contents on console.

Solution:

with open('testfile.txt') as f:
i = f.readline() A program to split the string
while i: at every white-space character
print(i)
import re
line = f.readline()

str = "Stephen William Hawking"

x = re.split("\s", str)

Question 18 print(x)

# Output: ['Stephen', 'William', 'Hawking']

Question:

Take two sets, say for example these two: x = {1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89} y = {1, 2,
3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13} and write a program that returns a set that contains only

the elements that are common between the sets.

Solution:

x = {1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89}

y = {1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13}
print(set(x) & set(y))

731
Question 19

Question:

Write a program to split the characters of the given string into a list.

Solution:

x= "albert" A program to replace all white-space

y = list(x) characters with the symbol "+"

print(y) import re

str = "Stephen William Hawking"

x = re.sub("\s", "+", str)

Question 20 print(x)

# Output: Stephen+William+Hawking

Question:

Create a program that asks the user for a number and then prints out a list of all the
divisors of that number.

Solution:

x=int(input("Enter an integer: "))

print("The divisors of the number are: ")
for i in range(1,x+1):
if(x%i==0):

732
print(i)

Question 21

Question:

Write a program to Find the largest of three numbers.

Solution:

x = int(input("Enter first number: "))

y = int(input("Enter second number: "))
z = int(input("Enter third number: "))
if (x > y) and (x > z):
largest = x A program to return a list containing

elif (y > x) and (y > z): every occurrence of "in"

largest = y
else: import re
largest = z
str = "Albert Einstein"
print("The largest number is", largest)

x = re.findall("in", str)

print(x)

Question 22 # Output: ['in', 'in']

Question:

Write a program to find absolute value of a number.

733
Solution:

x = int(input("Enter a number: ")) A program to check if the string starts

if x >= 0: with "The" and ends with "secretary"

import re
print(x)
str = "The boy is the sports secretary"
else:
x = re.search("^The.*secretary$", str)
print(-x)

if x:
print("YES! We've got a match!")
else:
Question 23
print("No match")

Question: # Output: YES! We've got a match!

Write a program to find the length of a string.

Solution:

print("Enter 'y' for exit.")

i = input("Enter a string: ")
if i == 'y':
exit()
else:
print("Length of the string is: ", len(i))

734
Question 24

Question:

Write a program to print natural numbers from 1 to x.

A program to capitalize
Solution: the first letter of each
word in the string
x = int(input("Please Enter any Number: "))
for i in range(1, x+1):
print(i) import camelcase
c = camelcase.CamelCase()
str = "albert einstein"
print(c.hump(str))
Question 25
# Output: Albert Einstein

Question:

Write a program to calculate the sum and average of natural numbers from 1 to x.

Solution:

x = int(input("Please Enter any Number: "))

sum = 0
for i in range(1,x+1): x = [(2,6),(4,7),(5,9),(8,4),(2,1)]
sum = sum + i
x.sort()
print(sum)
average = sum / x print(x)
print(average)
# Output: [(2, 1), (2, 6), (4, 7), (5, 9), (8, 4)]

735
Question 26

Question:

Write a program to print a statement any number of times.

print(type(True))
Solution:
# Output: <class 'bool'>
x = int(input("Please Enter any Number: "))
for i in range(x): print(type(False))
print("Albert Einstein")
# Output: <class 'bool'>

print(type([1,2]))

# Output: <class 'list'>

Question 27
print(type({1,2}))

Question:
# Output: <class 'set'>

Write a program to multiply two numbers using Function.

Solution:

def myfunc():
x = int(input("Enter a number: "))
y=int(input("Enter a number: "))
z= x*y
return z

736
i = myfunc()
print(i)
x = 6

y = 2

print(x+y)
Question 28

# Output: 8
Question:
print(x-y)

Write a program to add an item to the end of the list. # Output: 4

print(x*y)

# Output: 12
Solution:
print(x/y)
x = ["pen", "book", "ball"]
# Output: 3.0
x.append("bat")
print(x)

x = "23"
Question 29
y = "54"

z = x + y
Question:
print(z)
Write a program to remove an item from the list.
# Output: 2354

Solution:

x = ["pen", "book", "ball"]

x.remove("ball")

737
print(x)

Question 30

Question:

Write a program to print the number of elements in an array.

Solution:

x = ["pen", "book", "ball"]

import sys
y = len(x)
print(y) sys.stdout.write("Albert ")

sys.stdout.write("Einstein")

# Output: Albert Einstein

Question 31

Question:

Write a program to calculate the variance and standard deviation of the elements of the

list.

Solution:

import numpy as np
x= [2,6,8,12,18,24,28,32]

738
variance= np.var(x)
std = np.std(x) def main():
print(variance) print("Albert Einstein")
print(std)

if name == "__main__":

main()
Question 32

# Output: Albert Einstein

Question:

Write a program to get the difference between the two lists.

Concurrency in computer science refers to the ability
of a computer system to execute multiple tasks or
processes simultaneously, without affecting the overall
performance of the system. In concurrent computing,
tasks are executed independently, and their execution
Solution: may overlap in time. This enables the computer
system to make more efficient use of its resources and
improve overall performance.
x = [4, 5, 6, 7]
y = [4, 5] Concurrency can be implemented using threads,
which are lightweight processes that share the same
print(list(set(x) - set(y))) memory space and execute independently. Multiple
threads can be executed simultaneously on multiple
processors or cores, enabling the system to perform
multiple tasks in parallel.

Concurrency is used in a wide range of applications,

Question 33 including web servers, database systems, operating
systems, and more. In web servers, concurrency
enables the server to handle multiple requests
simultaneously, improving the responsiveness and
Question: throughput of the system. In database systems,
concurrency enables multiple users to access and
modify the same database simultaneously, without
Write a program to select an item randomly from a list. conflicts or data corruption.

Concurrency can also introduce new challenges, such

as race conditions and deadlocks, which can affect the
correctness and reliability of the system. Ensuring
correct and safe concurrent execution requires
Solution: specialized techniques, such as synchronization,
locking, and atomic operations, which must be
carefully designed and implemented. Concurrency is
an important area of study in computer science, and it
is essential for the development of high-performance
and scalable software systems.

739
import random
x = ['Paper', 'Pencil', 'Book', 'Bag', 'Pen']
print(random.choice(x))

Question 34

Question:

Write a program that prints all the numbers from 0 to 6 except 2 and 6.

def main():

print("William")
Solution:

for x in range(6):
print("Stephen")
if (x == 2 or x==6):
main()
continue
print(x) print("Hawking") # Output:

Stephen

William

Question 35 Hawking

Question:

Write a program that takes input from the user and displays that input back in upper and
lower cases.

Solution:

740
x = input("What is your name? ")
print(x.upper()) print("Albert ", sep="")

print(x.lower()) print("Einstein")

# Output:

Albert
Question 36
Einstein

Question:

Write a program to check whether a string starts with specified characters.

Solution:

x = "science.com"
print(x.startswith("phy"))
print("Albert ", end="")

print("Einstein")

# Output: Albert Einstein

Question 37

Question:

Write a program to create the multiplication table (from 1 to 10) of a number.

Solution:

x = int(input("Enter a number: "))

for i in range(1,11):

741
print(x,'x',i,'=',x*i)

Question 38

Question:

Write a program to check a triangle is equilateral, isosceles or scalene.

Solution: def main():

print("Enter lengths of the triangle sides: ") x = input('First number: ')

x = int(input("x: ")) y = input('Second number: ')

y = int(input("y: "))
print(x + y)
z = int(input("z: "))

?
if x == y == z:
print("Equilateral triangle") main()
elif x==y or y==z or z==x:
print("isosceles triangle")
else:
print("Scalene triangle")

Question 39

Question:

Write a program to sum of two given integers. However, if the sum is between 15 to 20 it
will return 20.

742
Solution:

x = int(input("Enter a number: "))

y = int(input("Enter a number: ")) def main():
z= x+y a = 2.5
if z in range(15, 20):
b = 2.9
print (20)
else: print(int(a) + int(b))

print(z)

main()

# Output: 4

Question 40

Question:

Write a program to convert degree to radian.

x = ["albert", "john", "david"]

Solution:
for i in x:
pi=22/7
if i == "john":
degree = int(input("Input degrees: "))
continue
radian = degree*(pi/180)
print(radian) print(i)

# Output:

albert

david

743
Question 41

Question:

Write a program to generate a random number.

def main():
Solution:
a = 2.5
import random
b = 2.9
print(random.randint(0,9))
print(float(a) + float(b))

main()
Question 42
# Output: 5.4

Question:

Write a program to find the semi-perimeter of triangle.

Solution:

x = int(input('Enter first side: '))

y = int(input('Enter second side: '))
z = int(input('Enter third side: '))
s = (x + y + z) / 2
print(s)

744
Question 43

Question:

Given a list of numbers, iterate it and print only those numbers which are divisible of 2.

Solution: x = '2'

print(x)
x = [10, 20, 33, 46, 55]
for i in x: # Output: 2

if (i % 2 == 0): print(x.isdecimal())
print(i)
# Output: True

print(x.isnumeric())

# Output: True
Question 44

if x.isdecimal():
Question:
y = int(x)

Write a program to multiply all numbers in the list. print(y)

# Output: 2

Solution:

import numpy
x = [1, 2, 3]
y = numpy.prod(x)
print(y)

745
Question 45

Question:

Write a program to print ASCII Value of a character.

x = "56"

print(type(x))

# Output: <class 'str'>

# Append a new data

customers['6'] = 'Mehboba Ferdous'

747
print("The customer names are:")
# Print the values of the dictionary
def main():
for customer in customers:
print(customers[customer]) x = input('First number: ')

y = input('Second number: ')

# Take customer ID as input to search
if int(y) == 0:
name = input("Enter customer ID:")
print("Cannot divide by 0")

# Search the ID in the dictionary else:

for customer in customers:
print("Dividing", x, "by", y)
if customer == name:
print(int(x) / int(y))
print(customers[customer])
break main()

Question 49
?
Question:

Write a program to obtain the details of the math module.

Solution:

import math
print(dir(math))

748
Question 50

Question:

Write a program to demonstrate throw and catch exception.

Solution: import random

# Try block names = ["Albert", "John", "Mary", "Alan"]

try:
# pick and print one of the names
# Take a number
x = int(input("Enter a number: ")) print(random.choice(names))
if x % 2 == 0:
# Output: Albert
print("Number is even")
else:
print("Number is odd")

# Exception block
except (ValueError):
# Print error message
print("Enter a numeric value")

Output:

import array 13

x = array.array('i', [11,13,15,17,19]) 15
for i in x:
17
print(i)
19

749
Question 51

Question:

Write a program to illustrate password authentication.

a = 4

Solution: b = 2

# import getpass module print(a ** b) # is the same as a ^ b

import getpass
# Output: 16

# Take password from the user print(a % b)

passwd = getpass.getpass('Password:')
# a is divided by b that returns 0 as the remainder

# Check the password # Output: 0

if passwd == "albert": a += 2 # is the same as a = a + 2

print("You are authenticated")
else: print(a)

print("You are not authenticated")

Question 57

Question:

Write a program to read two numbers and print their quotient and remainder.

Solution:

a=int(input("Enter the first number: "))

b=int(input("Enter the second number: ")) for x in range(7):
quotient=a//b print(x)
remainder=a%b 0

print("Quotient is:", quotient) 1

print("Remainder is:", remainder) Output
2

754
Question 58

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a given value is present in a collection of values.

Solution: x = 0

if x:

def myfunc(x, i): print("Albert Einstein")

for value in x: else:

if i == value:
print("Elsa Einstein")
return True
return False
print(myfunc([19, 15, 18, 13], 13)) # Output: Elsa Einstein
print(myfunc([15, 18, 13], -11))

Question 59
x = 1

if x:
Question:
print("Albert Einstein")
Write a program to print odd numbers within a given range.
else:

print("Elsa Einstein")

Solution:
# Output: Albert Einstein

755
x=int(input("Enter the lower limit for the range: "))
y=int(input("Enter the upper limit for the range: "))
for i in range(x,y+1):
if(i%2!=0):
print(i)

Question 60

Question:

Write a program to find the smallest divisor of an integer.

for i in range(5):
Solution:
print(i)

else:
n=int(input("Enter an integer: "))
a=[] print("Albert!")

for i in range(2,n+1):
if(n%i==0): # Output:
a.append(i)
0
a.sort()
print("Smallest divisor is:",a[0]) 1

Albert!

756
Question 61

Question:

Write a program to count the number of digits in a number.

x = "56"

y = 56

print(x == y)
Solution:
# Output: False

n=int(input("Enter a number:")) print(x != y)

i=0
# Output: True
while(n>0):
i=i+1 print(y == 56.0)

n=n//10
# Output: True
print("The number of digits in the number are:", i)
print(None == None)

# Output: True

for i in range (n,0,-1):
"William " \
print((n-i) * ' ' + i * '*')
"Hawking"

print(x)

# Output: Stephen William Hawking

Write a program to put the even and odd elements in a list into two different lists.

x = "Einstein"
Solution:
a = x[0]
a=[]
n=int(input("Enter number of elements:")) print(a)

for i in range(1,n+1):
# Output: E
b=int(input("Enter element:"))
a.append(b) b = x[3]

even=[]
print(b)
odd=[]
for j in a: # Output: s

762
if(j%2==0):
even.append(j)
else:
str = "wxyz"
odd.append(j)
print("The even list", even) print(str)
print("The odd list", odd)
# Output: wxyz

str = str[:2] + 'Q' + str[3:]

print(str)

Question 70 # Output: wxQz

Question:

Write a program to concatenate all elements in a list into a string and return it.

x = ["Alan", "Albert"]

y = ["Turing", "Einstein"]
Solution:

def myfunc(list):
for a in x:
result= ''
for i in list: for b in y:

result += str(i) print(a, b)

return result
# Output:
print(myfunc([2, 4, 13, 4])) Alan Turing

Alan Einstein

Albert Turing

Albert Einstein

763
Question 71

Question:

Write a program to add the three integers given. However, the sum will be zero if two
values are equal.

Solution:

def myfunc(a, b, c): x = "albert"

if a == b or b == c or a==c:
sum = 0 y = x.upper()

else:
print(y)
sum = a + b + c
return sum # Output: ALBERT

print(myfunc(12, 11, 12))

print(y.lower())
print(myfunc(13, 22, 22))
print(myfunc(22, 22, 22)) # Output: albert
print(myfunc(12, 22, 13))

Question 72

Question:

Write a program to sort a list according to the length of the elements.

764
Solution: x = "Einstein"

if "ein" in x:

x=[] print('Found ein')

n=int(input("Enter number of elements: ")) else:

for i in range(1,n+1):
print("NOT found ein")
y=input("Enter element: ")
x.append(y)
x.sort(key=len) # Output: Found ein
print(x)

Question 73

Question:

Write a program to create a list of tuples with the first element as the number and the
second element as the square of the number.

Solution:

x=int(input("Enter the lower range:"))

y=int(input("Enter the upper range:"))
a=[(i,i**2) for i in range(x,y+1)]
print(a)

765
Question 74

Question:

Write a program to create a list of all numbers in a range which are perfect squares and
the sum of the digits of the number is less than 10.

Solution:

l=int(input("Enter lower range: "))

u=int(input("Enter upper range: "))
a=[]
a=[x for x in range(l,u+1) if (int(x**0.5))**2==x and
sum(list(map(int,str(x))))<10]
print(a)
for x in range(32, 126):

?
print(x, chr(x))

Question 75

Question:

Write a program to convert a distance (in feet) to inches, yards, and miles.

Solution:

766
n = int(input("Enter the distance in feet: "))
x = n * 12
y = n / 3.0
x = "Albert Einstein"
z = n / 5280.0
print(x[1:4])
print("The distance in inches is: %i inches." % x)
# Output: lbe
print("The distance in yards is: %.2f yards." % y)
print("The distance in miles is: %.2f miles." % z) print(x[2:])

# Output: bert Einstein

print(x[:2])

# Output: Al
Question 76

Question:

Write a program to generate random numbers from 1 to 20 and append them to the list.

Solution:

import random
a=[]
n=int(input("Enter number of elements:"))
for j in range(n):
a.append(random.randint(1,20))
print('Randomised list is: ',a)

767
Question 77

Question:

Write a program to sort a list of tuples in increasing order by the last element in each
tuple.
import numpy as np

x = np.array([2, 4, 8])

y = np.array([3, 6, 12])
Solution:
print(x)

# Output: [2 4 8]
def last(n): print(y)
return n[-1]
# Output: [3 6 12]

def sort(tuples): print(np.multiply(x, y))

return sorted(tuples, key=last) # Output: [6 24 96]

print(np.dot(x, y)) # dot product

a=input("Enter a list of tuples:")
# Output: 126
print("Sorted:")
print(sort(a)) print(np.matmul(x, y)) # matrix multiplication

# Output: 126

Output:
import array
19
x = array.array('i', [11,13,15,17,19])
17
x.reverse()
15
for i in x:
13
print(i)
11

768
Question 78

Question:

Write a program to determine whether the system is a big-endian or little-endian

platform.
x = 'Albert Einstein'

for i in x:

if i == ' ':
Solution:

break

import sys print(i)

print()
if sys.byteorder == "little":
print("Little-endian platform.") # Output:
else:
A
print("Big-endian platform.")
l
print()
b

Question 79 t

Question:

Write a program to examine the available built-in modules.

Solution:

769
import sys
x = ', '.join(sorted(sys.builtin_module_names))
print("The available built-in modules are: ")
print()
print(x) x = 2

i = x == 2

print(i)

Question 80 # Output: True

if i:
Question:
print("Albert Einstein")

Write a program to determine an object's size in bytes. else:

print("Elsa Einstein")

# Output: Albert Einstein

Solution:

import sys
x = "three"
y = 154
z = [11, 12, 13, 'Ball', 'Bat']
print("Size of ",x,"=",str(sys.getsizeof(x))+ " bytes")
print("Size of ",y,"=",str(sys.getsizeof(y))+ " bytes")
print("Size of ",z,"=",str(sys.getsizeof(z))+ " bytes")

770
Question 81

Question:
x = 'Albert Einstein'

Write a program to concatenate 'n' strings. for i in x:

if i == ' ':

continue
Solution:
print(i)

x = ['Stephen', 'William', 'Hawking']

# Output:
i = '-'.join(x)
print() A
print(i) l
print()
b

t
Question 82
E

i
Question:
n
Write a program to display the current date and time.
s

e
Solution:
i

n
import datetime

771
print(datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S"))

x = 1915

y = 'Albert'
Question 83
print("%s Einstein's %s papers." % (y, x))

# Output: Albert Einstein's 1915 papers.

Question:

Write a program to calculate the volume of a sphere with a radius of 8.

Solution:

pi=22/7
r = 8.0
V = 4.0/3.0*pi*r**3
print('The volume of the sphere is: ',V)

Question 84

Question:

Write a program to check whether every number in a list exceeds a specific number.

Solution:

772
x = [12, 33, 44, 55]
print()
print(all(i > 11 for i in x))
print(all(i > 100 for i in x))
print()

x = 1915

y = 'Albert'

print(y + " Einstein's " + str(x) + " papers.")

Question 85

# Output: Albert Einstein's 1915 papers.

Question:

Write a program that count the occurrences of a particular character within a given string.

Solution:

x = "Albert Einstein."
print("Number of occurrence of 'e' in the given string: ")
print(x.count("e"))

Question 86

Question:

Write a program to compute simple interest given all the required values.

773
Solution:

x=float(input("Enter the principal amount: "))

y=float(input("Enter the rate: "))
z=int(input("Enter the time (years): "))
simple_interest=(x*y*z)/100
print("The simple interest is: ", simple_interest)

x = 1915

y = 'Albert'

Question 87 print("{} Einstein's {} papers.".format(y, x))

# Output: Albert Einstein's 1915 papers.

Question:

Write a program to check whether a given year is a leap year or not.

Solution:

year=int(input("Enter the year to be checked: "))

if(year%4==0 and year%100!=0 or year%400==0):
print("The", year, "is a leap year!")
else:
print("The", year, "isn't a leap year!")

774
Question 88

Question:

Write a program that determines if a file path points to a file or a directory.

Solution:

import os
path="1.txt"
if os.path.isdir(path):
print("It is a directory")
elif os.path.isfile(path):
print("It is a regular file")
else:
print("It is a unique file (socket, FIFO, device file)" )
print()

x = 1915

y = 'Albert'

print("{0} Einstein's {1} papers.".format(y, x))

Question 89
# Output: Albert Einstein's 1915 papers.

Question:

Write a program to generate all the divisors of an integer.

Solution:

775
x=int(input("Enter an integer: "))
print("The divisors of", x, "are: ")
for i in range(1, x+1):
if(x%i==0):
print(i)

x = 1915

y = 'Albert'

print("{1} Einstein's {0} papers.".format(y, x))

Question 90
# Output: 1915 Einstein's Albert papers.

Question:

Write a program to print the table of a given number.

Solution:

n=int(input("Enter the number to print the tables for: "))

778
x = 'Albert Einstein'
x=int(input("Enter the first number: "))
for i in x:
y=int(input("Enter the second number: "))
if(x>y): if i == ' ':
min=x
else: continue

min=y if i == 'n':
while(1):
if(min%x==0 and min%y==0): break

print("LCM is:",min) print(i)

break
min=min+1 print('NSTEIN')

# Output:

A
Question 95
l

b
Question:
e

Write a program to find the GCD of two numbers. r

Solution: i

NSTEIN

import math
x=int(input("Enter the first number: "))
y=int(input("Enter the second number: "))
print("The GCD of the two numbers is", math.gcd(x,y))

779
x = [

["John", 56],

["Albert", 77],

Question 96 ["Alan", 17],

["Mary", 39],
Question:
["James", 44],

Write a program to determine a file's size. ]

print(type(x))

Solution: # Output: <class 'list'>

import os for i in x:

x = os.path.getsize("1.csv") print("{} {}".format(i[0], i[1]))

print("The size of 1.csv is:", x, "Bytes")
print()
# Output:

John 56

Albert 77

Alan 17
Question 97
Mary 39

James 44
Question:

Write a program to check if two numbers are amicable numbers.

Solution:

x=int(input('Enter number 1: '))

780
y=int(input('Enter number 2: '))
sum1=0 x = "Albert"
sum2=0
for i in range(1,x): print("'{}'".format(x))

if x%i==0: print("'{:12}'".format(x))
sum1+=i
for j in range(1,y): print("'{:<12}'".format(x))

if y%j==0:
print("'{:>12}'".format(x))
sum2+=j
if(sum1==y and sum2==x): print("'{:^12}'".format(x))

print('Amicable!')
else: # Output:
print('Not Amicable!')
'Albert'

'Albert '

' Albert'
Question 98
' Albert '

Question:

Write a program to find the area of a triangle given all three sides.

Solution:

import math
a=int(input("Enter first side: "))
b=int(input("Enter second side: "))
c=int(input("Enter third side: "))
s=(a+b+c)/2

781
area=math.sqrt(s*(s-a)*(s-b)*(s-c))
print("Area of the triangle is: ",round(area,2))

x = "Albert"
Question 99
print("{:s}".format(x))

Question: # Output: Albert

Write a program to find the gravitational force acting between two objects.

Solution:

m1=float(input("Enter the first mass: "))

m2=float(input("Enter the second mass: "))
r=float(input("Enter the distance between the centers of the masses: "))
G=6.673*(10**-11)
f=(G*m1*m2)/(r**2)
print("Hence, the gravitational force is: ",round(f,2),"N")

Question 100

Question:

Write a program to determine if a string is numeric.

782
Solution:
a = 549.9678962314589

print("{:e}".format(a))
x = 'x549'
try: # Output: 5.499679e+02
i = float(x)
print("{:E}".format(a))
print('Numeric')
except (ValueError, TypeError): # Output: 5.499679E+02
print('Not numeric')
print("{:f}".format(a))
print()

# Output: 549.967896

print("{:.2f}".format(a))

# Output: 549.97

Question 101 print("{:F}".format(a))

# Output: 549.967896
Question:
print("{:g}".format(a))

Write a program to find out which host the routine is running on. # Output: 549.968

print("{:G}".format(a))

# Output: 549.968
Solution:
print("{:n}".format(a))

# Output: 549.968
import socket
x = socket.gethostname()
print("Host name: ", x)

783
Question 102

Question:

Write a program to find the sum of first n positive integers.

Solution:

n=int(input("Enter a number: "))

sum = 0
while(n > 0):
sum=sum+n
n=n-1
print("The sum of first n positive integers is: ", sum)

n = int(input("Enter a number: "))

sum = (n * (n + 1)) / 2
print("The sum of first", n ,"positive integers is:", sum)

def myfunc(x = "Paul"):

print("Albert " + x)

myfunc("Einstein")

# Output: Albert Einstein

784
Question 103

Question:

Write a program to find the sum of series: 1 + 1/2 + 1/3 + ….. + 1/n.

Solution:

n=int(input("Enter the number of terms: "))

sum=0
for i in range(1,n+1):
sum=sum+(1/i)
print("The sum of series is: ", round(sum,2))

num = ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', '10']

print(num[::])
Question 104
# Output: ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', '10']

Question:

Write a program to get numbers divisible by 12 from a list using an anonymous function.

Solution:

x = [55, 144, 72, 155, 120, 135, 540]

result = list(filter(lambda i: (i % 15 == 0), x))
print("Numbers divisible by 12 are: ", result)

785
Question 105

Question:

Write a program to format a given string with a string length limitation.

pi = 3.141592653589793
Solution:
r = 6

print(f"The value of PI is: '{pi:.4}'.")

x = "987653421066"
print('%.5s' % x) # Output: The value of PI is: '3.142'.
print('%.7s' % x)
print(f"The value of PI is: '{pi:.4f}'.")
print('%.9s' % x)
# Output: The value of PI is: '3.1416'.

print(f"Area of a circle is: {pi * r ** 2}")

# Output: Area of a circle is: 113.09733552923255

print(f"Area of a circle is: {pi * r ** 2:.4f}")

Question 106
# Output: Area of a circle is: 113.0973

Question:

Write a program that accepts a number as input and returns an error if it is not a number.

Solution:

786
while True:
try:
x = 68
a = int(input("Enter a number: "))
print("This is a number") print("<%s>" % x)

break
# Output: <68>
except ValueError:
print("This isn't a number") print("<%10s>" % x)

print()
# Output: < 68>

print("<%-10s>" % x)

# Output: <68 >

print("<%c>" % x)
Question 107
# Output: D

print("<%d>" % x)
Question:

# Output: <68>
Write a program to filter the negative numbers from a list.
print("<%0.5d>" % x)

# Output: <00068>

Solution:

x = [22, -10, 11, -28, 52, -75]

y = list(filter(lambda i: i <0, x))
print("Negative numbers in the above list: ", y)

num = ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', '10']

print(num[::1])

# Output: ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', '10']

787
Question 108

Question:

Write a program to find whether a number is a power of two.

Solution:

def myfunc(n): x="Albert"

"""Return True if n is a power of two."""
print(r"b\nc {x}")
if n <= 0:
return False # Output: b\nc {x}
else:
return n & (n - 1) == 0 print(rf"b\nc {x}")

# Output: b\nc Albert

n = int(input('Enter a number: ')) print(fr"b\nc {x}")

# Output: b\nc Albert

if myfunc(n):
print('{} is a power of two.'.format(n))
else:
print('{} is not a power of two.'.format(n))

import array

x = array.array('i', [11,13,15,17,19,13])

print("Number of times the number 13 appears in the above array is: ", x.count(13))

# Output: Number of times the number 13 appears in the above array is: 2

788
Question 109

Question:

Write a program to solve (a - b) * (a - b).

Solution:

a, b = 2, 4
result = a * a - 2 * a * b + b * b
print("({} - {}) ^ 2 = {}".format(a, b, result))

num = ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', '10']

print(num[::2])

Question 110
# Output: ['1', '3', '5', '7', '9']

Question:

Write a program to generate a new string with the prefix "Al" from a given string. Return
the given text in its original form if it already contains the "Al" prefix.

Solution:

def myfunc(x):
if len(x) >= 2 and x[:2] == "Al":
return x

789
return "Al" + x
print(myfunc("Albert"))
print(myfunc("bert"))

num = ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', '10']

print(num[1::2])
Question 111
# Output: ['2', '4', '6', '8', '10']

Question:

Write a program that count all occurrences of the number 5 in a list.

Solution:

def myfunc(y):
def myfunc(x):
i = 0
for x in y: return 6 * x

if x == 5:
i = i + 1
print(myfunc(6))

# Output: 36
return i

print(myfunc([11, 5, 16, 18, 15]))

print(myfunc([17, 14, 5, 12, 9, 5]))

790
Question 112

Question:

Write a program to determine if a file is present.

num = ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', '10']

print(num[2:8:2])
Solution: # Output: ['3', '5', '7']

import os.path
print(os.path.isfile('1.txt'))
print(os.path.isfile('1.pdf'))

x = ['11', '12', '13', '14']

x[0] = '10'

print(x)
Question 113
# Output: ['10', '12', '13', '14']

Question:

Write a program to replace all occurrences of 'a' with '$' in a string.

Solution:

x=input("Enter string: ")

x=x.replace('a','$')
x=x.replace('A','$')
print("Modified string: ")

791
print(x)

x = ['11', '12', '13', '14']

x[1:3] = ['alan', 'john']

Question 114 print(x)

# Output: ['11', 'alan', 'john', '14']

Question:

Write a program to calculate the product of a list of numbers (without using for loop).

Solution:

from functools import reduce

num = [2, 4, 10,11]
result = reduce( (lambda x, y: x * y), num)
print("Product of the above numbers is: ", result)

num = ['1', '2', '3', '4', '5', '6', '7', '8', '9', '10']
Question 115
print(num[1:20:3])

Question: # Output: ['2', '5', '8']

Write a program to detect if two strings are anagrams.

Solution:

792
x=input("Enter first string: ")
y=input("Enter second string: ")
if(sorted(x)==sorted(y)):
print("The 2 strings are anagrams.")
else:
print("The 2 strings aren't anagrams.")

x = ['11', '12', '13', '14']

x[1:3] = ['john']

Question 116 print(x)

# Output: ['11', 'john', '14']

Question:

Write a program to form a string where the first character and the last character have
been exchanged.

Solution:

def change(x):
return x[-1:] + x[1:-1] + x[:1]
x=input("Enter a string: ")
print("Modified string: ")
print(change(x))

x = ['100', '120', '130', '140']

x[1:2] = ['bat', 'ball']

print(x)

# Output: ['100', 'bat', 'ball', '130', '140']

793
Question 117

Question:

Write a program to count the number of vowels in a string.

Solution:

string=input("Enter string:")
vowels=0
for i in string:
if(i=='a' or i=='e' or i=='i' or i=='o' or i=='u' or i=='A' or i=='E'
or i=='I' or i=='O' or i=='U'):
vowels=vowels+1
print("Number of vowels are:")
print(vowels)
x = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]

print(x)

# Output: [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22]

x[1::2] = [10, 10, 10, 10, 10, 10]

Question 118
print(x)

Question: # Output: [11, 10, 13, 10, 15, 10, 17, 10, 19, 10, 21, 10]

Write a program to take a string and replace every blank space with a hyphen.

Solution:

794
string=input("Enter a string: ")
a = ['alan', 'john', 'mary', 'david']
string=string.replace(' ','-')
print("Modified string:") b = a
print(string) a[0] = 'computer'

print(a)

# Output: ['computer', 'john', 'mary', 'david']

print(b)
Question 119
# Output: ['computer', 'john', 'mary', 'david']

Question:

Write a program to calculate the length of a string without using library functions.

Solution:

s=input("Enter string: ")

x=0
for i in s:
x=x+1
print("Length of the string is: ")
print(x)

import array

x = array.array('i', [11,13,15,17,19,22])

print("Length of the array is: ", len(x))

# Output: Length of the array is: 6

795
Question 120

Question:

Write a program to determine whether lowercase letters are present in a string.

from copy import deepcopy

Solution:
a = ['green', 'red', 'blue', 'orange']

b = deepcopy(a)
x = 'Albert Einstein'
print(any(i.islower() for i in x)) a[0] = 'albert'

print(a)

# Output: ['albert', 'red', 'blue', 'orange']

print(b)

Question 121 # Output: ['green', 'red', 'blue', 'orange']

Question:

Write a program to calculate the number of words and characters present in a string.

Solution: x = ["albert", "1915", "john"]

y = ["albert", 1915, "john"]

x=input("Enter a string: ") print(":".join(x))

char=0
# Output: albert:1915:john
word=1
for i in x:
char=char+1

796
if(i==' '):
word=word+1
print("Number of words in the string: ")
print(word)
print("Number of characters in the string: ")
print(char)

x = ["albert", "1915", "john"]

y = ["albert", 1915, "john"]

print(":".join( map(str, y)))

Question 122
# Output: albert:1915:john

Question:

Write a program that rounds a floating-point integer to a specified number of decimal

places.

x = ["albert", "1915", "john"]

Solution:
y = ["albert", 1915, "john"]

x = 549.968 print(":".join(str(i) for i in y))

print('%f' % x)
# Output: albert:1915:john
print('%.2f' % x)
print()

def myfunc(x,y):

print(x+y) # Output: 58

myfunc("5","8")

797
Question 123

Question:

Write a program to count number of lowercase characters in a string.

Solution:

x=input("Enter string: ") print("xy:wz:pq".split(':'))

count=0
# Output: ['xy', 'wz', 'pq']
for i in x:
if(i.islower()):
count=count+1
print("The number of lowercase characters is: ")
print(count)

Question 124

Question:

Write a program to count the number of lowercase letters and uppercase letters in a
string.

Solution:

798
x=input("Enter a string: ")
count1=0 x = "bat ball bag".split()

count2=0 print(x)
for i in x:
# Output: ['bat', 'ball', 'bag']
if(i.islower()):
count1=count1+1
elif(i.isupper()):
count2=count2+1
print("The number of lowercase characters is: ")
print(count1)
print("The number of uppercase characters is: ")
print(count2)

Question 125

Question:

Write a program to calculate the number of digits and letters in a string.

Solution: x = ['apple', 'orange', 'mango', 'kiwi']

print(x.index('orange'))

x=input("Enter a string: ") # Output: 1

count1=0
count2=0
for i in x:
if(i.isdigit()):

799
count1=count1+1
count2=count2+1
print("The number of digits is: ")
print(count1)
print("The number of characters is: ")
print(count2)

x = ['apple', 'orange', 'mango', 'kiwi']

x.insert(2, 'fig')

print(x)
Question 126
# Output: ['apple', 'orange', 'fig', 'mango', 'kiwi']

Question:

Write a program to form a new string made of the first 2 characters and last 2 characters

from a given string.

Solution:

x=input("Enter a string: ")

count=0
for i in x:
count=count+1
new=x[0:2]+x[count-2:count]
print("Newly formed string is: ")
print(new)
x = ['apple', 'orange', 'mango', 'kiwi']

x.insert(len(x), 'papaya')

print(x)

# Output: ['apple', 'orange', 'mango', 'kiwi', 'papaya']

800
Question 127

Question:

Write a program to create a bytearray from a list.

Solution:

x = [10, 20, 56, 35, 17, 99]

# Create bytearray from list of integers.
y = bytearray(x)
for i in y: print(i)
print()
x = ['apple', 'orange', 'mango', 'kiwi', 'papaya']

x[2:4] = []

print(x)
Question 128
# Output: ['apple', 'orange', 'papaya']

Solution:

803
x='122.22'
x = x.ljust(8, '0')
print(x)
x = ['alan', 'albert', 'james', 'bob']
x = x.ljust(10, '0')
print(x) x.sort(key=len, reverse=True)

print(x)

# Output: ['albert', 'james', 'alan', 'bob']

Question 132

Question:

Write a program that displays strings with double quotes.

Solution:

import json
print(json.dumps({'Albert': 1, 'Alan': 2, 'Alex': 3}))

Question 133

Question:

Write a program to check if a given key exists in a dictionary or not.

804
Solution:

d={'A':1,'B':2,'C':3}
key=input("Enter key to check:")
if key in d.keys():
print("Key is present and value of the key is:")
print(d[key])
else: for x in range(10, 19, 5):
print("Key isn't present!")
print(x)

# Output:

Question 134 15

Question:

Write a program to find the sum all the items in a dictionary.

Solution:

d={'A':100,'B':540,'C':239}
print("Total sum of values in the dictionary is: ")
print(sum(d.values()))

805
Question 135

Question:

Write a program to multiply all the items in a dictionary.

Solution: x = ['albert', 'elsa']

y = ['david']

d={'A':10,'B':10,'C':239} print(x)
x=1
for i in d: # Output: ['albert', 'elsa']

x=x*d[i]
print(x * 2)
print(x)
# Output: ['albert', 'elsa', 'albert', 'elsa']

print(x + y)

# Output: ['albert', 'elsa', 'david']

Question 136

Question:

Write a program to remove the given key from a dictionary.

Solution:

d = {'a':1,'b':2,'c':3,'d':4}
print("Initial dictionary")

806
print(d)
a, b = 11, 12
key=input("Enter the key to delete(a-d):")
if key in d: print(a)

del d[key]
# Output: 11
else:
print("Key not found!") print(b)
exit(0)
# Output: 12
print("Updated dictionary")
print(d) a, b = b, a

print(a)

# Output: 12

print(b)
Question 137
# Output: 11

Question:

Write a program to list the home directory without using an absolute path.

Solution:

import os.path
print(os.path.expanduser('~'))

x = [5,8,57,35,44,14,28]

print([i for i in x if i%2!=0]) # Output:

[5, 57, 35]

807
Question 138 x = [0] * 5

for i in range(0, 5):

Question:
print("{} {}".format(i, x[i]))

count = 0
vowels = set("aeiou")
for letter in s:
if letter in vowels:
count += 1
print("The number of vowels present in a string is: ")
print(count)
x= ['Alan Turing', 'Mary John']

y = ['David Hilbert', 'Joseph Sam']

x.extend(y)

Question 142 print(x)

# Output: ['Alan Turing', 'Mary John', 'David Hilbert', 'Joseph Sam']

Question:

Write a program to check common letters in the two input strings.

Solution:

x=input("Enter the first string: ")

y=input("Enter the second string: ")
z=list(set(x)&set(y))
print("The common letters are: ")
for i in z:
print(i)

810
Question 143

Question:

Write a program to display which letters are in the first string but not in the second string.

Solution:

x=input("Enter the first string: ")

y=input("Enter the second string: ")
z=list(set(x)-set(y))
print("The letters in the first string but not in the second string are: ")
for i in z: Distributed computing refers to the use of multiple interconnected computers to solve a single
problem or perform a single task. The goal of distributed computing is to leverage the processing
print(i) power and storage capacity of multiple computers to achieve a common goal. In a distributed
computing system, each computer works independently and cooperatively with the other computers
in the network to share data, resources, and processing tasks.

Distributed computing systems can vary in size and complexity, ranging from small peer-to-peer
networks to large-scale grid computing systems that involve thousands of computers. Examples of
distributed computing systems include cloud computing platforms, content delivery networks, and
distributed databases.
Question 144
Distributed computing can offer a number of advantages over traditional centralized computing
systems, such as increased processing power, scalability, fault tolerance, and reduced latency.
Question: However, it can also introduce challenges related to security, data consistency, and communication
between the different nodes in the network.

Write a program to determine whether a variable is a list, tuple, or set.

Solution:

811
i = ['list', True, 8.9, 6] import numpy as np
if type(i) is list:
x = np.random.randint(10, size=(2, 3))
print('i is a list')
elif type(i) is set: print(x)

?
print('i is a set')
elif type(i) is tuple:
print('i is a tuple')
else:
print('Neither a set, list, or tuple.')

Question 145

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a given number is even or odd recursively.

# Output:

albert => 46
Solution: x = {
bob => 18
"albert" : "46",
john => 68
def myfunc(n): "bob" : "18",
if (n < 2): "john" : "68",
return (n % 2 == 0)
}
return (myfunc(n - 2))
n=int(input("Enter a number: "))
if(myfunc(n)==True): for name, age in x.items():
print("Number is even!")
print("{} => {}".format(name, age))
else:

812
print("Number is odd!")

Question 146

Question:

Write a program that examines a list of numbers to see if they are all distinct from one

another. x = {}

x['name'] = 'albert'

print(x)
Solution:
# Output: {'name': 'albert'}

x['email'] = 'albert_john@gmail.com'
def myfunc(x):
if len(x) == len(set(x)): print(x)

return True # Output: {'name': 'albert', 'email': 'albert_john@gmail.com'}

else:
return False;
print(myfunc([11,15,17,19]))
print(myfunc([12,14,15,15,17,19]))

x = "Albert "

y = "Einstein" # Output: Albert Einstein

print(x + y)

813
Question 147

Question:

Write a program to add two positive numbers without using the '+' operator.

Solution: x = {

'name': 'Albert',

def myfunc(x, y): 'age': 26,

while y != 0: 'email': None
z = x & y x = lambda a, b: a * b
}
x = x ^ y
print(x(2, 2))
y = z << 1
return x # Output: 4 print(x.get('name'))
print(myfunc(12, 50))
# Output: Albert

print(x.get('age'))

# Output: 26

print(x.get('email'))

# Output: None
Question 148
print(x.get('address'))

Question: # Output: None

Write a program to find the factorial of a number using recursion.

Solution:

814
def myfunc(n): x = {

if(n <= 1):

'name': 'Albert',
return 1
else: 'age': 26,

return(n*myfunc(n-1))
'email': None
n = int(input("Enter a number: "))
print("Factorial of", n, "is:", myfunc(n)) }

print('name' in x.values())

# Output: False

Question 149 print('Albert' in x.values())

# Output: True
Question:

Write a program to determine whether a right triangle is formed by three given side
lengths. If the specified sides make a right triangle, print "Yes," otherwise print "No."

Solution:

print("Enter three side lengths of a triangle: ")

a,b,c = sorted(list(map(int,input().split())))
if a**2+b**2==c**2:
print('Yes')
else:
print('No')

815
Question 150

Question:

Write a program to find the number of equal numbers among three given integers.

x = {
Solution:
'name': 'Albert',
def myfunc(a, b, c):
'age': 26,
result= set([a, b, c])
if len(result)==3: 'email': None

return 0 }
else:
return (4 - len(result))
print(x)

print(myfunc(11, 11, 11))

print(myfunc(11, 12, 12)) # Output: {'name': 'Albert', 'age': 26, 'email': None}

Question 151

Question:

Write a program to extract numbers from a given string.

Solution:

816
def myfunc(x):
result = [int(x) for x in x.split() if x.isdigit()]
return result
x = "5 bags, 10 pencils and 55 books"
print(myfunc(x))

Question 152

Question:

Write a program to get the smallest number from a list.

x = {}

x['A'] = 11
Solution:
x['B'] = 12

def myfunc(list): x['C'] = 13

x = list[0]
x['D'] = 14
for i in list:
if i < x: print(x)

x = i
return x
print(myfunc([11, 22, -28, 3])) # Output: {'A': 11, 'B': 12, 'C': 13, 'D': 14}

817
Question 153

Question:

Write a program to determine whether every string in a list is equal to a given string..

x = {
Solution:
'name': 'Albert',

x = ["ball", "bat", "bag", "book"] 'email': 'albert_john@gmail.com'

y = ["book", "book", "book", "book"]
}

print(all(i == 'bag' for i in x))

print(all(i == 'book' for i in y))
for i in x:

print("{} -> {}".format(i, x[i]))

# Output:
Question 154
name -> Albert

email -> albert_john@gmail.com

Question:

Write a program to count the number of words in a text file.

Solution:

x = input("Enter the file name: ")

num_words = 0

818
with open(x, 'r') as f:
for line in f: import numpy as np
num_words += len(line.split())
x = np.random.random((3, 6))
print("Number of words: ", num_words)
print(x)

Question 155 ?
Question:

Write a program to count the number of lines in a text file.

Solution:

x = input("Enter the file name: ")

num_lines = 0
with open(x, 'r') as f:
for line in f:
num_lines += 1
print("Number of lines: ", num_lines)
x = 11

y = 12.5

z = "Albert"

print(type(x)) # Output: <class 'int'>

print(type(y)) # Output: <class 'float'>

print(type(z)) # Output: <class 'str'>

819
Question 156

Question:
x = set()

Write a program to create a list of empty dictionaries.

print(x)

# Output: set()

x.add('Mary')
Solution:
print(x)

print([{} for _ in range(10)]) # Output: {'Mary'}

x.add('Mary')

print(x)

# Output: {'Mary'}
Question 157
x.add('John')

Question: print(x)

Write a program that computes the average of two lists. # Output: {'John', 'Mary'}

Solution:

def myfunc(x, y):

result = sum(x + y) / len(x + y)
return result

x = [11, 11, 13, 14, 14, 15, 16, 17]

y = [0, 11, 12, 13, 14, 14, 15, 17, 18]

820
print("The Average of two lists: ", myfunc(x, y))

Question 158

Question:

Write a program to determine the maximum and minimum value in the three given lists.

Solution:

x = [12,13,15,28,27,32,53]
y = [54,32,91,0,41,13,19]
z = [12,11,51,16,15,58,49]
print("Maximum value in the three given lists is: ")
print(max(x+y+z))
print("Minimum value in the three given lists is: ")
print(min(x+y+z))
x = int(5)

y = int(5.2)

w = float(5.6)

z = int("6")

print(x) # Output: 5

print(y) # Output: 5

print(w) # Output: 5.6

print(z) # Output: 6

821
Question 159

Question:

Write a program to delete empty lists from a given list of lists.

Solution:

x = [[], [], [], ['Ball', 'Bag'], [11,12], ['Bat','Book'], []]

print([i for i in x if i])

Question 160

Question:

Write a program to determine whether or not every dictionary in a list is empty.

import numpy as np
# Output:
x = np.eye(2)
Solution: [[1. 0.]
print(x)
[0. 1.]]
print()
x = [{},{},{}]
y = [{2:6},{},{}] y = np.eye(2, 4) [[1. 0. 0. 0.]
print(all(not i for i in x)) [0. 1. 0. 0.]]
print(y)
print(all(not i for i in y))

822
Question 161

Question:

Write a program to decapitalize the first letter of a given string.

825
Solution:

def myfunc(i, x = False):

return ''.join([i[:1].lower(), (i[1:].upper() if x else i[1:])])
print(myfunc('Albert'))
print(myfunc('John'))

x :int = 6

print(x)

# Output: 6

Question 166

Question:

Write a program to remove spaces from a given string.

Solution:

def myfunc(x):
x :str = "Albert"
x = x.replace(' ','')
return x print(x)

# Output: Albert
print(myfunc("a lbe rt ein stein"))
print(myfunc("a l a n"))

826
Question 167

Question:

Write a program that calculate the difference between a given number and 10, returning
double the absolute difference if the value is higher than 10.

Solution:

def myfunc(x):
if x <= 10: x :float = 26.69
return 10 - x
print(x)
else:
return (x - 10) * 2 # Output: 26.69

print(myfunc(8))
print(myfunc(16))

Question 168

Question:

Write a program that adds three given numbers, returning three times their sum if the
values are equivalent.

827
Solution:

def myfunc(a, b, c):

def myfunc(x :int, y :int) -> int:

sum = a + b + c return x+y

if a == b == c:
sum = sum * 3 print(myfunc(12, 13))
return sum
# Output: 25

print(myfunc(11, 12, 13))

print(myfunc(13, 13, 13))

Question 169

Question:

Write a program to check whether an OS is running a Python shell in 32 or 64 bit mode.

Solution:

import platform
print(platform.architecture()[0])

828
Question 170

Question:

Write a program to implement birthday dictionary.

import os

x = os.path.join('home', 'etc', 'files')

Solution: print(x)

if name == 'main': # Output: home\etc\files

birthdays = {
'Albert Einstein': '03/14/1879',
'Benjamin Franklin': '01/17/1706',
'Ada Lovelace': '12/10/1815',
'Donald Trump': '06/14/1946',
'Rowan Atkinson': '01/6/1955'}

print('Welcome to the birthday dictionary. We know the birthdays of:')

for name in birthdays:
print(name)

print('Who\'s birthday do you want to look up?')

name = input()
if name in birthdays:
print('{}\'s birthday is {}.'.format(name, birthdays[name]))
else:
print('Sadly, we don\'t have {}\'s birthday.'.format(name))

829
Question 171

Question:

Write a program to find the name and location of the file that is currently running.

Solution:

import os
print("Current File Name : ", os.path.realpath(__file__))

import platform

print(platform.system())

Question 172 # Output: Windows

print(platform.release())
Question:
# Output: 10
Write a program to implement password generator.

Solution:

import random
x =
"abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz01234567890ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ!@#$%^&*()?"

830
passlen = 8
print("".join(random.sample(x, passlen)))

x = ["apple", "orange", "kiwi", "ball", "bat", "blackboard"]

Question 173 print(list(filter(lambda i: len(i) == 4, x)))

# Output: ['kiwi', 'ball']

Question:

Write a program to display calendar of the given month and year.

from functools import reduce

Solution:
x = [11, 12, 13, 14]

print(reduce(lambda a, b: a+b, x))

# importing calendar module
# Output: 50
import calendar
print(reduce(lambda a, b: a*b, x))

yy = 2014 # year # Output: 24024

mm = 11 # month

# To take month and year input from the user

# yy = int(input("Enter year: "))
# mm = int(input("Enter month: "))

# display the calendar

print(calendar.month(yy, mm))

831
Question 174
from functools import reduce

Question:
print(reduce(lambda a, b: a+b, [], 1))

Write a program to eliminate a newline. # Output: 1

print(reduce(lambda a, b: a+b, [5, 5], 0))

# Output: 10
Solution:
print(reduce(lambda a, b: a*b, [5, 6], 0))
x='Albert Einstein\n'
# Output: 0
print(x.rstrip())
print(reduce(lambda a, b: a*b, [6, 5], 1))

# Output: 30

print(reduce(lambda a, b: a*b, [], 0))

Question 175
# Output: 0

Question:

Write a program to remove existing indentation from all of the lines in a given text.

Solution:

import textwrap
x = '''
Albert Einstein was a German-born theoretical physicist,
widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest and most
influential physicists of all time. Einstein is best known
for developing the theory of relativity, but he also made

832
important contributions to the development of the theory of
quantum mechanics.
'''
print(x)
print(textwrap.dedent(x))

Question 176

Question:

Write a program to count the number of CPUs being used.

x = ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thru', 'Fri']

Solution:
y = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

import multiprocessing print(zip(x, y))

?
print(multiprocessing.cpu_count())

Question 177

Question:

Write a program to reverse a string if its length is a multiple of 6.

833
Solution:

def myfunc(x):
if len(x) % 6 == 0:
return ''.join(reversed(x))
return x

print(myfunc('alan'))
print(myfunc('albert'))

x = ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thru', 'Fri']

y = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

Question 178
print(list(zip(x, y)))

# Output: [('Mon', 1), ('Tue', 2), ('Wed', 3), ('Thru', 4), ('Fri', 5)]
Question:

Put "xyz" at the end of the specified string (length should be at least 3). If the provided
string already ends with "xyz," add "123" to it. If the specified string's length is less than

three, leave it unaltered.

import numpy as np
Solution:
x= np.zeros(5, dtype='float32')

print(x)
def myfunc(x):
i = len(x) # Output: [0. 0. 0. 0. 0.]

print(x.dtype)
if i > 2:
if x[-3:] == 'xyz': # Output: float32
x += '123'

834
else:
x += 'xyz'

return x

print(myfunc('xy'))
print(myfunc('xyz'))
print(myfunc('morning'))

x = ['Mon', 'Tue', 'Wed', 'Thru', 'Fri']

y = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

print(dict(zip(x, y)))
Question 179
# Output: {'Mon': 1, 'Tue': 2, 'Wed': 3, 'Thru': 4, 'Fri': 5}

Question:

Write a program to shuffle the elements of a given list.

Solution: import numpy as np

x = np.array([6, 8, 10], dtype='int8')

import random
print(x /2)
x = [11, 12, 13, 14, 15]
random.shuffle(x) # Output: [3. 4. 5.]

print(x)
print(x.dtype)

# Output: int8

835
Question 180

Question:

Three positive numbers are present in a list. Write a program to determine whether the
sum of the digits in each number is equal or not. If true, return true; otherwise, return

false.

x = [True, True]

y = [True, False]
Solution:
z = [False, False]

print(all(x))
def myfunc(x):
return x[0] % 9 == x[1] % 9 == x[2] % 9 # Output: True

x = [14, 5, 23]
print(all(y))
print(myfunc(x))
# Output: False

print(all(z))

# Output: False
Question 181
print()

print(any(x))
Question:

# Output: True
Write a program to get IP address of your computer.
print(any(y))

# Output: True

Solution: print(any(z))

import socket # Output: False

x = socket.gethostname()

836
y = socket.gethostbyname(x)
print("Your Computer Name is: " + x)
print("Your Computer IP Address is: " + y)

Question 182

Question:

Write a program to determine whether a series of integers has an increasing trend or not.

Solution:

def myfunc(x):
if (sorted(x) == x): print(12 > 10)
return True
# Output: True
else:
print(10 > 15)
return False
# Output: False
print(myfunc([11,12,13,14]))
print(myfunc([11,12,15,13,14]))

x = ["alan", "john", "albert"]

x.clear()

print(x) # Output: []

837
Question 183

Question:

Write a program to illustrate Dice Roll Simulator.

x = [12, 14]
Solution:
print(all(map(lambda i: i > 5, x)))
import random
min = 1 # Output: True

max = 6
print(all(map(lambda i: i > 13, x)))

roll_again = "yes" # Output: False

while roll_again == "yes" or roll_again == "y":

print ("Rolling the dices...")
print ("The values are....")
print (random.randint(min, max))
print (random.randint(min, max))

roll_again = input("Roll the dices again?")

Question 184

Question:

Write a program to convert the temperature in degree centigrade to Fahrenheit.

838
Solution:

c = input(" Enter temperature in Centigrade: ")

f = (9*(int(c))/5)+32
print(" Temperature in Fahrenheit is: ", f)

Question 185

Question:

Write a program to check whether the given integer is a multiple of 5.

import numpy as np

x = np.array([13, 14, 17])

Solution:
print(x)
x = int(input("Enter an integer: "))
# Output: [13 14 17]
if(x%5==0):
print(x, "is a multiple of 5") print(x * 3)
else:
# Output: [39 42 51]
print(x, "is not a multiple of 5")
print(x + 4)

# Output: [17 18 21]

Question 186 print(x.dtype)

# Output: int32
Question:

Write a program to check whether the given integer is a multiple of both 3 and 5.

839
Solution:

x = int(input("Enter an integer: "))

if((x%3==0)and(x%5==0)):
print(x, "is a multiple of both 3 and 5")
else:
print(x, "is not a multiple of both 3 and 5")

Question 187

Question:

Write a program to display all the multiples of 5 within the range 10 to 70.

Solution: x = [11, 12, 13, 450]

for i in x:

?
for i in range(10,70):
if (i%5==0): print(i)
print(i)
print(x)

Question 188

Question:

Write a program to display all integers within the range 50-100 whose sum of digits is an
even number.

840
Solution:

for i in range(50,100):
num = i
sum = 0 x = lambda a: a + 5
while(num!=0):
print(x(2))
digit = num%10
sum = sum + digit # Output: 7
num = num//10
if(sum%2==0):
print(i)

Question 189

Question:

Write a program to print the numbers from a given number n till 0 using recursion.

Solution: from functools import reduce

x = [12, 11, 14, 31]

def myfunc(n): print(reduce(lambda a,b: a if a < b else b, x))

if (n==0):
# Output: 11 (minimum)
return
print(n) print(reduce(lambda a,b: a if a > b else b, x))
n=n-1
# Output: 31 (maximum)
myfunc(n)

841
myfunc(9)
from functools import reduce

x = 5

print(reduce(lambda a,b: a*b, range(1, x+1), 1))

Question 190
# Output: 120 (factorial of 5)

Question:

Write a program to find the odd numbers in an array.

Solution:

num = [8,3,1,6,2,4,5,9]
count = 0
for i in range(len(num)):
if(num[i]%2!=0):
count = count+1
print("The number of odd numbers in the array are: ", count)

Question 191

Question:

Write a program to reverse a given upper case string in lower case.

Solution:

842
import numpy as np
def myfunc(x):
x = np.array([
return x[::-1].lower()
[ 11, 12, 13, 14, 15],

?
x = "JAVASCRIPT"
print(myfunc(x)) [ 12, 13, 14, 15, 16]

])

print(x)

print(x * 6)
Question 192 print(x + 5)

Question:

Write a program to find the maximum of two numbers.

import itertools

for i in itertools.count(start=10, step=1):

Solution:
print(i) # Output:
def maximum(a, b):
if i > 15: 10

if a >= b: 11
break
return a
12
else:
13
return b
14
a = 3 15
b = 5
16
print(maximum(a, b))

Solution:

843
a = 3
b = 5

print(max(a, b)) from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable

from types import GeneratorType

Solution:
print(issubclass(GeneratorType, Iterator))
a = 3
# Output: True
b = 5

print(issubclass(Iterator, Iterable))
print(a if a >= b else b)
# Output: True
 A generator is an iterator
 An iterator is an iterable

Question 193

Question:

Write a program to find the minimum of two numbers.

x = [11, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, 19, 35, 64]

y = x[2:5]
Solution: print(y)

def minimum(a, b): # Output: [12, 13, 15]

x[2] = 99
if a <= b:
print(x)
return a
else: # Output: [11, 11, 99, 13, 15, 18, 19, 35, 64]

return b print(y)

# Output: [12, 13, 15]

844
import itertools
a = 3
b = 9 i = 0
print(minimum(a, b))
for x in itertools.cycle(['A', 'B', 'C']):

print(x)

i = i+1 # Output:
Question 194
A
if i >= 4:

Question: B
break
C
Write a program to calculate Profit or Loss. print('')
A

Solution: x = [11, 12, 13, 14]

cp=float(input("Enter the Cost Price : ")); for i in x:

sp=float(input("Enter the Selling Price : "));
print(i)
if cp==sp:
print("No Profit or No Loss") if i == 12:
else:
x.remove(12)
if sp>cp:
print("Profit of ",sp-cp) print(x)
else:
# Output:
print("Loss of ",cp-sp)
11

Question 195 14

[11, 13, 14]

Question:

Write a program to find Student Grade.

845
Solution:

physics = float(input(" Please enter Physics Marks: "))

math = float(input(" Please enter Math score: "))
chemistry = float(input(" Please enter Chemistry Marks: "))

def myfunc():
total = physics + math + chemistry
percentage = (total / 300) * 100 yield 24

yield 48
print("Total Marks = %.2f" %total)
yield 64
print("Percentage = %.2f" %percentage)

if(percentage >= 90): x = myfunc()

print("A Grade") print(type(x))
elif(percentage >= 80):
# Output: <class 'generator'>
print("B Grade")
elif(percentage >= 70): print(next(x))

print("C Grade") # Output: 24

elif(percentage >= 60):
print(next(x))
print("D Grade")
# Output: 48
elif(percentage >= 40):
print("E Grade") print(next(x))
else:
# Output: 64
print("Fail")

x = 5

y = 100

print("X") if x > y else print("Y")

# Output: Y

846
Question 196 def myfunc():

yield 24
Question:
yield 48

Write a program to print Even numbers from 1 to N.

yield 64

x = myfunc()
Solution:
print(type(x))
x = int(input(" Enter the Value of N : "))
for i in x:

for num in range(1, x+1): print(i)

if(num % 2 == 0):
print("{0}".format(num))
# Output:

24
Question 197
48

64
Question:

Write a program to print Odd numbers from 1 to N.

Solution:

x = int(input(" Enter the Value of N : "))

for num in range(1, x+1):

if(num % 2 != 0):
print("{0}".format(num))

847
Question 198

Question:

Write a program to compute sum of Even numbers from 1 to N.

def myfunc(name):

def x():
Solution: print(f"Albert {name}")

x = int(input(" Enter the Value of N : ")) return x

total = 0 y = myfunc("Einstein")

y()
for num in range(1, x+1):
# Output: Albert Einstein
if(num % 2 == 0):
print("{0}".format(num))
total = total + num

print("The Sum of Even Numbers from 1 to {0} is: {1}".format(num, total))

Question 199

Question:

Write a program to compute sum of Odd numbers from 1 to N.

Solution:

848
x = int(input(" Enter the Value of N : "))
total = 0

for num in range(1, x+1):

if(num % 2 != 0):
print("{0}".format(num))
total = total + num

print("The Sum of Odd Numbers from 1 to {0} is: {1}".format(num, total))

Question 200

Question:

Write a program to check whether a character is Alphabet or not.

Solution:

ch = input("Enter a Character : ")

if((ch >= 'a' and ch <= 'z') or (ch >= 'A' and ch <= 'Z')):
print(ch, "is an Alphabet.")
else: x = 21
print(ch, "is Not an Alphabet.")
y = 5

z = 35

if x > y and z > x:

print("Both conditions are satisfied")

# Output: Both conditions are satisfied

849
Question 201

Question:

Write a program to check whether a character is Alphabet or Digit or Special Character.

Solution:

ch = input("Enter a Character : ")

if((ch >= 'a' and ch <= 'z') or (ch >= 'A' and ch <= 'Z')):
print(ch, "is an Alphabet.")
elif(ch >= '0' and ch <= '9'):
print(ch, "is a Digit.")
else:
print(ch, "is a Special Character.") say = print

say("Albert Einstein")

# Output: Albert Einstein

Question 202

Question:

Write a program to check whether a character is Lowercase or not.

Solution:

ch = input("Enter a Character : ")

850
if(ch.islower()):
print(ch, "is a Lowercase character")
else:
print(ch, "is Not a Lowercase character")

def myfunc():
Question 203
x = 2

yield x
Question:

Write a program to check whether a character is Uppercase or not.

x += 2

yield x

Solution:
x += 2

ch = input("Enter a Character : ") yield x

if(ch.isupper()):
for i in myfunc():
print(ch, "is a Uppercase character")
else: print(i)

print(ch, "is Not a Uppercase character")

# Output:

Question 204 2

4
Question: 6

Write a program to check whether a character is Vowel or Consonant.

851
Solution:

ch = input("Enter a Character : ")

if(ch == 'a' or ch == 'e' or ch == 'i' or ch == 'o' or ch == 'u' or ch == 'A'

or ch == 'E' or ch == 'I' or ch == 'O' or ch == 'U'):
print(ch, "is a Vowel")
else:
def myfunc():
print(ch, "is a Consonant")
x = 1

while True:

yield x
Question 205
x += 1

Question:
for i in myfunc():
Write a program to convert string to Uppercase.
print(i)

if i >= 5:

break
Solution:

str = input("Enter a String : ") # Output:

1
string = str.upper()
2

print("String in Lowercase = ", str) 3

print("String in Uppercase = ", string) 4

852
Question 206
def myfunc():

Question: i = 0

Write a program to convert string to Lowercase. i += 2

return i

Solution:
print(myfunc())

str = input("Enter a String : ")

print(myfunc())

string = str.lower() print(myfunc())

print("String in Uppercase = ", str)

# Output:
print("String in Lowercase = ", string)
2

2
Question 207

Question:

Write a program to convert Decimal to Binary, octal, and Hexadecimal.

Solution:

decimal = int(input("Enter a Decimal Number: "))

binary = bin(decimal)

853
octal = oct(decimal)
hexadecimal = hex(decimal)

print(decimal, " Decimal Value = ", binary, "Binary Value")

print(decimal, " Decimal Value = ", octal, "Octal Value")
print(decimal, " Decimal Value = ", hexadecimal, "Hexadecimal Value")

Question 208

Question:

Write a program to check a Triangle is Valid or Not.

Solution:

a = int(input('Please Enter the First Angle of a Triangle: '))

b = int(input('Please Enter the Second Angle of a Triangle: '))
c = int(input('Please Enter the Third Angle of a Triangle: '))

i = 0

total = a + b + c while True:

i += 1 # Output:
if total == 180:
print("\nThis is a Valid Triangle") print(i) 1
else:
if i > 0:
print("\nThis is an Invalid Triangle")
break

854
Question 209

Question:

Write a program that inputs an age and print age after 20 years .

Solution:

age = int(input("What is your age? "))

print("In twenty years, you will be", age + 20, "years old!")

x = [11, 12, 13, 14]

Question 210
for i in x[:]:

print(i)
Question:
if i == 12:
Write a program to print the number of seconds in year. x.remove(12)
# Output:
print(x)
11

12
Solution:
13
days=365
14
hours=24
[11, 13, 14]
minutes=60
seconds=60
print("Number of seconds in a year : ",days*hours*minutes*seconds)

855
Question 211

Question:

Write a program that inputs a string and then prints it equal to number of times its
length. i = 0

def myfunc():

global i # Output:
Solution:
i += 1 1
str = input("Enter string: ")
return i 2
b = len(str)
3
a = str * b
print(a)
print(myfunc())

print(myfunc())

Question 212 print(myfunc())

Question:

Write a program to convert a given list of strings and characters to a single list of
characters.

Solution:

def myfunc(x):
result = [i for y in x for i in y]
return result

856
x = ["alan", "john", "w", "p", "james", "q"]
print(myfunc(x))

x = 22

y = 5

z = 73

if x > y or x > z:

print("At least one of the conditions is satisfied")

# Output: At least one of the conditions is satisfied

x = 1

while x < 8: # Output:

print(x) 0

if (x == 3): 1

break 2

x = x+1 3

x = 0 1

while x < 8: 2

x = x+1 4

if (x == 3): # Output 5

continue 6

print(x) 7

857
say = print
import numpy as np
def mult(x, y):
x = np.array([11, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18, 23, 31, 65])
return x * y
print(x)

# Output: [11 11 12 13 15 18 23 31 65]

product = mult print(x[4])

say(product(6, 6)) # Output: 15

print(x[2:5])
# Output: 36
# Output: [12 13 15]

import numpy as np

x = np.array([[2, 4, 6], [8, 10, 12]])

y = np.array([[3, 6, 12], [15, 18, 21]])

print(x) # Output:

[[ 2 4 6]

[ 8 10 12]]

print(y)
# Output:

[[ 3 6 12]

[15 18 21]]

print(x*y)
# Output:

[[ 6 24 72]

[120 180 252]]

858
print(np.multiply(x, y))

# Output:

[[ 6 24 72]

[120 180 252]]

import numpy as np

x = np.array([True, True, False])

print(x.dtype)

# Output: bool

print(x)

# Output: [ True True False]

import numpy as np

x = np.array(['Albert', 'James', 'Mary', 'Einstein', 'Bob'])

print(x)

# Output: ['Albert' 'James' 'Mary' 'Einstein' 'Bob']

print(np.vectorize(len)(x))

# Output: [6 5 4 8 3]

def myfunc():
# Output:
return 26
26
print(myfunc())
26
print(myfunc())
26
print(myfunc())

859
a = ['pqrs', 'wxyz']

print(a)
def myfunc():
# Output: ['pqrs', 'wxyz'] return 26

print(a[0:1]) return 27

# Output: ['pqrs'] return 28

print(a[0])
print(myfunc())
# Output: pqrs
print(myfunc())
print(a[0][0])
print(myfunc())

# Output: p
# Output:
print(a[0][1]) 26

# Output: q 26

print(a[0][0:2]) 26

# Output: pq

import numpy as np

x = np.array(['Albert', 'James', 'Mary', 'Einstein', 'Bob'])

print( [(len(i), i) for i in x])

# Output: [(6, 'Albert'), (5, 'James'), (4, 'Mary'), (8, 'Einstein'), (3, 'Bob')]

import multiprocessing as mp

print(mp.cpu_count()) # Multiprocess CPU count

# Output: 4

860
x = complex(5, 6)

print(x) def f(x, y = []):

# Output: (5+6j) y.append(x)

return y
print(x.real)

# Output: 5.0
print(f(11))
print(x.imag)
print(f(12))

# Output: 6.0 print(f(13))

print((-1) ** 0.5)
# Output:
# Output: (6.123233995736766e-17+1j)
[11]
print(complex(0, 1))
[11, 12]
# Output: 1j
[11, 12, 13]
print(complex(0, 1) ** 2)

# Output: (-1+0j)

def f(x, y = None):

if y == None:

y = [] # Output:

y.append(x) [11]

return y [12]

[13]
print(f(11))

print(f(12))

print(f(13))

861
x = 59

def f():

print(x)

f()

# Output: 59

import pandas

x = pandas.Series([11, 11, 12, 13, 15, 18]) # Output:

0 11
print(x)
1 11

2 12
print(x.values)
3 13

# Output: [11 11 12 13 15 18] 4 15

print(x.sum()) 5 18

dtype: int64
# Output: 80

print(x.count())

# Output: 6

print(x.mean())

# Output: 13.333333333333334

print(x.median())

# Output: 12.5

print(x.std())

# Output: 2.7325202042558927

862
import numpy as np
for _ in range(10):
x = np.array([112], 'uint8')

?
print('Albert')

print(x.dtype)

# Output: uint8

print(x)

# Output: [112]

x[0] += 1
import numpy as np

print(x)
x = np.array([11, 12, 13])

# Output: [113]
y = np.array([14, 15, 16])

x[0]-=1
z = np.array([17, 18, 19])

print(x)
print(x)

# Output: [112]
# Output: [11 12 13]

x[0]= 126
print(y)

print(x)
# Output: [14 15 16]

# Output: [126]
print(z)

x[0]+=1
# Output: [17 18 19]

print(x)
w = np.hstack([x, y])

# Output: [127]
print(w)

# Output: [11 12 13 14 15 16]

q = np.hstack([w, z])

print(q)

# Output: [11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19]

863
for i in [1, 2, 3]:
1
print(i)
Albert
print('Albert' * i)
2

AlbertAlbert

3
# Output:
AlbertAlbertAlbert

print(6, type(6))

# Output: 6 <class 'int'> a = 0

print(6.8, type(6.8)) b = 1

# Output: 6.8 <class 'float'> for i in [2, 4, 8]:

print(-6.8, type(-6.8)) a = a + b*i

# Output: -6.8 <class 'float'> b = b + 1

print([], type([])) print(a)

# Output: [] <class 'list'> # Output: 34

print(False, type(False))

# Output: False <class 'bool'>

print(None, type(None))
def x(i):
# Output: None <class 'NoneType'>
return 5*i

b = 3

print(x(b) + x(3*b-1))

# Output: 55

864
print(format(.1, '.20f'))

# Output: 0.10000000000000000555

print(format(.2, '.20f'))

# Output: 0.20000000000000001110

print(format(.1 + .2, '.20f'))

# Output: 0.30000000000000004441

print(format(.3, '.20f'))

# Output: 0.29999999999999998890

print('str: {}, int: {}, formatted float: {:.3f}.'.format('Bob', 53, 6.1687))

str: Bob, int: 53, formatted float: 6.169.

Image processing refers to the use of algorithms and techniques to analyze, transform, enhance, and manipulate digital images.
It involves the application of various mathematical and computational methods to extract useful information from an image,
correct image defects, and create new images. Image processing techniques can be used for a wide range of applications,
including medical imaging, remote sensing, surveillance, computer vision, and digital photography. Some common tasks
performed by image processing algorithms include:

• Image filtering: This involves the removal of noise, enhancement of image features, and smoothing of edges.
• Image segmentation: This involves dividing an image into meaningful regions, based on properties such as color,
texture, and intensity.
• Image compression: This involves reducing the size of an image while preserving its quality, to save storage space
and reduce transmission time.
• Image recognition: This involves the automatic identification of objects, patterns, and features in an image, using
machine learning and computer vision techniques.
• Image restoration: This involves the recovery of lost or damaged image information, such as removing scratches,
stains, and other defects.

Overall, image processing plays an important role in many fields, enabling researchers and professionals to extract valuable
insights and information from digital images.

865
LINUX − OVERVIEW

Linux is an operating system that is free and open-source and is based on the Unix system. It
was first released in 1991 by Linus Torvalds and has since become one of the most widely
used operating systems in the world, powering everything from mobile devices to
supercomputers. Linux is renowned for its dependability, flexibility, and safety. It is highly
customizable and can be used for a wide range of applications, from servers and
supercomputers to desktops and laptops. Linux distributions, or "distros", are created by
different organizations and individuals to cater to different needs and use cases. One of the
key features of Linux is its command-line interface, which allows users to interact with the
system using text commands. This can be daunting for new users, but it offers a high degree
of control and customization that is not available in other operating systems. Many Linux
distros also come with graphical user interfaces (GUIs) that make it easier for beginners to
use. Another key feature of Linux is its package management system, which allows users to
easily install and manage software packages from online repositories. This makes it easy to
keep the system up-to-date and install new software. Linux is also known for its security
features, including built-in firewalls, encryption, and permission-based access control. This
makes it a popular choice for servers and other applications where security is a top priority.
Overall, Linux is a powerful and flexible operating system that offers many advantages over
other operating systems. While it can be challenging to learn at first, it offers a high degree of
control and customization that is not available in other operating systems, which makes it an
appealing option for programmers, system administrators, and other power users.

Linux is a free and open-source operating system that has many advantages over proprietary
operating systems like Windows and macOS. Here are some of the main advantages of Linux:

866
• Cost: Linux is free to use and distribute, which makes it a cost-effective option for both
personal and business use. You don't need to purchase a license or pay for updates, which
can save a significant amount of money over time.
• Flexibility: Linux is highly customizable and can be tailored to meet the specific needs
of users. This allows users to create a personalized computing environment that suits their
workflow and preferences.
• Stability: Linux is renowned for its dependability and durability. It rarely crashes or
freezes, and is not vulnerable to viruses or malware as Windows is. This makes it an ideal
choice for mission-critical applications and servers.
• Security: Linux is more secure than other operating systems because of its built-in
security features, such as secure boot, firewall, and file permissions. Additionally, since
Linux is open-source, security experts around the world can contribute to identifying and
fixing vulnerabilities, making it more secure than proprietary operating systems.
• Performance: Linux is renowned for its quick responsiveness and little resource needs.
It can run on older hardware and doesn't require high-end hardware to run smoothly.
• Open-source community: Linux has a large and active community of developers and
users who contribute to its development and support. This means that there is a wealth of
online resources, documentation, and forums available to help users solve problems and
get the most out of Linux.
• Compatibility: Linux is compatible with a wide range of hardware, making it a versatile
choice for users who have older or specialized hardware.
• Free software: Linux comes with a wide range of free and open-source software,
including productivity tools, media players, and development tools. This means that users
can save money on software licenses and have access to high-quality software for free.

Overall, Linux is a powerful, customizable, and cost-effective operating system that offers many
advantages over proprietary operating systems. It's an ideal choice for users who value
performance, stability, security, and flexibility in their computing environment. While Linux has
many advantages, there are also some disadvantages to using it. Here are some of the main disadvantages
of Linux:

867
• Lack of user-friendly interface: While the command-line interface of Linux provides
greater control and flexibility, it can be difficult for beginners to use. The graphical user
interface of some Linux distributions may also be less polished and intuitive than those of
Windows or macOS.
• Limited software availability: While there is a wide range of software available for
Linux, it can still be more limited than what is available for Windows or macOS. Some
specialized software, such as Adobe Photoshop or Microsoft Office, may not be available
for Linux.
• Compatibility issues: Linux may not be compatible with all hardware or software. This
can be especially problematic for users who need to use specific hardware or software for
their work or hobbies.
• Fragmentation: The open-source nature of Linux means that there are many different
distributions and versions available. This can lead to fragmentation in the community and
make it more difficult for users to find support or find the right distribution for their
needs.
• Learning curve: Because Linux is different from Windows and macOS, there can be a
steep learning curve for new users. Users may need to learn new commands and methods
for accomplishing tasks that are familiar on other operating systems.
• Lack of professional support: While there are many online resources and forums
available to help Linux users, there may be a lack of professional support options for
users who need more advanced help or support.
• Gaming support: While gaming on Linux has improved significantly in recent years, it
still lags behind Windows in terms of support and compatibility for many games.
• Security: While Linux is generally considered to be more secure than Windows, it is not
immune to security vulnerabilities or malware. Linux users must still take appropriate
security precautions to protect their systems.

Overall, Linux can be a great operating system for many users, but it may not be the best fit for
everyone. It's important to carefully consider the advantages and disadvantages of Linux before
deciding whether to use it.

868
Here are some funny facts about Linux:

 The original name for Linux was "Freax", which was a combination of "free", "freak",
and "Unix". The name was changed to Linux by the creator of the kernel, Linus Torvalds.
 The Linux mascot is a penguin named Tux. The original concept art for Tux was created
by Larry Ewing in 1996.
 The first ever recorded message sent from space to Earth was sent using Linux. The
message was sent by astronaut David A. Wolf, who used a laptop running Linux to send
the message to Mission Control.
 There is a Linux distribution called "Gentoo" that is designed to be compiled from
source code by the user. This can take hours or even days, but it allows for a highly
customized and optimized system.
 The creator of Linux, Linus Torvalds, once said that he named his kernel "Linux"
because it sounded better than "Freax" and because he wanted to "annoy" the creator of
the Unix operating system, which he was inspired by.
 In 2012, a group of programmers from the Netherlands created a fully functioning car
that was powered by Linux. The car was named "Edison", and it was able to drive up to
60 miles per hour.
 There is a Linux distribution called "Damn Small Linux" that can fit on a business card-
sized CD-ROM.
 In 2016, the Linux kernel reached over 20 million lines of code, making it one of the
largest software projects in the world.
 The operating system on the International Space Station (ISS) is based on Linux.
 The Linux operating system has been used to power everything from smartphones and
tablets to supercomputers and servers. It's even used to power the majority of the world's
top 500 supercomputers.

869
C − OVERVIEW

C programming is a popular programming language that was first developed by Dennis

Ritchie at Bell Labs in 1972. C is a general-purpose programming language that is widely
used for developing operating systems, system software, and embedded systems, as well as
applications in various fields such as finance, engineering, and gaming. Here are some key
features of the C programming language:

• Simple and easy to learn: C has a simple and concise syntax, making it easy for beginners
to learn and use.
• Portable: C code can be compiled and run on different platforms, including Windows,
macOS, Linux, and embedded systems.
• Low-level programming: C allows programmers to write code that interacts directly with
hardware and memory, making it ideal for developing system software and drivers.
• Fast and efficient: C is a fast and efficient programming language that can be used to
develop high-performance applications.
• Modular programming: C supports modular programming, allowing programmers to
divide code into smaller, more manageable functions and modules.
• Standard library: C comes with a standard library of functions that provide commonly
used functionality, such as input/output, string handling, and mathematical operations.
• Pointers: C allows programmers to work with pointers, which are memory addresses that
point to specific data in memory. Pointers are a powerful feature of C that allow for more
efficient memory management and manipulation.
• Preprocessor directives: C includes preprocessor directives, which are special statements
that are processed by the compiler before the code is compiled. Preprocessor directives are
used to define constants, include header files, and perform other tasks.

Overall, C is a powerful and versatile programming language that is widely used for
developing a variety of applications, including system software, embedded systems, and high-
performance applications. It is a well-liked choice among developers worldwide because of its
portability, effectiveness, and simplicity.

870
Here's an example of a "Hello, World!" program in C:

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

printf("Hello, World!\n");

return 0;

Explanation:

• #include<stdio.h> − This line includes the standard input and output library, which

contains the printf() function used to display output.

• int main() − This line defines the main() function, which is the entry point of the

program.

• {} − The curly braces contain the code that will be executed when the program runs.

• printf("Hello, World!\n"); − This line uses the printf() function to display the

text "Hello, World!" to the console. The \n is a special character that represents a

newline, so the text will be displayed on a new line.

• return 0; − This line returns a value of 0 from the main() function, indicating that

the program executed successfully.

When you run this program, it will display the text "Hello, World!" on the console. This program
is often used as a simple test to make sure that a new programming environment is set up correctly.

871
In C programming language, comments are used to explain the code and make it more readable
for other developers. Comments are ignored by the compiler and do not affect the functionality
of the code. There are two types of comments in C: single-line comments and multi-line
comments.

 Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//) and continue until the end of
the line. For example:

// This is a single-line comment

int x = 5; // This line initializes the variable x to 5

 Multi-line comments start with /* and end with */. Everything between these two symbols is
considered a comment. For example:

/*
This is a multi-line comment
It can span multiple lines
*/
int y = 10; /* This line initializes the variable y to 10 */

Comments are important for making the code more understandable and easier to maintain. They
can also be used to temporarily remove a section of code during testing or debugging. For
example:

// int z = someFunction(); // This line is temporarily commented out for testing purposes
int a = 10; // This line initializes the variable a to 10

In the above example, the line that calls the function someFunction() has been commented out
for testing purposes. This allows the developer to test the rest of the code without the potentially

872
problematic function call. Once the testing is complete, the comment can be removed and the
code will work as intended.

In C programming language, a variable is a named memory location that stores a value of a

specific data type. The value of a variable can be changed during program execution. Variables
are declared with a data type, a name, and an optional initial value. Here are some examples of
variable declarations in C:

int x; // declares an integer variable named x

float y = 3.14; // declares a floating-point variable named y and initializes it to 3.14
char z = 'A'; // declares a character variable named z and initializes it to 'A'

In the above examples, int, float, and char are data types in C. The variable x is declared
without an initial value, while y and z are declared with initial values. Variables can be assigned
new values using the assignment operator ( =). For example:

x = 5; // assigns the value 5 to the variable x

y = 2.5; // assigns the value 2.5 to the variable y
z = 'B'; // assigns the value 'B' to the variable z

Variables can also be used in expressions. For example:

int a = 10;
int b = 5;
int c = a + b; // assigns the value 15 to the variable c

In the above example, the variables a and b are used in an expression to calculate the value of the
variable c. In C, variables have a scope, which defines the parts of the program where the

873
variable can be accessed. Variables declared inside a function have local scope, which means
they can only be accessed within that function. Variables declared outside of any function have
global scope, which means they can be accessed from any part of the program. To sum up,
variables in C are named memory locations that store values of specific data types. They can be
declared with or without initial values, assigned new values, and used in expressions.
Understanding variables is essential for writing C programs.

In C programming language, data types specify the type of data that can be stored in a variable.
The format specifiers are used to indicate the type of data being printed or scanned in
input/output operations. Here are the commonly used data types and format specifiers in C:

Data Types:

 int: used to store integer values

 float: used to store floating-point values
 double: used to store double-precision floating-point values
 char: used to store a single character
 bool: used to store boolean values (true or false)
 short: used to store small integer values
 long: used to store large integer values
 long long: used to store very large integer values

Format Specifiers:

 %d: used to print or scan integer values

 %f: used to print or scan floating-point values
 %lf: used to print or scan double-precision floating-point values
 %c: used to print or scan a single character
 %s: used to print or scan a string of characters
 %u: used to print or scan unsigned integer values
 %ld: used to print or scan long integer values
 %lld: used to print or scan very long integer values

874
 %x: used to print or scan hexadecimal values

Here are some examples of using data types and format specifiers in C:

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
int x = 10;
float y = 3.14;
char z = 'A';

printf("The value of x is %d\n", x);

printf("The value of y is %f\n", y);
printf("The value of z is %c\n", z);

scanf("%d", &x);
scanf("%f", &y);
scanf("%c", &z);

printf("You entered %d\n", x);

printf("You entered %f\n", y);
printf("You entered %c\n", z);

return 0;
}

In the above example, the int, float, and char data types are used to declare variables x, y, and
z. The %d, %f, and %c format specifiers are used to print or scan these variables. The scanf
function is used to scan input from the user, and the printf function is used to print output to
the screen. Understanding data types and format specifiers is essential for working with variables
and input or output operations in C.

875
In C programming language, a constant is a value that cannot be changed during program
execution. Constants are typically used to represent fixed values that are used in a program.
Constants can be of different data types, such as integer, floating-point, character, and boolean.
Here are some examples of defining constants in C:

#define PI 3.14159 // defines a constant PI with the value 3.14159

const int MAX = 100; // defines a constant MAX with the value 100
enum { FALSE, TRUE } BOOL; // defines boolean constants FALSE and TRUE

In the above examples, #define, const, and enum are used to define constants in C. #define is
a preprocessor directive that defines a constant value that can be used throughout the program.
const is a keyword that defines a constant variable that cannot be modified. enum is a keyword
that defines a set of named integer constants. Here are some examples of using constants in C:

#include<stdio.h>

#define PI 3.14159
const int MAX = 100;

int main() {
float radius = 5.0;
float circumference = 2 * PI * radius;
int count = MAX;

printf("The circumference of the circle is %f\n", circumference);

printf("The maximum count is %d\n", count);

return 0;
}

876
In the above example, the constant PI is used to calculate the circumference of a circle, and the
constant MAX is used to set the maximum count. By using constants instead of hard-coded values,
the program becomes more readable and easier to maintain. Constants in C are typically defined
at the beginning of a program or in a separate header file. By convention, constant names are
written in uppercase letters to distinguish them from variables. Overall, constants in C are values
that cannot be changed during program execution. They can be defined using #define, const,
or enum, and are typically used to represent fixed values in a program. Understanding constants
is essential for writing C programs that are readable and maintainable.

In C programming language, a string is a sequence of characters stored in a contiguous

memory location. Strings in C are represented as arrays of characters, terminated by a null
character '\0'. Here is an example of a string in C:

char str[] = "Hello, World!";

In this example, the string "Hello, World!" is stored in the array str. The null character '\0' is
automatically added to the end of the string to indicate its termination. Strings in C can be
manipulated using various string functions, such as strlen(), strcpy(), and strcat(). Here
are some examples of using string functions in C:

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>

int main() {
char str1[] = "Hello";
char str2[] = "World";
char buffer[50];

// find the length of a string

printf("The length of %s is %d\n", str1, strlen(str1));

877
// concatenate two strings
strcpy(buffer, str1);
strcat(buffer, " ");
strcat(buffer, str2);
printf("The concatenated string is %s\n", buffer);

// compare two strings

if (strcmp(str1, str2) == 0) {
printf("%s and %s are equal\n", str1, str2);
} else {
printf("%s and %s are not equal\n", str1, str2);
}
return 0;
}

In this example, the strlen() function is used to find the length of a string, the strcpy() and
strcat() functions are used to concatenate two strings, and the strcmp() function is used to
compare two strings. C also provides various ways to input and output strings. The scanf()
function is used to input strings from the standard input, while the printf() function is used to
output strings to the standard output. Here is an example of using scanf() and printf() to
input and output strings:

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
char name[50];
printf("Enter your name: ");
scanf("%s", name);
printf("Hello, %s!\n", name);
return 0;
}

878
In this example, the scanf() function is used to input a string from the standard input and store
it in the array name, while the printf() function is used to output a greeting message that
includes the input string. To sum up, strings in C are represented as arrays of characters
terminated by a null character '\0'. String functions can be used to manipulate strings, and various
ways to input and output strings are available in C. Understanding strings is essential for writing
C programs that deal with text data.

In C programming, operators are symbols that represent actions or computations. They allow
you to perform mathematical or logical operations on one or more operands. Here are the most
commonly used operators in C:

1. Arithmetic Operators

Arithmetic operators are used to perform mathematical operations on numeric operands.

These include:

 Addition (+): Adds two operands

 Subtraction (-): Subtracts the second operand from the first operand
 Multiplication (*): Multiplies two operands
 Division (/): Divides the first operand by the second operand
 Modulus (%): Returns the remainder of a division operation

Example:

int a = 5, b = 2, c;
c = a + b; // c is now 7
c = a - b; // c is now 3
c = a * b; // c is now 10
c = a / b; // c is now 2
c = a % b; // c is now 1

2. Assignment Operators

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Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables. These include:

 Assignment (=): Assigns the value of the right operand to the left
operand
 Addition assignment (+=): Adds the value of the right operand to the
left operand and assigns the result to the left operand
 Subtraction assignment (-=): Subtracts the value of the right operand
from the left operand and assigns the result to the left operand
 Multiplication assignment (*=): Multiplies the left operand by the right
operand and assigns the result to the left operand
 Division assignment (/=): Divides the left operand by the right operand
and assigns the result to the left operand
 Modulus assignment (%=): Calculates the remainder of the left operand
divided by the right operand and assigns the result to the left operand

Example:

int a = 5, b = 2;
a += b; // a is now 7
a -= b; // a is now 5 again
a *= b; // a is now 10
a /= b; // a is now 5 again
a %= b; // a is now 1

3. Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used to compare two values. They return a Boolean value (true
or false). These include:

 Equal to (==): Returns true if the operands are equal

 Not equal to (!=): Returns true if the operands are not equal
 Greater than (>): Returns true if the first operand is greater than the
second operand
 Less than (<): Returns true if the first operand is less than the second
operand

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 Greater than or equal to (>=): Returns true if the first operand is
greater than or equal to the second operand
 Less than or equal to (<=): Returns true if the first operand is less
than or equal to the second operand

Example:

883
a is true and b is false

Note that any nonzero value is considered to be true in C, while the value 0 is considered to be
false. Therefore, you can also use integers to represent Boolean values in C:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
int a = 1;
int b = 0;

if (a && !b) {
printf("a is true and b is false\n");
}

return 0;
}

In this example, we have defined two integer variables a and b. We then use these variables in an
if statement to create a Boolean expression. Since a is nonzero and b is 0, the expression
evaluates to true and the message is printed. However, this approach can be less clear and more
error-prone than using bool variables, especially in more complex programs.

"Any fool can write code that a computer can understand. Good
programmers write code that humans can understand."

― Martin Fowler

884
C program to add two numbers:

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

int num1, num2, sum;

printf("Enter two numbers to add:\n");

scanf("%d%d", &num1, &num2);

sum = num1 + num2;

printf("The sum of %d and %d is %d\n", num1, num2, sum);

return 0;

Here's how the program works:

• First, we include the standard input and output library header file stdio.h.

• We declare three integer variables num1, num2, and sum.

• We prompt the user to enter two numbers to add using the printf function.

• We use the scanf function to read in the two numbers entered by the user and store them
in the variables num1 and num2.

• We add the two numbers together and store the result in the variable sum.

• Finally, we use the printf function again to print out the sum of the two numbers.

When the program runs, it will prompt the user to enter two numbers to add. After the user enters
the numbers, the program will add them together and display the result.

885
C program to check whether a number is even or odd:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int num;
printf("Enter an integer:\n");
scanf("%d", &num);
if (num % 2 == 0) {
printf("%d is even\n", num);
} else {
printf("%d is odd\n", num);
}
return 0;
}

Here's how the program works:

• First, we include the standard input and output library header file stdio.h.

• We declare an integer variable num.

• We prompt the user to enter an integer using the printf function.

• We use the scanf function to read in the integer entered by the user and store it in the

variable num.

• We use an if-else statement to check if num is even or odd. The % operator is used to find

the remainder of num divided by 2. If the remainder is 0, then num is even, and the

program will print out a message saying so. If the remainder is not 0, then num is odd, and

the program will print out a message saying so.

• Finally, we use the return statement to exit the program.

886
When the program runs, it will prompt the user to enter an integer. After the user enters the integer,
the program will check if it's even or odd and display a message accordingly.

C program to print "Hello World" 10 times on the console screen:

• Finally, we use the return statement to exit the program.

When the program runs, it will print "Hello World" ten times to the screen using the do-while
loop. The do-while loop is another way to repeat a set of statements multiple times, but it
guarantees that the loop body will be executed at least once, even if the loop condition is false. In
this case, the loop runs as long as i is less than 10, allowing us to print "Hello World" ten times
without having to write out the same printf statement multiple times.

889
In C programming language, switch statement is used to execute a block of code depending
on the value of an expression. The switch statement works by evaluating the expression and
then executing the code associated with the matching case label. If no case label matches the
value of the expression, then the default code block is executed.

Here's an example of how to use switch statement in C:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
char operator;
int operand1, operand2, result;
printf("Enter an operator (+, -, *, /): ");
scanf("%c", &operator);
printf("Enter two operands: ");
scanf("%d %d", &operand1, &operand2);

switch(operator) {
case '+':
result = operand1 + operand2;
printf("%d + %d = %d\n", operand1, operand2, result);
break;
case '-':
result = operand1 - operand2;
printf("%d - %d = %d\n", operand1, operand2, result);
break;
case '*':
result = operand1 * operand2;
printf("%d * %d = %d\n", operand1, operand2, result);
break;
case '/':
if(operand2 == 0) {
printf("Error: Cannot divide by zero\n");

890
} else {
result = operand1 / operand2;
printf("%d / %d = %d\n", operand1, operand2, result);
}
break;
default:
printf("Error: Invalid operator\n");
break;
}

return 0;
}

In this example, the program asks the user to enter an operator (+, -, *, /) and two operands.
The program then uses a switch statement to perform the appropriate arithmetic operation based
on the operator entered by the user. If an invalid operator is entered, the program displays an
error message. The switch statement begins with the expression operator which is evaluated to
determine which case label matches. The case labels +, -, *, and / are associated with the
appropriate arithmetic operations. The default label is used to handle any case where the
expression does not match any of the other case labels. Each case label contains a block of code
that is executed when the expression matches that label. The break statement is used to exit the
switch statement after the matching case label is executed. In this example, if the user enters
the operator +, the block of code associated with the case '+' label is executed. This block of code
adds the two operands and displays the result. Similarly, the other arithmetic operations are
handled by their respective case labels. If an invalid operator is entered, the default label is
executed, displaying an error message. Overall, the switch statement provides a convenient way
to perform different actions based on the value of a single expression, making it a useful
construct in many C programs.

891
In C programming language, break and continue are two control flow statements that are
used to modify the execution of loops (such as for, while, and do-while loops) and switch
statements. break statement is used to terminate the execution of the loop or switch statement
immediately. When a break statement is encountered, the control is transferred to the next
statement after the loop or switch statement. Here is an example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int i;
for(i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
if(i == 5) {
break;
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}
return 0;
}

In this example, the program uses a for loop to print the values of i from 1 to 10. However,
when i equals 5, the break statement is executed, and the loop is terminated immediately.
Therefore, the program only prints the values of i from 1 to 4, and the loop does not complete.
On the other hand, the continue statement is used to skip the current iteration of the loop and
move to the next iteration. When a continue statement is encountered, the control is transferred
to the next iteration of the loop. Here is an example:

#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
int i;

for(i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {

if(i == 5) {
continue;

892
}
printf("%d\n", i);
}

return 0;
}

In this example, the program uses a for loop to print the values of i from 1 to 10. However,
when i equals 5, the continue statement is executed, and the current iteration of the loop is
skipped. Therefore, the program does not print the value 5, but continues with the next iterations
and prints the other values. Both break and continue statements are useful for controlling the
flow of execution in loops and switch statements, allowing programs to skip certain iterations or
terminate the loop altogether based on certain conditions.

In C programming language, an array is a collection of elements of the same data type, stored
in contiguous memory locations. Arrays are a powerful and efficient way to store and manipulate
large amounts of data in C programs. Here is an example of how to use arrays in C:

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {
int numbers[5]; // declare an array of 5 integers
int i;

// initialize the array elements

numbers[0] = 1;
numbers[1] = 3;
numbers[2] = 5;
numbers[3] = 7;
numbers[4] = 9;

893
// print the array elements
for(i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("%d ", numbers[i]);
}
return 0;
}

In this example, an array named numbers is declared, which can store up to 5 integers. The
elements of the array are accessed using an index, starting from 0. In this case, the elements of
the array are initialized with the values 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9. To access an element of the array, we
can use its index as shown in the for loop. In this loop, we print the array elements using the
printf statement, with the %d format specifier indicating that we are printing an integer.
Another way to initialize an array is to use an initializer list, which allows you to specify the
values of the array elements at the time of declaration. Here is an example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int numbers[] = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}; // declare and initialize an array
int i;

// print the array elements

for(i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
printf("%d ", numbers[i]);
}
return 0;
}

In this example, the array numbers is declared and initialized using an initializer list. The size of
the array is automatically determined by the number of elements in the list. The output of this
program is the same as the previous example. Arrays are a fundamental data structure in C, and

894
their simplicity and efficiency make them a popular choice for many programming tasks. They
are widely used in applications such as sorting, searching, and data processing, among others.

In C programming language, a structure is a collection of variables of different data types,

grouped together under a single name. Structures are used to represent complex data types and
can be used to organize and manipulate large amounts of data in C programs. Here is an example
of how to use structures in C:

#include<stdio.h>

// define a structure named "student"

struct student {
char name[50];
int roll_no;
float marks;
};

int main() {
// declare a structure variable of type "student"
struct student s1;
// assign values to the structure members
strcpy(s1.name, "John");
s1.roll_no = 1;
s1.marks = 85.5;
// print the structure members
printf("Name: %s\n", s1.name);
printf("Roll No.: %d\n", s1.roll_no);
printf("Marks: %f\n", s1.marks);
return 0;
}

895
In this example, a structure named "student" is defined using the struct keyword. The structure
has three members: a character array name, an integer roll_no, and a float marks. The main
function declares a structure variable s1 of type student and assigns values to its members
using the " . " operator. The printf statements then print the values of the structure members.
Another way to declare and initialize a structure variable is to use an initializer list, which allows
you to specify the values of the structure members at the time of declaration. Here is an example:

#include<stdio.h>

// define a structure named "book"

struct book {
char title[50];
char author[50];
float price;
};

int main() {

// declare and initialize a structure variable of type "book"

struct book b1 = {"The C Programming Language", "Brian Kernighan and

Dennis Ritchie", 29.99};

// print the structure members

printf("Title: %s\n", b1.title);
printf("Author: %s\n", b1.author);
printf("Price: %f\n", b1.price);

return 0;
}

896
In this example, a structure named "book" is defined with three members: a character array
title, a character array author, and a float price. The main function declares and initializes a
structure variable b1 of type book using an initializer list. The printf statements then print the
values of the structure members. Structures are a powerful feature of C programming language
that allows programmers to create custom data types that can be used to represent complex data
structures. They are widely used in applications such as database management, file handling, and
graphics programming, among others.

In C programming language, a pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another
variable. Pointers allow you to manipulate data directly in memory, which can be useful for tasks
such as dynamically allocating memory or working with complex data structures. Here's an
example of how pointers work:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int var = 10; /* actual variable declaration */
int *p; /* pointer variable declaration */

p = &var; /* store address of var in pointer variable */

printf("Address of var variable: %p\n", &var);

/* address stored in pointer variable */

printf("Address stored in p pointer variable: %p\n", p);

/* access the value using the pointer */

printf("Value of var: %d\n", *p);

return 0;
}

897
In this example, we declare an integer variable var and a pointer variable p. We then store the
address of var in p using the & operator. We can then access the value of var using the *
operator on the pointer variable p. When we run this program, it will output the following:

Address of var variable: 0x7ffeb2e3b9ac

Address stored in p pointer variable: 0x7ffeb2e3b9ac
Value of var: 10

Here, the %p format specifier is used to print the memory addresses. The addresses of var and p
are the same, as expected, since p points to var. Pointer arithmetic is another important aspect of
pointers in C. You can perform arithmetic operations on pointers such as addition, subtraction,
and comparison. Here's an example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main() {
int arr[] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
int *p = arr;
for(int i=0; i<5; i++) {
printf("Value of arr[%d]: %d\n", i, *(p+i));
}
return 0;
}

In this example, we declare an integer array arr and a pointer variable p initialized to the first
element of the array. We then use pointer arithmetic to iterate through the array and print out the
values. When we run this program, it will output the following:

Value of arr[0]: 10
Value of arr[1]: 20
Value of arr[2]: 30
Value of arr[3]: 40
Value of arr[4]: 50

898
Here, the *(p+i) expression is used to access the i-th element of the array through pointer
arithmetic. The *(p+i) is equivalent to p[i] and both are valid expressions to access the
elements of the array.

In C programming language, a function is a group of statements that perform a specific task.

Functions provide modularity and reusability to programs by allowing code to be organized into
independent units that can be called from other parts of the program. Here's an example of how
functions work:

#include<stdio.h>

/* function declaration */
int max(int num1, int num2);

int main() {
int a = 100;
int b = 200;
int ret;

/* calling a function to get max value */

ret = max(a, b);

printf("Max value is : %d\n", ret );

return 0;
}

/* function returning the max between two numbers */

int max(int num1, int num2) {
int result;

if (num1 > num2) {

result = num1;
} else {
result = num2;
}
return result;
}

899
In this example, we declare a function named max that takes two integer arguments and returns
the maximum value. The function is declared before the main function using a function
prototype or declaration, which specifies the function's name, return type, and parameter types.
This allows the compiler to check for errors and ensure that the function is used correctly. In the
main function, we declare two integer variables a and b and assign them the values 100 and 200,
respectively. We then call the max function and pass it a and b as arguments, storing the result in
the ret variable. Finally, we print out the maximum value using printf. When we run this
program, it will output the following:

Max value is : 200

Functions can also have multiple return statements, which allows for early termination of the
function based on certain conditions. Here's an example:

#include<stdio.h>

/* function declaration */
int find_factorial(int num);

int main() {
int num, factorial;

printf("Enter a positive integer: ");

scanf("%d", &num);

factorial = find_factorial(num);

if (factorial != -1) {

printf("Factorial of %d is %d\n", num, factorial);

900
} else {
printf("Error: Factorial of negative numbers doesn't exist\n");
}
return 0;
}

/* function to calculate factorial */

int find_factorial(int num) {
int factorial = 1;

if (num < 0) {
return -1;
}

for (int i=1; i<=num; i++) {

factorial *= i;
}
return factorial;
}

In this example, we declare a function named find_factorial that takes a single integer
argument and returns the factorial of the number. The function checks for negative input and
returns -1 if the input is negative. Otherwise, it calculates the factorial using a for loop and
returns the result. In the main function, we prompt the user to enter a positive integer and store it
in the num variable. We then call the find_factorial function and store the result in the
factorial variable. If the result is not -1, we print out the factorial. Otherwise, we print an
error message. When we run this program, it will output the following:

Enter a positive integer: 5

Factorial of 5 is 120

901
Functions can also have default arguments and variable-length arguments, but these are more
advanced features beyond the scope of this explanation.

In C programming language, an enum (short for enumeration) is a user-defined data type that
consists of a set of named integer constants. Enums provide a way to define a set of related
constants with meaningful names, which makes code more readable and easier to maintain.
Here's an example of how enums work:

#include<stdio.h>

/* define an enum for days of the week */

enum week { Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday };

int main() {

/* declare variables of type enum week */

enum week today, tomorrow;

/* assign values to the variables */

today = Wednesday;
tomorrow = Thursday;

/* print out the values */

printf("Today is %d\n", today);
printf("Tomorrow is %d\n", tomorrow);

return 0;
}

902
In this example, we define an enum named week that consists of seven named constants
representing the days of the week. By default, the constants are assigned integer values starting
from 0 for the first constant, 1 for the second constant, and so on. We then declare two variables
of type enum week named today and tomorrow, and assign them the values Wednesday and
Thursday, respectively. Finally, we print out the values using printf. When we run this
program, it will output the following:

Today is 3
Tomorrow is 4

Enums can also have explicit values assigned to their constants, which allows for more control
over the values. Here's an example:

#include<stdio.h>

/* define an enum for colors */

enum color { Red = 1, Green = 2, Blue = 4 };

int main() {

/* declare variables of type enum color */

enum color c1, c2, c3;

/* assign values to the variables */

c1 = Red;
c2 = Green;
c3 = Blue;

/* print out the values */

printf("c1 = %d\n", c1);

903
printf("c2 = %d\n", c2);
printf("c3 = %d\n", c3);
return 0;
}

In this example, we define an enum named color that consists of three named constants
representing colors. We assign explicit values to the constants using the assignment operator, so
that Red is assigned the value 1, Green is assigned the value 2, and Blue is assigned the value 4.
We then declare three variables of type enum color named c1, c2, and c3, and assign them the
values Red, Green, and Blue, respectively. Finally, we print out the values using printf. When
we run this program, it will output the following:

c1 = 1
c2 = 2
c3 = 4

Enums can also be used as switch case statements, allowing for easy handling of related
constants. Here's an example:

#include<stdio.h>

/* define an enum for days of the week */

enum week { Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday };

int main() {
/* declare a variable of type enum week */
enum week day;

/* get input from user */

printf("Enter a day of the week (0-6): ");
scanf("%d", &day);

904
/* use a switch statement to handle the input */
switch (day) {
case Sunday:
printf("Sunday\n");
break;
case Monday:
printf("Monday\n");
break;
case Tuesday:
printf("Tuesday\n");
break;
case Wednesday:
printf("Wednesday\n");
break;
case Thursday:
printf("Thursday\n");
break;
case Friday:
printf("Friday\n");
break;
case Saturday:
printf("Saturday\n");
break;
}
return 0;
}

In C programming language, a file is a collection of related data that is stored on a secondary

storage device like a hard disk or a flash drive. Files can be used to store and retrieve data in a
more permanent way than variables, which are lost when a program exits. Here's an example of
how files work in C:

905
To use files in C, you need to include the stdio.h header file. This file contains functions for
input and output, including functions for reading and writing files. Here's an example of how to
open a file for writing:

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

/* declare a file pointer */

FILE *fptr;

/* open the file for writing */

fptr = fopen("example.txt", "w");

/* write some text to the file */

fprintf(fptr, "This is some example text.\n");

/* close the file */

fclose(fptr);

return 0;
}

In this example, we declare a file pointer named fptr, which is a variable that holds a reference
to a file. We then open a file named example.txt for writing using the fopen function, which
takes two arguments: the name of the file, and the mode in which to open the file. In this case,
we're using the mode "w", which means "write mode". If the file doesn't exist, it will be created.
Once the file is open, we use the fprintf function to write some text to the file. This function
works like printf, but instead of printing to the console, it writes to the file. Finally, we close
the file using the fclose function. Here's an example of how to read from a file:

906
#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

/* declare a file pointer */

FILE *fptr;

/* open the file for reading */

fptr = fopen("example.txt", "r");

/* read some text from the file */

char buffer[100];
fgets(buffer, 100, fptr);
printf("The text in the file is: %s", buffer);

/* close the file */

fclose(fptr);

return 0;
}

In this example, we open the same file we created earlier, but this time in read mode ("r"). We
declare a character array named buffer to hold the text we read from the file. We then use the
fgets function to read up to 100 characters from the file into the buffer. Finally, we print out the
text using printf.

It's important to note that when you open a file in write mode, any existing data in the file will be
overwritten. If you want to append data to the end of the file instead, you can use the mode "a"
(append mode) instead of "w". Here's an example:

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#include <stdio.h>

int main() {
/* declare a file pointer */
FILE *fptr;

/* open the file for appending */

fptr = fopen("example.txt", "a");

/* write some more text to the file */

fprintf(fptr, "This is some additional text.\n");

/* close the file */

fclose(fptr);

return 0;
}

In this example, we open the same file we created earlier, but this time in append mode ("a").
This means that any data we write to the file will be added to the end of the file, rather than
overwriting existing data. We use the fprintf function again to write some additional text to the
file, and then close the file using the fclose function.

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C programming is a popular and widely used programming language with many advantages.
Here are some of the key advantages of C programming:

• Speed and efficiency: C is a high-performance language that is known for its speed and
efficiency. It is commonly used to develop software that requires fast execution and low-
level memory manipulation, such as operating systems, device drivers, and embedded
systems.
• Portability: C programs can be compiled and run on different platforms, including
Windows, macOS, Linux, and embedded systems, making it a portable language. This
means that code written in C can be easily transferred to other systems without significant
modifications.
• Low-level programming: C allows programmers to write code that interacts directly
with hardware and memory, making it ideal for developing system software and drivers.
• Memory management: C provides a level of control over memory management that is
not available in many other programming languages. This allows programmers to allocate
and deallocate memory manually, resulting in more efficient and optimized code.
• Extensive standard library: C comes with an extensive standard library that provides
many useful functions, such as input/output, string handling, and mathematical
operations.
• Flexibility: C is a flexible language that can be used to develop a wide range of
applications, from low-level system software to high-level applications.
• Reusability: C supports modular programming, which allows code to be divided into
smaller, more manageable functions and modules. As a result, code is easier to maintain
and more reusable.
• Widely used: C is a popular language that is widely used in industry, making it a
valuable skill for programmers to have. Many operating systems, embedded systems, and
applications are written in C.

Overall, C programming is a powerful and versatile language that is well-suited for developing
a wide range of applications. Its speed, efficiency, portability, and low-level programming
capabilities make it a popular choice for developers around the world. Using C has certain

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drawbacks in addition to its many benefits. The following are some of the primary drawbacks of
C:

• Low-level language: C is a low-level language, which means that it requires a lot of code to
perform simple tasks. For example, in C, you need to write a lot of code to read and write files,
whereas in higher-level languages like Python, it can be done in just a few lines.
• No automatic garbage collection: C does not have automatic garbage collection, which means
that you have to manage memory allocation and deallocation yourself. This can be very tedious
and error-prone, especially when dealing with complex data structures.
• No built-in support for object-oriented programming: Unlike some other programming
languages, C does not have built-in support for object-oriented programming. This means that if
you want to use OOP concepts in your C code, you have to implement them yourself, which can
be a time-consuming process.
• Vulnerability to buffer overflow attacks: C is vulnerable to buffer overflow attacks, which
occur when a program tries to store too much data in a buffer, causing the excess data to
overwrite adjacent memory locations. This can lead to the program crashing or, in some cases,
being exploited by attackers.
• Lack of dynamic memory management: C does not have dynamic memory management built
into the language, which means that you have to manually allocate and deallocate memory. This
can lead to memory leaks if you forget to deallocate memory, which can cause your program to
consume more and more memory until it crashes.
Example:
Here's an example of a program written in C that illustrates some of these disadvantages:

#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

char buffer[100];

printf("Enter a string: ");

scanf("%s", buffer);

printf("You entered: %s\n", buffer);

return 0;

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In this program, the user is prompted to enter a string, which is then stored in a buffer.
However, the program does not perform any input validation, which means that if the
user enters a string that is longer than 100 characters, it will overflow the buffer and
potentially overwrite adjacent memory locations, leading to undefined behavior or a
crash. Additionally, the program does not perform any memory management, which
means that the buffer will remain in memory even after it is no longer needed, potentially
causing a memory leak. Finally, the program does not use any object-oriented
programming concepts, making it harder to maintain and extend as it grows in
complexity.

• No built-in support for exception handling: C does not have built-in support for
exception handling, which means that error handling must be done manually using
conditional statements and error codes. This could make code more challenging to read
and maintain.
• Lack of standardization: The C language has no official standard library, which means
that different implementations of C may have different libraries and functions. This can
lead to portability issues when trying to run code on different platforms or compilers.
• Lack of type safety: C is a weakly-typed language, which means that it does not enforce
strict type checking. This can lead to errors and bugs when working with complex data
structures or when trying to perform operations on incompatible data types.
• Difficulty in debugging: Debugging C code can be difficult due to its low-level nature
and lack of built-in debugging tools. This can make it hard to find and fix bugs in
complex code.
• Potential for security vulnerabilities: Because of its low-level nature and lack of built-
in security features, C code can be vulnerable to security attacks such as buffer
overflows, which can lead to serious security issues.

Example:

Here's an example of a program written in C that illustrates some of these disadvantages:

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#include<stdio.h>

int main() {

int num;

printf("Enter a number: ");

scanf("%d", &num);

if (num % 2 == 0) {

printf("%d is even\n", num);

else {

printf("%d is odd\n", num);

return 0;

In this program, the user is prompted to enter a number, which is then checked to see if
it's even or odd. However, the program does not perform any input validation, which
means that if the user enters a non-numeric value, it will cause an error. Additionally, the
program does not handle any exceptions, which means that if an error occurs, it will
simply crash. Finally, the program uses a conditional statement to check if the number is
even or odd, which can be harder to read and maintain as the code grows in complexity.

C language is a widely used programming language that has numerous practical applications.
Here are some examples of its practical applications:

• Operating Systems: C is used to write low-level system software such as operating

systems, device drivers, and firmware. Some of the well-known operating systems
written in C include UNIX, Linux, and Windows.

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• Embedded Systems: C is popularly used to write code for embedded systems, such as
microcontrollers and other electronic devices, where the code must be fast, efficient, and
lightweight.
• Database Systems: C is often used in the development of database management systems
(DBMS) like MySQL and PostgreSQL, which are widely used in web and mobile
applications.
• Compilers and Interpreters: C is used to create compilers and interpreters for other
programming languages, which are essential tools for software development.
• Graphics Applications: C is often used in the development of graphics applications such
as video games, 3D modeling, and animation software.
• Web Applications: C is often used in the backend of web applications, where it's used to
handle the heavy processing of data and requests, such as parsing and manipulating XML
and JSON data.
• Scientific and Engineering Applications: C is popularly used in scientific and
engineering applications, where high-performance computing is required to handle large
amounts of data.
• Business Applications: C is also used in business applications, such as accounting
software, inventory management software, and customer relationship management
(CRM) systems.
• Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: C is used in the development of artificial
intelligence and machine learning algorithms, where its speed and low-level control make
it ideal for high-performance computing tasks.

Sure, here are some funny facts about C programming:

• C is often referred to as the "Dennis Ritchie Language" after its creator. In the early
days of computing, programmers had to write in machine language, which was incredibly
difficult and time-consuming. C was created to make programming easier, but ironically,
it ended up becoming one of the most complex programming languages of all time!

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• C programming can be quite cryptic and hard to read, especially for beginners. Some
programmers have joked that C stands for "Confusing" or "Cryptic"!
• One of the most famous quotes about C programming is from Brian Kernighan, one of
the co-authors of "The C Programming Language": "Debugging is twice as hard as
writing the code in the first place. Therefore, if you write the code as cleverly as
possible, you are, by definition, not smart enough to debug it."
• C programming can be a bit of a headache because of its use of pointers. Pointers are
variables that store the memory address of another variable, and they can be quite tricky
to use correctly.
• Despite its reputation for being difficult, C programming can also be quite fun and
rewarding. There's a certain satisfaction that comes with writing code that works
perfectly and efficiently, and C programming can provide that feeling in spades.

Overall, C programming can be both frustrating and entertaining at the same time. Despite its
challenges, it remains one of the most widely used programming languages in the world, and
mastering it can be a rewarding experience for anyone who is willing to put in the time and
effort.

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C++ − OVERVIEW

C++ is a general-purpose, high-level programming language developed by Bjarne

Stroustrup in 1985 as an extension of the C programming language. It is an object-
oriented language that supports various programming paradigms, such as procedural,
functional, and generic programming. C++ is widely used for developing applications,
system software, drivers, embedded systems, games, and other software. Here are some
key features and concepts of C++ in detail:

 Object-oriented programming: C++ is an object-oriented language, which

means it provides features like classes, objects, inheritance, and polymorphism
that allow developers to write code in an organized and modular way.
 Data types: C++ supports various data types such as integers, floating-point
numbers, characters, and Boolean values. It also provides user-defined data types
like structures, unions, and enums.
 Control structures: C++ provides control structures like if-else statements,
switch-case statements, while loops, do-while loops, and for loops to control the
flow of execution in a program.
 Functions: C++ functions are self-contained units of code that can be reused
multiple times in a program. They can be used to perform a specific task, accept
parameters, and return values.
 Pointers: C++ allows the use of pointers, which are variables that store the
memory address of another variable. They are used to manipulate memory, create
dynamic data structures, and optimize performance.
 Memory management: C++ provides memory management features like
dynamic memory allocation and deallocation using operators like new and delete.
 Exception handling: C++ supports exception handling to handle runtime errors
and ensure graceful termination of a program.
 Standard Template Library (STL): C++ provides a rich library of reusable code
called the Standard Template Library (STL). It includes containers like vectors,
lists, maps, and algorithms like sorting and searching.

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 Templates: C++ supports templates, which allow developers to write generic
code that can work with different data types.
 Multi-paradigm support: C++ supports multiple programming paradigms,
including procedural, functional, and generic programming. This allows
developers to write code in a style that suits their needs.
 Low-level programming: C++ allows low-level programming, which means
developers can write code that interacts directly with hardware, such as device
drivers and operating systems.

Overall, C++ is a powerful and versatile language that can be used for a wide range of
programming tasks. Its flexibility, performance, and support for multiple programming
paradigms make it a popular choice for developers working on complex and demanding
projects.

Here's an example of a "Hello, World!" program in C++:

#include<iostream>
int main() {
std::cout << "Hello, World!" << std::endl;
return 0;
}

This program simply prints the string "Hello, World!" to the console.

Let's break down the program line by line:

 #include<iostream>: This line includes the iostream header file, which provides
input and output streams like cin and cout.
 int main() {: This line declares the main function, which is the entry point of the
program. int is the return type of the function, which indicates that it will return an
integer value. The empty parentheses indicate that the function takes no arguments.

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 std::cout << "Hello, World!" << std::endl;: This line prints the string "Hello,
World!" to the console. std::cout is a standard output stream object, and the <<
operator is used to insert the string into the stream. std::endl is a special character that
adds a new line to the output.
 return 0;: This line indicates that the program has finished executing and returns the
value 0 to the operating system. A return value of 0 typically indicates success.

The std:: prefix before cout and endl is used to specify that these names are part of the std
namespace, which is the standard namespace for C++ library functions and objects. Overall, this
program demonstrates the basic syntax and structure of a C++ program. By using the iostream
library, it shows how to perform basic input or output operations, and by defining the main
function, it specifies the entry point of the program.

In C++, comments are used to add explanatory text to a program that is ignored by the compiler.
There are two types of comments in C++: single-line comments and multi-line comments.

 Single-line comments start with // and continue until the end of the line. Here's an
example:

// This is a single-line comment

int main() {
// This is also a single-line comment
return 0;
}

In this example, the text after // is ignored by the compiler. Single-line comments are often used
to explain individual lines of code or to temporarily disable code during development.

 Multi-line comments start with /* and end with */. Here's an example:

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/*
This is a multi-line comment
that can span multiple lines
*/

int main() {
/*
This is also a multi-line comment
that can span multiple lines
*/
return 0;
}

In this example, the text between /* and */ is ignored by the compiler. Multi-line comments are
often used to explain larger blocks of code or to temporarily disable large sections of code. It's
important to note that comments should be used sparingly and only when necessary. Overuse of
comments can make code harder to read and maintain, and can also become outdated or
misleading if the code changes. However, when used appropriately, comments can be a useful
tool for improving the clarity and understandability of a program.

Data that can be used and modified across a program is stored in variables in C++. A variable is
defined by stating its data type, name, and, if applicable, initial value. The following are some
C++ examples of variable declarations:

int age = 30; // integer variable named "age" with initial value of 30

float pi = 3.14159; // floating-point variable named "pi" with initial value of 3.14159

double salary = 50000.0; // double-precision floating-point variable named "salary" with initial value of 50000.0

char grade = 'A'; // character variable named "grade" with initial value of 'A'

bool isStudent = true; // boolean variable named "isStudent" with initial value of true

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In these examples, we declare variables with different data types including int, float, double,
char, and bool. We also assign an initial value to each variable using the assignment operator =.
Variables can be modified by assigning a new value to them, as shown in this example:

int count = 0; // declare an integer variable named "count" with initial value of 0
count = count + 1; // increment the value of "count" by 1

In this example, we increment the value of the count variable by 1 using the + operator and
assignment operator =. It's important to note that variables have a scope, which determines where
they can be accessed in a program. A variable declared inside a function, for example, can only
be accessed within that function. A variable declared outside of any function, on the other hand,
can be accessed throughout the entire program.

#include<iostream>

int global_var = 10; // Global variable

int main() {
int local_var = 20; // Local variable

std::cout << "Global variable value: " << global_var << std::endl;
std::cout << "Local variable value: " << local_var << std::endl;

return 0;
}

In this example, we declare a global variable named global_var outside of any function, and a
local variable named local_var inside the main function. We can access both variables within
the main function, but only the global variable can be accessed outside of the function. Overall,

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variables are an essential part of C++ programming and are used to store and manipulate data
throughout a program.

In C++, data types specify the type of data that can be stored in a variable. C++ supports a wide
range of data types, including:

1. Integers: used to store whole numbers. There are several integer data types in C++,
including int, short, long, and long long. Example:

int age = 30;

short weight = 150;
long distance = 1000000;
long long total = 9000000000;

2. Floating-point numbers: used to store numbers with decimal points. There are two
floating-point data types in C++, float and double. Example:

float pi = 3.14159;
double salary = 50000.0;

3. Characters: used to store single characters. Character data types are denoted by the char
keyword. Example:

char grade = 'A';

4. Boolean: used to store true or false values. Boolean data types are denoted by the
bool keyword. Example:

bool isStudent = true;

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5. Arrays: used to store a collection of data of the same data type. Example:

int numbers[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

6. Pointers: used to store the memory address of another variable. Example:

int age = 30;

int* agePtr = &age; // agePtr stores the memory address of age

It's important to note that data types have different ranges and precision, and choosing the
appropriate data type for a variable is important for performance and accuracy. For example,
using a short data type instead of an int data type for large numbers can cause overflow or
truncation of the value. C++ also provides type modifiers, such as signed and unsigned, to
further specify the range of a data type. For example, unsigned int can only store non-negative
integers. Overall, understanding data types in C++ is important for writing efficient and accurate
code.

C++ operators are special symbols and keywords used to perform various operations on
variables and values. Here are some common C++ operators with examples:

1. Arithmetic Operators:
 Addition (+): int sum = 5 + 3; (sum equals 8)
 Subtraction (-): int difference = 5 - 3; (difference equals 2)
 Multiplication (*): int product = 5 * 3; (product equals 15)
 Division (/): float quotient = 5.0 / 3.0; (quotient equals 1.66667)
 Modulo (%): int remainder = 5 % 3; (remainder equals 2)
2. Assignment Operators:
 Simple Assignment (=): int a = 5; (a equals 5)
 Compound Assignment (+=, -=, *=, /=, %=): a += 3; (a equals 8)
3. Comparison Operators:
 Equal to (==): bool isEqual = 5 == 3; (isEqual equals false)

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 Not equal to (!=): bool isNotEqual = 5 != 3; (isNotEqual equals true)
 Greater than (>): bool isGreater = 5 > 3; (isGreater equals true)
 Less than (<): bool isLess = 5 < 3; (isLess equals false)
 Greater than or equal to (>=): bool isGreaterOrEqual = 5 >= 3;
(isGreaterOrEqual equals true)
 Less than or equal to (<=): bool isLessOrEqual = 5 <= 3; (isLessOrEqual
equals false)
4. Logical Operators:
 Logical AND (&&): bool isTrue = (5 > 3) && (4 < 6); (isTrue equals true)
 Logical OR (||): bool isFalse = (5 < 3) || (4 > 6); (isFalse equals
false)
 Logical NOT (!): bool isNotTrue = !(5 > 3); (isNotTrue equals false)
5. Bitwise Operators:
 Bitwise AND (&): int result = 5 & 3; (result equals 1)
 Bitwise OR (|): int result = 5 | 3; (result equals 7)
 Bitwise XOR (^): int result = 5 ^ 3; (result equals 6)
 Bitwise NOT (~): int result = ~5; (result equals -6)
 Left shift (<<): int result = 5 << 1; (result equals 10)
 Right shift (>>): int result = 5 >> 1; (result equals 2)

These are just some of the many operators available in C++.

In C++, a string is a sequence of characters stored in a contiguous block of memory. The string
data type is defined in the <string> header file. Here are some examples of working with C++
strings:

1. Creating a string:

#include<string>
using namespace std;

string str1 = "Hello, world!"; // initializing string with a literal

string str2("I am a string."); // initializing string with constructor
string str3; // declaring an empty string

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2. Accessing and modifying characters in a string:

char first_char = str1[0]; // accessing the first character of the string

str1[7] = 'W'; // changing the 8th character to 'W'
str1.at(4) = 'o'; // changing the 5th character to 'o' using the at() method

3. Concatenating strings:

string greeting = "Hello";

string name = "Alice";
string message = greeting + ", " + name + "!"; // concatenating strings with the + operator

4. Finding substrings:

string sentence = "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.";
int position = sentence.find("fox"); // finding the first occurrence of "fox"
string word = sentence.substr(16, 5); // extracting the word "brown" starting from position 16

5. Converting strings to numeric values:

string num_string = "12345";

int num_int = stoi(num_string); // converting string to integer
double num_double = stod("3.14"); // converting string to double

6. Getting the length of a string:

int length = str1.length(); // getting the length of the string

7. Comparing strings:

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string s1 = "hello";
string s2 = "world";
if (s1 == s2) {
// strings are equal
} else {
// strings are not equal
}

In C++, the math library provides a set of functions for performing mathematical operations.
Here are some examples of working with C++ math functions:

1. Absolute value:

#include<cmath>
using namespace std;

double num = -3.14;

double abs_num = abs(num); // taking the absolute value of a number

2. Square root:

double x = 16.0;
double sqrt_x = sqrt(x); // taking the square root of a number

3. Trigonometric functions:

double angle = 45.0;

double radians = angle * M_PI / 180.0; // converting angle to radians
double sin_val = sin(radians); // taking the sine of an angle in radians
double cos_val = cos(radians); // taking the cosine of an angle in radians
double tan_val = tan(radians); // taking the tangent of an angle in radians

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4. Exponential function:

double x = 2.0;
double exp_x = exp(x); // taking the exponential function of a number

5. Logarithmic functions:

double x = 10.0;
double log_x = log(x); // taking the natural logarithm of a number
double log10_x = log10(x); // taking the base 10 logarithm of a number

6. Power function:

double base = 2.0;

double exponent = 3.0;
double result = pow(base, exponent); // taking the power of a base to an exponent

7. Rounding functions:

double x = 3.7;
double rounded_down = floor(x); // rounding down to the nearest integer
double rounded_up = ceil(x); // rounding up to the nearest integer
double rounded_nearest = round(x); // rounding to the nearest integer

Note that the math library also provides many more functions than what is covered here, such
as hyperbolic functions, inverse trigonometric functions, and more. You can include the <cmath>
header file to use these functions in your C++ programs.

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In C++, a boolean is a data type that represents either true or false. Here are some examples of
working with C++ booleans:

1. Creating a boolean:

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

bool is_sunny = true; // initializing a boolean with a literal

bool is_raining(false); // initializing a boolean with a constructor
bool is_cloudy; // declaring an uninitialized boolean

2. Comparing values:

bool result = (3 == 3); // comparing two values for equality

bool is_greater = (5 > 3); // comparing two values for greater than
bool is_less_equal = (10 <= 15); // comparing two values for less than or equal to

3. Logical operators:

bool a = true;
bool b = false;
bool and_result = a && b; // logical AND
bool or_result = a || b; // logical OR
bool not_result = !a; // logical NOT

bool is_sunny = true;

4. Conditional statements: if (is_sunny) {
cout << "It's a sunny day!" << endl;
} else {
cout << "It's not a sunny day." << endl;
}

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5. Boolean expressions in loops:

bool is_running = true;

int count = 0;
while (is_running) {
count++;
if (count == 10) {
is_running = false;
}
}

Note that boolean values are commonly used in conditional statements, loops, and other control
structures in C++. In addition, C++ provides the keywords true and false to represent boolean
values, and the <stdbool.h> header file can be included for compatibility with C.

In C++, the if...else statement allows you to execute different code based on whether a
condition is true or false. Here are some examples of working with if...else statements in
C++:

1. Basic if statement:

int x = 10;
if (x > 5) {
cout << "x is greater than 5" << endl;
}

int x = 10;
2. if...else statement: if (x > 5) {
cout << "x is greater than 5" << endl;
} else {
cout << "x is less than or equal to 5" << endl;
}

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3. Nested if...else statements:

int x = 10;
if (x > 5) {
if (x < 15) {
cout << "x is between 5 and 15" << endl;
} else {
cout << "x is greater than or equal to 15" << endl;
}
} else {
cout << "x is less than or equal to 5" << endl;
}

4. if...else if...else statement:

int x = 10;
if (x < 5) {
cout << "x is less than 5" << endl;
} else if (x < 10) {
cout << "x is between 5 and 10" << endl;
} else {
cout << "x is greater than or equal to 10" << endl;
}

5. Ternary operator:

int x = 10;
int result = (x > 5) ? 1 : 0; // if x > 5, set result to 1, otherwise set it to 0

Note that the if...else statement is a fundamental control structure in C++, and can be used to
control the flow of your program based on specific conditions. By combining if...else

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statements with logical operators and comparison operators, you can create complex control
structures that can handle a wide variety of conditions.

In C++, the switch statement allows you to execute different code based on the value of a
variable. Here is the basic syntax of a switch statement:

switch(variable){
case value1:
// code to execute when variable == value1
break;
case value2:
// code to execute when variable == value2
break;
// additional cases can be added
default:
// code to execute when variable does not match any of the cases
break;
}

Here are some examples of using the switch statement in C++:

Example 1: Printing the name of a day based on its number

#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
int day = 3;
switch(day) {
case 1:
cout << "Monday";
break;

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case 2:
cout << "Tuesday";
break;
case 3:
cout << "Wednesday";
break;
case 4:
cout << "Thursday";
break;
case 5:
cout << "Friday";
break;
case 6:
cout << "Saturday";
break;
case 7:
cout << "Sunday";
break;
default:
cout << "Invalid day";
break;
}
return 0;
}

Output:

Wednesday

Example 2: Calculating the result of an arithmetic operation

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#include<iostream>
using namespace std;

int main() {
int a = 10, b = 5;
char op = '-';
int result;
switch(op) {
case '+':
result = a + b;
break;
case '-':
result = a - b;
break;
case '*':
result = a * b;
break;
case '/':
result = a / b;
break;
default:
cout << "Invalid operator";
return 1;
}
cout << "Result: " << result;
return 0;
}

Output:

Result: 5

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Example 3: Checking the type of a variable

#include<iostream>
#include<typeinfo>
using namespace std;

int main() {
auto x = 1.5;
switch(typeid(x).hash_code()) {
case typeid(int).hash_code():
cout << "x is an integer";
break;
case typeid(float).hash_code():
cout << "x is a float";
break;
case typeid(double).hash_code():
cout << "x is a double";
break;
default:
cout << "x has an unknown type";
break;
}
return 0;
}

Output:

x is a double

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Loops in C++ allow you to execute a block of code repeatedly based on a certain condition.
There are three types of loops in C++:

1. The for loop

2. The while loop
3. The do-while loop

Here is an example and explanation of each loop:

1. The for loop:

The for loop is used when you know exactly how many times you want to execute the
loop. It has three parts: initialization, condition, and increment or decrement.

Syntax:

dataType arrayName[arraySize];

Here, dataType is the data type of the elements you want to store, arrayName is the name of the
array, and arraySize is the number of elements in the array.

Example:

int arr[5];

This creates an array of integers with 5 elements.

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Initialization of an array can be done using braces {}. The values are separated by commas and
the number of values must match the number of elements in the array.

Example:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

This initializes an array of integers with 5 elements, where the first element is 1, the second
element is 2, and so on.

Accessing elements of an array can be done using indices, starting from 0 for the first element.

Example:

cout << arr[0]; // Accesses the first element of the array

cout << arr[3]; // Accesses the fourth element of the array

In C++, arrays are fixed in size, which means that the number of elements in the array cannot be
changed after the array is declared. To change the value of an element in the array, simply assign
a new value to the element using the index.

Example:

arr[2] = 10; // Changes the third element of the array to 10

In addition to one-dimensional arrays, C++ also supports multidimensional arrays, such as two-
dimensional arrays, three-dimensional arrays, and so on. A two-dimensional array can be thought
of as a table, with rows and columns of elements.

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Example of a two-dimensional array:

int arr[3][4] = {{1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7, 8}, {9, 10, 11, 12}};

This initializes a two-dimensional array with 3 rows and 4 columns.

To sum up, arrays are a fundamental data structure in C++, and can be useful for storing and
manipulating large amounts of data in a structured manner.

In C++, a reference is an alias for a variable, which allows you to refer to the original variable
using a different name. References can be useful for passing arguments to functions, as they
avoid the overhead of making a copy of the argument.

Syntax to declare a reference:

dataType& refName = variableName;

Here, dataType is the data type of the variable being referred to, refName is the name of the
reference, and variableName is the name of the variable being referred to.

Example:

int num = 10;

int& numRef = num;

This creates a reference to the integer variable num, named numRef.

Assigning a value to a reference changes the value of the original variable being referred to.

Example:

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numRef = 20;
cout << num; // Outputs 20

This assigns the value 20 to the reference numRef, which changes the value of the original
variable num to 20.

References can be useful for passing arguments to functions by reference, which allows the
function to modify the original value of the argument.

Example:

void doubleValue(int& num) {

num *= 2;
}

int main() {
int num = 10;
doubleValue(num);
cout << num; // Outputs 20
return 0;
}

This declares a function named doubleValue, which takes an integer reference as an argument
and doubles the value of the argument. The function is then called in the main function with the
integer variable num as the argument.

Overall, references in C++ are aliases for variables, which can be useful for passing
arguments to functions and modifying the original value of the argument.

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In C++, a pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable. Pointers
can be useful for manipulating memory directly and for implementing complex data structures.

Syntax to declare a pointer:

dataType* pointerName;

Here, dataType is the data type of the variable being pointed to, and pointerName is the name
of the pointer.

Example:

int* numPtr;

This declares a pointer to an integer variable.

To assign a value to a pointer, you must use the address-of operator & to obtain the memory
address of the variable being pointed to.

Example:

int num = 10;

int* numPtr = &num;

This assigns the memory address of the integer variable num to the pointer numPtr.

To access the value of the variable being pointed to, you must use the dereference operator *.

Example:

cout << *numPtr;

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This outputs the value of the integer variable being pointed to by numPtr.

Pointers can be useful for passing arguments to functions, as they allow the function to access
and modify the original value of the argument.

Example:

void doubleValue(int* numPtr) {

*numPtr *= 2;
}

int main() {
int num = 10;
int* numPtr = &num;
doubleValue(numPtr);
cout << num; // Outputs 20
return 0;
}

This declares a function named doubleValue, which takes a pointer to an integer variable as an
argument and doubles the value of the variable using the dereference operator. The function is
then called in the main function with the pointer to the integer variable num as the argument.

In addition to pointers to variables, C++ also supports pointers to arrays and pointers to
functions.

Example of a pointer to an array:

int arr[5] = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5};

int* arrPtr = arr;

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This declares an array of integers with 5 elements and a pointer to the first element of the array.

Example of a pointer to a function:

int add(int x, int y) {

return x + y;
}

int (*addPtr)(int, int) = add;

This declares a function named add, which takes two integer arguments and returns their sum,
and a pointer to the add function.

Overall, pointers in C++ are variables that store the memory address of another variable,
which can be useful for manipulating memory directly and for implementing complex data
structures.

In C++, files are used for input and output operations. Input operations involve reading data
from a file into a program, while output operations involve writing data from a program to a file.
C++ provides several file stream classes for handling file input and output operations: ifstream
for input from a file, ofstream for output to a file, and fstream for both input and output.

Syntax to open a file:

fstream fileStream;
fileStream.open("filename", mode);

Here, filename is the name of the file to be opened, and mode is the mode in which to open the
file, which can be either ios::in for input, ios::out for output, or ios::in | ios::out for
both input and output.

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Example of opening a file for output:

ofstream outputFile;
outputFile.open("output.txt", ios::out);

This opens a file named output.txt in output mode.

To write data to a file, you can use the insertion operator <<.

Example of writing data to a file:

outputFile << "Hello, world!";

This writes the string "Hello, world!" to the file output.txt.

To read data from a file, you can use the extraction operator >>.

Example of reading data from a file:

ifstream inputFile;
inputFile.open("input.txt", ios::in);
string data;
inputFile >> data;

This opens a file named input.txt in input mode and reads a string of data from the file into the
variable data.

After finishing file operations, it is important to close the file using the close function.

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Example of closing a file:

outputFile.close();

This closes the output file output.txt.

In addition to the basic file operations, C++ also provides functions for checking the status of a
file, moving the file pointer, and working with binary files. Overall, files in C++ are used for
input and output operations, and C++ provides several file stream classes for handling file input
and output. To perform file operations, a file must be opened, data must be read from or written
to the file, and the file must be closed after finishing the operations.

In C++, functions are blocks of code that perform specific tasks. They are used to break down
a program into smaller, more manageable pieces of code, and to avoid writing the same code
repeatedly. Here are some examples of C++ functions:

1. Function with no parameters and no return value

#include<iostream>

void printHello() {
std::cout << "Hello, world!" << std::endl;
}

int main() {
printHello(); // prints "Hello, world!"
return 0;
}

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This function printHello takes no parameters and returns no value. It simply prints
"Hello, world!" to the console.

2. Function with parameters and no return value

#include <iostream>

void printName(std::string name) {

std::cout << "Hello, " << name << "!" << std::endl;
}

int main() {
printName("Alice"); // prints "Hello, Alice!"
printName("Bob"); // prints "Hello, Bob!"
return 0;
}

This function printName takes a std::string parameter name and returns no value. It prints
"Hello, " followed by the value of name and an exclamation mark.

3. Function with parameters and return value

#include<iostream>

int square(int num) {

return num * num;
}

int main() {
std::cout << square(5) << std::endl; // prints 25
std::cout << square(-3) << std::endl; // prints 9
return 0;
}

#include<iostream>

class Rectangle {
public:
int width, height;

int area() {
return width * height;
}

void print() {
std::cout << "Width: " << width << ", Height: " << height << std::endl;
}
};

int main() {
Rectangle r;
r.width = 10;
r.height = 20;
std::cout << "Area: " << r.area() << std::endl;
r.print();
return 0;
}

In this example, we define a class Rectangle that has two data members width and height,
and two member functions area() and print(). The area() function calculates the area of

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the rectangle by multiplying the width and height, and the print() function prints the width
and height to the console. In the main() function, we create an object r of the Rectangle
class and set its width and height to 10 and 20, respectively. We then call the area() function to
calculate the area of the rectangle and print it to the console, followed by a call to the print()
function to print the width and height of the rectangle.

Classes can also have constructors and destructors, which are special member functions that are
called when an object is created and destroyed, respectively. Here's an example that shows how
to define a constructor and destructor for the Rectangle class:

#include<iostream>

class Rectangle {

public:
int width, height;

Rectangle() {
width = 0;
height = 0;
std::cout << "Rectangle constructor called" << std::endl;
}

Rectangle(int w, int h) {
width = w;
height = h;
std::cout << "Rectangle constructor called" << std::endl;
}

~Rectangle() {
std::cout << "Rectangle destructor called" << std::endl;
}

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int area() {
return width * height;
}

void print() {
std::cout << "Width: " << width << ", Height: " << height << std::endl;
}
};

int main() {
Rectangle r1;
r1.print();

Rectangle r2(10, 20);

r2.print();

return 0;
}

In this example, we define two constructors for the Rectangle class: a default constructor that
sets the width and height to 0, and a parameterized constructor that takes two integer arguments
and initializes the width and height with those values. We also define a destructor that prints a
message to the console when the object is destroyed. In the main() function, we create two
objects of the Rectangle class: r1 using the default constructor, and r2 using the
parameterized constructor with arguments 10 and 20. We then call the print() function on
both objects to print their width and height to the console. Classes can be used to encapsulate
data and behavior, and to create objects that represent real-world entities or concepts. They can
also be used to define more complex data structures and algorithms, such as linked lists, trees,
and graphs. Understanding how to define and use classes is an important part of C++
programming.

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In C++, an object is an instance of a class. It is a concrete representation of the data and behavior
defined by the class, and can be used to perform operations and interact with other objects and
the environment. When you create an object of a class, you are essentially creating a new
variable of that type. The object has its own set of data members, which are initialized according
to the constructor of the class, and its own set of member functions, which can be used to
manipulate the data members and perform operations. Here's an example that demonstrates
how to create and use objects in C++:

#include<iostream>

class Rectangle {
public:
int width, height;

Rectangle(int w, int h) {
width = w;
height = h;
}

int area() {
return width * height;
}

void print() {
std::cout << "Width: " << width << ", Height: " << height << std::endl;
}
};

int main() {
Rectangle r1(10, 20);
r1.print();
std::cout << "Area: " << r1.area() << std::endl;

Rectangle r2(5, 15);

r2.print();
std::cout << "Area: " << r2.area() << std::endl;

return 0;
}

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In this example, we define a class Rectangle that has two data members width and height, a
constructor that initializes the data members with the provided values, and two member functions
area() and print() that calculate the area of the rectangle and print its dimensions to the
console, respectively. In the main() function, we create two objects of the Rectangle class,
r1 and r2, with different values for the width and height data members. We then call the
print() function and the area() function on both objects to print their dimensions and
calculate their areas. Objects in C++ are an important tool for representing real-world entities
and for creating data structures and algorithms. They provide a way to encapsulate data and
behavior into a single entity, and to create multiple instances of that entity with different data
values. Understanding how to create and use objects is an essential part of C++ programming.

C++ exceptions are a way to handle runtime errors in a program. Exceptions allow the program
to detect and handle errors gracefully, rather than crashing or producing undefined behavior.
When an error occurs, an exception object is created and thrown to the nearest enclosing try-
catch block that can handle it. If no such block is found, the program terminates. Here's an
example that demonstrates how to use exceptions in C++:

#include<iostream>

int main() {
int x, y;

std::cout << "Enter two integers: ";

std::cin >> x >> y;

try {
if (y == 0) {

throw std::runtime_error("Division by zero");

}

std::cout << "Result: " << x / y << std::endl;

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catch (std::exception& e) {
std::cout << "Error: " << e.what() << std::endl;
}

return 0;
}

In this example, we ask the user to enter two integers x and y, and then attempt to divide x by y.
If y is zero, we throw an exception with a message "Division by zero". We catch the exception
with a try-catch block that handles std::exception objects. If an exception is thrown, we
print an error message to the console. Here's another example that demonstrates how to define
and use custom exception classes:

#include<iostream>
#include<string>

class MyException : public std::exception {

private:
std::string message;
public:
MyException(std::string msg) {
message = msg;
}

virtual const char* what() const throw() {

return message.c_str();
}
};

int main() {

try {

954
throw MyException("Custom exception");
}
catch (std::exception& e) {
std::cout << "Error: " << e.what() << std::endl;
}

return 0;
}

In this example, we define a custom exception class MyException that inherits from
std::exception. The MyException class has a constructor that takes a message string as
input, and a what() function that returns the message string when called. In the main()
function, we throw a MyException object with the message "Custom exception", and catch it
with a try-catch block that handles std::exception objects. Exceptions are a powerful
tool for handling errors and preventing crashes in C++ programs. By throwing and catching
exceptions, you can detect and recover from errors gracefully, and provide useful error messages
to the user. When designing C++ programs, it's important to consider the potential errors that can
occur and to use exceptions to handle them appropriately.

Encapsulation is the concept of hiding the implementation details of a class from the outside
world and providing a public interface to access its functionality. In C++, encapsulation is
achieved through the use of access modifiers like public, private, and protected in the class
definition.

Here is an example of encapsulation in C++:

955
#include<iostream>

class BankAccount {
private:
std::string accountNumber;
double balance;
public:
BankAccount(std::string num, double bal) {
accountNumber = num;
balance = bal;
}

void deposit(double amount) {

balance += amount;
}

void withdraw(double amount) {

if (amount <= balance) {
balance -= amount;
}
else {
std::cout << "Insufficient balance" << std::endl;
}
}

double getBalance() {
return balance;
}
};

int main() {
BankAccount acc("12345", 1000.0);

acc.deposit(500.0);
std::cout << "Balance after deposit: " << acc.getBalance() << std::endl;

acc.withdraw(2000.0);
std::cout << "Balance after withdrawal: " << acc.getBalance() << std::endl;

return 0;
}

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In this example, we define a class BankAccount that has two private data members,
accountNumber and balance, and three public member functions, deposit(),
withdraw(), and getBalance(). The deposit() and withdraw() functions modify the
balance data member, while the getBalance() function returns the balance to the calling
code. The private data members accountNumber and balance are not directly accessible
from the outside world. The calling code can only interact with the public member functions,
which provide a safe and controlled way of accessing and modifying the object's data. This way
of encapsulating the data members of a class ensures that they cannot be accidentally modified
from outside the class, which makes the code more robust and maintainable.

Inheritance is a key concept in object-oriented programming that allows a new class to be based
on an existing class, inheriting its attributes and behavior. In C++, inheritance is implemented
using the class keyword, followed by the name of the new class, a colon, and the name of the
base class. Here is an example of inheritance in C++:

#include<iostream>

class Shape {
protected:
int width;
int height;
public:
Shape(int w, int h) {
width = w;
height = h;
}

virtual int area() {

std::cout << "Parent class area:" << std::endl;

return 0;

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};
class Rectangle : public Shape {
public:
Rectangle(int w, int h) : Shape(w, h) {}

int area() override {

std::cout << "Rectangle class area:" << std::endl;
return (width * height);
}
};
class Triangle : public Shape {
public:
Triangle(int w, int h) : Shape(w, h) {}

int area() override {

std::cout << "Triangle class area:" << std::endl;
return (width * height / 2);
}
};

int main() {
Shape* shape;
Rectangle rect(10, 5);
Triangle tri(10, 5);

shape = &rect;
std::cout << "Rectangle area: " << shape->area() << std::endl;

shape = &tri;
std::cout << "Triangle area: " << shape->area() << std::endl;

return 0;
}

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In this example, we define a base class Shape that has two protected data members width and
height, and a public member function area(). We also define two derived classes
Rectangle and Triangle that inherit from Shape. The derived classes Rectangle and
Triangle add their own implementation of the area() function, which overrides the
implementation in the base class. This is achieved by using the override keyword, which tells
the compiler to check that the function is actually overriding a base class function. In the
main() function, we create objects of type Rectangle and Triangle, and use a pointer of
type Shape* to point to them. We then call the area() function on these objects through the
Shape* pointer, which invokes the overridden functions in the derived classes. This way of
using inheritance allows us to reuse code from the base class and add new functionality in the
derived classes, while still maintaining a common interface through the public member functions
of the base class.

Polymorphism is a feature of object-oriented programming that allows objects to take on

multiple forms or behaviors depending on the context in which they are used. In C++,
polymorphism is achieved through the use of virtual functions, which are functions that can be
overridden by derived classes. Polymorphism can be categorized into two types:

 Compile-time polymorphism (also known as static polymorphism): This type of

polymorphism is achieved through function overloading and operator overloading.
 Run-time polymorphism (also known as dynamic polymorphism): This type of
polymorphism is achieved through inheritance and virtual functions.

Run-time polymorphism is the most commonly used type of polymorphism in C++. It allows
you to write code that works with objects of different types, as long as they all implement the
same interface (i.e. have the same set of virtual functions). When you call a virtual function on a
base class pointer or reference, the actual function that gets called depends on the type of the
object that the pointer or reference points to. This allows you to write code that works with
objects of different types, but still calls the correct function for each type. For example, consider
a base class Animal and two derived classes Dog and Cat. The Animal class has a virtual

959
function makeSound() that is overridden in the Dog and Cat classes. We can create a pointer
of type Animal* that can point to objects of type Dog and Cat. When we call the
makeSound() function on the Animal* pointer, the actual function that gets called depends on
the type of the object that the pointer points to. This allows us to write code that works with both
Dog and Cat objects, but still calls the correct makeSound() function for each type.

#include<iostream>

class Animal {
public:
virtual void makeSound() {
std::cout << "Animal sound" << std::endl;
}
};

class Dog : public Animal {

public:
void makeSound() override {
std::cout << "Woof!" << std::endl;
}
};

class Cat : public Animal {

public:
void makeSound() override {
std::cout << "Meow!" << std::endl;
}
};

int main() {
Animal* animal;
Dog dog;
Cat cat;

animal = &dog;
animal->makeSound(); // Output: Woof!

animal = &cat;
animal->makeSound(); // Output: Meow!

return 0;
}

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In this example, we use the Animal* pointer to point to objects of type Dog and Cat. When we
call the makeSound() function on the Animal* pointer, the actual function that gets called
depends on the type of the object that the pointer points to. This allows us to write code that
works with both Dog and Cat objects, but still calls the correct makeSound() function for each
type.

In C++, a constructor is a special member function of a class that is called when an object of
that class is created. The purpose of the constructor is to initialize the data members of the object
to some initial values. The syntax for a constructor is as follows:

class ClassName {
public:
ClassName(); // Constructor declaration
};

The constructor has the same name as the class and does not have a return type. It can have
parameters, just like a regular function. There are two types of constructors in C++: default
constructor and parameterized constructor. The default constructor is a constructor that
takes no parameters, and its purpose is to initialize the data members of the object to some
default values. If a class does not have any constructors defined, the compiler automatically
generates a default constructor for the class. For example:

#include<iostream>

class Point {
public:
int x, y;

Point() {
x = 0;
y = 0;

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}
};

int main() {
Point p;
std::cout << p.x << ", " << p.y << std::endl; // Output: 0, 0

return 0;
}

In this example, we have defined a class Point that represents a point in 2D space. We have
defined a default constructor that initializes the x and y data members to 0. When we create an
object of the Point class using the default constructor, the x and y data members are
initialized to 0. A parameterized constructor is a constructor that takes one or more
parameters, and its purpose is to initialize the data members of the object to some specific values
based on the arguments passed to the constructor. For example:

#include <iostream>
class Point {
public:
int x, y;

Point(int x, int y) {
this->x = x;
this->y = y;
}
};

int main() {
Point p(1, 2);
std::cout << p.x << ", " << p.y << std::endl; // Output: 1, 2

return 0;
}

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In this example, we have defined a parameterized constructor that takes two integers x and y
as arguments. The constructor initializes the x and y data members of the object to the values
passed as arguments. When we create an object of the Point class using the parameterized
constructor with arguments 1 and 2, the x and y data members are initialized to 1 and 2,
respectively.

There are several advantages of using C++, some of which are:

 High performance: C++ is a compiled language, which means that code written in C++
is compiled into machine code that can be executed directly by the computer's processor.
This makes C++ programs very fast and efficient.
 Object-oriented programming: C++ supports object-oriented programming (OOP),
which allows developers to write code that is organized around objects and classes. OOP
makes it easier to write and maintain large, complex programs.
 Portability: C++ code can be compiled and run on a wide variety of platforms, including
Windows, macOS, Linux, and many others.
 Standard libraries: C++ comes with a large number of standard libraries that provide a
wide range of functionality, including input/output, strings, math functions, and more.
These libraries can save developers a lot of time and effort by providing pre-written code
that can be used in their programs.
 Compatibility with C: C++ is largely backwards-compatible with C, which means that
many C programs can be easily converted to C++.

Here are some examples of applications that use C++:

 Operating systems: Many operating systems, including Windows and macOS, are
written in C++.
 Game development: C++ is a popular language for game development due to its high
performance and support for OOP.

963
 Web browsers: Both Google Chrome and Mozilla Firefox are built using C++.
 Financial software: C++ is often used in financial software due to its speed and ability
to handle large amounts of data.
 Industrial automation: Many industrial automation systems use C++ for their control
software due to its real-time performance and ability to interface with hardware.

Here are some specific examples of disadvantages of using C++:

 Memory management: As mentioned before, C++ requires manual memory

management. This can lead to memory leaks, which occur when memory is not properly
deallocated, leading to wasted memory and potential crashes. For example, consider the
following code:

int* ptr = new int;

ptr = new int;

In this code, memory is allocated twice for ptr without deallocating the first allocation.
This creates a memory leak.

 Complexity: C++ can be complex to learn and use, especially for beginners. For
example, consider the following code:

class Rectangle {
int width, height;
public:
Rectangle(int w, int h) {
width = w;
height = h;
}
int area() {
return width * height;
}
};

int main() {
Rectangle rect(5, 10);
std::cout << "Area: " << rect.area() << std::endl;
return 0;
}

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This code defines a class Rectangle with a constructor and a method area(). While
this is a simple example, it illustrates the complexity of the C++ syntax and the need to
understand concepts such as classes and methods.

 Security vulnerabilities: C++ is susceptible to security vulnerabilities such as buffer

overflows. For example, consider the following code:

int main() {
char buffer[8];
std::strcpy(buffer, "Hello world!");
return 0;
}

This code copies the string "Hello world!" into a buffer that is only 8 bytes long. This can
lead to a buffer overflow, where the extra characters overwrite adjacent memory,
potentially leading to a security vulnerability.

 Compiler compatibility issues: Different compilers can produce different results when
compiling C++ code. For example, consider the following code:

int main() {
int x = 0;
std::cout << x++ << ++x << std::endl;
return 0;
}

The output of this code is undefined because the order in which the expressions x++ and ++x
are evaluated is not specified by the C++ standard. This can lead to compatibility issues
between different compilers and environments.

 Lack of garbage collection: C++ does not have automatic garbage collection, which
means that the programmer is responsible for managing memory manually. For example,
consider the following code:

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int* ptr = new int;
// ...
delete ptr;

This code allocates memory for an integer using new, and then deallocates the memory using
delete. If the programmer forgets to deallocate the memory, a memory leak can occur. If
the programmer deallocates the memory twice, the program can crash.

 Slow development time: C++ can be slower to develop in than other languages such as
Python or Ruby, due to its complex syntax and manual memory management.

It's worth noting that many of these disadvantages can be mitigated with careful coding practices
and the use of libraries and frameworks that provide higher-level abstractions for memory
management and other tasks.

Here are some amazing facts about C++:

 C++ is often described as a "high-level" language, but it was actually created as a

successor to the "low-level" language C. The "++" in C++ refers to the fact that it is an
"incremented" version of C.
 The C++ standard has over 1,400 pages, making it one of the longest programming
language standards in existence.
 The name "C++" was chosen by its creator, Bjarne Stroustrup, because it is a play on
the increment operator "++". He originally wanted to name it "C with Classes", but the
name was already taken.
 C++ is known for its ability to perform low-level memory manipulation, but it also
includes support for object-oriented programming and other high-level concepts.
 C++ is often used for performance-critical applications such as video games and
operating systems. This has led to the creation of a community of programmers who are
passionate about optimizing their code for maximum speed and efficiency.

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 C++ has been used to create some of the most popular software in the world, including
Microsoft Windows, Adobe Photoshop, and Google Chrome.
 C++ has a reputation for being a difficult language to learn and use, but many
programmers find it rewarding and even fun to work with.
 There are many puns and jokes related to C++ and programming in general. For example,
"Why did the C++ developer break up with the Java developer? Because she didn't
like his class."

"There are only two kinds of languages: the ones people

complain about and the ones nobody uses."

― Bjarne Stroustrup, The C++ Programming Language

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JAVA – OVERVIEW

Java is a popular programming language that was created in the mid-1990s by James
Gosling and his team at Sun Microsystems. It is a general-purpose, high-level, object-
oriented programming language that is designed to be platform-independent, meaning that
it can be run on any operating system or platform that has a Java Virtual Machine (JVM).
Java is widely used for developing a variety of applications, including desktop applications,
web applications, mobile applications, and enterprise applications. It is also used for
developing software for embedded systems and Internet of Things (IoT) devices. Some
key features of Java include:

 Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): Java is a fully object-oriented programming

language, meaning that it uses objects to represent data and behavior.
 Platform Independence: Java code can be compiled into bytecode, which can be run
on any platform that has a JVM installed.
 Garbage Collection: Java has an automatic memory management system that frees up
memory automatically when it is no longer needed.
 Exception Handling: Java has a built-in mechanism for handling errors and exceptions
in a program.
 Multithreading: Java supports multithreading, which allows multiple threads to run
simultaneously within a program.
 Standard Library: Java comes with a vast standard library that provides a wide range
of useful functions and classes.

Java is widely used in industries such as finance, healthcare, and technology, and it is also
used extensively in education for teaching programming concepts. Many popular software
applications, such as Adobe Creative Suite and Minecraft, are built on Java. Additionally,
Java is used for developing Android apps, making it a popular choice for mobile
development.

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Here's an example of how to write "Hello, world!" in Java:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello, world!");
}
}

Now, let's break down what this code is doing:

 The public keyword means that this class is accessible to code outside of its own
package.
 The class keyword is used to declare a new class.
 MyClass is the name of the class. The class name must match the file name.
 The opening and closing curly braces { } define the boundaries of the class definition.
 public static void main(String[] args) is the declaration of the main method,
which is the entry point of the program. It is required for every Java program.
 The System.out.println() statement prints the string "Hello, world!" to the console.

When you run this program, the output will be:

Hello, world!

Java comments are used to provide information or explanation about the code to other
developers who may read the code. Comments are not executed by the computer and do not
affect the code's functionality. There are three types of comments in Java:

 Single-line comments − These comments are created using // and are used to explain a
single line of code. Everything after the // is ignored by the compiler.

Example:

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// This is a single-line comment
int x = 5; // this assigns the value 5 to x

 Multi-line comments − These comments are created using /* to start and */ to end the
comment block. They can span across multiple lines of code.

Example:
/*
This is a multi-line comment
It can span across multiple lines
*/
int y = 10;

 Javadoc comments − These comments are created using /** to start and */ to end the
comment block. They are used to provide documentation about classes, methods, and
fields, and are used by JavaDoc tools to create API documentation.

Example:
/**
* This is a Javadoc comment. It is used to provide documentation for a class,
* method or field.
* In this example, we are defining a class called ExampleClass.
*/
public class ExampleClass {
/**
* This is a Javadoc comment for the ExampleMethod method. It explains what the
* method does and what it returns.
* @param x an integer parameter
* @return the sum of x and y
*/
public int ExampleMethod(int x) {
int y = 5;
return x + y;
}
}

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Overall, comments are a useful tool for developers to explain their code and improve its readability.

In Java, a variable is a named memory location used to store data. A variable can hold
different types of data, such as integers, floating-point numbers, characters, and strings. Here are
some examples of how to use variables in Java:

1. Declaring and initializing an integer variable:

int x; // declaring an integer variable

x = 10; // initializing the variable with the value 10

2. Declaring and initializing a floating-point variable:

float y = 3.14f; // declaring and initializing a float variable with the value 3.14

3. Declaring and initializing a character variable:

char c = 'a'; // declaring and initializing a character variable with the value 'a'

4. Declaring and initializing a string variable:

String name = "John"; // declaring and initializing a string variable with the value "John"

5. Declaring and initializing a boolean variable:

boolean flag = true; // declaring and initializing a boolean variable with the value true

6. Declaring multiple variables at once:

int a, b, c; // declaring three integer variables at once

a = 1;
b = 2;
c = 3;

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7. Using a variable in an expression:

int x = 10;
int y = 20;
int sum = x + y; // using the variables x and y to calculate the sum

Overall, variables are an essential part of Java programming, and they allow developers to
store and manipulate data in their programs.

In Java, data types are used to classify the type of data that a variable can hold. Java has two
categories of data types: primitive data types and reference data types.

Primitive Data Types: Primitive data types are the most basic data types in Java, and they are
used to store simple values such as integers, floating-point numbers, characters, and boolean
values. There are eight primitive data types in Java:

 byte: Used to store integer values from -128 to 127.

 short: Used to store integer values from -32,768 to 32,767.
 int: Used to store integer values from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647.
 long: Used to store integer values from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807.
 float: Used to store floating-point numbers with a precision of 6 to 7
decimal digits.
 double: Used to store floating-point numbers with a precision of 15
decimal digits.
 char: Used to store single characters such as 'a' or 'b'.
 boolean: Used to store either true or false values.

Reference Data Types: Reference data types are used to store complex objects and are created
using classes or interfaces. These data types refer to a memory location where the object is
stored, rather than storing the object directly. Examples of reference data types include String,
Arrays, and Class objects.

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Here are some examples of how to declare and use data types in Java:

1. Declaring and initializing a variable of type int:

int x = 10; // initializing an int variable with the value 10

2. Declaring and initializing a variable of type double:

double pi = 3.14159; // initializing a double variable with the value 3.14159

3. Declaring and initializing a variable of type char:

char c = 'a'; // initializing a char variable with the value 'a'

4. Declaring and initializing a variable of type String:

String name = "John"; // initializing a String variable with the value "John"

5. Declaring and initializing an array of integers:

int[] arr = {1, 2, 3, 4}; // initializing an integer array with the values 1, 2, 3, and 4

Overall, data types are used to define the type of data that a variable can hold in Java. The
primitive data types are used to store simple values, while reference data types are used to store
complex objects. Understanding data types is important for writing effective Java programs.

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Java Type Casting is the process of converting the value of one data type to another data
type. This is necessary when you want to use a value of one data type in an expression that
expects another data type. In Java, there are two types of type casting: explicit and implicit.

 Explicit Type Casting: This is when you convert a data type to another data type
explicitly by specifying the target type in parentheses before the value being cast. For
example:

double d = 3.14;
int i = (int) d;

In this example, we convert a double value to an int value using explicit type casting. The value
of the double variable d is cast to an int value and stored in the int variable i. Note that this may
result in data loss as the decimal part of the double value is truncated.

 Implicit Type Casting: This is when you convert a data type to another data type
implicitly by the compiler. Implicit type casting occurs when the data type of the target
variable is larger than the data type of the source variable. For example:

int i = 10;
float f = i;

In this example, we convert an int value to a float value using implicit type casting. The
value of the int variable i is automatically cast to a float value and stored in the float variable f.
Note that this does not result in data loss as the float data type is larger than the int data type.
It is important to note that type casting can result in data loss or overflow if the target data type is
not large enough to hold the value of the source data type. In such cases, you may need to use
additional logic to handle such scenarios.

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Java operators are symbols or keywords that perform certain operations on one or more
operands. They are classified into different categories based on their functionality. Here are
some of the commonly used operators in Java:

 Arithmetic Operators: These operators are used to perform mathematical operations

such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and modulus. The following table
shows the arithmetic operators in Java:

Operator Description

+ Addition

− Subtraction

* Multiplication

/ Division

% Modulus (Remainder)

 Assignment Operators: These operators are used to assign a value to a variable. The
following table shows the assignment operators in Java:

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Operator Example Same As

= a = 10; a = 10;

+= a += 10; a = a + 10;

−= a −= 10; a = a − 10;

*= a *= 10; a = a * 10;

/= a /= 10; a = a / 10;

%= a %= 10; a = a % 10;

 Comparison Operators: These operators are used to compare two values and return a
boolean value (true or false). The following table shows the comparison operators in
Java:

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Operator Description

== Equal to

!= Not equal to

> Greater than

< Less than

>= Greater than or equal to

<= Less than or equal to

 Logical Operators: These operators are used to combine two or more boolean
expressions and return a boolean value. The following table shows the logical
operators in Java:

Operator Description

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&& Logical AND

! Logical NOT

 Increment and Decrement Operators: These operators are used to increase or decrease
the value of a variable by 1. The following table shows the increment and decrement
operators in Java:

Operator Description

++ Increment by 1

−− Decrement by 1

 Bitwise Operators: These operators are used to perform bitwise operations on binary
numbers. The following table shows the bitwise operators in Java:

Operator Description

& Bitwise AND

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| Bitwise OR

^ Bitwise XOR

~ Bitwise NOT

<< Left Shift

>> Right Shift

>>> Unsigned Right Shift

These are the main categories of Java operators. Understanding and using these operators
correctly is important for writing efficient and effective Java code.

In Java, a String is an object that represents a sequence of characters. Strings are widely
used in Java programming, and here are some examples of how to work with strings in Java:

1. Creating a String:

String greeting = "Hello, world!";

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In this example, we create a String variable called greeting and initialize it with the value
"Hello, world!".

2. Concatenating Strings:

String firstName = "John";

String lastName = "Doe";
String fullName = firstName + " " + lastName;

In this example, we concatenate two String variables, firstName and lastName, with a space
in between, and store the result in a new String variable called fullName.

3. Getting the Length of a String:

String text = "This is a text string.";

int length = text.length();

In this example, we get the length of a String variable called text using the length() method
and store the result in an integer variable called length.

4. Comparing Strings:

String str1 = "Hello";

String str2 = "World";
boolean result = str1.equals(str2);

In this example, we compare two String variables, str1 and str2, using the equals() method
and store the result in a boolean variable called result.

5. Converting Strings to Numbers:

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String str = "123";
int num = Integer.parseInt(str);

In this example, we convert a String variable called str to an integer variable using the
parseInt() method of the Integer class.

6. Substring:

String text = "This is a text string.";

String subString = text.substring(8, 12);

In this example, we get a substring of a String variable called text starting from index 8 and
ending at index 12, and store the result in a new String variable called subString. These are
just a few examples of how to work with Strings in Java. Strings are very versatile and there are
many other methods and operations that can be performed on them.

In Java, the Math class provides a set of static methods for performing various mathematical
operations. Here are some commonly used methods from the Math class in Java:

 Math.abs(): This method returns the absolute value of a number. For example,
Math.abs(-5) would return 5.
 Math.ceil(): This method returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to
the specified number. For example, Math.ceil(3.2) would return 4.0.
 Math.floor(): This method returns the largest integer less than or equal to
the specified number. For example, Math.floor(3.9) would return 3.0.
 Math.round(): This method returns the closest integer to the specified number.
For example, Math.round(3.2) would return 3.
 Math.max(): This method returns the greater of two numbers. For example,
Math.max(3, 5) would return 5.
 Math.min(): This method returns the smaller of two numbers. For example,
Math.min(3, 5) would return 3.

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 Math.pow(): This method returns the value of the first argument raised to the
power of the second argument. For example, Math.pow(2, 3) would return 8.0.
 Math.sqrt(): This method returns the square root of a number. For example,
Math.sqrt(25) would return 5.0.
 Math.random(): This method returns a random number between 0.0 and 1.0. For
example, Math.random() would return a value between 0.0 and 1.0 (exclusive).
 Math.PI: This is a constant in the Math class that represents the value of pi
(approximately 3.141592653589793). It can be used in mathematical calculations
that involve circles, such as calculating the circumference or area of a
circle.

These are just a few examples of the methods available in the Math class. There are many other
methods available for performing more complex mathematical operations. The Math class is an
essential part of Java programming and is used extensively in many applications.

In Java, boolean is a primitive data type that can only have two values: true or false.
Boolean values are used to represent logical values in Java programming. Here are some
examples of how to work with booleans in Java:

1. Declaring a Boolean Variable:

boolean isRaining = true;

In this example, we declare a boolean variable called isRaining and initialize it with the value true.

2. Comparing Boolean Values:

boolean a = true;
boolean b = false;
boolean result = a && b;

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In this example, we compare two boolean variables, a and b, using the logical AND operator
(&&) and store the result in a boolean variable called result.

3. Using Boolean Values in Control Statements:

boolean isRaining = true;

if (isRaining) {
System.out.println("Bring an umbrella.");
} else {
System.out.println("Leave the umbrella at home.");
}

In this example, we use a boolean variable called isRaining in an if-else statement to

determine whether to bring an umbrella or leave it at home.

4. Returning Boolean Values from Methods:

public static boolean isEven(int num) {

return (num % 2 == 0);
}

In this example, we define a method called isEven that takes an integer argument and returns a
boolean value indicating whether the number is even or not.

5. Using Boolean Operators:

boolean a = true;
boolean b = false;
boolean result1 = a && b; // logical AND
boolean result2 = a || b; // logical OR
boolean result3 = !a; // logical NOT

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In this example, we use three different boolean operators (&&, ||, and !) to combine and
negate boolean values. These are just a few examples of how to work with booleans in Java.
Boolean values are an important part of programming in Java and are used extensively in many
applications.

In Java, the if...else statement is used to execute different blocks of code depending on
whether a particular condition is true or false. The basic syntax for if...else is as follows:

if (condition) {
// code to execute if the condition is true
} else {
// code to execute if the condition is false
}

Here, condition is a boolean expression that evaluates to either true or false. If the condition is
true, the code inside the first set of curly braces is executed. If the condition is false, the code
inside the second set of curly braces is executed. For example, let's say we want to write a Java
program that checks whether a given number is positive or negative. We can use if...else to
accomplish this as follows:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int number = -7;

if (number > 0) {
System.out.println(number + " is positive");
} else {
System.out.println(number + " is negative");
}
}
}

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In this example, we declare an integer variable called number and initialize it to −7. We then use
if...else to check whether number is greater than 0. Since −7 is less than 0, the condition is
false, so the code inside the else block is executed. This code simply prints a message to the
console indicating that number is negative. If number had been positive, the code inside the if
block would have been executed instead, printing a message indicating that number is positive.

In Java, the switch statement provides a way to execute different blocks of code based on the
value of a single variable or expression. The basic syntax for switch is as follows:

switch (expression) {
case value1:
// code to execute if expression == value1
break;
case value2:
// code to execute if expression == value2
break;
...
case valueN:
// code to execute if expression == valueN
break;
default:
// code to execute if none of the cases match
}

Here, expression is the variable or expression that we want to compare against the different
cases. Each case statement specifies a value that expression might take, and the code inside
the corresponding block is executed if expression has that value. If none of the cases match,
the code inside the default block is executed. For example, let's say we want to write a Java
program that prints the name of a month based on its number (1 for January, 2 for February,
etc.). We can use switch to accomplish this as follows:

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public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
int month = 5;

switch (month) {
case 1:
System.out.println("January");
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("February");
break;
case 3:
System.out.println("March");
break;
case 4:
System.out.println("April");
break;
case 5:
System.out.println("May");
break;
case 6:
System.out.println("June");
break;
case 7:
System.out.println("July");
break;
case 8:
System.out.println("August");
break;
case 9:
System.out.println("September");
break;
case 10:
System.out.println("October");
break;
case 11:
System.out.println("November");
break;
case 12:
System.out.println("December");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Invalid month number");
}
}
}

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In this example, we declare an integer variable called month and initialize it to 5, which
corresponds to May. We then use switch to check the value of month. Since month is equal to
5, the case 5 is matched and the code inside the corresponding block is executed, which simply
prints the name of the month "May". If month had been a different value, the corresponding case
block would have been executed instead, or if none of the cases matched, the code inside the
default block would have been executed.

In Java, loops are used to execute a block of code repeatedly while a certain condition is true.
There are three types of loops in Java: for, while, and do...while.

1. for loop

The for loop is used to execute a block of code for a fixed number of times. The basic
syntax for "for" is as follows:

for (initialization; condition; update) {

// code to execute repeatedly
}

Here, initialization is an expression that initializes a loop control variable, condition is

a boolean expression that is evaluated before each iteration of the loop, and update is an
expression that is evaluated after each iteration of the loop. The code inside the curly braces is
executed repeatedly as long as condition is true. For example, let's say we want to write a
Java program that prints the numbers from 1 to 10. We can use "for" to accomplish this as
follows: public class MyClass {
public static void main(String[] args) {
for (int i = 1; i <= 10; i++) {
System.out.println(i);
}
}
}

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In this example, we use "for" to initialize a loop control variable i to 1, execute the loop as
long as i is less than or equal to 10, and increment i by 1 after each iteration. The code inside
the curly braces simply prints the value of i to the console.

2. while loop

The while loop is used to execute a block of code as long as a certain condition is true. The
basic syntax for while is as follows:

while (condition) {
// code to execute repeatedly
}

Here, condition is a boolean expression that is evaluated before each iteration of the loop.
The code inside the curly braces is executed repeatedly as long as condition is true. For
example, let's say we want to write a Java program that prints the numbers from 1 to 10 using
a while loop. We can accomplish this as follows:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 1;
while (i <= 10) {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}
}
}

In this example, we initialize a loop control variable i to 1 before entering the loop. We then use
while to execute the loop as long as i is less than or equal to 10. The code inside the curly
braces simply prints the value of i to the console and increments i by 1 after each iteration.

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3. do...while loop

The do...while loop is similar to the while loop, but the condition is evaluated after
the code inside the loop is executed, so the code is guaranteed to execute at least once.
The basic syntax for do...while is as follows:

do {
// code to execute repeatedly
} while (condition);

Here, condition is a boolean expression that is evaluated after each iteration of the
loop. The code inside the curly braces is executed repeatedly until condition is false.
For example, let's say we want to write a Java program that prints the numbers from 1 to
10 using a do...while loop. We can accomplish this as follows:

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
int i = 1;
do {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
} while (i <= 10);
}
}

In this example, we initialize a loop control variable i to 1 before entering the loop. We then use
do...while to execute the loop at least once, printing the value of i to the console and
incrementing i by 1 after each iteration. The loop continues to execute as long as i is less than
or equal to 10. One important thing to note about do...while loops is that the code block
inside the loop is guaranteed to execute at least once, regardless of whether the condition is true

989
or false. This makes do...while loops particularly useful when you need to execute a block of
code at least once before checking a condition.

In Java, an array is a data structure that allows you to store a collection of elements of the
same type in a contiguous memory location. Arrays are one of the fundamental data structures in
programming, and they are used extensively in Java and many other programming languages. To
declare an array in Java, you need to specify the type of the elements and the size of the array.
The syntax for declaring an array is as follows:

type[] arrayName = new type[size];

Here, type is the type of the elements in the array, arrayName is the name of the array variable,
and size is the number of elements in the array. For example, to declare an array of 5 integers,
you would use the following code:

int[] numbers = new int[5];

Once you have declared an array, you can access its elements using an index. The index of the
first element in the array is 0, and the index of the last element is (size – 1). You can access
an element in the array using the following syntax:

arrayName[index]

Here, arrayName is the name of the array variable, and index is the index of the element you
want to access. For example, to assign a value of 10 to the first element of the numbers array,
you would use the following code:

numbers[0] = 10;

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Arrays can also be initialized with values at the time of declaration using an array initializer.
The syntax for initializing an array is as follows:

type[] arrayName = {value1, value2, ..., valueN};

Here, type is the type of the elements in the array, arrayName is the name of the array variable,
and value1, value2, ..., valueN are the values to be stored in the array. For example, to
declare and initialize an array of 3 integers with values of 1, 2, and 3, you would use the
following code:

int[] numbers = {1, 2, 3};

Arrays can also be used with loops to iterate over their elements. For example, to print all the
elements in the numbers array, you could use a "for" loop as follows:

for (int i = 0; i < numbers.length; i++) {

System.out.println(numbers[i]);
}

Here, numbers.length gives the size of the numbers array, and the loop iterates over all the
elements in the array, printing each element to the console. Arrays are an important data
structure in Java, and they are used extensively in many applications for the following reasons:

• Grouping Data: Arrays allow you to group related data of the same type into a single
data structure. This makes it easier to manage and manipulate the data as a whole.
• Efficient Access: Arrays provide efficient access to their elements through their index,
which allows you to quickly retrieve or modify a specific element in the array.

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• Iteration: Arrays can be easily iterated over using loops, which allows you to perform
operations on all the elements in the array.
• Memory Efficiency: Arrays store their elements in contiguous memory locations, which
makes them more memory-efficient than other data structures that require more complex
memory allocation.
• Passing Arrays to Methods: Arrays can be passed as arguments to methods, which
allow you to reuse code and perform operations on arrays in a modular and reusable way.
• Sorting and Searching: Arrays provide built-in methods for sorting and searching their
elements, which makes it easier to perform these operations without having to write your
own algorithms.

In addition to these benefits, arrays are also widely used in many algorithms and data
structures, such as sorting algorithms, binary search trees, and hash tables. Overall, arrays are an
important data structure in Java that provide a powerful and efficient way to group and manage
related data.

In Java, a method is a block of code that performs a specific task or set of tasks. Methods
provide a way to modularize code and reuse it in different parts of a program. Methods can also
accept parameters and return values, which make them more flexible and powerful. To define a
method in Java, you need to specify its name, return type (if any), and parameter list (if any).
The syntax for defining a method is as follows:

accessModifier returnType methodName(parameterList) {

// method body
}

Here, accessModifier specifies the visibility of the method (e.g. public, private,
protected, or no modifier), returnType specifies the type of value that the method returns
(or void if it doesn't return anything), methodName is the name of the method, and

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parameterList is a comma-separated list of parameters that the method accepts (if any). For
example, the following method "add" takes two integers as parameters and returns their sum:

public int add(int x, int y) {

int sum = x + y;
return sum;
}

Once a method is defined, it can be called from other parts of the program using its name and
passing in the necessary arguments. For example, to call the "add" method defined above, you
would use the following code:

int result = add(3, 5);

System.out.println(result); // Output: 8

Methods can also be overloaded, which means you can define multiple methods with the same
name but different parameter lists. Java determines which method to call based on the number
and types of arguments passed to the method. For example, the following method "add" is an
overloaded version of the method defined above that takes three integers as parameters and
returns their sum:

public int add(int x, int y, int z) {

int sum = x + y + z;
return sum;
}

Overall, methods are an important concept in Java that provides a powerful way to organize
code and make it more reusable and flexible.

Here's an example of a simple method in Java:

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public class Example {
public static void main(String[] args) {
// Call the hello method
hello();
}

// Define the hello method

public static void hello() {
System.out.println("Hello, world!");
}
}

In this example, we define a class called Example that contains a single method called hello.
The "hello" method simply prints the string "Hello, world!" to the console using the
System.out.println statement. In the main method, we call the hello method using the
method name and the parentheses operator. When the program runs, it will print the message
"Hello, world!" to the console. Here's another example of a method that accepts parameters and
returns a value:

public class Example {

public static void main(String[] args) {
// Call the add method with two integers
int result = add(2, 3);
System.out.println(result); // Output: 5
}

// Define the add method that accepts two integers and returns their sum
public static int add(int x, int y) {
int sum = x + y;
return sum;
}
}

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In this example, we define a method called add that accepts two integer parameters and returns
their sum. In the main method, we call the add method with the integers 2 and 3, and assign the
result to the "result" variable. We then print the value of "result" to the console, which
should be 5.

Java is an object-oriented programming language, which means that it revolves around the
concept of classes and objects. Classes are blueprints for creating objects, and objects are
instances of a class. In simpler terms, a class defines the properties and behaviors of an object,
while an object is a specific instance of that class with its own unique values. Let's take an
example to understand this concept better. Suppose we want to create a class named "Person"
that has the properties of "name", "age", and "gender". We can define the class as follows:

public class Person {

String name;
int age;
char gender;
}

In this class, we have defined three properties: "name" (a string), "age" (an integer), and
"gender" (a character). Now that we have defined our class, we can create an object of this
class using the "new" keyword as follows:

Person person1 = new Person();

Here, we have created an object named "person1" of the "Person" class. Now, we can set the
values for the properties of this object as follows:

person1.name = "John";
person1.age = 25;
person1.gender = 'M';

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We can also create multiple objects of the same class, each with its own set of values, as follows:

Person person2 = new Person();

person2.name = "Jane";
person2.age = 30;
person2.gender = 'F';

Now we have two objects of the "Person" class: "person1" and "person2", each with their
own set of values for the properties. In addition to properties, classes can also have methods,
which are functions that can be called on an object of the class. For example, we can add a
method to the "Person" class that prints out the name and age of the person as follows:

public class Person {

String name;
int age;
char gender;

public void printDetails() {

System.out.println("Name: " + name);
System.out.println("Age: " + age);
}
}

Now, we can call the "printDetails" method on any object of the "Person" class as follows:
person1.printDetails(); // Output: Name: John, Age: 25
person2.printDetails(); // Output: Name: Jane, Age: 30

Overall, classes are the blueprints for creating objects, and objects are specific instances of a
class with their own set of values for the properties. Classes can have properties and methods,
which define the characteristics and behavior of the objects.

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In Java, modifiers are keywords that can be added to classes, methods, and variables to
modify their behavior or characteristics. There are two types of modifiers in Java: access
modifiers and non-access modifiers.

Access modifiers control the accessibility of classes, methods, and variables from other parts of
the program. There are four access modifiers in Java: public, private, protected, and default.

 Public: A public class, method, or variable can be accessed from any other part of the
program.
 Private: A private class, method, or variable can only be accessed within the same class.
 Protected: A protected class, method, or variable can be accessed from within the same
package or from a subclass in a different package.
 Default: A default (package-private) class, method, or variable can only be accessed
within the same package.

Non-access modifiers modify the behavior or characteristics of classes, methods, and variables.
There are several non-access modifiers in Java:

 Final: A final variable cannot be changed once it is initialized. A final method cannot be
overridden in a subclass, and a final class cannot be subclassed.
 Static: A static variable or method belongs to the class rather than an instance of the
class.
 Abstract: An abstract class or method is declared but not defined. An abstract class
cannot be instantiated, and an abstract method must be implemented by a subclass.
 Synchronized: A synchronized method can only be accessed by one thread at a time,
ensuring that the method is thread-safe.
 Volatile: A volatile variable is not cached, and its value is always read from the main
memory. This is useful for variables that are shared between threads.

By using modifiers effectively, you can control the behavior and accessibility of your classes,
methods, and variables, making your code more robust and efficient.

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In Java, encapsulation is a mechanism that allows you to control access to the internal state
of an object. It is one of the fundamental principles of object-oriented programming and is
achieved through the use of access modifiers and getter or setter methods. Encapsulation
ensures that the internal state of an object is only modified through well-defined methods,
preventing other parts of the program from directly accessing or modifying the object's data. This
provides several benefits, including:

 Improved security: Encapsulation ensures that the internal state of an object cannot be
accessed or modified by unauthorized parts of the program.
 Improved maintainability: Encapsulation makes it easier to change the internal
implementation of an object without affecting other parts of the program.
 Improved flexibility: Encapsulation allows you to define a well-defined interface for an
object, making it easier to use in different parts of the program.

Here is an example of encapsulation in Java:

public class BankAccount {

private double balance;

public BankAccount(double initialBalance) {

balance = initialBalance;
}

public void deposit(double amount) {

balance += amount;
}

public void withdraw(double amount) {

if (balance >= amount) {
balance -= amount;
}
}

public double getBalance() {

return balance;
}
}

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In this example, the balance variable is declared as private, which means it cannot be
accessed or modified directly by other parts of the program. Instead, the deposit and
withdraw methods are used to modify the balance. The getBalance method is defined as
public, which allows other parts of the program to retrieve the current balance. This method
provides a well-defined interface for accessing the internal state of the BankAccount object,
ensuring that it is only modified through the deposit and withdraw methods. By using
encapsulation in your Java programs, you can ensure that your objects are well-defined and
secure, making them easier to maintain and more flexible to use in different parts of your
program.

In Java, a package is a way of organizing related classes and interfaces into a single unit of
code. Packages help to avoid naming conflicts and provide a mechanism for access control. A
package can contain sub-packages, classes, interfaces, and other resources like images, audio
files, etc. Java packages are identified by their package name, which is a unique identifier that is
used to distinguish them from other packages. The package name is typically written in reverse
domain name notation, such as com.example.myapp. Here is an example of how to declare a
package in Java:

package com.example.myapp;

public class MyClass {

// class definition
}

In this example, the MyClass class is declared in the com.example.myapp package. To use a
class from another package, you must either import the class or use its fully qualified name. For
example:
import com.example.myapp.MyClass;

public class AnotherClass {

MyClass myObject = new MyClass();
}

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In this example, the MyClass class is imported using the import statement, and an instance of
MyClass is created using the new keyword. If you don't want to use an import statement, you
can use the fully qualified name of the class instead:

public class AnotherClass {

com.example.myapp.MyClass myObject = new com.example.myapp.MyClass();
}

In this example, the fully qualified name of the MyClass class is used to create an instance of
the class. By using packages in your Java programs, you can organize your code into logical
units, avoid naming conflicts, and provide a mechanism for access control.

In Java, inheritance is a mechanism that allows you to create a new class based on an
existing class. The new class, called the subclass, inherits the properties and behavior of the
existing class, called the superclass, and can also add its own properties and behavior.
Inheritance is one of the fundamental principles of object-oriented programming and is used to
create a hierarchy of related classes. The superclass is at the top of the hierarchy, and the
subclasses are below it. Here is an example of inheritance in Java:

public class Animal {

private String name;
private int age;

public Animal(String name, int age) {

this.name = name;
this.age = age;
}
public void eat() {
System.out.println(name + " is eating.");
}

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public void sleep() {
System.out.println(name + " is sleeping.");
}
}

public class Cat extends Animal {

public Cat(String name, int age) {
super(name, age);
}

public void meow() {

System.out.println("Meow!");
}
}

In this example, the Animal class is the superclass, and the Cat class is the subclass. The Cat
class inherits the name and age properties from the Animal class and adds its own method,
meow. To create an instance of the Cat class, you can use the following code:

Cat myCat = new Cat("Fluffy", 2);

myCat.eat(); // outputs "Fluffy is eating."
myCat.sleep(); // outputs "Fluffy is sleeping."
myCat.meow(); // outputs "Meow!"

In this example, the myCat object is an instance of the Cat class and can access the eat, sleep,
and meow methods. By using inheritance in your Java programs, you can create a hierarchy of
related classes that share common properties and behavior, making your code more modular and
easier to maintain.

In Java, an inner class is a class that is defined inside another class. Inner classes are a powerful
feature of Java that allows you to logically group classes and interfaces in one place, and to
encapsulate
There are fourthem inside
types another
of inner class.
classes in Java:

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There are four types of inner classes in Java:

 Member Inner Class: A member inner class is defined inside a class and can access the
members of the enclosing class, including private members. To create an instance of a
member inner class, you must first create an instance of the enclosing class.
 Local Inner Class: A local inner class is defined inside a method or a block, and can
only be accessed within that method or block. Local inner classes are typically used to
define an implementation of an interface or an abstract class.
 Anonymous Inner Class: An anonymous inner class is a local inner class that does not
have a name. Anonymous inner classes are typically used to define an implementation of
an interface or an abstract class on the fly.
 Static Nested Class: A static nested class is a class that is defined inside another class,
but is not an inner class. Static nested classes can only access static members of the
enclosing class.

Here is an example of a member inner class:

public class OuterClass {

private int x = 10;

class InnerClass {
public void printX() {
System.out.println(x);
}
}
}

In this example, the InnerClass is a member inner class of the OuterClass. The printX
method of the InnerClass can access the private x variable of the OuterClass. To create an
instance of the InnerClass, you must first create an instance of the OuterClass:

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OuterClass outerObject = new OuterClass();
OuterClass.InnerClass innerObject = outerObject.new InnerClass();
innerObject.printX(); // outputs "10"

In this example, the innerObject is an instance of the InnerClass and can access the
private x variable of the OuterClass. By using inner classes in your Java programs, you can
create more modular and organized code, and encapsulate related classes and interfaces inside
another class. Inner classes can also access the members of the enclosing class, which can be
useful in certain situations.

Java abstraction and interfaces are two important concepts in object-oriented programming
that help in achieving modular, maintainable, and reusable code. Abstraction is the process of
hiding the implementation details of a class or an object and exposing only the necessary
information to the user. It is one of the key principles of object-oriented programming and is
used to simplify complex systems by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable pieces.
In Java, abstraction is achieved through abstract classes and interfaces. An abstract class is a
class that cannot be instantiated, and is used as a base class for other classes. It contains one or
more abstract methods, which are declared but not implemented in the abstract class. The
subclasses of an abstract class must implement all the abstract methods declared in the abstract
class. Here is an example of an abstract class in Java:

public abstract class Shape {

protected String color;

public Shape(String color) {

this.color = color;
}

public abstract double getArea();

public abstract double getPerimeter();

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public String getColor() {
return color;
}
}

In this example, the Shape class is an abstract class that contains two abstract methods getArea
and getPerimeter. The subclasses of the Shape class, such as Circle and Rectangle, must
implement these methods. An interface in Java is similar to an abstract class, but it only contains
abstract methods and constant fields. An interface is a contract between the interface and the
implementing class, specifying the methods that must be implemented by the implementing
class. Here is an example of an interface in Java:

public interface Drawable {

public void draw();
}

In this example, the Drawable interface contains only one method draw. Any class that
implements the Drawable interface must implement the draw method. Interfaces can also
extend other interfaces, allowing for multiple inheritance. Here is an example:

public interface Shape extends Drawable {

public double getArea();
public double getPerimeter();
}

In this example, the Shape interface extends the Drawable interface and contains two abstract
methods getArea and getPerimeter. By using abstraction and interfaces in your Java

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programs, you can create modular, maintainable, and reusable code. Abstraction allows you to
hide the implementation details of a class and expose only the necessary information to the user,
while interfaces allow you to define a contract between the interface and the implementing class,
specifying the methods that must be implemented by the implementing class.

In Java, an enum is a special type of class that represents a fixed set of constants. Enums are
useful when you have a predefined set of values that a variable can take, and you want to restrict
the values that the variable can have. An enum is defined using the enum keyword, and the
constants are listed inside the curly braces. Here is an example of an enum in Java:

public enum Day {

MONDAY,
TUESDAY,
WEDNESDAY,
THURSDAY,
FRIDAY,
SATURDAY,
SUNDAY
}

In this example, the Day enum represents the days of the week, and the constants are the days
themselves. Each constant is implicitly declared as a public static final field of the enum type.
You can use an enum in your Java program by declaring a variable of the enum type. Here is an
example:

Day today = Day.MONDAY;

In this example, the variable today is declared as an instance of the Day enum, and is initialized
to the MONDAY constant. You can also use enums in switch statements, which can make your
code more readable and maintainable. Here is an example:

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switch (today) {
case MONDAY:
System.out.println("It's Monday!");
break;
case TUESDAY:
System.out.println("It's Tuesday!");
break;
// ... other cases ...
default:
System.out.println("It's not a weekday!");
break;
}

In this example, the switch statement is used to print a message depending on the value of the
today variable. Enums can also have fields, constructors, and methods, just like regular classes.
Here is an example:

public enum Day {

MONDAY("Monday"),
TUESDAY("Tuesday"),
WEDNESDAY("Wednesday"),
THURSDAY("Thursday"),
FRIDAY("Friday"),
SATURDAY("Saturday"),
SUNDAY("Sunday");

private final String name;

private Day(String name) {

this.name = name;
}

public String getName() {

return name;
}
}

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In this example, the Day enum has a name field, a constructor that takes a name parameter, and
a getName method that returns the name field. Enums are a powerful feature of Java that can
make your code more readable and maintainable by restricting the values that a variable can
have, and by providing a type-safe way to represent a fixed set of constants.

Here's an example of how to take user input in Java using the Scanner class:

import java.util.Scanner;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// create a Scanner object to read input from the user

Scanner scanner = new Scanner(System.in);

// prompt the user to enter their name

System.out.print("Please enter your name: ");

// read the user's input as a String

String name = scanner.nextLine();

// prompt the user to enter their age

System.out.print("Please enter your age: ");

// read the user's input as an integer

int age = scanner.nextInt();

// print out the user's name and age

System.out.println("Hello, " + name + ". You are " + age + " years old.");

// remember to close the Scanner object

scanner.close();
}
}

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In this example, we use the Scanner class to read user input from the console. We first create
a Scanner object and pass in System.in as the argument, which represents the standard input
stream (i.e., the console). We then prompt the user to enter their name using the
System.out.print() method, and read their input as a String using the nextLine() method
of the Scanner object. We do the same for the user's age, but read the input as an integer using
the nextInt() method. Finally, we print out the user's name and age using the
System.out.println() method, and remember to close the Scanner object using the
close() method.

In Java, ArrayList is a class that provides a resizable array implementation. Unlike regular
arrays, ArrayList can dynamically grow or shrink its size as needed, making it more flexible
and convenient to use in certain scenarios. Here's an example of how to create and use an
ArrayList in Java:

import java.util.ArrayList;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
// create an empty ArrayList of integers
ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<>();

// add some numbers to the list

numbers.add(5);
numbers.add(3);
numbers.add(8);
numbers.add(1);

// print out the entire list

System.out.println(numbers); // output: [5, 3, 8, 1]

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// get the size of the list
int size = numbers.size();
System.out.println("The size of the list is " + size);
// output: The size of the list is 4

// access an element by index

int first = numbers.get(0);
System.out.println("The first element is " + first);
// output: The first element is 5

// modify an element by index

numbers.set(1, 7);
System.out.println(numbers); // output: [5, 7, 8, 1]

// remove an element by index

numbers.remove(2);
System.out.println(numbers); // output: [5, 7, 1]

// check if an element is in the list

boolean containsSeven = numbers.contains(7);
System.out.println("Does the list contain 7? " + containsSeven);
// output: Does the list contain 7? true

// iterate through the list

for (int number : numbers) {
System.out.println(number);
}
}
}

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In this example, we first create an empty ArrayList of integers by using the
ArrayList<Integer> syntax. We then add some numbers to the list using the add() method,
and print out the entire list using the System.out.println() method. We then demonstrate
some common methods of ArrayList, including getting the size of the list using the size()
method, accessing an element by index using the get() method, modifying an element by index
using the set() method, removing an element by index using the remove() method, checking
if an element is in the list using the contains() method, and iterating through the list using a
for-each loop. Note that ArrayList can also store objects of other types besides integers, such
as strings or custom objects, by simply changing the type parameter in the ArrayList<>
syntax.

In Java, HashMap is a class that provides a hash table implementation of the Map interface. A
HashMap stores key-value pairs, where each key is unique and maps to a corresponding value.
HashMap provides fast lookup and insertion operations, making it useful in many applications.
Here's an example of how to create and use a HashMap in Java:

import java.util.HashMap;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// create an empty HashMap with keys of type String and values of type Integer
HashMap<String, Integer> scores = new HashMap<>();

// add some scores to the map

scores.put("Alice", 80);
scores.put("Bob", 90);
scores.put("Charlie", 85);

// get the score for a specific key

int aliceScore = scores.get("Alice");

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System.out.println("Alice's score is " + aliceScore); // output: Alice's score is 80

// check if a key is in the map

boolean hasBob = scores.containsKey("Bob");
System.out.println("Does the map have Bob? " + hasBob);
// output: Does the map have Bob? true

// update the score for a key

scores.put("Charlie", 90);
System.out.println("Charlie's new score is " + scores.get("Charlie"));
// output: Charlie's new score is 90

// remove a key-value pair from the map

scores.remove("Alice");
System.out.println("The map now has " + scores.size() + " entries");
// output: The map now has 2 entries

// iterate through the keys in the map

for (String key : scores.keySet()) {
int value = scores.get(key);
System.out.println(key + ": " + value);
}
}
}

In this example, we first create an empty HashMap with keys of type String and values of type
Integer by using the HashMap<String, Integer> syntax. We then add some key-value
pairs to the map using the put() method, and retrieve a value for a specific key using the get()
method. We then demonstrate some common methods of HashMap, including checking if a key
is in the map using the containsKey() method, updating the value for a key using the put()
method, removing a key-value pair from the map using the remove() method, and iterating
through the keys in the map using the keySet() method and a for-each loop. Note that

1011
HashMap can also store objects of other types besides strings and integers, such as custom
objects, by simply changing the type parameters in the HashMap<> syntax.

In Java, HashSet is a class that provides a hash table implementation of the Set interface. A
HashSet stores a collection of unique elements, where the order of the elements is not
guaranteed. HashSet provides fast insertion and lookup operations, making it useful in many
applications where uniqueness of elements is a requirement. Here's an example of how to create
and use a HashSet in Java:

import java.util.HashSet;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {

// create an empty HashSet of strings

HashSet<String> names = new HashSet<>();

// add some names to the set

names.add("Alice");
names.add("Bob");
names.add("Charlie");

// add a duplicate name

names.add("Alice");

// print out the entire set

System.out.println(names); // output: [Charlie, Alice, Bob]

// get the size of the set

int size = names.size();
System.out.println("The size of the set is " + size);
// output: The size of the set is 3

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// check if an element is in the set
boolean containsBob = names.contains("Bob");
System.out.println("Does the set contain Bob? " + containsBob);
// output: Does the set contain Bob? true

// remove an element from the set

names.remove("Charlie");
System.out.println(names); // output: [Alice, Bob]

// iterate through the set

for (String name : names) {
System.out.println(name);
}
}

In this example, we first create an empty HashSet of strings by using the HashSet<String>
syntax. We then add some names to the set using the add() method, including a duplicate name
to demonstrate that HashSet only stores unique elements. We print out the entire set using the
System.out.println() method, which shows that the order of the elements is not
guaranteed. We then demonstrate some common methods of HashSet, including getting the size
of the set using the size() method, checking if an element is in the set using the contains()
method, removing an element from the set using the remove() method, and iterating through
the set using a for-each loop. Note that HashSet can also store objects of other types besides
strings, such as integers or custom objects, by simply changing the type parameter in the
HashSet<> syntax.

In Java, Iterator is an interface that provides a way to traverse a collection of elements, such
as an ArrayList or a HashSet. An Iterator allows you to sequentially access the elements

1013
in a collection, one at a time, without exposing the underlying implementation of the collection.
Here's an example of how to use an Iterator in Java:

import java.util.ArrayList;
import java.util.Iterator;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
// create an ArrayList of integers
ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<>();
numbers.add(1);
numbers.add(2);
numbers.add(3);

// create an iterator for the ArrayList

Iterator<Integer> iterator = numbers.iterator();

// iterate through the ArrayList using the iterator

while (iterator.hasNext()) {
int number = iterator.next();
System.out.println(number);
}
}
}

In this example, we first create an ArrayList of integers and add some elements to it. We then
create an Iterator for the ArrayList using the iterator() method. We iterate through the
ArrayList using the hasNext() and next() methods of the Iterator interface, which
allow us to check if there are more elements in the collection and retrieve the next element,
respectively. The output of this program would be:

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1

Note that the Iterator interface also provides a remove() method, which allows you to
remove the current element from the collection while iterating through it. This method should
only be used when iterating through a collection using an Iterator, as it may cause unexpected
behavior when used with other types of loops.

In Java, wrapper classes are classes that provide a way to represent primitive data types
(such as int, double, boolean, etc.) as objects. This is useful when you need to treat primitive
types as objects, for example when you need to pass them to methods that require objects as
arguments. Here is a list of the eight wrapper classes in Java:

 Boolean: wraps a boolean value

 Byte: wraps a byte value
 Short: wraps a short value
 Integer: wraps an int value
 Long: wraps a long value
 Float: wraps a float value
 Double: wraps a double value
 Character: wraps a char value

Here's an example of how to use a wrapper class in Java:

Integer myInt = new Integer(42);

System.out.println("The value of myInt is " + myInt.toString());

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In this example, we create an Integer object myInt that wraps the int value 42. We then use
the toString() method of the Integer class to convert the value to a string and print it out.
Wrapper classes also provide useful methods for converting between primitive types and
objects, and for performing arithmetic and comparison operations on objects. For example:

Integer x = 5;
int y = x.intValue(); // convert Integer to int
Integer z = Integer.valueOf(y); // convert int to Integer
System.out.println(x.compareTo(z)); // compare two Integer objects

In this example, we create an Integer object x with the value 5, and then use the intValue()
method to convert it to an int value y. We then use the valueOf() method of the Integer
class to convert y back to an Integer object z. Finally, we use the compareTo() method of
the Integer class to compare x and z and print out the result.

In Java, exceptions are a way to handle errors or unexpected situations that occur during the
execution of a program. The try-catch block is a mechanism in Java for handling exceptions.
It consists of two parts:

 The try block, where the code that might throw an exception is placed.
 The catch block(s), where the exception is caught and handled.

The syntax of a try-catch block is as follows:

try {
// code that might throw an exception
} catch (ExceptionType1 e1) {
// code to handle exception of type ExceptionType1
} catch (ExceptionType2 e2) {
// code to handle exception of type ExceptionType2
} finally {
// optional code that always executes, whether or not an exception is thrown
}

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When an exception is thrown within the try block, the catch block is executed. If the exception
matches the type of the first catch block, that block is executed. If not, the exception is passed to
the next catch block, and so on. If no catch block matches the exception type, the exception is
not caught and the program terminates. The finally block is optional and always executes,
whether or not an exception is thrown. This block is typically used to perform cleanup tasks,
such as closing files or releasing resources, which need to be done regardless of whether an
exception occurs. Here's an example of using a try-catch block in Java:

try {
int result = 10 / 0; // this will throw an ArithmeticException
} catch (ArithmeticException e) {
System.out.println("Error: " + e.getMessage());
} finally {
System.out.println("This code always executes");
}

In this example, the try block performs a division by zero, which will throw an
ArithmeticException. The catch block catches the exception, prints an error message, and the
program continues to execute. The finally block prints a message indicating that it always
executes.

In Java, regular expressions are a powerful tool for searching, replacing, and
manipulating text. A regular expression, also known as regex, is a pattern that describes a set of
strings. Java provides the java.util.regex package for working with regular expressions.
The two main classes in this package are Pattern and Matcher.

Here's an example of using regular expressions in Java to match a string:

1017
import java.util.regex.*;

public class MyClass {

public static void main(String[] args) {
String input = "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.";
Pattern pattern = Pattern.compile("fox");
Matcher matcher = pattern.matcher(input);
if (matcher.find()) {
System.out.println("Match found!");
} else {
System.out.println("Match not found.");
}
}
}

In this example, we create a Pattern object using the compile() method of the Pattern class.
The argument to compile() is the regular expression we want to match, which in this case is
the string "fox". We then create a Matcher object using the matcher() method of the Pattern
class, passing in the input string we want to search. We call the find() method of the Matcher
object to search for the pattern within the input string. If the pattern is found, the find() method
returns true, and we print a message indicating that a match was found.

Some common regular expression syntax in Java includes:

 . : matches any single character

 * : matches zero or more occurrences of the preceding character or group

 + : matches one or more occurrences of the preceding character or group
 ? : matches zero or one occurrence of the preceding character or group
 [] : matches any one of the characters within the brackets
 () : groups a series of characters together as a subexpression

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There are many more syntax elements available for regular expressions in Java, including
character classes, quantifiers, and special characters. Regular expressions can be complex,
but they are a powerful tool for manipulating text in Java.

In Java, threads are a mechanism for running multiple tasks concurrently within a single
program. A thread is a lightweight sub-process that can run in parallel with other threads within
the same program. In Java, threads are implemented using the java.lang.Thread class. To
create a new thread, you can either extend the Thread class and override its run() method, or
implement the Runnable interface and pass an instance of that class to a Thread object. Here's
an example of creating a new thread by extending the Thread class:

public class MyThread extends Thread {

public void run() {
System.out.println("Thread running!");
}
}

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
MyThread thread = new MyThread();
thread.start();
}
}

In this example, we create a new thread by extending the Thread class and overriding its run()
method. We then create an instance of this class and call its start() method. This starts a new
thread, and the code within the run() method is executed concurrently with the main thread.
Java also provides the java.util.concurrent package for working with threads and
managing concurrent access to shared resources. This package includes classes such as

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Executor, ThreadPoolExecutor, and FutureTask, which can be used to create and
manage threads more easily and efficiently. When working with threads, it's important to be
aware of thread synchronization issues, such as race conditions and deadlocks. Java provides
synchronization mechanisms, such as synchronized blocks and methods, to help prevent these
issues. Here's an example of using a synchronized block in Java to prevent multiple threads
from accessing a shared resource at the same time:

public class MyRunnable implements Runnable {

private int counter = 0;

public void run() {

synchronized(this) {
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
counter++;
}
}
}
}

public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
MyRunnable runnable = new MyRunnable();
Thread thread1 = new Thread(runnable);
Thread thread2 = new Thread(runnable);
thread1.start();
thread2.start();
// wait for threads to finish
try {
thread1.join();
thread2.join();
} catch (InterruptedException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
System.out.println("Counter: " + runnable.counter);
}
}

1020
In this example, we create a new Runnable object that contains a counter variable. We then
create two Thread objects that share the same Runnable object, and start both threads. The code
within the run() method increments the counter variable using a synchronized block, which
ensures that only one thread can access the block at a time. Finally, we wait for both threads to
finish using the join() method, and print the final value of the counter variable.

In Java, the java.io package provides classes for working with files and directories. The File
class represents a file or directory on the file system, and provides methods for creating, deleting,
reading, and writing files. Here's an example of creating a new file and writing to it in Java:

import java.io.*;

public class FileExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
File file = new File("myfile.txt");
FileWriter writer = new FileWriter(file);
writer.write("Hello, world!");
writer.close();
} catch (IOException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}
}

In this example, we create a new File object called "myfile.txt" using the File constructor.
We then create a FileWriter object and pass in the File object to write to the file. We write the
string "Hello, world!" to the file using the write() method of the FileWriter object, and then

1021
close the writer using the close() method. Java also provides classes for reading from files,
such as FileReader and BufferedReader. Here's an example of reading from a file using
BufferedReader:

import java.io.*;

public class FileExample {

public static void main(String[] args) {
try {
File file = new File("myfile.txt");
BufferedReader reader = new BufferedReader(new FileReader(file));
String line = null;
while ((line = reader.readLine()) != null) {
System.out.println(line);
}
reader.close();
} catch (IOException e) {
e.printStackTrace();
}
}
}

In this example, we create a new BufferedReader object that wraps a FileReader object.
We read each line from the file using the readLine() method of the BufferedReader
object, and print it to the console using System.out.println(). We continue reading lines
until we reach the end of the file, indicated by a null return value from readLine(). Finally, we
close the reader using the close() method. Other useful methods provided by the File class
include:

 exists() : checks whether a file or directory exists

 isFile() : checks whether a file exists and is a regular file
 isDirectory() : checks whether a file exists and is a directory

1022
 delete() : deletes a file or directory
 mkdir() : creates a new directory
 list() : returns an array of the names of files and directories in a directory

These methods can be used to perform a wide range of file and directory operations in Java.

Java has several advantages that make it a popular programming language for developing a wide
range of applications. Some of these advantages include:

 Platform independence: Java is platform-independent, meaning that a Java program can

run on any platform without requiring any modification. This is because Java programs
are compiled into bytecode that can be run on any platform that has a Java Virtual
Machine (JVM) installed. For example, a Java program written on Windows can be run
on a Linux or Mac OS X system without any modifications.
 Object-oriented programming: Java is an object-oriented programming (OOP)
language, which means that it follows a programming paradigm based on the concept of
objects. This makes it easier to write reusable and modular code, which can help reduce
development time and increase code maintainability. For example, a Java program can
define classes that represent real-world entities, such as customers or products, and use
them to create instances of those entities.
 Large standard library: Java has a large standard library that provides a wide range of
useful classes and methods for performing common programming tasks, such as reading
and writing files, networking, and database access. This can help reduce the amount of
custom code that developers need to write, and make it easier to develop complex
applications. For example, the java.net package provides classes for performing network
operations, such as opening and closing sockets, while the java.util package provides
classes for working with collections, such as arrays and lists.
 Memory management: Java provides automatic memory management, meaning that the
Java Virtual Machine automatically handles memory allocation and deallocation for Java
programs. This helps reduce the likelihood of memory leaks and other memory-related
errors that can cause programs to crash or behave unpredictably.

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 Multithreading: Java provides built-in support for multithreading, which allows multiple
threads to run concurrently within the same program. This can help improve program
performance by allowing tasks to be executed in parallel, and can also make it easier to
write concurrent programs that handle multiple users or tasks. For example, a Java web
application can use multithreading to handle multiple requests from different users
simultaneously.

Overall, these advantages make Java a versatile and popular programming language that can be
used for a wide range of applications, from desktop and mobile applications to web and
enterprise applications. Using Java has certain drawbacks in addition to its many benefits. The
following are some of the primary drawbacks of Java:

 Performance: Java is an interpreted language which means it can be slower than

compiled languages like C++ or Fortran. For example, if you are running a CPU-
intensive application like a video game, Java may not be the best choice because it could
impact the performance.
 Memory Management: Java uses automatic garbage collection which can be a
disadvantage in situations where fine-grained control over memory is required. For
example, in embedded systems or high-performance computing where memory is a
limited resource, Java may not be the best choice because it can lead to memory leaks.
 Security: Although Java provides a secure sandbox environment, it is still vulnerable to
security issues. For example, the Java security model can be circumvented if a user runs
a malicious applet or application that exploits vulnerabilities in the Java Virtual Machine
(JVM).
 Complexity: Java has a steep learning curve, especially for beginners. For example, the
syntax of Java can be confusing, and it requires a lot of boilerplate code to accomplish
even simple tasks.
 Compatibility: Java is not always compatible with older versions of itself. For example,
if you write code using the latest version of Java, it may not run on older versions of Java
without modifications.

1024
 Overhead: Java requires a significant amount of memory to run, and it can be resource-
intensive. For example, if you are running multiple Java applications on a single
machine, it can consume a significant amount of resources and slow down the system.

It's important to note that many of these disadvantages can be mitigated through careful design
and optimization of your Java applications. Additionally, Java has many advantages, such
as its portability, that may make it a better choice for some projects than other programming
languages.

Here are some funny facts about Java:

 Java is known for its slogan "Write Once, Run Anywhere," but some developers
joke that it really means "Write Once, Debug Everywhere."
 Java was originally called "Oak" because the developers liked the oak tree outside their
office. However, when they found out that name was already trademarked, they had to
change it to "Java."
 The first version of Java was released in 1996, and it included a lot of bugs. One of the
bugs was so bad that it caused the program to crash if you typed in the word "true" as a
variable name.
 Some developers refer to Java as "Just Another Vague Acronym" because of the
many different interpretations of what the name means.
 Java has been the subject of many jokes and memes in the programming community,
including a popular meme that shows a picture of a coffee cup with the caption "I
drink Java for breakfast."
 One of the features of Java is its ability to run code in a sandbox environment, which led
to the joke that "Java is to JavaScript as ham is to hamster."

While these may be funny, it's important to remember that Java is a powerful and widely-used
programming language that has many practical applications.

1025
Java is a versatile programming language with many practical applications in a wide range of
industries. Here are some examples of applications of Java:

 Web Applications: Java is used to develop server-side applications and dynamic

websites using technologies like JSP (JavaServer Pages), Servlets, Spring, and Struts.
 Mobile Applications: Java is used to develop Android applications, which are used by
billions of users around the world.
 Desktop Applications: Java is used to develop desktop applications like Eclipse,
NetBeans, and OpenOffice.
 Enterprise Applications: Java is used to develop large-scale enterprise applications such
as banking systems, financial management systems, and inventory management systems.
 Scientific Applications: Java is used to develop scientific and mathematical applications,
such as those used in data analysis, simulations, and modeling.
 Gaming: Java is used to develop games, such as Minecraft, which is one of the most
popular video games of all time.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Java is used to develop IoT applications and devices, such as
smart homes and wearable technology.
 Big Data: Java is used to develop big data applications, such as Hadoop and Spark,
which are used to process and analyze large amounts of data.

These are just a few examples of the many applications of Java. Its flexibility and versatility
make it a popular choice for developers across many industries.

"One of the things that Java is good at is giving you this

homogeneous view of a reality that's usually very heterogeneous."

− James Gosling

1026
PYTHON − OVERVIEW

Introduced in 1991, Python is an interpreted, high-level, all-purpose programming language. It has

become one of the most popular programming languages in the world due to its simplicity,
versatility, and ease of use. Here are some details about Python:

 Interpreted Language: Python runs without needing to be compiled because it is an

interpreted language. The Python interpreter reads the code and executes it line by line,
making it easier to test and debug code.
 High-Level Language: Python is a high-level language, which means that it abstracts away
much of the underlying machine-level operations, making it easier to read and write code.
This also makes Python easier to learn than low-level languages like assembly language.
 General-Purpose Language: Python is a general-purpose language, which means that it can
be used for a wide range of applications, from web development and data analysis to
scientific computing and artificial intelligence.
 Object-Oriented Language: Python is an object-oriented language, which means that it
uses objects to represent data and behavior. This makes it easier to organize and manage
code, and also allows for code reuse.
 Dynamic Typing: Python is dynamically typed, which means that the data type of a variable
is determined at runtime, rather than being explicitly declared in the code. This allows for
more flexible and expressive code, but can also lead to errors if types are not checked
carefully.
 Garbage Collection: Python uses automatic garbage collection to manage memory, which
means that the interpreter automatically frees up memory that is no longer being used by the
program.
 Standard Library: Python comes with a large standard library that includes modules for
tasks such as file I/O, network programming, regular expressions, and more. This makes it
easy to perform many common programming tasks without needing to write additional code.
 Third-Party Libraries: Python also has a vast ecosystem of third-party libraries, including
popular ones like NumPy, Pandas, TensorFlow, and Django, which extend the functionality
of Python and allow it to be used for even more applications.

1027
 Syntax: Python has a simple and easy-to-read syntax that emphasizes readability and reduces
the cost of program maintenance. Indentation is used to indicate block structure, and there are
no semicolons or curly braces to clutter the code.
 Portability: Python code can be run on many different platforms, including Windows, Mac,
Linux, and Unix, making it a highly portable language.

Overall, Python's simplicity, versatility, and ease of use make it a great choice for a wide range of
programming tasks.

Here is the "Hello World" program in Python:

print("Hello, World!")

When you run this program, it will output the message "Hello, World!" to the console. This is a
simple example of how to use the print function in Python to output text.

In Python, you can add comments to your code to make it more readable and to explain what the
code is doing. Comments are ignored by the Python interpreter, so they do not affect the
behavior of your program. Here are some examples of Python comments:

Single-line comments:

# This is a single-line comment in Python

In this example, the # character indicates that the rest of the line is a comment. Anything
following the # character on the same line will be ignored by the Python interpreter.

Multi-line comments:

"""
This is a multi-line comment in Python.
It can span multiple lines and is enclosed in triple quotes.
"""

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In this example, the comment is enclosed in triple quotes ("""). This allows the comment to
span multiple lines. However, multi-line comments are not commonly used in Python because
single-line comments are usually sufficient. Comments can also be used to temporarily disable
code, for testing or debugging purposes. Here's an example:

# This line of code is currently not needed

# print("Hello, World!")

In this example, the print("Hello, World!") statement is commented out. This means that
it will not be executed when the program is run. However, if you later need to re-enable the code,
you can simply remove the # characters. Comments are an important tool for making your code
more readable and understandable, both for yourself and for others who may need to read or
modify your code. By adding comments, you can explain what your code is doing, why you
made certain design decisions, and any other important information that will help others
understand your code.

In Python, variables are used to store data values. They are like containers that hold values that
can be accessed and manipulated throughout the program. Here are some examples and
explanations of variables in Python:

 Numeric Variables: Numeric variables are used to store numerical values such as
integers or floating-point numbers.

# Example of numeric variables

x = 10
y = 3.14

In this example, x is an integer variable that stores the value 10 and y is a floating-point variable
that stores the value 3.14.

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 String Variables: String variables are used to store text values. They are enclosed in
either single quotes ('') or double quotes ("").

# Example of string variables

name = "John Doe"

message = 'Hello World!'

In this example, name is a string variable that stores the value "John Doe" and message is a
string variable that stores the value "Hello World!".

 Boolean Variables: Boolean variables are used to store boolean values, which are either
True or False.

# Example of boolean variables

is_python_fun = True
is_coding_hard = False

In this example, is_python_fun is a boolean variable that stores the value True and is_coding_hard
is a boolean variable that stores the value False.

 List Variables: List variables are used to store a collection of values, which can be of different
data types. Lists are created by enclosing the values in square brackets [] and separating them
with commas.

# Example of list variables

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'orange']

numbers = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

1030
In this example, fruits is a list variable that stores the values 'apple', 'banana', and 'orange' and
numbers is a list variable that stores the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.

In Python, a dictionary is a collection of key-value pairs. It is a built-in data type that is commonly used
to store and manipulate data in a flexible and efficient way. Here are some examples of dictionary
variables in Python:

Example 1: Creating a Dictionary

person = {"name": "John Doe", "age": 30, "city": "New York"}

print(person)

Output:

{'name': 'John Doe', 'age': 30, 'city': 'New York'}

In this example, we're creating a dictionary variable called person that contains three key-
value pairs. The keys are "name", "age", and "city", and the corresponding values are "John
Doe", 30, and "New York".

Example 2: Accessing Values in a Dictionary

person = {"name": "John Doe", "age": 30, "city": "New York"}

print(person["name"])
print(person["age"])

Output:

John Doe
30

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In this example, we're accessing the values of the "name" and "age" keys in the person dictionary
using square bracket notation. The values are then printed to the console.

Example 3: Updating a Dictionary

person = {"name": "John Doe", "age": 30, "city": "New York"}

person["age"] = 31
print(person)

Output:

{'name': 'John Doe', 'age': 31, 'city': 'New York'}

In this example, we're updating the value of the "age" key in the person dictionary from 30 to 31
using square bracket notation. The updated dictionary is then printed to the console.

Example 4: Adding a Key-Value Pair to a Dictionary

person = {"name": "John Doe", "age": 30, "city": "New York"}

person["state"] = "New York"
print(person)

Output:

{'name': 'John Doe', 'age': 30, 'city': 'New York', 'state': 'New York'}

In this example, we're adding a new key-value pair to the person dictionary using square bracket
notation. The new key is "state" and the value is "New York". The updated dictionary is then
printed to the console.

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Example 5: Deleting a Key-Value Pair from a Dictionary

person = {"name": "John Doe", "age": 30, "city": "New York"}

del person["city"]
print(person)

Output:

{'name': 'John Doe', 'age': 30}

In this example, we're deleting the key-value pair for the "city" key in the person dictionary
using the del statement. The updated dictionary without the "city" key is then printed to the
console. These are just a few examples of variables in Python. Variables can hold many
different types of values and can be manipulated in various ways throughout a program.

In Python, there are three main types of numerical data: integers, floating-point numbers, and
complex numbers.

1. Integers: Integers are whole numbers, which means they do not have decimal points.
They can be positive, negative, or zero. Integers in Python are of type 'int'. For
example:

x = 5
y = -10
z = 0

2. Floating-point numbers: Floating-point numbers are decimal numbers, which means

they have decimal points. They can be positive, negative, or zero. Floating-point numbers
in Python are of type 'float'. For example:

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a = 3.14
b = -2.5
c = 0.0

Complex numbers: Complex numbers are numbers with both real and imaginary parts. They are
expressed in the form a + bj, where a and b are real numbers and j is the imaginary unit (square
root of -1). Complex numbers in Python are of type 'complex'. For example:

d = 2 + 3j
e = -4j
f = 1.5 - 2j

Here are some examples of using these types of numerical data in Python:

# Integer arithmetic
x = 5
y = 3
print(x + y) # Output: 8
print(x - y) # Output: 2
print(x * y) # Output: 15
print(x / y) # Output: 1.6666666666666667
print(x // y) # Output: 1 (integer division)
print(x % y) # Output: 2 (modulus or remainder)

# Floating-point arithmetic
a = 3.14
b = 2.0
print(a + b) # Output: 5.14
print(a - b) # Output: 1.14

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print(a * b) # Output: 6.28
print(a / b) # Output: 1.57

# Complex arithmetic
d = 2 + 3j
e = -4j
print(d + e) # Output: (2-1j)
print(d - e) # Output: (2+5j)
print(d * e) # Output: (-12+8j)
print(d / e) # Output: (0.75-0.5j)

In addition to the basic arithmetic operations shown above, Python provides many built-in
functions for working with numerical data. Here are some commonly used functions:

 abs(): Returns the absolute value of a number.

print(abs(-5)) # Output: 5
print(abs(5)) # Output: 5

 round(): Rounds a number to the nearest integer or to a specified number of decimal

places.

print(round(3.14159)) # Output: 3
print(round(3.14159, 2)) # Output: 3.14

 pow(): Raises a number to a specified power.

print(pow(2, 3)) # Output: 8

print(pow(2, -3)) # Output: 0.125

 min(): Returns the minimum value of a sequence of numbers.

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print(min(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 1
print(min(-1, -2, -3)) # Output: -3

 max(): Returns the maximum value of a sequence of numbers.

print(max(1, 2, 3)) # Output: 3

print(max(-1, -2, -3)) # Output: -1

 sum(): Returns the sum of a sequence of numbers.

print(sum([1, 2, 3])) # Output: 6

 sqrt(): Returns the square root of a number.

import math
print(math.sqrt(16)) # Output: 4.0

 floor(): Returns the largest integer less than or equal to a number.

import math
print(math.floor(3.7)) # Output: 3

 ceil(): Returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to a number.

import math
print(math.ceil(3.7)) # Output: 4

 random(): Generates a random float between 0 and 1.

import random
print(random.random()) # Output: a random float between 0 and 1

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These are just a few examples of the many built-in functions available for working with
numerical data in Python.

In Python, casting refers to the process of converting one data type to another. Here are some
examples of casting in Python:

 int(): Converts a value to an integer.

x = 5.7
print(int(x)) # Output: 5

 float(): Converts a value to a floating-point number.

x = 5
print(float(x)) # Output: 5.0

 str(): Converts a value to a string.

x = 5
print(str(x)) # Output: "5"

 bool(): Converts a value to a Boolean value.

x = 0
print(bool(x)) # Output: False

 list(): Converts a sequence to a list.

x = (1, 2, 3)
print(list(x)) # Output: [1, 2, 3]

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 tuple(): Converts a sequence to a tuple.

x = [1, 2, 3]
print(tuple(x)) # Output: (1, 2, 3)

 set(): Converts a sequence to a set.

x = [1, 2, 3, 2]

print(set(x)) # Output: {1, 2, 3}

 dict(): Converts a sequence of key-value pairs to a dictionary.

x = [("a", 1), ("b", 2), ("c", 3)]

print(dict(x)) # Output: {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3}

Casting is useful when you need to convert data from one type to another. For example, you
may need to convert a string input to a numeric type in order to perform mathematical operations
on it. Casting can also be used to convert data between Python's built-in data structures, such
as lists and tuples, or to convert data between different types of collections, such as converting a
sequence to a set.

In Python, a string is a sequence of characters enclosed in either single quotes (' ') or double
quotes (" "). Strings are a fundamental data type in Python and are widely used in
programming. Here are some examples of strings:

string1 = 'Hello, world!'

string2 = "This is a string."
string3 = "1234"

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In the examples above, string1 and string2 are string literals that contain alphanumeric
characters and punctuation. string3 is a string that contains only digits. Python strings support
several operations such as indexing, slicing, concatenation, repetition, and more. Let's discuss
some of these operations in more detail below:

 Indexing

Indexing allows you to access individual characters in a string. The index of the first character is
0, and the index of the last character is -1. You can use square brackets to specify the index of
the character you want to access.

string = 'Hello, world!'

print(string[0]) # Output: 'H'
print(string[4]) # Output: 'o'
print(string[-1]) # Output: '!'

 Slicing

Slicing allows you to extract a portion of a string. You can specify a range of indices to extract
using the start:end syntax. The start index is inclusive, and the end index is exclusive.

string = 'Hello, world!'

print(string[0:5]) # Output: 'Hello'
print(string[7:]) # Output: 'world!'

 Concatenation

Concatenation allows you to join two or more strings together using the + operator.

string1 = 'Hello, '

string2 = 'world!'
string3 = string1 + string2
print(string3) # Output: 'Hello, world!'

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 Repetition

Repetition allows you to repeat a string multiple times using the * operator.

string = 'Hello, '

print(string * 3) # Output: 'Hello, Hello, Hello, '

 Length

You can find the length of a string using the len() function.

string = 'Hello, world!'

print(len(string)) # Output: 13

 Formatting

String formatting allows you to insert values into a string using placeholders. There are several
ways to do string formatting in Python, but the most common method is to use the .format()
method.

name = 'Alice'
age = 25
print('My name is {} and I am {} years old.'.format(name, age))
# Output: 'My name is Alice and I am 25 years old.'

Overall, strings are a powerful and versatile data type in Python that can be used to
manipulate and store text data.

Python operators are special symbols that carry out operations on variables and values. Python
provides various types of operators, including arithmetic operators, comparison operators, logical
operators, and assignment operators. Here's a brief overview of Python operators:

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 Arithmetic Operators: These are used to perform mathematical operations, such as
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, modulus, exponentiation, and floor
division. Examples include +, -, *, /, %, **, and //.
 Comparison Operators: These are used to compare two values and return a boolean
value (True or False). Examples include ==, !=, >, <, >=, and <=.
 Logical Operators: These are used to combine or invert boolean expressions. Examples
include and, or, and not.
 Assignment Operators: These are used to assign a value to a variable. Examples
include =, +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, and //=.
 Bitwise Operators: These are used to perform bitwise operations on integers. Examples
include &, |, ^, ~, <<, and >>.
 Membership Operators: These are used to test if a value is a member of a sequence.
Examples include in and not in.
 Identity Operators: These are used to test if two variables point to the same object.
Examples include is and is not.

You can use these operators in your Python code to perform various operations on variables and
values. For example:

a = 5
b = 2

print(a + b) # Output: 7
print(a - b) # Output: 3
print(a * b) # Output: 10
print(a / b) # Output: 2.5
print(a % b) # Output: 1
print(a ** b) # Output: 25
print(a // b) # Output: 2

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a = 5
b = 2

print(a == b) # Output: False

print(a != b) # Output: True
print(a > b) # Output: True
print(a < b) # Output: False
print(a >= b) # Output: True
print(a <= b) # Output: False

a = 5
b = 2
c = 0

print(a > b and b > c) # Output: True

print(a < b or b > c) # Output: True
print(not a == b) # Output: True

# Using the `in` operator

fruits = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry', 'orange']
if 'banana' in fruits:
print("Yes, banana is in the fruits list.")

# Output: Yes, banana is in the fruits list.

if 'pear' in fruits:
print("Yes, pear is in the fruits list.")
else:
print("No, pear is not in the fruits list.")

# Output: No, pear is not in the fruits list.

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# Using the `not in` operator
if 'pineapple' not in fruits:
print("Yes, pineapple is not in the fruits list.")
else:
print("No, pineapple is in the fruits list.")

# Output: Yes, pineapple is not in the fruits list.

if 'orange' not in fruits:

print("Yes, orange is not in the fruits list.")
else:
print("No, orange is in the fruits list.")

# Output: No, orange is in the fruits list.

In the first example, we check if 'banana' is in the fruits list using the in operator, and it
returns True. In the second example, we check if 'pear' is in the fruits list using the in
operator, and it returns False, so we print "No, pear is not in the fruits list." In the third example,
we check if 'pineapple' is not in the fruits list using the not in operator, and it returns True.
In the fourth example, we check if 'orange' is not in the fruits list using the not in operator,
and it returns False, so we print "No, orange is in the fruits list."

In Python, a list is an ordered collection of items or elements that can be of any data type. Lists
are defined using square brackets [ ] and each item in the list is separated by a comma. For
example:

my_list = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

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Lists are mutable, which means that their values can be changed after they are created. You can
add, remove, or modify items in a list. Here are some examples of common operations you
can perform on lists:

 Accessing Elements: You can access individual elements of a list using their index,
which starts at 0. For example:

print(my_list[0]) # Output: 1

 Slicing: You can also access a subset of elements in a list using slicing. Slicing uses a
colon (:) to separate the start and end indices. For example:

print(my_list[1:3]) # Output: [2, 3]

 Appending Elements: You can add new elements to the end of a list using the
append() method. For example:

my_list.append(6)

print(my_list) # Output: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

 Removing Elements: You can remove elements from a list using the remove() method.
For example:

my_list.remove(3)
print(my_list) # Output: [1, 2, 4, 5, 6]

 Checking if an Element is in a List: You can check if an element is in a list using the in
keyword. For example:

print(3 in my_list) # Output: False

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Lists are a very powerful data structure in Python and are used extensively in many different
applications.

In Python, a tuple is an ordered, immutable collection of elements that can contain any type of
data. Tuples are created using parentheses () and each element is separated by a comma. Here
is an example of creating a tuple:

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3, 'hello', True)

Tuples can also be created without parentheses, by simply separating the elements with commas:

my_tuple = 1, 2, 3, 'hello', True

Tuples can contain elements of different types, including other tuples:

nested_tuple = ((1, 2), ('a', 'b', 'c'), True)

Tuples are immutable, which means that once a tuple is created, its elements cannot be
changed. However, if a tuple contains mutable objects like lists, the objects inside the tuple can
be modified. Tuples can be accessed using indexing, which starts from 0. Here's an example
of accessing the first element of a tuple:

first_element = my_tuple[0]

Tuples also support slicing, which allows you to extract a portion of the tuple. Here's an
example of getting the first two elements of a tuple:

first_two_elements = my_tuple[:2]

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Tuples support several built-in methods like count() and index(). The count() method
returns the number of times a specified element appears in the tuple, while the index() method
returns the index of the first occurrence of a specified element in the tuple.

my_tuple = (1, 2, 3, 'hello', True, 1, 2, 3)

count_of_1 = my_tuple.count(1) # returns 2
index_of_hello = my_tuple.index('hello') # returns 3

Tuples are often used to group related data together. For example, a tuple can be used to
represent a point in a 2D coordinate system:

point = (3, 4)

Tuples can also be used to return multiple values from a function:

def get_name_and_age():
name = 'John'
age = 30
return name, age

name, age = get_name_and_age()

In the above example, the function get_name_and_age() returns a tuple containing the name
and age. These values are then assigned to the variables name and age using tuple unpacking.

Python sets are a built-in data structure that allows you to store a collection of unique
elements. The elements of a set can be of any immutable data type, such as numbers, strings, or
tuples. The syntax for creating a set is to enclose a comma-separated list of elements in curly
braces ({}) or by using the set() constructor function. For example:

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# create a set using curly braces
my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

# create a set using the set() constructor

my_other_set = set([5, 6, 7, 8, 9])

Note that when creating an empty set, you must use the set() constructor, as {} creates an
empty dictionary in Python. Some of the key characteristics of sets are:

1. Sets only store unique elements: If you try to add an element to a set that already exists
in the set, it will be ignored.
2. Sets are unordered: Unlike lists and tuples, sets do not maintain any particular order for
their elements.
3. Sets are mutable: You can add and remove elements from a set after it has been created.

Here are some common operations you can perform with sets in Python:

 Adding elements to a set: You can add elements to a set using the add() method.

my_set = {1, 2, 3}
my_set.add(4)
print(my_set) # outputs {1, 2, 3, 4}

 Removing elements from a set: You can remove elements from a set using the
remove() method.

my_set = {1, 2, 3, 4}
my_set.remove(4)
print(my_set) # outputs {1, 2, 3}

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 Checking if an element is in a set: You can use the in keyword to check if an element
is in a set.

my_set = {1, 2, 3}
print(2 in my_set) # outputs True
print(4 in my_set) # outputs False

 Combining sets: You can combine two sets using the union() method or the |
operator.

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}
union_set = set1.union(set2)
print(union_set) # outputs {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

# using the | operator

union_set2 = set1 | set2
print(union_set2) # outputs {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

 Finding the intersection of sets: You can find the common elements between two sets
using the intersection() method or the & operator.

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}
intersection_set = set1.intersection(set2)
print(intersection_set) # outputs {3}

# using the & operator

intersection_set2 = set1 & set2
print(intersection_set2) # outputs {3}

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 Finding the difference between sets: You can find the elements that are in one set but
not in the other using the difference() method.

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}

difference_set = set1.difference(set2)
print(difference_set) # outputs {1, 2}

In this example, set1 contains the elements {1, 2, 3} and set2 contains the elements {3,
4, 5}. The difference() method is called on set1 with set2 passed as an argument. This
returns a new set containing the elements that are in set1 but not in set2, which in this case is
{1, 2}. Alternatively, you can use the - operator to find the difference between sets:

set1 = {1, 2, 3}
set2 = {3, 4, 5}

difference_set = set1 - set2

print(difference_set) # outputs {1, 2}

In this example, the "-" operator is used to subtract set2 from set1, which produces the same
result as using the difference() method.

A dictionary in Python is a collection of key-value pairs, where each key is unique and
associated with a value. It is also known as an associative array, hash map or a hash table in
other programming languages. In Python, dictionaries are created using curly braces {} or the
dict() constructor function. The keys and values in a dictionary can be of any data type,
including strings, integers, floats, lists, or even other dictionaries. However, keys must be

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immutable types such as strings, numbers or tuples. Here's an example of how to create a
dictionary in Python:

# create a dictionary using {}

my_dict = {'key1': 'value1', 'key2': 'value2', 'key3': 'value3'}

# create a dictionary using dict()

my_dict = dict(key1='value1', key2='value2', key3='value3')

To access a value in a dictionary, you can use the key inside square brackets:

# access a value using a key

my_dict['key1']

You can also add, remove or modify items in a dictionary:

# add a new key-value pair

my_dict['key4'] = 'value4'

# remove a key-value pair

del my_dict['key3']

# modify a value
my_dict['key2'] = 'new_value2'

Dictionaries also have several built-in methods to perform common operations, such as getting a
list of keys or values:

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# get a list of keys
my_dict.keys()

# get a list of values

my_dict.values()

Overall, dictionaries are a powerful data structure in Python that allow you to store and
manipulate data in a flexible and efficient way.

In Python, if...else is a conditional statement that allows you to execute certain blocks of
code based on whether a condition is true or false. The basic syntax of an if...else statement
in Python is:

if condition:
# code to execute if condition is True
else:
# code to execute if condition is False

The condition is a Boolean expression that evaluates to either True or False. If the
condition is True, the code block inside the if statement is executed, and if the condition
is False, the code block inside the else statement is executed. Here's an example:

age = 18

if age >= 18:

print("You are an adult.")
else:
print("You are not an adult yet.")

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In this example, if the value of age is greater than or equal to 18, the message "You are an
adult." will be printed to the console. Otherwise, the message "You are not an adult yet." will be
printed. You can also add more conditions to your if...else statement using elif (short for
"else if"):

age = 18

if age < 18:

print("You are not an adult yet.")
elif age < 30:
print("You are a young adult.")
else:
print("You are an adult.")

In this example, if the value of age is less than 18, the message "You are not an adult yet." will
be printed. If age is greater than or equal to 18 but less than 30, the message "You are a young
adult." will be printed. And if age is greater than or equal to 30, the message "You are an adult."
will be printed. if...else statements can also be nested inside other if...else statements to
create more complex conditions. However, it's important to keep the code readable and not to
create excessively nested statements. Overall, if...else statements are a fundamental control
structure in Python that allow you to make decisions based on conditions and execute code
accordingly.

In Python, loops are used to execute a block of code repeatedly, based on a specific condition
or range of values. There are two main types of loops in Python: for loops and while loops.

 For Loops

A for loop is used to iterate over a sequence of values (such as a list, tuple or string) or a
range of numbers. The basic syntax of a for loop in Python is:

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for variable in sequence:
# code to execute

Here's an example of a for loop that iterates over a list of names and prints each name to the
console:

names = ['Alice', 'Bob', 'Charlie']

for name in names:

print(name)

This loop will print:

Alice
Bob
Charlie

You can also use the range() function to generate a sequence of numbers to iterate over:

for i in range(5):
print(i)

This loop will print:

0
1
2
3
4

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 While Loops

A while loop is used to execute a block of code repeatedly as long as a condition is true.
The basic syntax of a while loop in Python is:

while condition:
# code to execute

Here's an example of a while loop that counts from 0 to 4 and prints each number to the
console:

i = 0

while i < 5:
print(i)
i += 1

This loop will print:

0
1
2
3
4

You need to be careful with while loops, because if the condition is never met, the loop will
continue to run indefinitely, causing what's known as an infinite loop. You can use break and
continue statements to control the flow of the loop and exit early if necessary.

Loop Control Statements

In addition to break and continue, there are other loop control statements you can use in Python:

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 break: exits the loop immediately, skipping any remaining iterations.
 continue: skips the current iteration and goes to the next one.
 pass: does nothing, used as a placeholder when a statement is required but you don't
want to execute any code.

Here's an example of a for loop that uses break and continue:

for i in range(10):
if i == 5:
break
elif i % 2 == 0:
continue
else:
print(i)

This loop will print:

The loop starts at 0 and goes up to 9. When i is equal to 5, the break statement is executed,
and the loop exits early. When i is even, the continue statement is executed, and the loop skips
the rest of the code and goes to the next iteration. Otherwise, the loop prints the value of i.
Overall, loops are a fundamental concept in programming that allows you to execute code
repeatedly and perform complex operations on large datasets.

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A function in Python is a self-contained block of code that performs a specific task. It takes
input(s) (if any), processes the input(s), and produces output(s) (if any). In Python, a function is
defined using the def keyword followed by the function name, input parameters (if any), and a
colon (:). The body of the function is indented and contains the code to be executed when the
function is called. Here is a simple example of a function that takes two input parameters,
adds them together, and returns the result:

def add_numbers(x, y):

result = x + y
return result

In this example, add_numbers is the function name, x and y are the input parameters, result
is a variable that holds the sum of x and y, and return result specifies the output of the
function. To call this function, you simply provide values for x and y in the parentheses:

sum = add_numbers(5, 3)
print(sum) # Output: 8

This will call the add_numbers function with x = 5 and y = 3, and assign the result (8) to
the variable sum. The print statement will then output the value of sum. Functions can also
have optional parameters, default values, and can return multiple values using tuples. They
can also be used to encapsulate complex operations and simplify the code by breaking it down
into smaller, reusable components.

A lambda function in Python is a small anonymous function that can have any number of
parameters, but can only have one expression. The syntax for creating a lambda function is to use
the lambda keyword followed by the parameters (if any) separated by commas, followed by a

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colon, and then the expression. Here is a simple example of a lambda function that takes two
parameters and returns their sum:

sum = lambda x, y: x + y

In this example, lambda is the keyword used to define the function, x and y are the parameters,
and x + y is the expression that is evaluated when the function is called. Lambda functions
are often used as a way to define small, one-off functions that can be passed as arguments to
other functions. For example, you can use a lambda function to define the key parameter for
sorting a list:

numbers = [5, 1, 3, 6, 2, 8, 4]
sorted_numbers = sorted(numbers, key=lambda x: x)
print(sorted_numbers) # Output: [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8]

In this example, the sorted function is called with numbers as the first argument and a
lambda function as the second argument. The lambda function takes a single parameter x and
returns x, which is used as the sorting key. Lambda functions are also used in functional
programming paradigms, where they can be used to define higher-order functions that take other
functions as parameters or return functions as values.

In Python, a class is a blueprint for creating objects. An object is an instance of a class that
contains data (attributes) and functions (methods). Here is an example of a class in Python:

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

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def greet(self):
print(f"Hello, my name is {self.name} and I am {self.age} years old.")

In this example, Person is the name of the class. The __init__ method is a special method
called the constructor, which is called when an object is created. The constructor takes two
parameters, name and age, which are used to initialize the name and age attributes of the
object. The greet method is a function that takes no parameters and prints a message that
includes the name and age attributes of the object. To create an object of the Person class, you
would use the following syntax:

person = Person("Alice", 25)

This creates a new object of the Person class with the name attribute set to "Alice" and the age
attribute set to 25. You can access the attributes and methods of an object using the dot (.)
operator. For example:

print(person.name) # Output: "Alice"

person.greet() # Output: "Hello, my name is Alice and I am 25 years old."

In this example, the name attribute of the person object is accessed using the dot operator, and
the greet method is called on the person object. Classes and objects are a fundamental
concept in object-oriented programming (OOP), which is a programming paradigm that
emphasizes the use of classes and objects to model real-world entities and their relationships.
OOP provides a way to encapsulate data and behavior into reusable and modular components,
which makes it easier to write and maintain complex software systems.

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In Python, an iterator is an object that can be iterated (looped) upon. An iterator is an
implementation of the iterator protocol, which requires the iterator to have two methods:
__iter__() and __next__(). The __iter__() method returns the iterator object itself, and
the __next__() method returns the next value in the iteration sequence. When there are no
more items to return, the __next__() method should raise the StopIteration exception.
Here is an example of an iterator in Python:

class MyIterator:
def __init__(self):
self.counter = 0

def __iter__(self):
return self

def __next__(self):
if self.counter < 5:
self.counter += 1
return self.counter
else:
raise StopIteration

In this example, MyIterator is a class that implements an iterator. The __init__() method
initializes the counter attribute of the iterator to 0. The __iter__() method returns the
iterator object itself, and the __next__() method returns the next value in the iteration
sequence. In this example, the iteration sequence consists of the numbers from 1 to 5. The
__next__() method checks if the counter attribute is less than 5. If it is, it increments the
counter attribute and returns its value. If the counter attribute is equal to or greater than 5, it
raises the StopIteration exception to indicate that there are no more items in the iteration
sequence. To use an iterator, you can use a for loop or the built-in next() function. For
example:

1059
my_iterator = MyIterator()

# Using a for loop

for num in my_iterator:
print(num)

# Using the next() function

print(next(my_iterator)) # Output: 1
print(next(my_iterator)) # Output: 2
print(next(my_iterator)) # Output: 3
print(next(my_iterator)) # Output: 4
print(next(my_iterator)) # Output: 5
print(next(my_iterator)) # Raises StopIteration exception

In this example, the MyIterator class is instantiated as my_iterator. The for loop and
next() function are used to iterate over the values returned by the MyIterator object.
Iterators are used extensively in Python, especially with built-in functions such as range(),
map(), and filter().

In Python, JSON (JavaScript Object Notation) is a popular data interchange format that is used to
represent data structures as text. JSON is a lightweight format that is easy for humans to read
and write, and easy for machines to parse and generate. The Python standard library provides
two modules for working with JSON:

 json: This module provides methods for encoding Python objects as JSON strings and
decoding JSON strings into Python objects.
 simplejson: This is a third-party module that provides a more feature-rich JSON
implementation than the built-in json module.

Here is an example of how to use the json module to encode and decode JSON data in Python:

1060
import json

# Encoding Python data as a JSON string

data = {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}
json_data = json.dumps(data)
print(json_data) # Output: {"name": "Alice", "age": 25}

# Decoding JSON data into a Python object

json_data = '{"name": "Alice", "age": 25}'
data = json.loads(json_data)
print(data) # Output: {'name': 'Alice', 'age': 25}

In this example, the json.dumps() method is used to encode a Python dictionary as a JSON
string, and the json.loads() method is used to decode a JSON string into a Python
dictionary. JSON supports a limited set of data types, including strings, numbers, boolean
values, null, arrays, and objects. When encoding Python objects as JSON data, the json module
automatically converts compatible data types to their JSON equivalents. Here is an example of
encoding a Python object with the json module:

import json

class Person:
def __init__(self, name, age):
self.name = name
self.age = age

person = Person("Alice", 25)

json_data = json.dumps(person.__dict__)
print(json_data) # Output: {"name": "Alice", "age": 25}

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In this example, a custom Python object of the Person class is created and encoded as a JSON
string using the json.dumps() method. The __dict__ attribute is used to convert the object's
attributes to a dictionary that can be encoded as JSON. JSON is commonly used in web
development for exchanging data between client and server, as well as in data storage and
transfer applications.

In Python, try and except are used for error handling. The basic idea is to try a block of code
that may raise an exception (i.e., an error), and then handle that exception if it occurs. Here's the
basic syntax:

try:
# code that may raise an exception
except ExceptionType:
# code to handle the exception

The try block contains the code that you want to execute, and the except block contains the
code that should be executed if an exception of type ExceptionType occurs. If an exception
occurs in the try block, Python will jump to the except block and execute its code. You can
use multiple except blocks to handle different types of exceptions. For example:

try:
# code that may raise an exception
except TypeError:
# code to handle a TypeError exception
except ValueError:
# code to handle a ValueError exception

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If the code in the try block raises a TypeError exception, the first except block will be
executed. If it raises a ValueError exception, the second except block will be executed. You
can also include a finally block, which will be executed regardless of whether an exception
occurred or not. For example:

try:
# code that may raise an exception
except ExceptionType:
# code to handle the exception
finally:
# code that should be executed regardless of whether an exception occurred or not

The finally block will be executed after the try and except blocks, regardless of whether an
exception occurred or not. This is useful for cleaning up resources or closing files, for example.
Overall, try and except are an important part of Python error handling, allowing you to
gracefully handle errors and prevent your code from crashing.

In Python, pip is a package manager used to install and manage software packages written in
Python. It makes it easy to install and uninstall Python packages, as well as manage
dependencies between packages. pip is included with most Python installations by default, and
can be accessed from the command line by typing pip followed by a command. Here are some
common pip commands:

 pip install package_name: installs a package from the Python Package Index
(PyPI) or another package repository.
 pip uninstall package_name: uninstalls a package.
 pip list: lists all installed packages.
 pip freeze: lists all installed packages in a format that can be used to
create a requirements.txt file, which is commonly used to specify the
dependencies of a Python project.

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 pip search package_name: searches for a package on PyPI or another package
repository.

You can also use pip to install packages from a requirements.txt file using the following
command:

pip install -r requirements.txt

This will install all the packages listed in the requirements.txt file. In addition to the standard
pip command, there are several third-party tools and libraries that extend or enhance its
functionality, such as virtualenv and conda. These tools allow you to create isolated Python
environments with their own package installations, making it easy to manage dependencies
between projects and avoid conflicts between different packages.

In Python, file handling refers to the process of working with files on the file system, such
as reading from or writing to a file. Python provides a built-in open() function to work with
files. Here's how to open a file for reading:

f = open("filename.txt", "r")

This opens the file filename.txt in read mode. The open() function returns a file object,
which you can use to read data from the file. To read the entire contents of the file, you can use
the read() method:

data = f.read()

After you're done reading from the file, you should close it using the close() method:

f.close()

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Here's how to open a file for writing:

f = open("filename.txt", "w")

This opens the file filename.txt in write mode. To write data to the file, you can use the
write() method:

f.write("Hello, world!")

After you're done writing to the file, you should close it using the close() method:

f.close()

It's a good practice to always close files after you're done working with them. Alternatively, you
can use a "with" statement to automatically close the file when you're done with it:

with open("filename.txt", "r") as f:

data = f.read()

This automatically closes the file after the "with" block is finished, even if an error occurs. In
addition to reading and writing files, you can also append to an existing file using the "a" mode,
or read and write to a file simultaneously using the "r+" or "w+" modes. For more information,
check out the Python documentation on file handling:

https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/inputoutput.html#reading-and-writing-files

Python is a popular programming language for data analysis and manipulation tasks. It provides
a variety of libraries and frameworks that can be used to work with different databases, including
MySQL. MySQL is an open-source relational database management system that is widely used in
web applications. It uses SQL (Structured Query Language) to interact with the database

1065
and perform various operations like insert, update, delete, and retrieve data. To work with
MySQL in Python, you can use a Python MySQL connector library like mysql-connector-
python, PyMySQL, or MySQLdb. These libraries provide a set of methods and classes to connect
to a MySQL database, execute SQL queries, and fetch data from the database. Here is a brief
overview of how to work with MySQL in Python:

 Install the MySQL connector library of your choice using pip:

pip install mysql-connector-python

 Connect to the MySQL database using the connect() method:

import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="username",
password="password",
database="database_name"
)

 Create a cursor object to execute SQL queries:

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

 Execute a SQL query using the execute() method:

mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers")

 Fetch the data using the fetchall() or fetchone() method:

1066
result = mycursor.fetchall()

 Iterate through the result set and print the data:

for row in result:

print(row)

You can also perform other operations like insert, update, and delete data using SQL queries in Python.
Overall, Python provides an easy and flexible way to work with MySQL databases, making it a popular
choice for data analysis and web development tasks.

Python has become the go-to language for many data scientists due to its simplicity, versatility,
and powerful libraries and frameworks. Python provides a wide range of libraries and frameworks for
data analysis and manipulation, including NumPy, Pandas, Matplotlib, Scikit-learn, TensorFlow, Keras,
and many more. These libraries and frameworks provide various functionalities such as data
manipulation, visualization, statistical analysis, machine learning, and deep learning.

 NumPy is a library for numerical computing in Python. It provides a multidimensional array

object, which allows efficient computation on large datasets. NumPy also provides various
mathematical functions and operations for array manipulation.
 Pandas is a library for data manipulation and analysis in Python. It provides data structures for
handling tabular data, including DataFrame and Series objects. Pandas allow easy
manipulation of data, including data cleaning, merging, grouping, and filtering.
 Matplotlib is a library for data visualization in Python. It provides various plotting functions to
create different types of plots, including line plots, scatter plots, bar plots, histograms, and more.
 Scikit-learn is a library for machine learning in Python. It provides various algorithms for
classification, regression, clustering, and dimensionality reduction. Scikit-learn also provide tools
for model selection, evaluation, and preprocessing.
 TensorFlow is an open-source library for machine learning developed by Google. It provides a
platform for building and training machine learning models, including deep learning models.

1067
TensorFlow supports various neural network architectures and allows efficient computation on
GPUs.
 Keras is a high-level neural networks API built on top of TensorFlow. It provides a simplified
interface for building and training deep learning models, making it easy for beginners to get
started with deep learning.

Overall, Python provides a comprehensive set of libraries and tools for data science and analytics,
making it a popular choice for data scientists and analysts. With its simplicity, versatility, and powerful
libraries and frameworks, Python has become the go-to language for data science and analytics tasks.

Advantages of Python:

1. Easy to Learn and Use: Python has a simple and easy-to-read syntax, making it easy for
beginners to learn and write code. It has a large standard library and many third-party
libraries that can be easily installed and used in Python programs. Example: Here's a
simple Python program that prints "Hello, World!" to the console:

print("Hello, World!")

2. Versatility: Python is a versatile language that can be used for a wide range of tasks,
including web development, data analysis, machine learning, and more. Example: Here's
a simple Python program that calculates the sum of two numbers:

a = 2
b = 3
c = a + b
print(c)

3. Large Community: Python has a large and active community of developers, which
means there are plenty of resources, tutorials, and documentation available online.
Example: The Python community has developed many useful libraries and frameworks

1068
for various tasks, such as NumPy for numerical computing, Pandas for data analysis, and
Flask for web development.
4. Cross-platform: Python is a cross-platform language, which means it can run on
different operating systems like Windows, Mac, and Linux. Example: Here's a simple
Python program that prints the current time on different platforms:

import datetime

current_time = datetime.datetime.now()
print(current_time)

Disadvantages of Python:

1. Speed: Python is an interpreted language, which means it can be slower than compiled
languages like C++ or Java. Example: If you have a Python program that performs
complex mathematical operations on large datasets, it may take longer to execute than the
same program written in a compiled language.
2. Weak in Mobile Computing: Python is not well-suited for mobile computing, as it
requires a large runtime environment and may not be optimized for mobile devices.
Example: If you want to develop a mobile app that requires high performance and low
memory usage, you may want to consider using a different language like Swift or
Kotlin.
3. Not Ideal for Memory-intensive Tasks: Python is not ideal for memory-intensive tasks,
as it has limitations in managing memory efficiently. Example: If you want to develop a
program that requires large amounts of memory, like a video game or a scientific
simulation, you may want to consider using a different language like C++ or Fortran.
4. Not Ideal for Real-time Applications: Python is not ideal for real-time applications, as
it has limitations in handling time-critical tasks. Example: If you want to develop a
program that requires real-time performance, like a trading system or a control system,
you may want to consider using a different language like C or Rust.

1069
Here is a brief comparison of C, C++, Java, and Python:

 A low-level programming language used for system programming, embedded systems, and operating
systems.
 Provides direct memory access and low-level control over hardware resources.
 Does not support object-oriented programming (OOP) and automatic memory management.

C++:

 An extension of C that adds OOP features.

 Used for developing applications and software that require high performance and low-level hardware
access.
 Provides access to memory management and supports encapsulation, polymorphism, and inheritance.

Java:

 A high-level programming language designed for cross-platform applications.

 Runs on the Java Virtual Machine (JVM) and provides automatic memory management through garbage
collection.
 Supports OOP features like encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism.
 Popular for developing enterprise applications, web applications, and Android mobile applications.

Python:

 A high-level programming language known for its simplicity and readability.

 Provides dynamic typing, automatic memory management, and a large library of modules.
 Supports OOP features and is commonly used for scripting, data analysis, web development, and machine
learning.

In terms of performance, C and C++ are generally faster than Java and Python, but they require more manual
memory management and may have longer development times. Java and Python are generally easier to learn and
use, and are popular for their cross-platform capabilities and large communities of developers. Ultimately, the
choice of programming language depends on the specific project requirements, development resources, and
personal preferences of the developers involved.
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Linux is a complex example of the wisdom of crowds. It's a good

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going to come up with good answers.

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Best Programming Books that Every Programmer Should Read:

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Book by Herb Sutter

 C++ coding standards

Book by Andrei Alexandrescu and Herb Sutter

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Book by Nicholas A. Solter and Scott J. Kleper

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Book by James Brodman, Michael Kinsner, Xinmin Tian, Ben Ashbaugh, John Pennycook,

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Book by Bruce Eckel

 Java Concurrency in Practice

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Book by Herbert Schildt

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 Java 8 in Action: Lambdas, streams, and functional-style programming

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 Modern Java in Action: Lambdas, Streams, Functional and Reactive Programming

Book by Alan Mycroft, Mario Fusco, and Raoul-Gabriel Urma

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PYTHON:

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Book by Douglas Crockford

 Eloquent JavaScript: A Modern Introduction to Programming

Book by Marijn Haverbeke

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Book by David Sawyer McFarland

 The Recursive Book of Recursion: Ace the Coding Interview with Python and JavaScript

Book by Al Sweigart

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 Javascript In Easy Steps

Book by Mike McGrath

 Building JavaScript Games: For Phones, Tablets, and Desktop

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 High Performance Browser Networking

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 Learning TypeScript

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Book by John Resig

 The Little Book on CoffeeScript

Book by Alex MacCaw

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 Learn JavaScript Quickly: A Complete Beginner's Guide to Learning JavaScript, Even If

You're New to Programming

Book by Code Quickly

 Test-Driven JavaScript Development

Book by Christian Johansen

 Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, JavaScript Edition

Textbook by Gerald Jay Sussman and Hal Abelson

 Functional Programming in JavaScript: How to Improve Your JavaScript Programs Using

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Book by Luis Atencio

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PHP:

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PHP and MySQL

Book by Alan Forbes

 Learning PHP, MySQL, JavaScript, CSS and HTML5: A Step-by-Step Guide to Creating

Dynamic Websites

Book by Robin Nixon

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Book by Rasmus Lerdorf

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Book by Laura Thomson and Luke Welling

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Book by Lynn Beighley and Michael Morrison

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Book by Jon Duckett

 Learning PHP, MySQL & JavaScript: With JQuery, CSS & HTML5

Book by Robin Nixon

 PHP and MySQL in easy steps, 2nd Edition: Updated to cover MySQL 8.0

Book by Mike McGrath

 PHP: A Beginner's Guide

Book by Vikram Vaswani

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 Mastering PHP 7

Book by Branko Ajzele

 PHP and MySQL

Book by Jon Duckett

 PHP and MySQL: The Missing Manual

Book by Brett McLaughlin

 PHP 8 Programming Tips, Tricks and Best Practices: A Practical Guide to PHP 8 Features,

Usage Changes, and Advanced Programming Techniques

Book by Cal Evans and Doug Bierer

 PHP for the Web: Visual QuickStart Guide

Book by Larry Ullman

 PHP and MySQL for Dynamic Web Sites

Book by Larry Ullman

 PHP: Learn PHP in One Day and Learn It Well. PHP for Beginners with Hands-on Project

Book by Jamie Chan

 PHP 7: Real World Application Development

Book by Altaf Hussain, Branko Ajzele and Doug Bierer

 PHP Cookbook

Book by Adam Trachtenberg and David Sklar

 Full Stack Web Development For Beginners: Learn Ecommerce Web Development Using

HTML5, CSS3, Bootstrap, JavaScript, MySQL, and PHP

Book by Riaz Ahmed

 Drupal 9 Module Development: Get Up and Running with Building Powerful Drupal

Modules and Applications

Book by Daniel Sipos

 Building Web Apps with WordPress: WordPress as an Application Framework

Book by Brian Messenlehner and Jason Coleman

 PHP and MySQL in easy steps

Book by Mike McGrath

 WordPress Complete

Book by Karol Król

 PHP, MySQL, and JavaScript All-in-One For Dummies

Book by Richard BLUM

 PHP in Action: Objects, Design, Agility

Book by Chris Shiflett, Dagfinn Reiersol, and Marcus Baker

 PHP Advanced and Object-Oriented Programming: Visual QuickPro Guide

Book by Larry Ullman

 Learning PHP 7

Book by Antonio Lopez

 PHP 7 Programming Cookbook

Book by Doug Bierer

 PHP: The Complete Reference

Book by Steven Holzner

 PHP and MySQL for Dummies

Book by Janet Valade

 PHP Beginner's Practical Guide

Book by Pratiyush Guleria

 Building RESTful Web Services with PHP 7

Book by Haafiz Waheed-ud-din Ahmad

 Mastering PHP Design Patterns

Book by Junade Ali

 PHP and MongoDB Web Development Beginner's Guide

Book by Rubayeet Islam

 PHP 7 Data Structures and Algorithms

Book by Mizanur Rahman

 Mastering The Faster Web with PHP, MySQL, and JavaScript: Develop State-of-the-art

Web Applications Using the Latest Web Technologies

Textbook by Andrew Caya

 Learning PHP: A Gentle Introduction to the Web's Most Popular Language

Book by David Sklar

 Learn PHP 8: Using MySQL, JavaScript, CSS3, and HTML5

Book by Steve Prettyman

 PHP Microservices

Book by Carlos Perez Sanchez and Pablo Solar Vilarino

 Professional CodeIgniter

Book by Thomas Myer

 Symfony 5: The Fast Track

Book by Fabien Potencier

 Practical PHP and MySQL Website Databases: A Simplified Approach

Book by Adrian W. West

 PHP Programming for Beginners: Key Programming Concepts. How to use PHP with

MySQL and Oracle databases (MySqli, PDO)

Book by Sergey Skudaev

ALGORITHMS:

 Introduction to Algorithms

Book by T Cormen, C Leiserson, R Rivest, C Stein

 The Algorithm Design Manual

Book by Steven Skiena

 Grokking Algorithms: An Illustrated Guide for Programmers and Other Curious People
Book by Aditya Bhargava

 Algorithms

Book by Robert Sedgewick

 Algorithm Design

Book by Jon Kleinberg and Éva Tardos

 Algorithms Illuminated: Algorithms for NP-hard problems

Book by Tim Roughgarden

 Algorithms in a nutshell

Book by George T. Heineman

 Data structures and algorithms made easy in Java: data structure and algorithmic puzzles

Book by Narasimha karumanchi

 A Common-Sense Guide to Data Structures and Algorithms: Level Up Your Core

Programming Skills

Book by Jay Wengrow

 Cracking the Coding Interview

Book by Gayle Laakmann McDowell

 Guide to Competitive Programming: Learning and Improving Algorithms Through

Contests

Book by Antti Laaksonen

 Algorithms Unlocked

Book by Thomas H. Cormen

 Problem Solving with Algorithms and Data Structures using Python

Book by Bradley N Miller and David L. Ranum

 Computer Science Distilled: Learn the Art of Solving Computational Problems

Book by Wladston Ferreira Filho

 Python Algorithms: Mastering Basic Algorithms in the Python Language

Book by Magnus Lie Hetland

 Advanced Algorithms and Data Structures

Book by Marcello La Rocca

 The Master Algorithm: How the Quest for the Ultimate Learning Machine Will Remake

Our World

Book by Pedro Domingos

 Dive Into Algorithms: A Pythonic Adventure for the Intrepid Beginner

Book by Bradford Tuckfield

 Advanced Data Structures

Book by Peter Brass

 Algorithmic Thinking: A Problem-Based Introduction

Book by Daniel Zingaro

 Algorithms + Data Structures = Programs

Book by Niklaus Wirth

 Algorithms Illuminated (Part 2): Graph Algorithms and Data Structures

Book by Tim Roughgarden

 Introduction to the Design and Analysis of Algorithms

Book by Anany Levitin

 Automate This: How Algorithms Came to Rule Our World

Book by Christopher Steiner

 Think Like a Programmer: An Introduction to Creative Problem Solving

Book by V. Anton Spraul

 Spies, Lies, and Algorithms: The History and Future of American Intelligence

Book by Amy Zegart

 Algorithms Illuminated (Part 3): Greedy Algorithms and Dynamic Programming

Book by Tim Roughgarden

 Algorithms for Decision Making

Book by Kyle H. Wray, Mykel J. Kochenderfer and Tim A. Wheeler

 Fundamentals of Computer Algorithms

Book by Ellis Horowitz and Sartaj Sahni

 Information Theory, Inference and Learning Algorithms

Book by David J. C. MacKay

 9 Algorithms That Changed the Future

Book by John MacCormick

 The Art of Computer Programming

Book by Donald Knuth

 Data Structure and Algorithmic Thinking with Python

Book by Narasimha Karumanchi

 A Common-Sense Guide to Data Structures and Algorithms

Book by Jay Wengrow

 Hello World: How to be Human in the Age of the Machine

Book by Hannah Fry

 The Design and Analysis of Computer Algorithms

Book by Alfred Aho, Jeffrey Ullman, and John Hopcroft

 Designing Distributed Systems: Patterns and Paradigms for Scalable, Reliable Services

Book by Brendan Burns

 A Programmer's Guide to Computer Science: A virtual degree for the self-taught developer

Book by William M Springer

 Concrete Mathematics
Textbook by Donald Knuth, Oren Patashnik and Ronald Graham

 Understanding Cryptography: A Textbook for Students and Practitioners

Textbook by Christof Paar and Jan Pelzl

 Algorithms For Dummies

Book by John Mueller and Luca Massaron

DATA STRUCTURES:

 Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in C++

Book by Clifford A Shaffer

 Purely functional data structures

Book by Chris Okasaki

 Open Data Structures: An Introduction

Book by Pat Morin

 Think Data Structures: Algorithms and Information Retrieval in Java

Book by Allen B. Downey

 Data Structures Using C

Book by Reema Thareja

 Data Structures Through C in Depth

Book by Deepali Srivastava and Suresh Kumar Srivastava

 C++ Plus Data Structures

Book by Nell B. Dale

 JavaScript Data Structures and Algorithms: An Introduction to Understanding and

Implementing Core Data Structure and Algorithm Fundamentals
Book by Sammie Bae

 Data structures using C and C++

Book by Yedidyah Langsam

 Algorithms and Data Structures: The Basic Toolbox

Book by Kurt Mehlhorn and Peter Sanders

 Data Structures and Algorithm Analysis in Java

Book by Clifford A Shaffer

 Handbook of Data Structures and Applications

Book by Dinesh P. Mehta and Sartaj Sahni

 Data structures with Java

Book by J. R Hubbard

 Java Structures

Book by Duane A. Bailey

LINUX:

 The Linux Command Line: A Complete Introduction

Book by William E. Shotts Jr. and William E. Shotts, Jr.

 The Linux Programming Interface

Book by Michael Kerrisk

 Linux bible

Book by Christopher Negus

 Linux pocket guide

Book by Daniel J. Barrett

 Linux for Beginners

Book by Jason Cannon

 How Linux Works: What Every Superuser Should Know

Book by Brian Ward

 Linux Basics for Hackers: Getting Started with Networking, Scripting, and Security in Kali

Book by OccupyTheWeb

 Linux Kernel Development

Book by Robert Love

 Linux Administration: The Linux Operating System and Command Line Guide for Linux
Administrators

Book by Jason Cannon

 Linux: The Complete Reference

Book by Richard Petersen

 Linux Command Line and Shell Scripting Bible

Book by Christine Bresnahan and Richard BLUM

 Linux in a Nutshell

Book by Ellen Siever and Robert Love

 The Art of Unix Programming

Book by Eric S. Raymond

 Linux System Programming: Talking Directly to the Kernel and C Library

Book by Robert Love

 A Practical Guide to Linux Commands, Editors, and Shell Programming

Book by Mark G. Sobell

 Learn Linux Quickly: A Beginner-friendly Guide to Getting Up and Running with the
World's Most Powerful Operating System

Book by Ahmed Alkabary

 Linux for Beginners and Command Line Kung Fu

Book by Jason Cannon

 The Ultimate Kali Linux Book: Perform Advanced Penetration Testing Using Nmap,
Metasploit, Aircrack-Ng, and Empire

Book by Glen D. Singh

 Understanding the Linux Kernel

Book by Daniel Pierre Bovet and Marco Cesati

 Linux for Developers: Jumpstart Your Linux Programming Skills

Book by William "Bo" Rothwell

 Learning the bash Shell

Book by Cameron Newham

 Linux Device Drivers

Book by Alessandro Rubini, Greg Kroah-Hartman, and Jonathan Corbet

 Mastering Linux Shell Scripting: A Practical Guide to Linux Command-line, Bash

Scripting, and Shell Programming

Book by Andrew Mallett and Mokhtar Ebrahim

 Efficient Linux at the Command Line

Book by Daniel J. Barrett

 Shell Scripting: How to Automate Command Line Tasks Using Bash Scripting and Shell

Programming

Book by Jaosn Cannon

 Advanced Programming in the Unix Environment

Book by W. Richard Stevens

 Lfm: Linux Field Manual

Book by Tim Bryant

 CompTIA Linux+ Certification All-in-One Exam Guide

Book by Ted Jordan and Sandor Strohmayer

 Advanced Linux programming

Book by Alex Samuel, Jeffrey Oldham and Mark Mitchell

 Linux Kernel in a Nutshell

Book by Greg Kroah-Hartman

 Linux Kernel Debugging: Leverage Proven Tools and Advanced Techniques to Effectively

Debug Linux Kernels and Kernel Modules

Book by Kaiwan N Billimoria

 Bash cookbook

Book by Carl Albing

 Linux for Beginners: A Practical and Comprehensive Guide to Learn Linux Operating

System and Master Linux Command Line.

Book by Ethem Mining

 Beginning Linux Programming

Book by Mathew Neil and Richard Stones

 The Linux Command Line Beginner's Guide

Book by Jonathan Moeller

 Linux System Programming

Book by Robert Love

 A Practical Guide to Fedora and Red Hat Enterprise Linux

Book by Mark G. Sobell

 Kali Linux Hacking: A Complete Step by Step Guide to Learn the Fundamentals of Cyber

Security, Hacking, and Penetration Testing

Book by Ethem Mining

 Kali Linux Revealed: Mastering the Penetration Testing Distribution

Book by Jim O'Gorman, Mati Aharoni and Raphael Hertzog

 Linux in Easy Steps

Book by Mike McGrath

 Bash Pocket Reference: Help for Power Users and Sys Admins

Book by Arnold Robbins

 Learn PowerShell in a Month of Lunches: Covers Windows, Linux, and macOS

Book by Travis Plunk, James Petty and Leon Leonhardt

 Linux From Scratch

Book by Gerard Beekmans

 Linux For Dummies

Book by Richard Blum

DATABASE:

 Database Systems: The Complete Book

Book by Héctor García-Molina, Jeffrey Ullman and Jennifer Widom

 Fundamentals of Database Systems

Book by Ramez Elmasri

 Database Design for Mere Mortals

Book by Michael J. Hernandez

 An Introduction to Database Systems

Book by Christopher J. Date

 SQL Antipatterns: Avoiding the Pitfalls of Database Programming

Book by Bill Karwin

 Designing Data-Intensive Applications: The Big Ideas Behind Reliable, Scalable, and

Maintainable Systems

Book by Martin Kleppmann

 Database System Concepts

Book by Avi Silberschatz, Henry F. Korth and S. Sudarshan

 Database Internals: A Deep Dive Into How Distributed Data Systems Work

Book by Alex Petrov

 Beginning Database Design Solutions

Book by Rod Stephens

 SQL Performance Explained

Book by Markus Winand

 Database Management Systems

Book by Johannes Gehrke and Raghu Ramakrishnan

 Oracle PL/SQL programming

Book by Scott Urman

 Database in Depth: Relational Theory for Practitioners

Book by Christopher J. Date

 Database Design and Relational Theory: Normal Forms and All That Jazz
Book by Christopher J. Date

 Database Systems: A Practical Approach to Design, Implementation, and Management

Book by Carolyn Begg and Thomas M. Connolly

 Introductory Relational Database Design for Business, with Microsoft Access

Book by Bonnie R. Schultz and Jonathan Eckstein

 Head First SQL: Your Brain on SQL − A Learner's Guide

Book by Lynn Beighley

 Readings in Database Systems

Book by Joseph M Hellerstein

 The art of SQL

Book by Stéphane Faroult

 The theory of relational databases

Book by David Maier

 The Data Warehouse Toolkit

Book by Ralph Kimball

 MongoDB: The Definitive Guide

Book by Kristina Chodorow and Michael Dirolf

 Learning SQL

Book by Alan Beaulieu

 Joe Celko's SQL puzzles and answers

Book by Joe Celko

 Foundations of databases

Book by Serge Abiteboul

 Pro SQL Server Relational Database Design and Implementation: Best Practices for

Scalability and Performance

Book by Louis Davidson

 Six-Step Relational Database Design: A Step by Step Approach to Relational Database

Design and Development

Book by Fidel A. Captain

 Databases, Types and the Relational Model: The Third Manifesto

Book by Christopher J. Date

 Seven Databases in Seven Weeks: A Guide to Modern Databases and the NoSQL Movement

Book by Eric Redmond and Jim R. Wilson

 Practical SQL: A Beginner's Guide to Storytelling with Data

Book by Anthony DeBarros

 Refactoring databases

Book by Scott Ambler

 SQL QuickStart Guide: The Simplified Beginner's Guide to Managing, Analyzing, and

Manipulating Data With SQL

Book by Walter Shields

 PHP and MySQL: Server-side Web Development

Book by Jon Duckett

 SQL Cookbook

Book by Anthony Molinaro

 Learn MongoDB 4.x: A Guide to Understanding MongoDB Development and

Administration for NoSQL Developers

Book by Doug Bierer

 Professional Azure SQL Managed Database Administration: Efficiently Manage and

Modernize Data in the Cloud Using Azure SQL

Book by Ahmad Osama and Shashikant Shakya

 PostgreSQL: Up and Running

Book by Leo S. Hsu and Regina O. Obe

 SQL All-in-One for Dummies

Book by Allen G. Taylor

 An Introduction to Relational Database Theory

Book by Hugh Darwen

 Transaction Processing: Concepts and Techniques

Book by Jim Gray

 Making Sense of NoSQL: A Guide for Managers and the Rest of Us

Book by Ann Kelly, Ann Marie Kelly and Dan McCreary

 A Practical Guide to Database Design

Book by Rex Hogan

 Database Development for Dummies

Book by Allen G. Taylor

 SQL Queries for Mere Mortals: A Hands-on Guide to Data Manipulation in SQL

Book by John Viescas and Michael J. Hernandez

 Pro SQL Server 2012 Relational Database Design and Implementation

Book by Jessica Moss and Louis Davidson

 SQL Performance Explained: Everything Developers Need to Know about SQL

Performance

Book by Markus Winand

 Refactoring Databases: Evolutionary Database Design

Book by Scott W Ambler and Pramod J Sadalage

 Designing Data-Intensive Applications

Book by Martin Kleppmann

Programming today is a race between software engineers striving to

build bigger and better idiot-proof programs, and the Universe trying to

produce bigger and better idiots. So far, the Universe is winning.

― Rick Cook, The Wizardry Compiled

"In some ways, programming is like painting. You start with a blank

canvas and certain basic raw materials. You use a combination of

science, art, and craft to determine what to do with them."

− Andrew Hunt
One final thought:

If you feel that this information has been useful to you, please take a
moment to share it with your friends on LinkedIn, Facebook and
Twitter. Consider writing a brief review on Google Play Books if you
feel that this book has helped you in your programming career and you
have learned something worthwhile.

Coding is both a science and creative art to me. It is both incredibly

fun and fascinating. I want to spread my passion to as many
individuals as I can. I also hope that this is not the end of your
learning.

Thank you!

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