Dr Uday Dokras

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 INDO Nordic Author’s Collective,

Stockholm SWEDEN Tampere FINLAND

Nagpur INDIA

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ATIVIR
The Story of

Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the last great Jain Tirthankar

Dr Uday Dokras

Indo Nordic Author’s

Collective
Stockholm Tampere Nagpur Gurugram
1st Edition 2020
Copyright 2020 Uday Dokras. All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by
means of electronic, mechanical, photocopy, micro-film, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of the copyright holder.
ISBN No. applied for. Cost US $150. I N R 1500/- Euro 120.

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4
 FOREWORD
ATIVIR

The Story of Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the Last

great Tirthankar
Ancient word Vardhaman is of
Sanskrit accent. Vardhaman is also
a name of Lord Mahavir.
Reference of Vardhaman is found
in various Epics. In Riga Veda (ऋग्-
वेद) Vardhaman is used as
prosperous, growing, thriving or
increasing. reference of
Vardhaman is also found in Sangit-
Saar Sangrah (संगीत-सारसंग्रह) as
attitude in dancing.Lexicographers
like Amar Singh, Hemchandra and
Halayudh have used this name as
a name of Lord Vishnu. They have
also used this word with the
meanings as a sweet citron, way of
joining hands, a kind of riddle and
an elephant who supports eastern
quarter.
According to the Book Vishnu
Vardhaman means one who
expands in the form of universe
enriching people in every respect.

The sole aim of this divine child VARDHAMANS was to sow

the seeds of spiritual enlightenment so that they would flower
into the wish-fulfilling trees of spirituality.
Renouncing His royal pleasures, He adopted monkhood at the
age of thirty-two and spent the next twelve years as a
mendicant, practicing intense penances and meditation. He
eventually overcame the veils of delusion that had clouded the
soul since time immemorial and attained the glory of
omniscience. He thereby unearthed the infinite knowledge,
perception and bliss that lie dormant within each soul. Thus He
had attained liberation while living. Now all that was left for
Him was to deplete His remaining karma and thereafter rest in
that blissful state of perfection known as moksha or liberation,

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beyond all confines of mortality and materialistic existence.
Devoid of the least semblance of any egoistic existence and
any possessions, Lord Mahavir gracefully traversed the land
for the remaining thirty years of His life. He preached the
fundamental tenets so as to enable a seeker to realise their true
nature, distinct from the body, to realise the nameless, timeless
and formless pure awareness, identified by its characteristics of
existence, consciousness and bliss.
Universal and selfless love were His guiding principles of
‘Ahimsa paramodharma’ or ‘Non-violence’ and love for all life
and these formed the essence of all He preached. His divine
legacy lives on unto this day and continues to inspire countless
seekers to rid themselves of the shackles of materialistic
existence and be free from the wretched cycle of
transmigration or life and death.

Neglecting his body,

the venerable ascetic Mahavira meditated on his self,
in blameless lodgings and wandering,
in restraint, kindness, avoidance of sinful influence,
chaste life, in patience, freedom from passion, contentment;
practicing control, circumspectness, religious postures and acts;
walking the path of nirvana and liberation,
which is the fruit of good conduct.
Living thus he with equanimity bore,
endured, sustained, and suffered all calamities
arising from divine powers, men, and animals,
with undisturbed and unafflicted mind,
careful of body, speech, and mind.( Acharanga Sutra tr. Hermann
Jacobi, 2:15:24.)

The essence of the life of Mahavir or Mahaveera is s subject

that has inspired many a writings and thought.This book is
once again a perspective from the ‘eyes’ of a non-jain, a not so
erudite jain but a person who struggles to understand the tenets
and the wisdom of Jainism. Hence the merit of this writing
adventure into the territory of the Jinas.

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The author has written earlier book on Jainism also titled
VARDHAMAN but it is not about the life of the Saint
mahaveer but on the Jain faith; so here his ambition, his wish
his mahatmakanska to illuminate the path of the Royal Prince
who renounced everything to inspire a ‘nation’ of followers.
Mahavir represents to me what I am not but want to be, says
the author. In his life is so much courage that it is impossible tp
put it on paper- beyond words. Only highlighted by his deeds.

Mahavira was born in Kundapura near Vaishali. The traditional

Jaina date for Mahavira's birth is 599 BC, but comparison with
the life of Buddha and the Magadha kings Bimbisara and
Ajatashatru indicate that his death at the age of 72 was
probably about 490 BC. An elaborate legend is told in the
Acharanga Sutra and in the Kalpa Sutra how he was conceived
in the womb of the Brahmin Devananda, who had fourteen
prophetic dreams but then after three lunar cycles divinely
transferred to the womb of the Kshatriya Trishala, who also
had the same fourteen prophetic dreams. These fourteen
dreams are supposed to indicate that the child will become
either an emperor or a great Tirthankara (prophet). This
unbelievable story probably resulted from the Jaina tradition
that all the Tirthankaras were Kshatriyas, perhaps converting
his stepmother into a second mother.

The father of Mahavira was King Siddartha; he and Trishala

were both pious and virtuous followers of Parshva. Trishala
was the sister of King Chetaka of Vaishali, the capital of a
federation where the Jainism of Parshva was popular. King
Chetaka had seven daughters, one of whom was initiated into
the Jaina order of ascetics while the other six married famous
kings, including King Shrenika (Bimbisara) of Magadha and
Mahavira's own brother, Nandivardhana.

Since the wealth of his father's kingdom had increased during

the pregnancy, the child was called Vardhamana. He was
raised in princely opulence and showed his courage as a child

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by mounting a charging elephant by the trunk and on another
occasion picking up a large snake and casting it aside. For his
courage and self-control in enduring the rules of penance,
Vardhamana was given the name Mahavira, which means great
hero. Jaina comes from jina meaning victor or conqueror. He
probably received the usual education for an aristocrat in
philosophy, literature, military and administrative sciences, and
the arts.

Mahavira married a princess named Yasoda, and they had a

daughter, Anojja. She eventually married his nephew Jamali,
who later caused a schism in the order. When Mahavira was 28
years old, both his parents died. He wanted to renounce the
world; but to please his elder brother he agreed to live at home
for two more years during which he practiced self-discipline,
giving up all luxuries and giving charity to beggars every day
of the last year.

At the age of thirty Mahavira renounced all his wealth,

property, wife, family, relatives, and pleasures. In a garden of
the village Kundapura at the foot of an Ashoka tree, no one
else being present, after fasting two days without water he took
off all his clothes, tore out the hair of his head in five handfuls,
and put a single cloth on his shoulder. He vowed to neglect his
body and with equanimity to suffer all calamities arising from
divine powers, people, or animals. Having already attained
before marriage the first three levels of knowledge (knowledge
from the senses and mind, knowledge from study, and
knowledge from intuition), at this initiation it was said he
attained the fourth level of knowledge that includes the
psychological movements of all sentient beings.

Thus Mahavira became homeless. As he was leaving the

garden, a Brahmin beggar, who had missed out on the last year
of Mahavira's almsgiving, asked him for alms; he gave him
half of the garment on his shoulder. After thirteen months he
gave up clothes altogether.

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Neglecting his body,
the venerable ascetic Mahavira meditated on his self,
in blameless lodgings and wandering,
in restraint, kindness, avoidance of sinful influence,
chaste life, in patience, freedom from passion, contentment;
practicing control, circumspectness, religious postures and acts;
walking the path of nirvana and liberation,
which is the fruit of good conduct.
Living thus he with equanimity bore,
endured, sustained, and suffered all calamities
arising from divine powers, men, and animals,
with undisturbed and unafflicted mind,
careful of body, speech, and mind.1

After a few months of wandering Mahavira went to an ashram

in Moraga, where he was invited to spend the four-month rainy
season by its abbot who was a friend of his father. Mahavira
was assigned a hut with a thatched roof. The previous summer
had been so hot that the grass in the forest was destroyed, and
the cattle ran to eat the ascetics' grass huts. The other ascetics
beat off the cattle, but Mahavira just let the cattle eat the
thatched roof. The ascetics complained to the abbot, and so
Mahavira decided to leave the ashram and spent the rainy
season in the village of Ashtika.

Reflecting upon this experience, Mahavira resolved to follow

the fivefold discipline of never living in the house of an
unfriendly person, usually standing with the body like a statue
(kayostarga), generally maintaining silence, eating out of his
hand as a dish, and not showing politeness to householders.
Thus he practiced meditation and severe austerities. In the
summer he would meditate in the sun or walk through sun-
baked fields, and in winter he would meditate naked in the
open air. Each year during the rainy season he stayed in one
place. He walked quietly, carefully keeping his eyes on the
ground so as to avoid stepping on any insects. He stayed in
deserted houses, crematoriums, gardens, or any solitary place.

What little food he ate he got from begging. If he saw any other
beggar, animal or bird waiting for food at a house, he would
silently pass by to another house. He fasted for fifteen days at a

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time and up to a month. He passed the second rainy season at
Nalanda, where he met Gosala, who was impressed by
Mahavira and joined him. Traveling with Gosala, his fasts now
extended as long as two months. According to Jaina
biographies of Mahavira, Gosala often insulted others and
misbehaved, while Mahavira remained silent and still (in
kayostarga). This brought upon them abusive behavior.

In Choraga of Bengal they were taken for spies and

imprisoned. Another time they were both tied up and beaten. In
Kuiya they were once again imprisoned as spies but were
released at the behest of two sisters. In the sixth year Gosala
left Mahavira for six months; but he returned until the tenth
year when he left Mahavira and proclaimed himself a prophet
and leader of the Ajivika sect. Mahavira went to Vaishali
where the republican chief Sankha rescued him from trouble
caused by local children.

In the eleventh year Mahavira was tested by a god named

Samgamaka, who gave him terrible physical pain,
accompanied him begging, and contaminated his food.
Mahavira gave up begging and sat in meditation. For six
months Samgamaka inflicted tortures on him, but unable to
disturb him he finally fell at his feet and begged his forgiveness
before returning to his own place. Government officials in
Tosali took Mahavira for a thief and tried to hang him, but he
was rescued in time.

In the twelfth year Mahavira took a vow that he would fast

until an enslaved princess with a shaven head and fettered feet,
in tears and tired after three days fasting, would lean out a
window and offer him boiled pulse. It was five months and
twenty-five days before such an event occurred in Champa.
While in this town a Brahmin questioned him about the soul
and its characteristics. Mahavira explained that what one
understands by the word "I" is the soul.

In Chammani a bull strayed while grazing, and a cowherd

asked Mahavira about it. Met with silence, the cowherd

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became enraged and pushed grass sticks into Mahavira's ears.
Remaining peaceful and undisturbed, Mahavira continued his
wanderings until eventually a physician noticed the condition,
removed the painful plugs from his ears, and cured the wound
with medicine. Seeking the highest enlightenment, Mahavira
meditated for six months sitting motionless, but he failed. He
did penance in a cemetery when Rudra and his wife tried to
interrupt him.

Finally in the thirteenth year of this ascetic life while

meditating after two and a half days of waterless fasting,
Mahavira attained nirvana and the highest awareness called
kevala or absolute knowledge. The first message of Mahavira
after his enlightenment is recorded in the Buddhist text
Majjhima Nikaya:

I am all-knowing and all-seeing,

and possessed of an infinite knowledge.
Whether I am walking or standing still,
whether I sleep or remain awake,
the supreme knowledge and intuition
are present with me---constantly and continuously.
There are, O Nirgranthas, some sinful acts
you have done in the past,
which you must now wear out
by this acute form of austerity.
Now that here you will be living restrained
in regard to your acts, speech and thought,
it will work as the nondoing of karma for future.
Thus, by the exhaustion of the force of past deeds
through penance and the non-accumulation of new acts,
(you are assured) of the stoppage of the future course,
of rebirth from such stoppage,
of the destruction of the effect of karma,
from that, of the destruction of pain,
from that, of the destruction of mental feelings,
and from that, of the complete wearing out
of all kinds of pain.2

After attaining omniscience Mahavira attended a religious

conference by the river Ijjuvaliya, but his first discourse had
little effect. Then he traveled to another conference in the

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garden of Mahasena, where in a long discussion he converted
eleven learned Brahmins, who had gone there to sacrifice.
Breaking the tradition of speaking in Sanskrit, Mahavira spoke
in the Ardhamagadhi dialect, and all the Jaina Agama
scriptures are written in Ardhamagadhi.

Hearing of a magician, the Brahmin Indrabhuti Gautama went

to expose him; but as he approached the garden, Mahavira
called him by name and reading his mind, said, "Gautama, you
have a doubt in your mind about the existence of the soul."
Then Mahavira explained how to interpret a passage in the
Vedas so as to understand that, although categories of
knowledge may disappear, this does not affect the existence of
the soul. This mind-reading and wisdom convinced Indrabhuti
of the omniscience of Mahavira. After hearing Mahavira's
discourse on his essential teachings, Indrabhuti decided to
renounce the world and was initiated by Mahavira into the
religion.

Having heard of his brother's defeat by Mahavira, Agnibhuti

Gautama came to debate with Mahavira; but he too, won over
by Mahavira's explanation of the reality of karma and the soul's
bondage to it, also became initiated. According to tradition
nine more scholars argued with Mahavira and were converted,
becoming his eleven disciples. Jaina tradition also claims that
these eleven brought along 4400 of their pupils into the new
faith.

Then Mahavira wandered in silence for sixty-six days until he

reached Rajagriha, the capital of the powerful state Magadha.
King Shrenika (Bimbisara) and his family attended, and he
received satisfactory answers to his questions. Indrabhuti was
quite learned and vain; but when an old man came to him for
an explanation of a sloka Mahavira had quoted before
becoming lost in meditation, Indrabhuti could not explain it.
When Mahavira explained it, all of Indrabhuti's pride fell away
in the presence of the great ascetic.

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Mahavira organized his order into four groups of monks, nuns,
male householders, and female householders. All those
initiated had to take the five vows, which included the four
vows of Parshva (nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, and
non-possession) plus chastity. After spending the rainy season
at Rajagriha, Mahavira went to Vaishali, where he initiated his
daughter and son-in-law Jamali and spent the next year's
monsoon season. Perceiving telepathically that the king of
Sindhu-sauvira wanted to meet him, Mahavira traveled there
and initiated King Rudrayana into the religion of the
Shramanas.

Returning from this long journey through the desert of Sindhu,

they suffered from lack of food and water but remained
indifferent. At Benares a multi-millionaire and his wife were
converted. Spending two more rainy seasons in Rajagriha
twenty-five of King Shrenika's sons were initiated into the
Shramana community. It was recorded that Ardraka Kumara, a
non-Aryan prince, who knew his past births, traveled to
Mahavira to join his order and on his way defeated in argument
Gosala, Vedic Brahmins, and other ascetics.

At Kaushambi Mahavira converted King Prodyota and several

queens, who were admitted into the order of nuns. After
spending a rainy season at Vaishali he went back to Rajagriha,
where he converted many followers of Parshva's religion who
adopted the fifth vow of the Shramana community as well.
Later he convinced Keshi Kumara, the leader of the Parshva
religion, that he was the 24th Tirthankara, and Keshi brought
his disciples into the new order. A few years later his son-in-
law Jamali left the Shramana order with his disciples to form
the Vahurata sect; but it was not successful, and most of his
disciples returned to Mahavira's order.

A dispute arose when Mahavira said that Gosala was not

omniscient. Hearing of it and approaching Mahavira, Gosala
tried to explain to him that he was no longer his disciple,
because he was a different soul, who had entered Gosala's body
and founded a new religion. Mahavira asked why he was

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vainly trying to conceal his identity. The irate Gosala swore at
him and abused two of the Jaina monks, according to tradition
destroying them, although Mahavira had warned them not to
argue with Gosala. However, the negative energy that Gosala
aimed at Mahavira returned to himself. He said that he would
cause Mahavira to die of a fever in six months. Mahavira
replied that he would live on, but that Gosala would be struck
by his own magical power and die from fever in seven days,
which came to pass. Mahavira outlived Gosala by sixteen
years, but the Ajivika sect Gosala founded lasted for many
centuries.

When Kunika (Ajatashatru) forcibly took over his father's

kingdom of Magadha, he moved the capital to Champa, where
many princes and townspeople adopted Mahavira's religion.
Although Ajatashatru liked to listen to Mahavira, it did not stop
him from gathering a large army and allies to attack and defeat
the Vaishali confederacy in a major war that killed King
Chetaka.

At the age of 72 Mahavira left his body and attained nirvana,

liberated and rid of all karma, never to return again. His first
disciple, Indrabhuti Gautama, died also at dawn the next
morning.

THE AGE OF MAHAVIRA

Mahavira is one of the great spiritual personages who

practices and propagated the principles of peaceful
coexistence. Non-violence is the fundamental basis of his
philosophy. For social elevation and individual liberty, he
fought against the economic exploitation and social coercion.
His enthusiastic was for the social upliftment of the oppressed
individuals. It was also, a time of religious disturbance during
the time when Mahavira flourished. Old Vedic was declining.
The sacrificial ritualism of the Vedic Brâhmanas had to face a
strong challenge posed by the religion and philosophy taught
by niunis and sramanas. The ideological conflict between the
Brahmanas of the Vedic tradition on one hand, and sratiionas of

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the non-Kedi6 on the other hand, is reflected in the earliest
literature of the Buddhists and the Jainas (Muni, 1984: 11-2).

The Mahavira’s addition of the fifth vow of celibacy to the four

vows of Parsvanatha doesn’t mean to establish a new creed
borrowing from his predecessor. By clarifying and giving new
orientation of the concepts already existed, he has improved the
already existing religion laid by his predecessors, especially
Parsvanatha. In the strict sense of the expression, Jainism was not
a revolt against the existing Brâhmanical hierarchy. The creed
had already originated and spread though it received a great
momentum with the advent of Mahavira on the scene. The main
opposition came from the Brâliinins who critisied the Jain
philosophy and traditions as the Mahavira had taken the
sensitive issue of caste but the opposition was only vocal neither
violent nor bitter. Mahavira was prudent enough not to criticize
the authority of the Vedas very strongly. This gave Mahavira a
chance to preach the religion of Parsvanatha after a slender
revision, as the social abuses indulged by the Brahmanism were
large enough, to cater to a section of the society. His preachings
allowed the common man to think and act for self dependent, to
look not beyond himself for hope and aid. His teachings proved
so effective that even a section of the Brâhmanas are said to have
recognized him as a great teacher. According to C.V. Vaidya,
“Intellectual Brâhnianas also joined the ranks of Jainas as of
Buddhist from time to time owing to conviction as well as for
honour, and contributed to the maintenance of his reputation of
the Jainas for learning” (Thakur, 1964: 86-87). Jainism emerged
as a strong protest against caste-privileges and steadily started
spreading among the lower section and poor. Mahavira
recognized the Brâhmanas and the Sudras, the high and the low,
were the same in society. There is no difference between them on
the basis of their origin, caste and family status. He recognized
the Brâhmana not by birth but by proper action or qualification.
Even a low-born Candala can enjoy the highest position in the
society accordingly, if the Candala possess the requisite
qualification. Like Brâhmanism, Jainism is also based on the
same dogmas of the transmigration of soul and seeks for
deliverance from the endless succession of rebirth. But it does
not agree with the Bi-âhmanic penances and abstinences to
achieve it, while it aims at attaining, not union with the
Universal spirit, but Nirvâna, i.e., absolute release from all
bodily forms and activities. This difference is, however, minor
and, above all, it is distinguished by its relation to castes.

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Mahavira neither opposed them nor accepted every thing as it
were. According to him, men are born in lower and higher
castes, determined by their sins or good works in a former
existence, but by life of purity and love, by becoming a
spiritual man, every one may attain atonce the highest
salvation. In accordance with this doctrine caste made no
difference to him and he looked for a man even in the
Candala.

For Mahavira, the basic social values such as Ahimsâ,

Aparigraha and Anekânta are the cause of social
reconstruction. For him “... ahimsâ consist in recognizing the
dignity of man irrespective of caste, colour and creed. Man is
man and should be recognized as such without any hesitation.
The dignity of man is sacred and it is our duty to honour this
dignity. Every individual, whether man or woman, should
enjoy religious freedom without any distinction. Mahavira
bestowed social prestige upon the down-trodden individuals”
(Sogani, 2002: 69). Caste-system, according to him, was just
circumstantial and it is easy for a spiritual man to break the
fetters of this system. The gift of supernormal vision was no
monopoly of any order or caste or sex, and in this matter. He
made no distinction between men and men or between men and
women. Further, the Jaina belief has been that a Jina must
always come from a Ksatriya or some such noble family. In
other words, Mahavira though did not support the age-old
caste-system, yet did not oppose it so vehemently as did the
Buddha which provoked strong reaction from the Bt-âlimarias
and culminated in a bitter wordy duel for centuries which was
ultimately responsible for the growth and development of
Indian logic and philosophy.

During the age of Mahavira, it is believed that followers of

Parsvanatha were flourished in east India. Magadha was one
of important centre of their missionary activities. It was
marked as an era of considerable changes in the cultural
history of India. Politically, there were two main forms of
government, one monarchical and the other republican.
Magadha and Kosala represented strong monarchies which
believed in expansionism and imperialism. On the other hand,
the Licchavis of Vaisali, Sakyas of Kapilavastu, the Mallas of

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Kusinagara etc., represent republican tradition. They loved
their freedom and democratic institutions. There were frequent
wars between the kingdoms and republics. King Ajatasatru of
Magadha, for example, is reported to have been the enemy of
the Licchavis of Vaisali. Likewise, King Vidudabha of Kosala
is known to have attacked and harmed the Sakyas of
Kapilavastu. Another important political event of the age was
the Persian invasion of Punjab. This, however, had practically
no impact on the history of Magadha andKosala (Muni, 1984:
11).

PRARTHANA

Every day Jains bow their heads and say their universal prayer,
the Navkar-mantra. All good work and events start with this
prayer of salutation and worship.

Namo Arihantanam: - I bow to the enlightened souls

Namo Siddhanam: - I bow to the liberated souls
Namo Ayariyanam: - I bow to religious leaders
Namo Uvajjayanam: - I bow to religious teachers
Namo Loe Savva Sahunam: - I bow to all monks of the world

Eso Panch Namukkaro: - These five salutations are capable of

Savva Pava Panasano: destroying all the sins and this is
Mangalancha Savvesin the first happiness among all forms
Padhamam Havai Mangalam: of happiness.

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 CONTENTS

Foreword ..5

Chapter 1-THE ANCIENT INDIA AND ITS RELIGION…19

Chapter 2 What is Jainism….. 84

Chapter 3. Ontology and Epistemology of Jainism...123

Chapter 4 Early life of Lord Mahavira…148

Chapter 5 Jain Brahmans Including the Disciples of Mahavira

By Himanshu Bhatt 170

Chapter 6..Ganadharvada …214

About the author 577

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 CHAPTER I

THE ANCIENT INDIA AND ITS RELIGION

Before proceeding further and dealing with the origin and

antiquity of Jainism it is felt necessary that something should
be said about the history of the ancient India with particular
reference to the state of religion at that time. Broadly speaking
answers to the following questions are deemed desirable.

(a) Who were the original inhabitants of India? And what was
their religion?

(b) How did the religion and culture of those inhabitants

compare and differ from those of the Aryans?

(c) What are the Upanishads and how are they related to the
Vedas and Jainism?

(d) Why do the Jains deny the authority of the Vedas?

The difficulty in answering such questions consists in the pre-

conceived notions held by the people at large, and that if
anything is stated which appears new to them, they are hardly
prepared to lend their ears to it. There was even a period in the
world including Indian history, when those who spoke against

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the then accepted theories, were subjected to the persecutions
and the writings which do not conform to such people’s whims
and caprices, were consigned to fire. Such times have,
however, passed and there is now no reason why the truth be
withheld.

Original Inhabitants:- The original inhabitants of India were

the people called the Kols, the Bhils, and the Dravadians.
While much is not known about the former two, the
Dravidians, it has now been proved by the excavations at
Mohanjadaro and Harappa1, were more civilized. Speaking
about their influence on the religion of Hindus, Prof. Ishwari
Prasad in the concluding portion of the chapter ‘Prehistoric
India’ of his book ‘History of India’ says-

“ We have spoken of the Dravidian influence on Indian

languages. In religion there are prominent survivals of non-
Aryanism. In the Vedas we have no evidence of the worship of
the mother Goddess and the phallus2 which have a prominent
place in modern Hinduism.No doubts they were borrowed from
the Mohanjadaro people. Similar is the case of Siva-pasupati,
who now occupies a supreme position in the Hindu pantheon4.

“In philosophy also some notions must also be traced to non-

Aryan sources. The theory and practice of yoga (meditation
through some particular process) which are entirely foreign to

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the sentiments of Vedas were known to the Mohanjadaro
people, and there is no harm in believing that the later Hindus
learnt them from the non-Aryans. Some scholars think that
Jainism and the Sankhya system of Indian philosophy are
greatly indebted to non-Aryan thought. Add to this the
institution of image worship which did not obtain in the Vedic
times but became an all important feature in later Hinduism.
Hinduism as we know it now is, therefore, not the exclusive gift
of Indo-Aryans: the non-Aryans also played an equally
prominent part in its evolution.”

The above is an important quotation from the history book

written by an eminent scholar whose bias, if at all, must be
leaning more towards Hinduism than towards Jainism.

1 Mohanjadaro and Harappa are the two old sites excavated in

Sindh and Montgomery Districts of the Punjab some thirty six
years ago. As the places are in the valley of the River Indus, it
has been Christened Indus Valley civilization. Excavation
recently made establish that this civilization extended up to
Lothal in Saurasthra.It is 5000 years old and flourished
between 3000-1500 BC. The people of this Pre-historic
civilization were Dravidians or proto3-Dravidians. It was a
highly developed urban civilization, providing amenities like
the underground drainage, well laid out roads etc. the people
had a highly developed artistic sense reflected in their paintings

21
on the vases and the gold ornament. Their pictorial script has
not been fully deciphered as yet. They domesticated animals,
made use of cotton, and cultivated wheat and barley. Pottery
making was a highly developed industry and the various
artisans’ viz. carpenters, the stone cutters and the jewelers plied
their trade. The leadership of the people was in the hands of
industrialists. Some of the articles discovered Mohanjadaro,
Harappa and Lothal including the damaged statue, the photo of
which is given elsewhere in this book are housed in a museum
opened recently at Lothal.

Lothal Jedi temple inspired by the harappan discoveries

The Aryans:- The Aryans were mostly wandering nomads,
who depended on their wealth in cattle. When these nomads
invaded the North Wesrern areas of Indai, the original
inhabitants particularly the Dravadians offered a very stiff
resistance which was not merely military, but it was also

22
inspired by cultural differences. The nomads contemptuously
called the Dravadians, the more advanced people, as city
developers for it looked strange to them that some people
should live in cities, containing well-built houses.,

The Deities worshipped by Aryans included natural elements

such as fire and air, the most important and powerful being
Indra. His worship called yojna consisted in sacrificing animals
and offering large quantities of an intoxicating drink called
soma-juice. This was used to invoke his aid against their
enemies.

The Aryans settled in the plains of Punjab and the western

portions of the Gangetic plains after successfully defeating the
people of the land. Excavations so far made reveal that the
farthest limit of the archaeologically established Aryans
settlements extended to the places now called Lucknow.

The Vedas:- The Vedas of Aryans consisted of thee main

groups 1) Mantra, 2) Brahmans , and 3) Upanishadas. The
mantras are four in number a) Regveda, b) Yajurveda, c)
Samveda, dI Atharveda. The second section, called the
explanatory treatises or manuals, which elaborately describe
the procedure to be adopted in conducting the various
sacrifices. Although intended exclusively for the priests, they
incidentally give us some insight into the condition of the then

23
prevailing Aryan society. Thus there are references to human
sacrifices, and at the later stage of transition, a change from
human to animal sacrifice, and thence to a substitution of a
rice- cake in place of human and animal sacrifice both.

Jainism differs from the Vedic religion which has sanctioned

animal sacrifice, and it is its main theme. In Aswametdh
sacrifice alone over three hundred verities of animals used to
be sacrificed to the Gods.

See what do the Smirti says:

“Whatever existed in the world, all that Parjapati ( the Lord of

Creatures) had ordained to be the food of living beings, all both
mobile and immobile, is the food of living creatures.

“ An eater eating an animal and thinking it to be his legitimate

food does not commit sin in as much as the ordainer has
created same animas as eaters and others as their food.”

They also prescribed what flesh a Brahmin should eat as his

food and what he should avoid. The orthodox Brahmans, who
believe the Vedas to be the word of Brahma and infallible
authority, performed animal sacrifice.

To quote the words of Late Lokmanya Tilak, vide Bomaby

24
Samachar dated 10th Dec. 1904:-

“ In ancient times, innumbearble animals were butchered

insacrifice, evidence in support of which is found in various
poetical compositions such as Meghduta of Kalida. The credit
for the disappearance of this terrible massacre from the
Brahmanical religion goes to the Jains”.

Even today several hundred goats and buffaloes are sacified

daily at the altars of the so called gods and goddesses.

Our revered leader late Pt. Jawahar Lal Nehru expressed his
disgust and abhorrence at the idea of reviving such practices,
and said:-

“I am grieved to learn that it is proposed to offer animal

sacrifices in temples. I think that such sacrifices are barbarous
and they degrade the name of religion. I trust the authorities
will pay heed to the sentiments of the cultural people and
refrain from such sacrifice.”---

Humanitarian Outlook: It was because of the influence of the

Jainism that people gave up, though not completely, sacrificing
animals. They, however, could not overcome the temptation
and used coconut, which resembles the head of a goat and pithi
in place of in place of a goat’s flesh (the colour of blood) is

25
used as wrapper in the various ceremonies.

Ahimsa Parma Dharma is the hall-mark of Jainism. It is a

dictum accepted by some of the Hindus as well, but they pay
only a lip service to the great principles, and even make
convenience exceptions in its observance. The Budhists also
owe allegiance to the principle and declare from the house tops
that they do nor kill with their own hands, but buy meats from
the butchers. What such people willfully ignore is that the
butcher does his work for obtaining money; it is the trade with
him. His success in the trade depends upon the demand in
market and it being the consumers, who create the demand, it is
they who are blame.

Upanishads:- As the composition of the Vedas by several

Rishis, spread over a period of time exceeding a thousand
years, it is reasonable that social and religious conditions
underwent a considerable change, so that the last group, called
Upanishadas, otherwise known as Vedas are later development.
They are the important philosophical treatises considered to be
the various Hindu systems of the later period. But the
Upanishadic ideal is opposed to the early Vedic ideal, for while
the Vedic school stressed the need of performing Yojnas,
consisting of sacrifices and maintained that the caste system
was a fundamental Dharma of the Hindus.

26
According to the Vedic school those who desired the happiness
of swarga, or paradise, should perform sacrifices, while the
Upanishadic ideal attached little importance to the world of
Indra, who was not looked upon as the savior or protector.
Indra, according to this school, possessed no extra ordinary
powers, for the shared with them their human weakness even to
a much greater degree, and was thus given up as worthy of
emulation or adoration.

Ahimsa Parma Dharma, the religious originally preached

Rsabha and His Successors, which was to the direct
contradiction to the cult of sacrifice, now came to be
considered of prime importance. In the Meru Tantra a Hindu
was defined as one who shuddered at the very thought of
himna, and yojna which previously consisted in sacrifice of
poor animals now accordingly to the Saruti meant the sacrifice
by man of all his sensual desires and material tendencies in the
fire of janama. In Aswa-medh-yojna the aswa meaning a horse,
that had to be sacrificed was explained away as symbolizing
the giving up of the ephemeral* Jagat, the mind with the
totality of its cosmological** conceptions. Likewise the aj was
not the poor helpless goat but the unborn and unsprouted***
seeds of the vasnas and karmas or actions. Nay a clear warning
was given that no innocent goat was killed. Those who ascribe
these meanings do not, however, explain why so many
ambiguous words and phrases were used in the Vedas which

27
resulted in the spilling of blood of tens of millions of the dumb
and helpless animals and what made this change from himsa to
ahimsa.

Let us explain. This was all due to Dravadian influence which

was in itself due to Rsabha cult.

Who was Rsabha? Is He any historical person? What was the

religion or cult that He preached? Do we find mention of His
name in the Vedas? How is this idea reconciled with Mahaviar
being considered as the originator or founder of Jainism or
Rsabha having a pre-Vedic, or pre-historic existence? are
questions which we will discuss later. Suffice to say here that
whatever others may opine according to the Jains it was His
cult that was in the words of Sir Shanmukham Chetty, Ex-
President, Central Legislative Assembly, and India, uttered by
him in his presidential speech at the Mahavir Jayanti
celebrations at Madras.

“Chiefly professed by the Dravadians, the aboriginals of the

country before the Aryans came.”

And who were generally the inhabitants of Mohanjadaro and

Harappa etc. It was again Lord Rsabha. Who, as will be
explained later on, came to be worshipped as Shiva, Shanker,
Vishnu and Mahadeva and yoga spoken of as being something

28
“foreign to the sentiments of the Vedas” was learnt by the
Hindus from Him.

Influence by His teachings some of the Rishis who wrote

portions of the Vedas and Upanishads accepted the Jain
Tirthankaras as the Saviours and they accepted the religion of
ahimsa. It is this influence which explains the contradiction
involved in the certain parts of the Vedas and the volteface* in
the Upanishads. It was again his influence that the Upanishads
spoke of the life principles which is present through out the
organic kingdom from the plant world to the higher human
beings. The vital principle, not perceivable by the sense, was
recognized to be present in the smallest of the seeds. It was
considered to be responsible for the seed growing into a plant
then into a large tree, and sometimes even remaining dormant.
The rishis called this vital principle, which could neither be
seen, heard, touched, and tasted as Atma or soul. They tried to
understand this Atma which could be realized through non-
violence completely eschewing the practice of shedding blood.
This was understood to be so because it was realized that the
animals have also the same vital principle. It is important to
note that though generally speaking the Upanishads owned the
principle of non- violence, here and there they made
convenient exceptions in the case of Vedic sacrifices.

THE WORLD AT THE TIMES OF MAHAVIR

29
The 6th century BC started the first day of 600 BC and ended
the last day of 501 BC.
This century represents the peak of a period in human history
popularly known as Axial Age. This period saw the emergence
of five major thought streams springing from five great
thinkers in different parts of the
world: Buddha and Mahavira in India, Zoroaster in
Persia, Pythagoras in Greece and Confucius in China. Pāṇini,
in India, composed a grammar for Sanskrit, in this century or
slightly later.[1] This is the oldest still known grammar of any
language.
In Western Asia, the first half of this century was dominated by
the Neo-Babylonian or Chaldean empire, which had risen to
power late in the previous century after successfully rebelling
against Assyrian rule. The Kingdom of Judah came to an end
in 586 BC when Babylonian forces under Nebuchadnezzar
II captured Jerusalem, and removed most of its population to
their own lands. Babylonian rule was ended in the 540s
by Cyrus, who founded the Persian Empire in its

30
stead. The Persian Empire continued to expand and grew into
the greatest empire the world had known at the time.
In Iron Age Europe, the Celtic expansion was in progress.
China was in the Spring and Autumn period.
Mediterranean: Beginning of Greek philosophy, flourishes
during the 5th century BC

31
  The late Hallstatt culture period
in Eastern and Central Europe,
the late Bronze Age in Northern
Europe
 East Asia: the Spring and
Autumn
period. Confucianism, Legalism
and Moism flourish. Laozi fou
nds Taoism
 West Asia: During the Persian
empire, Zoroaster, a.k.a.
Zarathustra,
founded Zoroastrianism,
a dualistic philosophy. This was
also the time of the Babylonian
captivity of the ancient Jews.
 Ancient India:
the Buddha and Mahavira foun
d Buddhism and Jainism respec
tively
Decades and years
 Mid-6th century BC:
Foundation of Temple of
Olympian Zeus (Athens).

32
  598
BC: Jehoiachin succeeds Jehoia
kim as King of Judah.
 16 March 597
BC: Babylonians capture Jerusa
lem, replace Jehoiachin
with Zedekiah as king.
 595 BC: Psammetichus
II succeeds Necho II as King
of Egypt.
 594
BC: Solon appointed Archon of
Athens;
institutes democratic reforms.
 590 BC: Egyptian army
sacks Napata, compelling
the Cushite court to move to a
more secure location
at Meroe near the sixth
Cataract.[2]
580s BC

33
Medieval image of Thales(Right) eye stone of onyx with an
inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II

 589
BC: Apries succeeds Psammeti
chus II as King of Egypt.
 588 BC: Nebuchadrezzar II of
Babylon begins siege
of Jerusalem; some sources set
the date at 587 BC.

34
In In 589 BC, Nebuchadnezzar II laid siege to Jerusalem,

 586 BC: death of King Ding of Zhou, King of the Zhou

Dynasty of China
 28 May 585 BC: A solar eclipse occurs as predicted
by Thales, while Alyattes is battling Cyaxares. This leads
to a truce. This is one of the cardinal dates from which
other dates can be calculated.
 585 BC/584 BC: Astyages succeeds Cyaxares as King of
the Medes.
 585 BC: King Jian of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou
Dynasty.
 583 BC: The Babylonians begin a siege against Tyre.
 582 BC: Pythian Games founded at Delphi (traditional
date).

35
 580 BC: Cambyses I succeeds Cyrus I as King
of Anshan and head of the Achaemenid
dynasty (approximate date).
 580 BC: Isthmian Games founded at Corinth (traditional
date)

570s BC
 579 BC: Servius
Tullius succeeds the
assassinated Lucius Tarquinius
Priscus as King of
Rome (traditional date).
 573 BC: Nemean
Games founded
at Nemea (traditional date).
 572 BC: Death of King Jian of
Zhou, King of the Zhou
Dynasty of China.
 571 BC: King Ling of
Zhou becomes King of
the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 570 BC: Amasis
II succeeds Apries as King
of Egypt.

36
  570
BC: Pythagoras of Samos is
born (approximate date).
 570 BC: End of the Babylonian
siege against the city of Tyre
with a partial victory by the
Babylonians. It was the longest
siege of the city in history,
lasting 13 years.
560s BC

Croesus on the pyre, Attic red-figure amphora/Faravahar, a

symbol of Zoroastrianism in Persepolis

 568 BC: Amtalqa succeeds his

brother Aspelta as King of Kus
h.

37
  562 BC: Amel-
Marduk succeeds Nebuchadnez
zar as King of Babylon.
560 BC: Neriglissar succeeds Amel-Marduk as King of
Babylon.
 561 BC/560 BC: Croesus becomes King of Lydia.
 560 BC: Pisistratus seizes the Acropolis of Athens and
declares himself tyrant. He is deposed in the same year.
 550s BC
 550s
BC: Carthage conquers Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica.
 559 BC: King Cambyses I of Anshan dies and is succeeded
by his son Cyrus II the Great.
 558 BC: Hegesias removed as Archon of Athens.
 558 BC: The Chinese state of Jin defeats its rival Qin in
battle.
 556 BC: Pisistratus is exiled from Athens to Euboea.
 556 BC: Labashi-Marduk succeeds Neriglissar as King
of Babylon.
 556 BC/555 BC: Nabonidus succeeds Labashi-
Marduk as King of Babylon.
 550 BC: Abdera is destroyed by the Thracians.
 550 BC: Cyrus II the Great overthrows Astyages of
the Medes, establishing the Persian Empire.
 550 BC: The Late Mumun Period begins in the Korean
peninsula.

38
540s BC
 547 BC: Croesus, Lydian King, is defeated
by Cyrus of Persia near the River Halys.
 546 BC: Cyrus of Persia completes his conquest
of Lydia, and makes Pasargadae his capital.
 544 BC: People of Teos migrate to Abdera, Thrace to
escape the yoke of Persia.
 544 BC: King Jing of Zhou becomes King of the Zhou
Dynasty of China.
 543 BC: Prince Vijaya establishes a Sinhalese dynasty
of Sri Lanka.
 543 BC: Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens, purifies the island
of Delos (approximate date).
 540 BC: Greek city of Elea of southern Italy founded
(approximate date).
 540 BC: Persians conquer Lycian city of Xanthos, now
in southern Turkey (approximate date).
530s BC

Tomb of Cyrus in Pasargadae

39
  539 BC: Babylon is conquered by Cyrus the Great,
defeating Nabonidus.
 538 BC: Return of some Jews from Babylonian exile
who build the Second Temple about fifty years after the
destruction of the First Temple, from 520 BC–516 BC.
 537 BC: Jews transported to Babylon are allowed to
return to Jerusalem, bringing to a close the Babylonian
captivity.
 536 BC: According to tradition,
the Biblical prophet Daniel receives an angelic
visitor.[3]
 534 BC: Lucius Tarquinius Superbus becomes King of
Rome.
 534 BC: Competitions for tragedy are instituted at
the City Dionysia festival in Athens.
 530 BC: Cambyses II succeeds Cyrus as King of Persia.
520s BC

40
Gautama Buddha….. on right Image of Laozi

 528 BC: Gautama Buddha attains Enlightenment,

and begins his ministry. He
founds Buddhism in India. It becomes a
major world religion.
 526 BC: Psammetichus III succeeds Amasis
II as King of Egypt.
 525 BC: Cambyses II, ruler of Persia,
conquers Egypt, defeating Psammetichus III. This is
considered the end of the Twenty-sixth Dynasty,
and the start of the Twenty-seventh Dynasty.
 522 BC: Smerdis succeeds Cambyses II as ruler
of Persia.
 522 BC: Babylon rebels against Persian rule.

41
  521 BC: Darius I succeeds Smerdis as ruler
of Persia.
 521 BC: The Babylonian rebellion
against Persian rule is suppressed
 520 BC: King Dao of Zhou becomes King of
the Zhou Dynasty of China but dies before the end
of the year
 520 BC: Cleomenes I succeeds Anaxandridas
II as King of Sparta (approximate date)
510s BC

 519 BC: King Jing of Zhou becomes King of

the Zhou Dynasty of China.
 516 BC: Indian subcontinent—Occupation
of Punjab is completed by
the Achaemenid King Darius I.
 12 March 515 BC: Construction is completed on
the Temple in Jerusalem.
 514 BC: King Helü of Wu establishes the "Great
City of Helü", the ancient name for Wuxi, as
his capital in China.
 513 BC: Darius the Great subdues the Getae and
east Thrace in his war against the Scythians.
 512 BC: The Kingdom of Macedonia, under
King Amyntas I, becomes a vassal state to
the Achaemenid Empire.

42
  510 BC: Hippias, son
of Pisistratus and tyrant of Athens, is expelled by a
popular revolt supported by Cleomenes
I, King of Sparta and his forces.
 510 BC: End of reign of Lucius Tarquinius
Superbus, last King of the traditional seven Kings
of Rome.
 510 BC: Establishment of the Roman Republic.
 510 BC: Demaratus succeeds Ariston as King of
Sparta (approximate date).
500s BC
 13 September 509 BC: The Temple of Jupiter on
Rome's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the Ides of
September.
 508 BC: Office of pontifex maximus created
in Rome.
 507 BC: Cleisthenes, Greek reformer, takes power
and increases democracy.
 506 BC: Battle of Boju: Forces of the Kingdom of
Wu under Sun Tzu defeat the forces of Chu.
 505 BC: First pair of Roman consuls elected.
 4 December 502 BC: Solar
eclipse darkens Egypt (computed, no clear historical
record of observation).
 502 BC: The Latin League defeats
the Etruscans under Lars Porsena at Aricia.

43
  502 BC: Naxos rebels against Persian domination
sparking the Ionian Revolt.
 501 BC: Cleisthenes reforms democracy in Athens.
 501 BC: Naxos is attacked by the Persian Empire.
 501 BC: In response to threats by
the Sabines, Rome creates the office of dictator.
 501 BC: Confucius is appointed governor of Chung
tu.
 501 BC: Gadir (present-day Cádiz) is captured
by Carthage (approximate date).
 500 BC: Bantu-speaking people migrate into south-
west Uganda from the west (approximate date).
 500 BC: Refugees from Teos resettle Abdera.
 500 BC: Darius I of Persia proclaims
that Aramaic be the official language of the western
half of his empire.
 500 BC: Signifies the end of the Nordic Bronze
Age civilization in Oscar Montelius periodization
system and begins the Pre-Roman Iron Age.
 500 BC: Foundation of
first republic in Vaishali Bihar India.
Unknown Events
 Persians begin to seize power.
 Persians dominate eastern Mediterranean.
 The Persians under Cyrus and later Darius
I invade Transoxiana.

44
  Carthage's merchant empire slowly dominates
the western Mediterranean.
 Tao Te Ching written (traditional date).
 Confucius formulates his ethical system
of Confucianism, which proves highly influential
in China.
 The Sinhalese emigrate to Sri Lanka.
 Book of Psalms written (apparent date).
 Abkhazia is colonized by the Greeks.
 Emergence of the Proto-Germanic Jastorf culture.
 Temple B, Selinus, Sicily, is built.
 The Autariatae communities united and expanded
towards the Triballi in the east and the Ardiaei in
the south.
 The state of Zhongli is conquered by Chu.

Other Significant people

45
Solon/Darius I/L. Junius Brutus/Pythagoras/Laozi

Sappho/Aeschylus/Aesop

Political
 King of Macedonia

46
 Astyages, King of Medes
 Bias of Priene, Greek sage
 Callimachus, Athenian general
 Cambyses II, King of Persia
 Chilon of Sparta, Greek sage
 Cleisthenes, Tyrant of Athens
 Cleomenes I, King of Sparta
 Croesus, King of Lydia
 Cyaxares, King of Medes
 Cyrus the Great, King of Persia
 Darius I, King of Persia
 Epimenides, Greek seer
 Gorgo, Queen of Sparta
 King Helü of Wu, King of Wu
 Lucius Junius Brutus, co-
founder of the Roman Republic
 Lucius Tarquinius
Superbus, King of Rome
 Miltiades, Athenian general and
politician
 Nabonidus, the last King of
Babylon
 Nebuchadnezzar, King of
Babylon
 Necho II, Pharaoh of Egypt
 Pisistratus, tyrant of Athens

47
  Periander, Tyrant of Corinth
 Pittacus of Mytilene, Greek
politician
 Psammetichus III, Pharaoh of
Egypt
 Servius Tullius, King of Rome
 Solon, Athenian statesman
Arts and entertainment
 Ageladas, Greek sculptor
 Epiktetos, Greek vase painter
 Exekias, Greek vase painter
 Kleitias, Greek vase painter
 Kritios, Greek sculptor
 Lydos, Greek vase painter
 Nearchos, Greek vase painter
 Nikosthenes, Greek vase
painter
 Oltos, Greek vase painter
 Phintias, Greek vase painter
 Psiax, Greek vase painter
Literature
 Aeschylus, Greek playwright
 Aesop, Greek fabulist
 Alcaeus of Mytilene, Greek
poet
 Anacreon, Greek poet

48
  Cleobulus, Greek poet
 Corinna, Greek poet
 Epimenides, Greek poet
 Ibycus, Greek poet
 Theognis of Megara, Greek
poet
 Thespis, founder of Greek
theatre
 Pāṇini, Indian linguist
 Pindar, Greek poet
 Sappho, Greek poet
 Stesichorus, Greek poet
 Simonides of Ceos, Greek poet
 Sun Tzu, Chinese writer and
general
Philosophy and religion
 Anaximander, Greek
philosopher
 Anaximenes of Miletus, Greek
philosopher
 Confucius, founder
of Confucianism
 Gautama Buddha, founder
of Buddhism
 Ezekiel, Hebrew prophet
 Heraclitus, Greek philosopher

49
  Hippasus, Greek philosopher
 Laozi, founder of Taoism
 Mahavira, founder of Jain
philosophy
 Pherecydes of Syros, Greek
philosopher
 Pythagoras, Greek philosopher,
mathematician
 Scylax of Caryanda, Greek
explorer
 Thales, Greek mathematician
 Xenophanes, Greek philosopher
 Zoroaster, founder
of Zoroastrianism
 Ajita Kesakambali, Indian
Philosopher and first recorded
Atheist
 South Asia

50
 Map of the world in 500 BC

Name Existed

Anarta Kingdom 1100 - 550 BC

Anga Kingdom 1380 - 550 BC

Avanti Kingdom 900 - 322 BC

Danda Kingdom 1100 - 450 BC

51
Haryanka
684 - 413 BC
Kingdom

Kalinga Kingdom 1376 - 285 BC

Kamboja
1450 - 195 BC
Kingdom

Kasmira Kingdom 1250 - 322 BC

Kimpurusha
1000 - 325 BC
Kingdom

1350 - c. 300
Kirata Kingdom
BC

Kosala Kingdom 1000 - 266 BC

Magadha
1000 - 323 BC
Kingdom

Malla Republic 780 - 323 BC

Matsya Kingdom 1180 - 318 BC

Panchala 700 - 323 BC

Pandya Kingdom 1350 - 460 BC

c. 9th century -
Parvata Kingdom
325 BC

Persian Empire 549 - 330 BC

Pundra Kingdom 1300 BC - 550

52
 AD

Shakya Republic 800 - 320 BC

Sindhu Kingdom 800 - 320 BC

Sinhala Kingdom 700 - 543 BC

Surasena 1000 - 323 BC

Tambapanni 543 - 505 BC

Trigarta Kingdom 1150 - 322 BC

Kingdom of
505 - 377 BC
Upatissa Nuwara

1300 BC - 580
Vanga Kingdom
AD

Vatsa 1100 - 323 BC

Vriji 1250 - 322 BC

Yaksha Kingdom 1200 - 350 BC

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions JOHN BOWKER

53
The other MAHāVīRA(fl. Mysore, India, ninth century)
mathematics.
Mahāvīra, a Jain, wrote during the reign of Amoghavarṣa, the
Rāṣṭrakūṭa monarch of Karṇāṭaka and Mahārāṣṭra between 814/815
and about 880. Nothing else of his life is known. His sole work was a
major treatise on mathematics, the Gaṇitasārasan̄graha (see essay in
Supplement), in nine chapters:
1. Terminology.
2. Arithmetical operations.
3. Operations involving fractions.
4. Miscellaneous operations.
5. Operations involving the rule of three.
6. Mixed operations.
7. Operations relating to the calculations of areas.
8. Operations relating to excavations.
9. Operations relating to shadows.

There is one commentary on this work by a certain Varadarāja, and

another in Kannaḍa, entitled Daivajñavallabha.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
The Gaṇitasārasan̄graha was edited, with an English trans. and
notes, by M. Ran̄gācārya (Madras, 1912); and with a
Hindī anuvāda by Lakṣmīcandra Jaina as Jīvarāma Jaina
Granthamālā 12 (Solāpura, 1963). There are discussions of various
aspects of this work (listed chronologically) by D. E. Smith, “The
Ganita-Sara-Sangraha of Mahāvīrācārya,” in Bibliotheca
mathematica, 3 , no. 9 (1908–1909), 106–110; B. Datta, “On
Mahāvīra’s Solution of Rational Triangles and Quadrilaterals,”
in Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society, 20 (1932), 267–
294; B. Datta, “On the Relation of Mahâvîra to Śrîdhara,”
in Isis, 17 (1932), 25–33; B. Datta and A. N. Singh, History of Hindu
Mathematics, 2 vols. (Lahore, 1935–1938; repr. in 1 vol., Bombay,
1962), passim; E. T. Bell, “Mahavira’s Diophantine System,”
in Bulletin of the Calcutta Mathematical Society38 (1946), 121–122;
and A. Volodarsky,“O traktate Magaviry ‘Kratky kurs matematiki,’”
in Fizikomatematicheskie nauki v stranakh vostoka, II (Moscow,
1969), 98–130.Written by David Pingree

54
 IN A NUTSHELL
INTRODUCING Mahavira
Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana was the
24th tirthankara of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of 23rd
tirthankara Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the
6th century BC into a royal Kshatriya Jain family in present-
day Bihar, India. His mother's name was Trishala. He abandoned all
worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit
of spiritual awakening, becoming an ascetic. Mahavira practiced
intense meditation and severe austerities for 12 and half years, after
which he attained Kevala Jnana (omniscience). He preached for 30
years and attained moksha (salvation) in the 6th century BC, although
the year varies by sect.
Historically, Mahavira, who preached Jainism in ancient India, was a
contemporary of Gautama Buddha. Scholars variously date him from
6th-4th century BC and his place of birth is also a point of dispute
among them.
Mahavira taught that observance of the vows of ahimsa (non-
violence), satya (truth), asteya (non-
stealing), brahmacharya (chastity), and aparigraha (non-attachment)
are necessary for spiritual liberation. He taught the principles
of Anekantavada (many-sided reality): syadvada and nayavada.
Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Indrabhuti Gautama (his chief
disciple) as the Jain Agamas. The texts, transmitted orally by Jain
monks, are believed to have been largely lost by about the 1st century
CE (when the remaining were first written down in the Svetambara

55
tradition). The surviving versions of the Agamas taught by Mahavira
are some of Svetambara Jainism's foundation texts, but their
authenticity is disputed in Digambara Jainism.
Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative
posture, with the symbol of a lion beneath him. His earliest
iconography is from archaeological sites in the North Indian city
of Mathura, and is dated from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century
AD. His birth is celebrated as Mahavir Janma Kalyanak and
his nirvana (salvation) is observed by Jains as Diwali.

Surviving early Jain and Buddhist literature uses several names

(or epithets) for Mahavira,
including Nayaputta, Muni, Samana, Niggantha, Brahman,
and Bhagavan. In early Buddhist suttas, he is referred to
as Araha ("worthy") and Veyavi (derived from "Vedas", but meaning
"wise" in this context; Mahavira did not recognize the Vedas as
scripture). He is known as Sramana in the Kalpa Sūtra, "devoid of
love and hate".
According to later Jain texts, Mahavira's childhood name
was Vardhamāna ("the one who grows") because of the kingdom's
prosperity at the time of his birth. According to the Kalpasutras, he
was called Mahavira ("the great hero") by the gods in the Kalpa
Sūtra because he remained steadfast in the midst of dangers, fears,
hardships and calamities. He is also known as a tirthankara.

Ancient kingdoms and cities of India at the time of Mahavira

56
Although it is universally accepted by scholars of Jainism that
Mahavira lived in ancient India, the details of his life and the year of
his birth are subjects of debate. According to
the Digambara Uttarapurana text, Mahavira was born in Kundpur in
the Kingdom of the Videhas; the Śvētāmbara Kalpa Sūtra uses the
name "Kundagrama",said to be located in present-day Bihar, India.
Although it is thought to be the town of Basu Kund, about 60
kilometres (37 miles) north of Patna (the capital of Bihar), his
birthplace remains a subject of dispute. Mahavira renounced his
material wealth and left home when he was twenty-eight, by some
accounts (thirty by others), lived an ascetic life for twelve years and
then preached Jainism for thirty years. Where he preached has been a
subject of disagreement between the two major traditions of Jainism:
the Śvētāmbaras and the Digambaras.
Jains believe that Mahavira was born in 599 BC and died in 527 BCE.
The Barli Inscription in Prakrit language which was inscribed in 443
BCE (year 84 of the Vira Nirvana Samvat), contains the line Viraya
Bhagavate chaturasiti vase, which can be interpreted as "dedicated to
Lord Vira in his 84th year", 84 years after the Nirvana of the
Mahavira. According to Buddhist and Jain texts they are believed to
have been contemporaries which is supported by much ancient
Buddhist literature has survived. The Vira Nirvana Samvat era began
in 527 BCE (with Mahavira's nirvana) and is a firmly-established part
of Jain tradition.
The 12th-century Jain scholar Hemachandra placed Mahavira in the
5th century BCE. Kailash Jain writes that Hemachandra performed an

57
incorrect analysis, which along (with attempts to establish Buddha's
nirvana) has been a source of confusion and controversy about
Mahavira's nirvana. According to Jain, the traditional date of 527 BCE
is accurate; the Buddha was younger than Mahavira and "might have
attained nirvana a few years later".The place of his
nirvana, Pavapuri in present-day Bihar, is a pilgrimage site for Jains.
Panch Kalyanaka
According to Jain cosmology, 24 Tirthankaras have appeared on earth;
Mahavira is the last Tirthankara of Avasarpiṇī (the present time
cycle). A Tirthankara (ford-maker, saviour or spiritual teacher)
signifies the founding of a tirtha, a passage across the sea of birth-and-
death cycles.
Birth

The birth of Mahavira, from the Kalpa Sūtra (c. 1375–1400 AD)
Tirthankara Mahavira was born into the royal Kshatriya family of
King Siddhartha of the Ikshvaku Dynasty and Queen Trishala of
the Licchavi dynasty. The Ikshvaku Dynasty was established by
First Tirthankara Rishabhanatha

58
According to Jains, Mahavira was born in 599 BCE. His birthday falls
on the thirteenth day of the rising moon in the month of Chaitra in
the Vira Nirvana Samvat calendar era. It falls in March or April of
the Gregorian calendar, and is celebrated by Jains as Mahavir Janma
Kalyanak.
Kundagrama (the place of Mahavira’s birth) is traditionally believed to
be near Vaishali, an ancient town on the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Its
location in present-day Bihar is unclear, partly because of migrations
from ancient Bihar for economic and political reasons. According to
the "Universal History" in Jain texts, Mahavira underwent many
rebirths (total 27 births) before his 6th-century birth. They included a
denizen of hell, a lion, and a god (deva) in a heavenly realm just before
his last birth as the 24th tirthankara.[39] Svetambara texts state that his
embryo first formed in a Brahman woman before it was transferred by
Hari-Naigamesin (the divine commander of Indra's army) to the womb
of Trishala, Siddhartha's wife. The embryo-transfer legend is not
believed by adherents of the Digambara tradition.
Jain texts state that after Mahavira was born, the god Indra came from
the heavens along with 56 dipkumaries, anointed him, and performed
his abhisheka (consecration) on Mount Meru. These events, illustrated
in a number of Jain temples, play a part in modern Jain temple
rituals.[45] Although the Kalpa Sūtra accounts of Mahavira's birth
legends are recited by Svetambara Jains during the
annual Paryushana festival, the same festival is observed by the
Digambaras without the recitation.[46]

59
Early life
Mahavira grew up as a prince. According to the second chapter of the
Śvētāmbara Acharanga Sutra, his parents were lay devotees
of Parshvanatha. Jain traditions differ about whether Mahavira
married. The Digambara tradition believes that his parents wanted him
to marry Yashoda, but he refused to marry. The Śvētāmbara tradition
believes that he was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one
daughter, Priyadarshana, also called Anojja.
Jain texts portray Mahavira as tall; his height was given as
four cubits (6 feet) in the Aupapatika Sutra. According to Jain texts, he
was the shortest of the twenty-four tirthankaras; earlier teachers were
believed to have been taller, with Neminatha or Aristanemi —the
22nd tirthankara, who lived for 1,000 years—said to have been sixty-
five cubits (98 feet) in height.

Renunciation
At age thirty, Mahavira abandoned royal life and left his home and
family to live an ascetic life in the pursuit of spiritual awakening. He
undertook severe fasts and bodily mortifications, meditated under
the Ashoka tree, and discarded his clothes. The Acharanga Sutra has a
graphic description of his hardships and self-mortification. According
to the Kalpa Sūtra, Mahavira spent the first forty-two monsoons of his
life in Astikagrama, Champapuri, Prstichampa, Vaishali,
Vanijagrama, Nalanda, Mithila, Bhadrika, Alabhika,
Panitabhumi, Shravasti, and Pawapuri. He is said to have lived

60
in Rajagriha during the rainy season of the forty-first year of his
ascetic life, which is traditionally dated to 491 BCE.
Omniscience[

The āsana in which Mahavira attained omniscience

According to traditional accounts, Mahavira achieved Kevala
Jnana (omniscience, or infinite knowledge) under a Sāla tree on the
bank of the River Rijubalika near Jrimbhikagrama at age 43 after
twelve years of rigorous penance. The details of the event are
described in the Jain Uttar-purāņa and Harivamśa-
purāņa texts. The Acharanga Sutra describes Mahavira as all-seeing.
The Sutrakritanga expands it to all-knowing, and describes his other
qualities.[1] Jains believe that Mahavira had a most auspicious body
(paramaudārika śarīra) and was free from eighteen imperfections
when he attained omniscience. According to the Śvētāmbara, he
traveled throughout India to teach his philosophy for thirty years after
attaining omniscience. However, the Digambara believe that he
remained in his Samavasarana and delivered sermons to his followers.

61
Disciples
Jain texts document eleven Brahmins as Mahavira's first disciples,
traditionally known as the eleven Ganadharas. Indrabhuti Gautama is
believed to have been their leader, and the others included Agnibhuti,
Vayubhuti, Akampita, Arya Vyakta, Sudharman, Manditaputra,
Mauryaputra, Acalabhraataa, Metraya, and Prabhasa.
The Ganadharas are believed to have remembered and to have
verbally transmitted Mahavira's teachings after his death. His
teachings became known as Gani-Pidaga, or the Jain Agamas.
According to Kalpa Sutra, Mahavira had 14,000 muni (male ascetic
devotees), 36,000 aryika (nuns), 159,000 sravakas (male lay
followers), and 318,000 sravikas (female lay followers). Jain tradition
mentions Srenika and Kunika of Haryanka dynasty (popularly known
as Bimbisara and Ajatashatru) and Chetaka of Videha as his royal
followers. Mahavira initiated his mendicants with
the mahavratas (Five Vows). He delivered fifty-
five pravachana (recitations) and a set of lectures (Uttaraadhyayana-
sutra). Chandana is believed to be the leader of female monastic order.
Nirvana and moksha[

Lord Mahavira's Jal Mandir (water temple) in Pawapuri, Bihar, India

62
According to Jain texts, Mahavira's nirvana (death) occurred in the
town of Pawapuri in present-day Bihar. His life as a spiritual light and
the night of his nirvana are commemorated by Jains as Diwali at the
same time that Hindus celebrate it. His chief disciple, Gautama, is said
to have attained omniscience the night that Mahavira achieved nirvana
from Pawapuri.
Accounts of Mahavira's nirvana vary among Jain texts, with some
describing a simple nirvana and others recounting grandiose
celebrations attended by gods and kings. According to
the Jinasena's Mahapurana, heavenly beings arrived to perform his
funeral rites. The Pravachanasara of Digambara tradition says that
only the nails and hair of tirthankaras are left behind; the rest of the
body dissolves in the air like camphor. In some texts Mahavira is
described, at age 72, as delivering his final preaching over a six-day
period to a large group of people. The crowd falls asleep, awakening to
find that he has disappeared (leaving only his nails and hair, which his
followers cremate).
The Jain Śvētāmbara tradition believes that Mahavira's nirvana
occurred in 527 BC, and the Digambara tradition holds that date of
468 BCE. In both traditions, his jiva (soul) is believed to abide
in Siddhashila (the home of liberated souls). Mahavira's Jal
Mandir stands at the place where he is said to have attained nirvana
(moksha). Artworks in Jain temples and texts depict his final
liberation and cremation, sometimes shown symbolically as a small
pyre of sandalwood and a piece of burning camphor.

63
Previous births
Mahavira's previous births are recounted in Jain texts such as
the Mahapurana and Tri-shashti-shalaka-purusha-charitra. Although
a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle
of saṃsāra, the birth of a tirthankara is reckoned from the time he
determines the causes of karma and pursues ratnatraya. Jain texts
describe Mahavira's 26 births before his incarnation as
a tirthankara. According to the texts, he was born as Marichi (the son
of Bharata Chakravartin) in a previous life.
Texts

Folio from the Kalpa Sūtra, 15th century

Yativṛṣabha's Tiloya-paṇṇatti recounts nearly all the events of
Mahavira's life in a form convenient for
memorisation. Jinasena's Mahapurana (which includes the Ādi
purāṇa and Uttara-purāṇa) was completed by his
disciple, Gunabhadra, in the 8th century. In the Uttara-purāṇa,
Mahavira's life is described in three parvans, or sections, (74–76) and
1,818 verses. Vardhamacharitra is a Sanskrit kāvya poem, written
by Asaga in 853, which narrates the life of
Mahavira.[86][87][88] The Kalpa Sūtra is a collection of biographies
of tirthankaras, notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. Samavayanga

64
Sutra is a collection of Mahavira’s teachings, and the Acharanga
Sutra recounts his asceticism.
Jain philosophy
Colonial-era Indologists considered Jainism (and Mahavira's
followers) a sect of Buddhism because of superficial similarities in
iconography and meditative and ascetic practices. As scholarship
progressed, differences between the teachings of Mahavira and the
Buddha were found so divergent that the religions were acknowledged
as separate.[90] Mahavira, says Moriz Winternitz, taught a "very
elaborate belief in the soul" (unlike the Buddhists, who denied such
elaboration). His ascetic teachings have a higher order of magnitude
than those of Buddhism or Hinduism, and his emphasis
on ahimsa (non-violence) is greater than that in other Indian religion
Agamas
Mahavira's teachings were compiled by Gautama Swami,
his Ganadhara (chief disciple). The canonical scriptures are in twelve
parts. Mahavira's teachings were gradually lost after about 300 BCE,
according to Jain tradition, when a severe famine in
the Magadha kingdom dispersed the Jain monks. Attempts were made
by later monks to gather, recite the canon, and re-establish it.[93] These
efforts identified differences in recitations of Mahavira's teachings,
and an attempt was made in the 5th century AD to reconcile the
differences. The reconciliation efforts failed, with Svetambara and
Digambara Jain traditions holding their own incomplete, somewhat-
different versions of Mahavira's teachings. In the early centuries of the
common era, Jain texts containing Mahavira's teachings were written

65
in palm-leaf manuscripts.[68] According to the
Digambaras, Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic with partial
knowledge of the original canon. Later, some
learned achāryas restored, compiled, and wrote down the teachings of
Mahavira which were the subjects of the Agamas. Āchārya Dharasena,
in the 1st century CE, guided the Āchāryas Pushpadant and Bhutabali
as they wrote down the teachings. The
two Āchāryas wrote Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama, among the oldest-known
Digambara texts, on palm leaves.
Five Vows

The swastika and five vows

66
The Jain Agamas enumerate five vratas (vows) which ascetics and
householders must observe. These ethical principles were preached by
Mahavira:
1. Ahimsa (Non-violence or non-injury): Mahavira taught that
every living being has sanctity and dignity which should be
respected as one expects one's own sanctity and dignity to be
respected. Ahimsa, Jainism's first and most important vow,
applies to actions, speech, and thought.
2. Satya (truthfulness): Applies to oneself and others.
3. Asteya (non-stealing): Not "taking anything that has not been
given"
4. Brahmacharya (chastity): Abstinence from sex and sensual
pleasures for monks, and faithfulness to one's partner for
householders
5. Aparigraha (non-attachment): For lay people, an attitude of
non-attachment to property or worldly possessions; for
mendicants, not owning anything.
The goal of these principles is to achieve spiritual peace, a better
rebirth, or (ultimately) liberation. According to Chakravarthi, these
teachings help improve a person's quality of life.[104] However, Dundas
writes that Mahavira's emphasis on non-violence and restraint has been
interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from
giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all
creatures" but by "continual self discipline": a cleansing of the soul
which leads to spiritual development and release.

67
Mahavira is best remembered in the Indian traditions for his teaching
that ahimsa is the supreme moral virtue. He taught that ahimsa covers
all living beings, and injuring any being in any form creates
bad karma (which affects one's rebirth, future well-being, and
suffering). According to Mahatma Gandhi, Mahavira was the greatest
authority on ahimsa.
Soul-: Jīva
Mahavira taught that the soul exists, a premise shared with Hinduism
but not Buddhism. There is no soul (or self) in Buddhism, and its
teachings are based on the concept of anatta (non-self). Mahavira
taught that the soul is dravya (substantial), eternal, and yet temporary .
To Mahavira, the metaphysical nature of the universe consists
of dravya, jiva, and ajiva (inanimate objects). The jiva is bound
to saṃsāra (transmigration) because of karma (the effects of one's
actions). Karma, in Jainism, includes actions and intent; it colors the
soul (lesya), affecting how, where, and as what a soul is reborn after
death.
According to Mahavira, there is no creator deity and existence has
neither beginning nor end. Gods and demons exist in Jainism,
however, whose jivas a part of the same cycle of birth and death. The
goal of spiritual practice is to liberate the jiva from its karmic
accumulation and enter the realm of the siddhas, souls who are
liberated from rebirth. Enlightenment, to Mahavira, is the consequence
of self-cultivation and self-restraint.

68
Anekantavada
Mahavira taught the doctrine of anekantavada (many-sided
reality). Although the word does not appear in the earliest Jain
literature or the Agamas, the doctrine is illustrated in Mahavira's
answers to questions posed by his followers. Truth and reality are
complex, and have a number of aspects. Reality can be experienced,
but it is impossible to express it fully with language alone; human
attempts to communicate are nayas ("partial expression[s] of the
truth"). Language itself is not truth, but a means of expressing it. From
truth, according to Mahavira, language returns—not the other way
around. One can experience the "truth" of a taste, but cannot fully
express that taste through language. Any attempt to express the
experience is syāt: valid "in some respect", but still a "perhaps, just
one perspective, incomplete”. Spiritual truths are also complex, with
multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality; however,
they can be experienced through effort and appropriate karma.
Mahavira's anekantavada doctrine is also summarized in Buddhist
texts such as the Samaññaphala Sutta (in which he is called Nigantha
Nātaputta), and is a key difference between the teachings of Mahavira
and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the Middle Way,
rejecting the extremes of "it is" or "it is not"; Mahavira accepted both
"it is" and "it is not", with reconciliation and the qualification of
"perhaps".
The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to
answering metaphysical, philosophical questions was a "qualified yes"

69
(syāt). A version of this doctrine is also found in the Ajivika school of
ancient Indian philosophy.
According to Dundas, the anekantavada doctrine has been interpreted
by many Jains as "promot[ing] a universal religious tolerance ...
plurality ... [and a] ... benign attitude to other [ethical, religious]
positions"; however, this misreads Jain historical texts and Mahavira's
teachings. Mahavira's "many pointedness, multiple perspective"
teachings are a doctrine about the nature of reality and human
existence, not about tolerating religious positions such as sacrificing
animals (or killing them for food) or violence against nonbelievers (or
any other living being) as "perhaps right".The five vows for Jain
monks and nuns are strict requirements, with no "perhaps".Mahavira's
Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism beyond the
renunciant Jain communities, but each religion was "highly critical of
the knowledge systems and ideologies of their rivals".
Gender
An historically-contentious view in Jainism is partially attributed to
Mahavira and his ascetic life; he did not wear clothing, as a sign of
renunciation (the fifth vow, aparigraha). It was disputed whether a
female mendicant (sadhvi) could achieve the spiritual liberation of a
male mendicant (sadhu) through asceticism.
The major Jain traditions have disagreed, with Digambaras (the sky-
clad, naked mendicant order) believing that a woman is unable to fully
practice asceticism and cannot achieve spiritual liberation because of
her gender; she can, at best, live an ethical life so she is reborn as a
man. According to this view, women are seen as a threat to a monk's

70
chastity. Mahavirasvami had preached about men and women equality.
The clothes-wearing Svetambaras have interpreted Mahavira's
teaching as encouraging both sexes to pursue a mendicant, ascetic life
with the possibility of moksha (kaivalya, spiritual liberation).
Rebirth and realms of existance
Rebirth and realms of existence are fundamental teachings of
Mahavira. According to the Acaranga Sutra, Mahavira believed that
life existed in myriad forms which included animals, plants, insects,
bodies of water, fire, and wind. He taught that a monk should avoid
touching or disturbing any of them (including plants) and never swim,
light (or extinguish) a fire, or wave their arms in the air; such actions
might injure other beings living in those states of matter.
Mahavira preached that the nature of existence is cyclic, and the soul
is reborn after death in one of the trilok – the heavenly, hellish, or
earthly realms of existence and suffering. Humans are reborn,
depending on one's karma (actions) as a human, animal, element,
microbe, or other form, on earth or in a heavenly (or hellish)
realm. Nothing is permanent; everyone (including gods, demons and
earthly beings) dies and is reborn, based on their actions in their
previous life. Jinas who have reached Kevala Jnana (omniscience) are
not reborn;[108] they enter the siddhaloka, the "realm of the perfected
ones".
Lineageand Legacy
Mahavira is often called the founder of Jainism, but Jains believe that
the 23 previous tirthankaras also espoused it.[56] Although Mahavira is

71
sometimes placed in Parshvanatha's lineage, this is contradicted by
texts stating that Mahavira renounced the world alone.
Parshvanatha was born 273 years before Mahavira. Parshvanatha,
a tirthankara whom modern Western historians consider a historical
figure, lived in about the 8th century BCE. Jain texts suggest that
Mahavira's parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. When
Mahavira revived the Jain community in the 6th century
BCE, ahimsa was already an established, strictly observed rule. The
followers of Parshvanatha vowed to observe ahimsa; this obligation
was part of their caujjama dhamma (Fourfold Restraint).
According to Dundas, Jains believe that the lineage of Parshvanatha
influenced Mahavira. Parshvanatha, as the one who "removes
obstacles and has the capacity to save", is a popular icon; his image is
the focus of Jain temple devotion. Of the 24 tirthankaras, Jain
iconography has celebrated Mahavira and Parshvanatha the most;
sculptures discovered at the Mathura archaeological site have been
dated to the 1st century BCE. According to Moriz Winternitz,
Mahavira may be considered a reformer of an existing Jain sect known
as Niganthas (fetter-less) which was mentioned in early Buddhist
texts. The Barli Inscription dating back to 443 BCE contains the
line Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase, which can be interpreted as
"dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year".
Festivals
Two major annual Jain festivals associated with Mahavira are Mahavir
Janma Kalyanak and Diwali. During Mahavir Janma Kalyanak, Jains
celebrate Mahavira's birth as the 24th and

72
last tirthankara of avasarpiṇī (the current time cycle). During Mahavir
JanmaKalyanak, the five auspicious events of Mahavira's life are re-
enacted. Diwali commemorates the anniversary of Mahavira's nirvana,
and is celebrated at the same time as the Hindu festival. Diwali marks
the New Year for Jains.
Worship

Mahavira worship in a manuscript c. 1825

Samantabhadra's Svayambhustotra praises the twenty-
four tirthankaras, and its eight shlokas (songs) adore Mahavira. One
such shloka reads:
O Lord Jina! Your doctrine that expounds essential attributes required
of a potential aspirant to cross over the ocean of worldly existence
(Saṃsāra) reigns supreme even in this strife-ridden spoke of time
(Pancham Kaal). Accomplished sages who have invalidated the so-
called deities that are famous in the world, and have made ineffective
the whip of all blemishes, adore your doctrine.
Samantabhadra's Yuktyanusasana is a 64-verse poem which also
praises Mahavira.

73
Influence
Mahavira's teachings were influential. According to Rabindranath
Tagore,
Mahavira proclaimed in India that religion is a reality and not a mere
social convention. It is really true that salvation can not be had by
merely observing external ceremonies. Religion cannot make any
difference between man and man.
— Rabindranath Tagore
An event associated with the 2,500th anniversary of
Mahavira's nirvana was held in 1974:
Probably few people in the West are aware that during this
Anniversary year for the first time in their long history,
the mendicants of the Śvētāmbara, Digambara and Sthānakavāsī sects
assembled on the same platform, agreed upon a common flag
(Jaina dhvaja) and emblem (pratīka); and resolved to bring about the
unity of the community. For the duration of the year four dharma
cakras, a wheel mounted on a chariot as an ancient symbol of
the samavasaraṇa (Holy Assembly) of Tīrthaṅkara Mahavira
traversed to all the major cities of India, winning legal sanctions from
various state governments against the slaughter of animals for sacrifice
or other religious purposes, a campaign which has been a major
preoccupation of the Jainas throughout their history.
— Padmanabh Jaini

74
Iconography

Mahavira iconography is distinguished by a lion stamped (or carved)

beneath his feet; a Shrivatsa is on his chest.
Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting (or standing) meditative pose,
with a lion symbol beneath him; each tīrthankara has a distinct
emblem, which allows worshippers to distinguish similar
idols.[154] Mahavira's lion emblem is usually carved below his legs.
Like all tirthankaras, he is depicted with a Shrivatsa in Shetamber
tradition and downcast eyes in digamber tradition while in Shetamber
tradition it is wide open.
Mahavira's earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in
the north Indian city of Mathura, dated from the 1st century BCE to
the 2nd century CE. The srivatsa mark on his chest and his dhyana-
mudra posture appears in Kushana Empire-era artwork. Differences in
Mahavira's depiction between the Digambara and Svetambara
traditions appear in the late 5th century CE. According to John Cort,

75
the earliest archaeological evidence of Jina iconography with
inscriptions precedes its datable texts by over 250 years.
Many images of Mahavira have been dated to the 12th century and
earlier; an ancient sculpture was found in a cave in
Sundarajapuram, Theni district, Tamil Nadu. K. Ajithadoss, a Jain
scholar in Chennai, dated it to the 9th century.
Jivantasvami represents Mahavira as a princely state. The Jina is
represented as standing in the kayotsarga pose wearing crown and
ornaments.

Panch Kalyanaka (Sanskrit: pan̄ca kalyāṇaka, "Five Auspicious

Events") are the five chief auspicious events that are believed to occur
in the life of tirthankara in Jainism. They are commemorated as part of
many Jain rituals and festivals.

Kalyanaka

These auspicious life events are as below.

1. Cyavana kalyāṇaka: When the ātman (soul) of a tirthankara

enter's their mother's womb.
2. Janma kalyāṇaka: Birth of the tirthankara. Snatra Puja is a
ritual celebrating this event in which Indra does abhisheka on
the tirthankara on Mount Meru.[8]
3. Dīkṣā kalyāṇaka: When a tirthankara renounce all worldly
possessions and becomes an ascetic.[9]

76
 4. Kēvalajñāna kalyāṇaka: The event when a tirthankara attains
kēvalajñāna (absolute knowledge). A divine samavasarana
(preaching hall) appears, from where the tirthankara delivers
sermons and restores the Jain community and teachings.
5. Nirvāṇa kalyāṇaka: When a tirthankara leaves their mortal
body, it is known as nirvana. It is followed by final liberation,
moksha. A tirthankara is considered a Siddha after that

Pancha Kalyanaka of Mahavira, folios from Kalpasutra, loose leaf

manuscript, Patan, Gujarat. c. 1472 (now in Brooklyn Museum)

Cyavana kalyāṇaka /Janma kalyāṇaka /Dīkṣā kalyāṇaka

Kēvalajñāna kalyāṇaka /Nirvāṇa kalyāṇaka

Kalyanaka Dates of 24 Tirthankara

77
These dates are called Kalyanaka Tithi. All dates are considered
according to Jain calendar known as Jain Panchang based on the Vira
Nirvana Samvat, but they differ according to different sects of Jain
tradition and sometimes different within the same tradition also.Note:
This list is according to Śvētāmbara tradition and months are
according to the Gujarati calendar.

Kevala
Chyavan Janma Diksha Nirvana
No Jnana
Tirthankara Kalyana Kalyana Kalyana Kalyanak
. Kalyana
ka ka ka a
ka
Jeth Vad Fagan Fagan Maha Posh Vad
1 Rishabha
4 Vad 8 Vad 8 Vad 11 13
Vaisakh Maha Sud Maha Sud Posh Sud Chaitra
2 Ajitanatha
Sud 13 8 9 11 Sud 5
Sambhavanat Fagan Magsar Magasar Asho Vad Chaitra
3
ha Sud 8 Sud 14 Sud 15 5 Sud 5
Abhinandan Vaisakh Maha Sud Maha Sud Posh Sud Vaisakh
4
natha Sud 4 2 12 14 Sud 8
Shravan Vaisakh Vaisakh Chaitra Chaitra
5 Sumatinatha
Sud 2 Sud 8 Sud 9 Sud 11 Sud 9
Posh Vad Asho Vad Asho Vad Chaitra Chaitra
6 Padmaprabha
6 12 13 Sud 11 Sud 9
7 Suparshvanat Shravan Jeth Sud Jeth Sud Maha Maha

78
 ha Vad 8 12 13 Vad 6 Vad 7
Chandraprabh Fagan Magasar Magasar Maha Shravan
8
a Vad 5 Vad 12 Vad 13 Vad 7 Vad 7
Maha Kartak Kartak Kartak Bhadarva
9 Pushpadanta
Vad 9 Vad 5 Vad 6 Sud 3 Sud 9
Chaitra Posh Vad Posh Vad Magasar Chaitra
10 Shitalanatha
Vad 6 12 13 Vad 14 Vad 2
Shreyanasanat Vaisakh Maha Maha Posh Vad Ashadh
11
ha Vad 6 Vad 12 Vad 13 Amaas Vad 3
Maha
Jeth Sud Maha Maha Sud Asadh
12 Vasupujya Vad
9 Vad 14 2 Sud 14
Amaas
Vaisakh Maha Sud Maha Sud Posh Sud Jeth Vad
13 Vimalanatha
Sud 12 3 4 6 7
Asadh Chaitra Chaitra Chaitra Chaitra
14 Anantanatha
Vad 7 Vad 13 Vad 14 Vad 14 Sud 5
Vaisakh Maha Sud Maha Sud Posh sud
15 Dharmanatha Jeth Sud 5
Sud 7 3 12 15
Shravan Vaishakh Vaiskh Posh Sud Vaisakh
16 Shantinatha
Vad 7 Vad 13 Vad 14 9 Vad 13
Asadh Chaitra Chaitra Chaitra Chaitra
17 Kunthunatha
Vad 9 Vad 14 Vad 5 Vad 5 Vad 1
Fagan Magsar Magsar Kartik Magsar
18 Aranatha
Sud 2 Sud 10 Sud 11 Sud 12 Sud 10
19 Māllīnātha Fagan Magsar Magsar Magsar Fagan

79
 Sud 4 Sud 11 Sud 11 Sud 11 Sud 12
Shravan Vaisakh Fagan Shravan Vaisakh
20 Munisuvrata
Sud 15 Vad 8 Sud 12 Vad 12 Vad 9
Asho Sud Ashadh Jeth Vad Magsar Chaitra
21 Naminatha
15 Vad 8 9 Sud 11 Vad 10
Bhadarva
Asho Vad Shravan Shravan Ashadh
22 Neminatha Vad
12 Sud 5 Sud 6 Sud 8
Amaas
Fagan Magsar Magsar Fagan Shravan
23 Parshvanatha
Vad 4 Vad 10 Vad 11 Vad 4 Sud 7
Asadh Chaitra Kartak Vaisakh Asho Vad
24 Mahavira
Sud 6 Sud 13 Vad 10 Sud 10 Amaas
Keys

 Dates are in short format. For example, Kartik Sud 2 means

Second day of Bright half(Sud) of Kartik month.
 ^ s: according to Śvētāmbara tradition
 ^ d: according to Digambara tradition
 ^ o: according to other sources

Kalyanaka Places of 24 Tirthankara[

Kalyanaka Bhumi are places where any of these Kalyanaka took

place in relation to 24 Tirthankara. They are considered places of
pilgrimage by Jains. 20 out of 24 Tirthankaras' Nirvana kalyanaka took
place at Shikharji.

80
They are as below:

Keval
Chyavan Janma Diksha Nirvan
No Gyan
Tirthankara Kalyana Kalyana Kalyana Kalyana
. Kalyana
ka ka ka ka
ka
Purimtal
( now
1 Rishabha Ayodhya Prayag or Ashtapad
Allahaba
d)
2 Ajitnath Ayodhya
3 Sambhavanath Shravasti
Abhinandansw
4
ami Ayodhya
5 Sumatinath
6 Padmaprabha Kausambi
Shikharji
7 Suparshvanath Bhadaini, Varanasi
8 Chandraprabha Chandrapuri
Kakandi (now Khukhundu, Deoria
9 Suvidhinatha
district)
10 Sheetalnath Bhadilpur or Bhadrikapuri
11 Shreyansanath Sinhpuri, Varanasi
12 Vasupujya Champapuri (now Bhagalpur)[21]
13 Vimalnath Kampilya Shikharji

81
14 Anantnath Ayodhya
15 Dharmanath Ratnapuri
16 Shantinath
17 Kunthunath Hastinapur
18 Aranath
19 Mallinath Mithila
20 Munisuvrata Rajgruhi
21 Nami Natha Mithila
22 Neminatha Sauripur Girnar
23 Parshva Varanasi Shikharji
Kundalagrama (Kshatriya Rijuvalik
24 Mahavira Pavapuri
Kund) near Vaishali a

WHAT IS JAINISM?

To answer this question one can read the 510+ pages of my earlier
book VARDHAMAN which deals with Jainism. I named it
VARDHAMAN because it meant that the religion would be
prosperous. As for the saint Mahavir ji, I pen this book in his honour-
for all that me little knowledge will be able to light my path. One thing
I must say- I have seen many amazing things during the penning of

82
these 2 volumes. I saw how I got stuck and how some divine
knowledge or thought lighted my way through the maze I did not or
could not understand – leaving me overwhelmed and strengthening
my resolve in the goodness that surrounds Jains,Jain thought and the
blessings that the Tirthankars shower upon those who seek with pure
heart. Jai Jinendra.

I have taken toe liberty of borrowing great and well written articles
and producing them ad-verbatim with the fond hope that this
knowledge will help people better understand the way of the Jinas. My
apologies for any mistakes and your blessings that I may further in my
path as an adopted jain through this religion I worship and admire.

Dr Uday Dokras, Ph D Stockholm, SWEDEN

CHAPTER II
WHAT IS JAINISM?
https://peepintojainism.com/some_opinions_about_jain.html)

The word Jain is derived from the Sanskrit word (ftu) Jin,
meaning a Victor, and implies a conqueror of one’s baser-self,

83
or One Who has attained a victory over attachments and
aversions. A true Jain is, thus, a follower of Him, who is above
bias, a true friend of all and the foe of none.

In the days gone by the saintly adherents of this religion were

variously known as Yatis, Vratyas, Arhatas, Nirgranthas and
Shramanas, while the Greeks and other foreigners called them
Gymnosophists or the nude philosophers.

Jainism is a science and not a code of arbitrary and capricious

commandments. It is the only non-allegorical religion, which
insists upon and displays a thorough understanding of the
problems of life and soul. It was founded by Omniscient
Teachers, a distinction to which no other religion can lay claim.

Jainism is the only man made religion that reduces everything

to the iron-laws of nature and agrees with modern science. It is
perfectly true when the Jains say that religion originated with
man and that the first Deified man of every cycle of time is the
founder of Religion. Whenever a Tirthankara arises He re-
establishes the Scientific truth considering the nature of life
and these truths are collectively termed religion.

84
ORIGIN ANTIQUITY AND SHORT HISTORY OF
JAINISM

Origin: Jainism, as belived by its followers, was not originated

by any particular individual in the same sense as Christ and
Mohammed orinated Christnity and Mohammedanism, and
Budha was the author of Budhism. Had any individual
Mahavira or His predecessors Parshwa or, even Rsabha started
this religion, it would have been known as Mhavira Dharma, or
Rsabha Dharma. The religion is instead name Jain Dharma. In
the pats there were infinite twenty four Thirthankaras and in
future also infinite twenty four Tirthankaras will appear. In the
present cycle of time, the religion preached by Tirthankara,
Rsabha, who is also known as Adinath. The prevalent view that
Jaininsm was organized by Mahavira, or even His predecessors
Parshwa, in erroneous.

Religion,it should be known, “ way of life” which is not

invented, it is rediscovered and this was what precisely the
tirthankaras did. They explained the laws of Nature that
governed the universe, man his conduct.

LORD RSABHA

His age. it is impossible to say anything about His age. All that
can be said is that He flourished very very far back in the
hoariest of hoary antiquity- just a time than the first clouds

85
formed in the sky. The mere fact that we are unable to fix any
date of His being does not, however, entitle us to assert that He
was not a real person, but simply a figment of Jain imagination.
This is because we have an unimpeachable evidence of His
name being mentioned in the oldest of known books, the
Vedas.

There are a few references to Rsabha in Rigveda in Skanda V

Adhyaya 5th.Shri Rsabha Deva performed such hard penance
that he got various Riddhis like good smell of his body upto 40
kosas. Rsabha deva of whom mention is made in Rigveda, is
no other than the founder of Jaininsm. Shri Vinoba Bhave, the
cultural successor of Gandhiji and agreat scholar of Hinduism,
in a letter Dated 28-03-1948 written by him to the Jain of
Seoni, points out that:

“Jainism exists from very ancient times since its reference is

found in the Vedas like the following mantras which is
addressed to Lord Arhant the Jain God who protects the vast
world”.

Rsabha in Athurveda. This is not all, In Athur Veda we read.

“Let them bring my couch.** They brought the couch for that
Vartya.. The Vartya ascended the couch. The bosts of Gods
were his attendants, solemn vows his messengers, and all
creatures his worshipers……..”

86
Griffith in his translation of Athurveda (See P. 199 Vol II) has
the following note on the legend.

“It is hard to understand, and I do not attempt to explain, the

idealization and the grotesquely extravagant glorification of
the Vratya or heretical nomad, who at one time appears to be
Supernormal Being endowed, who the attributes of an all-
pervading Deity, and at another as a human wanderer in need
of food and lodgings.....”

There is no mention of any name in the above quotation but the

story fits most beautiful into the frame work of the life of
Rsabha deva, Who was undoubtedly only a human wanderer at
first and Who in concequence of the observance of vows,
became an all-knowing, or metaphorically the all pervading
God, and was then attended upon by devas and worshiped by
all creatures.

Rsabha in Yajurved Rsabha is here regarded as an unbreakable

ship to cross the ocean of world of miseries.
Religious animosity is responsible for twisting the meanings or
omissions of many of these and other such verses from the
Vedas now available* words and phrases such as Shishna deva
meaning nude figure of yogis, (an equivalent of Gymnosophist)
the words which have also been found noted on the seals dug at

87
Mohanjadaro and Harappa, with actual such figure, still
abound,. One of the seals bears the sign of bull on its reverse.

The Vedas now available are not original. Shri Daynand

introduced such in them and brought out such editions as he
desired them to be and not what actually were. The Original
Vedas may be found with the Brahmans of South Carnatica and
it is possible that Rsabha’s name as stated in the various
reference quoted here may be found. If so, people living in
such South Carnatica produce Photostat copies of the ways
wherein these references are found and the same shall therefore
be of the next edition of his commemoration volume.

Rsabha in Hindu Purans:-

As the Name signifies, Puranas are the old books recognized

by the Hindus as being next only to the Vedas. Here and some
extracts from the various Puranas, which loudly proclaim that
Lord Rsabha was a real man, who founded the Jain religion,
and that Jainism existed in pre-Vedic days. It is to be noted that
the names of the father and mother of Rsabha are the same in
the Jain traditional religious books.

“I shall relate the family of Nabhi; he he flourished in country

called Hima; his mother’s name was Maru Devi. Rsabha Defv
of the bright radiance was the best of kings and the ancestor of

88
the Ikswaku clan. To Rsabha was born, Bharata, the eldest of
the hundred sons, and a great hero. Prompted by the spirit of
the word fight, Rsabha Deva gave Hima, which is in the South,
to his son Bharata.”

The Brahmanada Purana( Hindi) XIV 59-61.

Rsabha and the Hindu Trinity: The Hindus have hitherto

believed that the people inhabiting this country in the pre-
Vedic period were uncivilized. Far from this, for excavation
made at Mahanjadaro and Harappa reveal that a civilization
several thousand older than the Vedic prevailed here.
And while in the Vedas and the Puranas, Rsabha is mentioned
by this very name in pre-Vedic God. Later on, Rsabha came to
be known as Brahma, Vishnu and Shanker.
(i) Rasbha and Shiva: In the traditions of the Jains & this
tradition is upto this time preserved in Jain iconography*, the
sign of the bull is also declared to be the conveyance of Shiva.
Again Lord Siva’s abode is said to the Kailash Parvat, while
Lord Rsabha is described in Jain books and tradiotions as
having performed penance and secured salvation from the same
mountain Shiva’s Trishul, the trident**, a symbol of His
authority, denotes the Ratan Triya the three jewels—Right
faith, Right knowledge, and Right Conduct, which according to
Lord Rsabha’s teachings constituted the path to salvation. The
river Ganges flowing from His hair signifies the flow of the
pure and real knowledge of the Omniscient Lord Rsabha. The

89
serpents and cobras round his neck show the high pitch of
meditation attained by him, who did not feel perturbed by the
reptiles, when they clung to his person.

Shiv Linga or Phallus worship: It is at all creditable that a very

large number of the people of this country may continue to be
so simpleton that they may worship linga and the kundly, or the
male and female genital organs in their naked and unabashed
forms? No sensible man will believe like that. But then what is
the mystery?

The fact is that hero worship and of the places sanctified by the
religious leaders, has been a very ancient institution among the
people of the world. This was also true of the Jains and the
Hindus. In India the practice was started by Bharat

Chakravbarty, the son of Rsabha, after whom we call India,

Bharat. He did it to perpetuate the memory of his revered father
Bhagwan Rsabha’s salvation at the Kailash Mountain. As time
rolled on this Ksetra-puja of Kailash, the shape of which
resembles a bell or phallus, and also science nudity was the
mask of the sainthood of Rsabha, the Kailash-Ksetra-Puja was
converted into linga-puja.

Also since Rsabha was the first Yogi, who gained the pure
condition of beautitude*called, Shiva-gati, and was therefore

90
known as Savava( Usabha, in the Prakrit language, which got
corrupted as Sava)- Rsabha came to be known as Siva.

Some scholars believe that the word Linga is not of Sanskrit

origin rather it is a Tibeten word for land. Dar je-ling, which
got corrupted into Darjeeling, meaning the thunder’s land, is
another example of it. This also confirms that the worship of
the Shiv-linga is in fact the Kailash Ksetra-Puja. Also people
put a leaking pot full of water over Shiv-Linga. This betokens
the rains which continually full on the Kailash mountain.

In the Jain tradition as well Rsabha had been prayed as Siva.

Shri Jayasen Acharya pays his homage to Rsabha as
Siva(emancipated beautitude). Like wise Shri vira-Sen-
Acharya quotes some ancient gathas in Dhavala Tika to define
an Arhant as Jina or as One, Who unveils the hidden and
spiritual secrets of Jina.
Shri Mantungji also starts in Bhaktamra Stotra that none else
but Rsabha is Shiva in the following versa:

Epigraphical Evidence, Epigraphically the devotees of both

Rsabha as and Siva constructed their respective images, which
resemble each other, For instance the image of yogiswara Siva
from Bijawad, Cewas Distt. In Madhaya Pradesh of the twelfth
century A.D. looks like the image of jina -Rsabha in all respect
except the scared thread and the ear-rings. Likewise the image

91
of Rsabha found at Sadumar, Jhansi, bears the marks of a
trisula and a bull. Besides it there are some images of jinas
from South India, which are sculptured in a stone structure
made in the shape of linga and kundaly of Shiva. This
arcaeological evidence also establishes the Siva in indentical to
Rsabha.

Rsabha’s Nirvan day and Shivratri. Rsabha got Shivpad in the

night of the magha, hence Shivratri, the night of Shiva festival
began to be celebrated in the memory of Rsabha’s nirvana. The
famous Vedic book Ishan Samhita also confirms the view that
on account of Adideva the Vrat or fasting of Shivratri is to be
observed on the fourteenth day of Magha In Northern India
Shivratri is now a days celebrated on the fourteenth day of the
later half of phalgun instead of magha and the following verse
is refrred to in its support. But even this confirms Shivratri to
be on the fourteenth day of the later half of magha and not
phalgun. This is clearly a mistake for the word phalgun in the
verse, which if it is read carefully speaks not phalgun but prior
to phalgun. Thus we see that not only Jains but even Hindus
unwittingly* and unconsciously celebrate the nirvana day of
the first Jain Tirthankara Rsabha. In Southern India, Shivaratri
is however, celebrated in the later half of Magha e.g. both the
days are identical.

(ii) Rsabha and Sankara: Sankara is the other name of Siva.

92
The Brahmin author of Siva-Puran calls Rsabha as an
incarnation of Sankara which when translated

Thus there will be Rsabha incarnation to the Sankara (Siva),

which will be the ninth incarnation that will take place like the
path for the good people, and as a patron of the helpless!

(iii) Rsabha and Brahma: Hindu Puranas declare the

emergence of Brahma, the birth giver, on the lotus flower from
the nabhe ( Rsabh meaning the navel of Vishnu, while Jain
books speak of Rsabha, being the son of Raja Nabha, His
mother’s name being Maru Devi. Rsabha is also mentioned as
Brahma in Skanda V Adhya! of Srimad BHagwat Puram( Urdu
Hindustan book Depot, Lucknow).

Dr. Ganga Nath Jha’s conclusion also expresses Rsabha to be

Brahma. According to him:

“It is an account of Rsabha being the first king and the law-
giver that He is regarded as the Creater of the world”(English
Jain Gazette, 1904).

Budhist Scriptures: Budh Acharya Shri Arya Deo has expressly

regarded Rsabha as founder of Jaininsm in Satshatra.

Arya Manfushri Mulkapa Calls Rsabha to be free of wordly

possessions and as saint like kapila Muni in: 380-

93
391.According to the Imperial History of India pp.12-13.
Manju Shri Mulkalpa counts not only Rsabha, but also Nabhi
and BHarata to be great kings of very ancient age. According
to the Indian Historical Quarterly Calcutta, Vol. III, page 475,
the famous Budh granth Dhammapada in its gatha 422
mentions Rsabha. Budh acharya, Shri Dharam Kirtiji testifies
in Adhaya III of Nyaya Vindu Rsabha to be all-seeing and all-
knowing Lord like the 24th Tirthankara, *Shri Vardhman
Mahavira at follows:

Grantha Sahib of the Sikhs: Shri Guru Govind Singhji Maharaj

has also expressly endorsed the views of the Vedas, Puranas,
and the Budhist literature by saying that Vishnu Autar Arhant
(Rsabha) founded the Saravak Mat viz Jainism. The word
arhant is applied to the Jain Tirthankararas and occurs in the
Jian mahamantra. The word saravak (which later on became
sarogi) is applied to lay the followers of Jainism.

Rsabha and Adam: Rsabha also known as Adinath, and His

successors, were not only known in the Vedic and pre-Vedic
periods in India, but also abroad.

Muslim religious books like miraj ulanbut speak of Adam, who

according to the Quran and the Bible was the first and the
foremost great-great-grand-father of the human race, being in
India. Jain scriptures speak of Adinath, also referred to as

94
Arhant and Adipurash, literally meaning the first man as the
person, Who in the early stages of civilization taught mankind
about agriculture, cooking, carpentary, smithy, cattle-breeding,
three Rs. etc.etc. Rsabha or Adinath might, therefore, be
considered as a version of Adam.

Prof. Hajime Nakumara Ph.D. Prof. of Sanskrit studies at the

University of Tokyo, Japan, in an article entintled “The sage
Rsabha noticed in the Chinese versions of Budhists scriptures”
published in the Voice of Ahimsa of Vol. VII, March-April, 57,
writes:

“The stage Rsabha, the first Tirthankara of the Jains is noted

occasionally in the Chinese versions of Budhist scriptures. He
is known even to the Japanese under the modified name of
Rsabha, through the Chinese version.”

The learned professor quotes the first Chapter of the Chinese

version of the Sat-Shastra by Arya deva, the Sanskrit original
of which, according to him, was lost:

“Kapila Uluka(Kanada) and Rsabha etc., these sages are

called Bhagwat….omitted. The disciples of Rsabha recite the
scriptures of the Nirgathas. They say as follow:

“To practise self-mortification such as to expose one’s self to

95
the five fires, and to pluck out one’s hair and so on should be
regarded as meritorious”( Taisho Tripataka Vol. XXX pages
1684).

The status of “Reshef” or naked ‘Apollo-Rashef’ in Greece and

Phonecia are considered by scholars as representing the Indian
Rsabha.(Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute
Vol.XIV pp.16-32 & V.O.A. VIII pp. 346-350.)

Epigraphical evidence: We have also the epigraphical

evidence, chiefly the Mathura inscriptions, dealt with by Dr.
Further, which shows that there are dedications, dealt with by
Dr. Further, which shows that there are dedications and
offerings of a very ancient date made to Rsabha which bear
clear testimony to His real personality.

Certain ancient scales from Mahanjadaro and Harappa finds

many also be referred to in this connection. Nudity, posture of
the body and the figures engraved on them as well as the actual
readings of these seals bearing such words as “Jinayanand
Maha” and “Rsabha Nama” revealed that the first Jain
Tirthankara Rsabha was worshipped in Sind some five
thousand years ago.

In this connection it is interesting to note that though many

objects of interest were found in the excavations, no weapons

96
of offence or defence or protective ramparts or fortifications
were found there from which it may be presumed that Jain
culture prevailed in Sind and the Southern Punjab some five
thousand years ago. Commenting on this Shri T.N. Ram
Cahndran M.A. F.R.A.s. Jt. Director-General of Archaeology
in a brochure* points out:

“The most monumental products of the Indus Civilisation

aresome sculptures. Thirteen pieces of statutory, including two
well-known and much discussed stone statuettes from Harappa,
have so far come to light….with senses controlled by effort,
with strength and creative activity restrained metaphysiacally
by the silken thread of Ahimsa and with physical
features(limbs) completely abandoned to the rigoures of clim
and weather in the pistine**and natal***state of absolute
nudity, the colossal statues of the Ialn Tirthankaras and Jain
ascetics such as of Bahubali at Sravanbelgola in mysore, have
a lesson to humanity that non-violence is the only +panacea
for human sufferings. The Harappan statuette being exactly in
the above specified pose, we may not be wrong in identifying
the God represented as Tirthankara or a jain ascetic of
accredited fram and penance......

The chronology* and heirchyof the series of 24 Jain

Tirthankaras do not stand in the way of the date of Harappa
statuette….of the present list of Tirthankaras, we know that

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Mahnavira was a contemporary of Budha, who flourished in
the 6th Century B.C. Parsvanatha, the 23rd, flourished more
than hundred years before Mahavira, and Neminatha, the 22nd
Tirthankara, was a cousin of Lord Krishan….so that even on a
rough computation we get the date like the 9th century B.C. for
Neminatha… We have yet to account for 21 Tirthankaras that
preceded Neminatha in a hierarchical order.If we push back
the dates proportionately to each Tirthankara we are led to
find that the first Tirthankara Adinath, also called Vrsabha
Deva, satnds on the last quarter of the third millinium B.C. The
statauette under description has been assigned by critics a date
between 2400-2000 B.C.

There is even an old inscription in the Khandagiri Hill in which

there is a mention of a consecrated statue of Rsabha that had
been carried off by King Nanda Vardhana obout 2400 years
ago and and that was brought back to Kalinga ( Orrissa) by
Kharvel in the 2nd Century B.C. from Patli-Putra(modern
Patna). This statue most probably dated back prior to
Mhavira’s time and possibly even to that of Bhagwat Parswa
Nath.

Jain traditions, however, assign the age of Rsabha just after the
stone Age or the beginning of the Agriculture age.While
Bharat whose name appeared in the previous quotations was
the elder son of Rsabha, his younger son’s name was Bahubali,

98
who also renounced the world and attained salvation. A
colossal statue of about 72 feet was covered and set up at
Sarvan belgola in Mysore State in 1028 A.D. by the order of
Chamunda Raya, a minister of Rajmala II, the King of Ganga
Dynasty, who ruled some parts of the Mysore State. This
shows that as early as 1028A.D. the names of Shri Bahubali
and his father lord Rsabha were revered. Images dating both
earlier and later have been excavated from several places.

Jain Temples and Caves: There are so many thousands of new

temples of Rasbha and other Tirthankaras of jains all over
India that it is difficult to mention even a brief history of each
of them. These temples alone are sufficient to convince the
scholar of the historicity of Lord Rsabha and his Successors.

First of all Bharata, the son of Lord Rsabha is said to have built
a very beautiful temple at Kailash.The Jain ministers Tejpal
and Vastupal had erected at Mount Abu such graceful temples,
which are one of the minor wonders of the world and are a
source of inspiration and joy for ages to come. One of these
temples contains very attractive image of Rsabha. Elora caves
temples are peculiar specimen of Art, where Indra Gumpha
Temple has a very beautiful image of Rsabha. Chitor, which is
famous for the valour of Maharana Paratap and sacrifice of his
Jain minister Bhamashah has a pillar of glory 80 ft.high in the
memory of Rsabha. The history and monuments of Gwalior

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fort and the largest of them is a standing image of Adinath or
Rsabha come 57 ft. high. At Dipamgudi in the district of
Tanjore in Madras State there is a very old image of Shri
Rsabha which is stated to have been worshipped by Lava and
Kusha the twin sons of Shri Ramchandra and Sitaji.
The attractive image at Kashariaji is so miraculous that any
which devoutly and faithfully

entertained by a man, finds it fulfillment in no time, for which

not only Jains but non-Jains also come from all parts of India
for pilgrimage.

Thus we see that Hindus, Brahmins Budhists and Sikhs all

unanimously declare Rsabha to be the founder of Jainism, a
view which is corborated by epigraphical evidence.

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After Lord Rsabha, or Adinatha:-- After Lord Rsabha, or
Adinatha there were twenty three great Reformers of
Jainism.The names of the twenty four Tirthankaras and their
cognizance are as under:
1. Rsabha Deva or Adinatha( Bull). 2. Ajitnatha( Elephant).

3. Abhinandanatha(Monkey). 4. Sambhavnatha(Horse).

5. Sumatinatha(Chakwa, a bird). 6. Padmaprabhu(Lotus).

7. Suparshannatha(Swastika). 8. Chandaprabha (Crescent).

9. Suvidhinatha or Pushpa Deva 10. Shitalnatha

(Crocoidile). (Kalpvrikshe).

12. Vashpujya (He-

11. Shreyansnatha (Gend).
Buffalo).

13. Vimalnatha (Boar). 14. Anantnatha (Porcupine).

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15. Dharamnatha (Vajra). 16. Shantinatha (Stag).

17. Kunthnatha (He-Goat). 18. Aranatha (Fish).

19. Masllinatha (Kalash, a port).

20. Muns-suvrata (Tortoise).
Bull).

21. Neminatha (Lotus). 22. Aristnemi (Conch).

24. Vardhmana Mahavira

23. Parshavanatha (Cobra).
(Lion).

The Successors of Lord Rsabha did not preach anything new.

They simply re-establishd and revived Dharma, which by lapse
of time had become dim. They belong to the time when there
was no paper to write on; the scanty information we have about
Them being inherited through traditions and Their brief stories
were recorded on Tarpatras much after the last one of them
Viz. Lord Mahavira lived.

According to Dr. Ganga Nath Jha M.A. D.Litt, Vice-

Chancellor, Allhabad University:
"Like the other Tirthankaras Bhagwan Subhadinath( Or
Pushpadantaji) , the ninth after Bahrata on seeing that the
people had lost their hold upon its true tents rejuvenated the
Jain religion. Some of the Brahmans, hoever, did not listen to
him and struck out a different path for themselves. It was a
disorted version of the four Vedas in which they put in
injuctions about animal sacrifices and other things abnoxious

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to Jaininsm. The original Vedas are said to be still known
among the Brahmans of the South Carnatic. In these it is
shown that true Sacrifice does not consist in slaughtering
animals but in an act in which self is the sacrifice, Penance-the
Fire,True knowledge-the sacrificial gifts, and knowledge,
philosophy and good conduct the Vedic Triad."( English Jain
Gazzette, Oct.1904)

Not the least significant is the reference in the yoga Vasista

(XV-1) to Jainism; where Rama who according to the Jain
tradition flourished in the times of Lord himself says:
Transalation:- I am not Ram(object of worship) , nor am I free
from desires; I wish to attain, in mine own self the tranquility
of the Jina ( Conqueror i.e. Tirthankara.) perhaps pointing to
the fact that Jainism may have flourished at the time of Rama,
which is very old and ancient according to Hindu reckoning.

SOME OPINIONS ABOUT JAIN ANTIQUITY

Opinions of some eminent scholars both Indian and foreign ,

about Jain antiquity also deserve consideration.

The Chakra which has a place of honour on the white strip in

the Indian National Flag and which is an exact reproduction of
the Dharma Chakra of the top post of Ashoka’s piler at
Sarnath, has 24 spokes. The fact that Emperor Ashoka had put
24 spokes, neither less not more ; is not merely an accident but

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it was wilful. This is because the emperor had acquired faith in
Jainism after his conquest at Kalinga.*

Prof.Dr.Herr Lothar Wendel (Germany) said “ The day will

come soon, when all Jain Tirthankaras will be recognised as
the Torch bearers of Humanity.V.O.A. Vol 45 P.81

Sixth Chapter of the fifth books shows:

My bow to Bhawgan Rsbha, who eternally enjoys satisfaction

of self-realisation, and from whom all hankering has
disappeared, and who being moved by pity for the people,
whose intellect has long remained dormant and indifferent to
their real good solely under influence of passion for earthly
desires, showed the path of fearlessness and self-
illumination.”

THE JAIN KINGS AND MONARCHS

We know the 24 tirthankars, but what about the great kings

who were instrumental in spread of Jainism in many
Kingdoms, inspired by the words of the Tirthankars. Jain had
in its fold not only great saints and sage but also
Kings,monarchs,and gerarals, a very brief history of some of
these is given below.

1. Shrenika Bimbsara. Shrenika Bimbsara is the first Indian

Monarch of whom anything substantial is known* . When
he came to throne of Magadha his rule extended over only
a small state, with his capital at Rajagrah. But with
remarkable prudence he sat himself to extend his Kingdom.
He formed alliances with his powerful border Kings of
Koshala and Vajji and then let his troops to absorb the
Kingdom of Anga. With the annexation of Anga, Magadha
became a great power in Northern India* . So much so that

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 the King of distant Gandhara (modern Kandhar) sent an
embassy to Bimbsara probably with the object of invoking
his assistance against the threatened advance of the
Achaemonid power ***. We also learn from the Jain
sources that Shrenika Bimbsara sent a contingent of his
troop to help a border King, who was his ally. The young
general who let this army was the Merchant-Prince
Jambukumara, who after returning triumphantly from this
campaign , adopted the lift of a Jain monk.

Shrenika Bimbsara was a powerful, kind and just King

whose reign lasted for 28 years The efficiency of his Civil
and Military administration was the main reason for the
ascendancy of Mogadhan power. He maintain a rigid
control over his officers and to ascertain the internal affairs
of his Kingdom he used to meet the headmen of all the
villages
Shremika Bimbsara was a convert from Budhism to
Jainism**. This conversion was due to his Chief Queen
Chelna, the accomplished daughter of King Cetak of
Vaisali. The Literacy and legendry tradition of Jains
describe him as putting a very large future, Atma and
Parmatma and what not, and Lord Mahavira replying to
those questions. The tradition runds tha the built many
shrines on Parshnath Hill in Bihar***. Jain believe that
Shrenika Bimbsara will be a Tirthankaras in the next cycle
of time.

2. Kunika Ajatshatru, Kunika Ajatshatru one of the sons of

Shrenika Bimbsara came to the those about 554 B.C. His
capital was Champapuri , near Bhagalpur, and so he is
sometimes called Champapuri Naresh. The Chief events of
his reign are:
1. Nirvana of Mahavira
2.A war with Kosala
3. The conquest of Vaishali
4. The founding of Patliputra and
5. The Massacre of the Sakyas.

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During and impetuous he passed his life in warfare with his
neighbour , but in his after life he becme disgusted with
worldly pursuits , and soon after the Nirvan of Mahavira
took the vows of a Jain house-holder from Sudharma
Swami, the surviving the chief apostle of Mahavira.
Thenceforth he utilised his exuberant energy his inner
soul’s enemies and giving the throne to his son ‘ Darsaka’
became a Jain reclse* to pass his life in religious
retirement**. He was agreat monach among the Sasurnagas
ad a patron of Jains.

3. King Nandavardhana- Among the Nandas who ruled

after the Sarsutnagas King Nandavardhana ws a great
monarch. With his huge army he conquered Kalinga and
the most of upper India. was agreat hero who attacked the
Persanl garrisons on the N.W.Frontier of the British days,
ad liberated India from their yoke. He was also a patron of
Jainism.

4.Samarat Chandra Gupta Mauriya- Chandra Gupta the

son of Raja Morar Dass, a descendant of Manipal, the
fourth sone of Maharaha Uggar Sain, who was the ruler of
Agroha. Morar Dass married Chandravati, the daughter of
Raja Sham Karan. After marriage when Chandravari came
to the house of Morar Dass, she was accompanied by a
woman servant, Sundri who though a Nayan by caste, was
very beautiful & well versed in Sanskrit. Rani Chandravati
became the mother of Chandragupta and about the same
time Sundri gave birth to a son. Unfortunately Chandravati
died after a few months and Chandragupta was brought up
by this women servant.

About this time Maharaja Maha Padma Nand, the ruling

King of Magadha attacked Agroha and Rana Morar Dass
was killed in the battle.
He also wanted to kill Chandra Gupta , but when Sundri
was asked the whereabouts of Chandra Gupta she pointed
out to hwe own son and thus saved the minor king.

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When Mahanand saw Sundri he was enticed with her
bewitching beauty and taking her along with the minor
prince to the capital of Magadha forcibly made her his
Queen . Sundri then wrote a book Surya Gyam Chalisi in
which she disclosed all thefacts relating to the real
parentage of Chandra Gupta. The young prince on reading
this book was beside himself in rage and left the palace of
Mahanand.*

While he was in this self-imposed exile the young Kshatiya

swa that sitting under the scorching Sun a Brahman with
curses on his trembling lips and bleeding hand was
uprooting a thorny bush. When asked the reason f his
action the man peevishly replied. “Well don’t you see this
bus has without any offence on my part tore away my
garments it has not spared one, and’ surely I will not spare
it.”

The rustic looking man was none other tat te well-known

stateman and politician , Chankaya, whose Chanakaya Niti
is even to this day read and quoted with reverence its
deserves. The Nanda ing had on some previous occasion
offered a slight to mother Chandra Gupta would have long
been slain. Both of them thus became friends and
Chankaya** undertook the onerous duty of teaching and
training the young prince.

When this interprising and chivalorous prince heard of the

Greek invasion on the N.W. frontier of India he proceeded
with his friend to the Punjab and befriended the
Macedonian monarch. But he had hardly been many days
in the Greek camp when he exchanged hot words with
Alexndar the Great. From a Kshtrya youth like Chandra
Gupta, brought up in the traditions of free Aryans. It was
not to be expected that the could stand the humiliation of
insult and an alliance with an agreessor of his motherland.
The subterfuge* ended and he set himself to work for the
freedom and unification of India. Collecting a formidable
forceof the war-like and predatory** clans a “War of

107
Liberation” against the foreigners began. But first he
avenged his father’s death by overthrowing the Nanda King
of Magadha, and got from him huge army. He then attacked
the Macedonian garrisons and conquered the Punjab and as
well as Sind. Further attempts made by the Greeks under
Seleucos Nikator, the Satrap*** of Western Asia , to
recover the Indian , dominion ended in a treaty with the
victorious Hero of India, according to which the whole of
Afganistan became incorporated into the empire of
Magadha and the Greek Satrap also gave his beautiful
daughter; Helena, in marriage to his Indian rival.****

With the end of the above campaign, the victor turned his
armies against the South and came back with complete
success. Chandra Gupta now became the first historical
Emperor of India and the founder of the great Mauryan
empire, which became famous for the “ Steel frame” of its
administration and highly organised civil Services. India
then became united and entirely free from any foreign
aggression.

Chandra Gupta became an active and a keen member of the

Jain Church when he accepted as his spiritual preceptor the
Jain sage Bhadrabahu, who predicted a twelve years’
famine in Northern India. When this great famine occurred
and Bhadrabahu with his large community of the Jain saes
retired to South India, Chandra Gupta abdicated in favour
of his son Bimbsara and accompanied the jain Guru. He
practised austerities at Shravan belagola in Mysore, where
his name is still held in high esteem. The hill containing the
foot=prints of his preceptor is called Chandra agri. With its
carved and decorated walls portraying senses from the life
of the great Emperor and performing salakana* Chandra
Gupta attained “heaven from the hill. An oder of Jain
munis was also started in his sacred memory, which was
called Chandra Gupta ana.

The fact that he was a Digambras Jain can be further

proved from the inscription No: 40 at Sravanbelgola in

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Mysore:

“Shree Bhadrabahu was the last of the knowers of the

entire of Tirthankara’s instructions. Chandra Gupta, whose
renown was more radiant than the moon’s was his pupil.”

5.Bindusara. Bindusara was Samarat Chandra Gupta

Maurya’s son and father of famous Indian monarch
Ashoks. He was known by the title of Amitghata i.e. slayer
of foes.

6. Emperor Ashoka. There was only one independent

power in India, the Kingdom of Kalinga, left unconquered
by Chandra Gupta. Ashoka completed this task, but with
the conquest he was moved to passionate remorse at the
sight of bloodshed and misery wrought in the war. He ten
forsook agreession and preached the Law of Dharma.His
ordinances concerning the sparing of animal life and
advocating the moral precepts agree much more with the
ideas of Jainas, as expressed in their sacred books.he was ,
in fact, greatly influence by the human techings of Jains,
and even put 24 (the number of Jain God) spokes in the
Dharma Chakra on the piller.
‘Ashoka supported Jainism in Kashmir as his father
Bimbsara and grand –fater Chandra Gupta had supported
its throughout Magadha Empire’*

In a paper he has submitted to the French Academy of

Inscriptions. Prof. Sommer said that that one of the two
inscriptions in Greek and the other in Aramaic. A language
then current in this area, which was at that time part of the
Maurya Empire.In content, these inscriptions are broadly in
agreement with the famous bilingual inscription (Greek and
Aramaic) found at Shark-Quna- the old city of Kandhar.
This bilingual inscription mentions Ashoka’s title Piyadarsi
in both languages and say that due to the initiative of the
king people desisted from mead-eating and had increased
their respect for father, mother and other elders.

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 Ashoka’s injunctions against meat-eating confirm his
leaning towards Jainism rather than Budhism, which has
never been so partial in favour of vegetarianism.

7.Samprati. The immediate successor of Ashoka was

Samprati. With the true spirit of a Jain he wielded to the
sword to help the poor and the oppressed. He expanded the
Maurya Empire beyond the bordersof the present day sub-
continent of India and Pakistan and established centres of
Jain cultures in the countries of Arbia and Persia. He
founded Jain monasteries in non-Aryan counties and sent
out Jains sages to propagate the Dharma there. He himself
practised Jain rules in his after life, and worked hard for the
uplifting of Jainism in various ways*. He erected thousand
of jain temples throughout his empire.
Salisuka, Sampati was succeeded Saurashtra (Gujrat) and
preached Jainism far and wide.

8. Mahameghavahana Kharvela. In the modern province

of Orissa in India there once ruled Mahameghavahanas.
Among them Kharvela was a famous monarch. He was
born in 207 B.C in the great city of Kalinga.

In the eight years of his reign Kharvela invaded Magadha. The

fame of his valour and prowess which travelling before him
made the Greek King Demetrius evacuate Mathura without a
fight, was considered a remarkable deed of national
emanicipation that time.

Kharvela was declared an emperor after his victories over

Pushyamitra, who was powerful orthodox monarch on the
imperial throne of Magadha. From there he got rich trophies
including the statue of Rsabha which had been carried away by
King Nanda.

From Orissa to N.W. India and to Magadha and again back to

Orissa in the same year. Kharvela moved with rapidity. He
covered thousands of miles and maintained his huge army
thousands of miles away from his Kingdom. For his victories

110
he is called the Indian Napoleon.

Satisfied with the extension of his empire he devoted his

energies to the welfare of his soul. On te Kumari Pasvata he
raised various pillers and prepare caves for the Jain ascetics in
its vicinity. He was known as the King of Peace. Prosperity and
Dharma. In the Hathigumpha Kharvela is styled as a king of
saints.

9.Konguni Varma. King Konguni Varma, who was also called

Didiga, was the famous of the great ruling dynasty of South
India called the Gangas. Prior to their avent in the south, the
Gangas ruled in Northern India in the Gangetic Valley amd
belonged to the Iksavaku race. Something in the second
century A.D. they branched off in a southerly direction. Didiga
and Madhava, the two princes of the Ganga dynasty case to the
town of Perur in South India, where they met the Jain Acharya
Simhanandi.
Both the brothers bowed before the great teachers, who gave
them instructions in the doctrine os Syadvada and obtain for
them a boon from the goddess Padmavati confirmad by the gift
of the sword and the province of a Kingdom. The saint also
gave the brothers the following advice: “ If you fail in what
you promise, if you descent from the Jain Shahana, if you take
the wives of others, if you become addicted to liquors or flesh,
if you flee in battle, our race will go to ruin.” “ With the lofty
Nandairi as their fortress, Kuvalal as their capital and with the
blameless Jina as their Lord. Victory as their companion on the
battle field, the Jinbani as their faith and with were increasing
grentness greatness the king Didiga and Madhava ruled over
the earth.”

10.Among the later Gangas the name of King Avinita outshines

the others. He was the posthumous son of his father. Tradition
has it that while young , Avinita once swam across the River
Kaveri, when it was in full flood, with the image of a Jina on
his head in all safety. He was brought up under the care of the
Jain sage Vijayanandi; who was also his uncertain inscription
described as a “ Prodigy of valour , unrivalled in the managing

111
of elephants, in horsemanship , archery and as a prince of
unstinted liberality.”

11.Durvinita was the son of Avinita. He was a very

remarkable sovereign among the Gangas and was a good Jaina.
It is said that the celebrated Jain grammarian Pujyapada was
his spiritual Guru. He ruled too efficiently that his reign “
marked a transitions from a grey lifeless period to one that
considerably altered and the rigid orthodoxy gave way to a
liberal cosmopolitanism”. Durvinita was not only a great
soldier and patron of learning and piety. In short he was one of
the great South Indian monarch, who deserves an honoured
place in Indian history.

12. King Ninimarga I as the next hero of powess and piety.

Undertaking ceaseless wars he defeated the Banas & the
Rashtra Kuta King Amogvarsha, who gave his daughter in
marriage to Butuga, the Ganga crown prince. Nitimarga died in
870 A.D. adopting the Jain manner of death Sallekhna.

13. .King Butuga was proficient in the art of using the bow
and arrow and secured a good name in the Chola war. He was a
liberal administrator and well-veresed in Jain philosophy.

14. King Marsingha was the illustrious son of King Futuga,

who bore several, titles such as ‘Incarnation of Religion’, ‘The
Hero of the World.’
‘The Lion of the Gangas’ etc. which establish his great
personality. The Kudhir plates inform us that Marsimha
delighted in doing good to others. He is praised for not
coveting the wives and wealth of others, for his aversion in
giving ear to evil reports, and for his solicitude for those who
sought his protection.

15.Rakkasa Ganga was the last great king of Gangavadi. He

devoted his name in performing works of merit and
encouraging the Jain religion. He was the patron of the famous

112
Kannada poet Nagavarma, who was a Jain by belief and author
of Chandambudhi as well as Kadambari. The Kadambas were
one of the ancient rulers of Mysore, who ruled in the early
centuries of the Christian era. In this renowned family
flourished King Mragesh Varma, who ruled in the fifth century
A.D. Although his queen Prabhavati was a ardent devotee of
the Brahmins, yet he himself followed the creed of the
Jinendra. He issued grants for the support of Jain temples.

16. . Ravi Varma succeeded him and ruled nearly for half
century. His wars were many and arduous. In order to further
the cause of Jainism he passed a law that the worship of the
Jinendra should be perpectually performed by the pious
country-folk and citizens.

17. Hari Varma succeeded Ravi Varma. He followed his

father in promoting the cause of the Jain religion.

18. Deva Varma was the last prominent ruler among the
Kadambas. He was also famous for his liberality and religious
favour.

19.The Rashtra Kuta Monarchs. The Rashtra Kuta Kings

were the greatest monarchs of their time in India. They
belonged to the Chandra Vansa of the Kshtriyas. Foreign
scholars was visited India at the time ,spoke highly of the
Rashtra Kutas. Sulaiman the Arab wrote of the ruling prince
Rashtra Kuta of India in 851 A.D.:

“Every price in India even in his own land paid him homage.
He was the owner of many elephants ad of great wealth. He
refrained from wine and paid troops and servants regularly . In
his territory, property was secure, theft & robbery were
unknown, commerce was encouraged and foreigners were
treated with consideration and respect.”

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The Rashtra Kutas were brave and war-like tribesmen. Their
Kings made alliance with the Arabs who regarded them as
great friends of Islam. Al-Idrise, the Arab writes:

“The Rashtra Kuta territory was vast, well-peopled,

commercial and fertile. The people lived mostly on a vegetable,
diet, rice, peas, beans and lentils, being their daily food.......
These Indians are naturally inclined to Justice and in their
actions never depart from it. Their reputation for good faith,
honesty and fidelity to their engagements brings strangers
flocking to their country and thus adding to its prosperity.”

Most of them followed the Jain religion and they diffused the
best humane and moral teaching all round Jainism flourished
under the patronage of these glorious Kings.

20. King Dantidurga. With the Rashtra Kuta monarch

Dantidurga we see the ascendency of Jainism in the Rashtra
Kuta territories. He honoured one of the greatest figures in all
Jain history-Acharya Aklankadeva. Amazing as it is, the field
and period of work of both the heroes-one belonging to the
realm of state and the other to the spiritual Kingdom -was one
and the same. Jainism out-shone all else with the combind
support and wisdom of these two personalities . In South India
while King Dantidurga subdued the powerful chalukyas under
their King Kartavirya Aklanka won a great victory over his
religious opponent of Kanchi and at other seats of learning.

21. King Govind III was a great soldier and a prudent

statesman. His people looked upon him as the terror of their
enemies. He also favoured Jainism ,and Jain Sadhus had a free
access to his palace.

22. Amoghvarsha I ruled from 815 till 877 A.D. He was the
disciple of the Jain Guru Shri Jinsena, te famouns author of the
Sanskrit work Adipurana.

23. Ganit Sr Sangrah, a great work on Mathematics was

114
written by the Jain Rishi Mahavira Carya in his time. A copy of
this valuable book in Shalokas with its English translation may
be found in the Madas University liberary.

As to King Amoghvarsha’s state victory it may be said that he

was a great worrier, who offered a feast to yamaraja on the
battle-field. His pious meritorious deeds carved for him the title
of Atishayadhavala. Under his rule trade, education, literature
and the social status of the people increased. The great treatises
on Jain philosophy i.e. Dhavala and Jaya-Dhavala Tikas were
complied during his reign.

24. Krishna II was the son and successor of Amoghvarsha. He

also was a devout Jain, and a brave warrior and wise monarch.
His preceptor was the Jain Guru Gunabhadra Carya, who
completed his Uttarapurana during his reign. His court was a
resort for Jain scholars.

25. Indraraj III was the grandson of Krishna II and succeeded

him. His crowning ceremony took place on 24th February, 915
A.D. He ruled for five years and keenly supported Jainism and
so did his generals Shrivijaya and Narasimha. Despite their
beignJains by faith they fought several battles and over ran the
whole of Central India and Madhya desa.

26.The Rattas and their generals. The Rattas of Saundatti

were great feudatory lords of the imperial Rashtra Kuttas. They
were called Mahamandaleshvaras and ruled over the greater
part of the modern Dharwar and belgaum district in the
Bombay Presidency, from 850 till 1250 A.D. Almost one and
all of the rulers of this princely house followed the religion of
Jinas* . They were brave rulers and ever sided with their
monarch in their military campaigns.

27.Merad is the first known King of the Rattas. He was a

brave soldier and was seen always on the right hand of his
master on the battlefield. Shantiverma, Kalasena, Kanna Kair,
Kartavirya, Kalasena II, Laksamdeva and Kartavirya-Malli
Karjuna succeeded in turn to the throne of the Rattas. They

115
were all believers of the Jain Dharma. The Ratta queens and
princesses were not lacking in this spirit, and some of them
outshone their lords in observance of the religious piety All the
four kinds of charities viz. Shelter, food, medicine, and
knowledge were freely distributed from the pavilions of the
Jina temples built by them.

28.The Shilahara Kings. The Shilahara Kings of the

Vidyadhara clan of Kshtryas were ruling from the 10th to the
13th centuary A.D. over the tract of country which falls now
under the ambit of modern Belgaum Kolhapur districts in the
Bombay Presidency.

29..Gandraditya was a famous and great King among the

Shilaharas. He ruled from 1110 to 1136A.D. He honoured all
the sects of his dominion and to express his liberal views he
constructed a big tank in which he built a shrine for the idols of
Shri Jinendra, Budha and Shiva. His
son Vijayaditya succeeded him. His valour knew no bounds
and he was rightly styled as the ‘God of death’ to his enemies.
Although engaged in bloody warfare, he was always anxious
for the good of his soul as well.

30.Bhoja II next ascended the throne of the Shilaharas and was

well-known for valour and piety. He rulled between 1179 and
1205 A.D.

Among the generals of the Shilaharas, Nimbadeva, Boppana

and Laksidhar were ardent followers of Jainism.

31.The Chalukyan Kings. The Chalukyans were a ruling line

of powerful Kastriyas, who ruled throughout the ‘Bombay
Presedency.’ Deccam amd Mysore state during the 15th to 12th
centuries A.D. Their ancestors belonged to the regal house of
Chandra Vansi Kshtriyas of Ayodhya, the central seta of
Jainism. He made from hoary antiquity. The chalukyas wer
without doubt, great supporters of Jainism.**

116
32.Satyashraya Pulakesin II succeeded to the chalukyun
throne in 609 A.D. and was a great monarch of his time. He
had a great leaning towards Jainism. He made a grant to the
beautiful Jain temple at Aihati constructed by Ram Kirti, the
celebrated Jain poet. Pulakesin II excelled Harsha in the art of
war and military ability. His fame reached Khusru II King of
Persia leading to an exchange of gifts and embassies.

33.King Tailapa II of the western chalukyas had a strong

attachment for the religion olf Jinas. His queen was the Rashtra
Kutta princes. He patronised the great Kanarri poet Ranna, who
wrote Ajit Purana in A.D. 993.

34.Satyashrya Iriva ruled from A.D. 997 to A.D. 1009. He is

believed to be a followers of Jainism.

35.Someshvara I succeeded Jayasimha III. The former ruled

from 1042 to 1068 A.D. and the latter from 1018 to 1042. Both
of them were devout Jains.

36.Vikramaditya VI Tribhavanmala ruled from 1074 to

1126 A.D. He was the paramount ruler of the Deccan. He
started an era after his name in commemoration of his
crowning ceremony of King. He built many Jain temples.

37.King Bijjala the Great. Belonged to the Kakachuri clan of

Kshtriyas, who hailed from the Bundhelkand province of
Northern India. In the 12th centuary A.D. a branch of the
Kalachuri Kshtriya came to rule ver a portion of the District of
Bijapur in the Deccan. The Kalachuris, which literally means “
the destroyers of the fleshy bodis” were great warriors and
conquerors.

Bijjala was the commander-in Chief of the Chalukyan army,

but he crusing the feudatory and provincial rulers under the
Chalukyan King Tailap III, set himself as the paramount
monarch.
He was indeed a great ruler, whose reign lasted peacefully
from 1156 to 1167 A.D. he was a Jain and took keen interest in

117
safeguarding Jainism. Chief among his generals was
Basudhaika Rechimayya, who obtained the seven fold wealth
of empire to be enjoyed by the lion of Kings who succeeded
the emperor. King Bijjala gave him the beautiful province of
Nagarkhand, which he ruled with exceeding glory. Like his
master Bijjala, his efforts for the propogation of Jainism were
unending.

38.The Hoysala Kings of Doranumdra. These Kings were the

yadava Kshatriyas of Somavamsa. In 1116 A.D. they expelled
the Chola Kings and became rulers of the whole reign laying in
the west of Mysore. The progenitor of the family was Sala.
Once when in the temple of Basantidevi he was taking
religious instructions from the Jain Guru, Sudatta Vardhaman
Munindra. A tiger glaring with rage came bounding out of the
forest. The Jain sage in order to test his bravery handed his rod
to the Chief and exclaimed “Pay Sala!” meaning “O Sala
strike”. Where upon Sala hit the tiger and saved the Guru.

It was from the rescued Jain Guru’s excamation that the Chief
assumed the name ‘Poysala’ which later on changed to
‘Hoysala’.
Poysala was only a chieftain when he approached the Jain
Guffu Sudatta for aid. Sudatta was anxious for the rebirth of
the rebirth of the Jain Dharma in the Deccan and he set to work
to devise ways and means of rejuvenating the political life of
the country. He was successfull in creating the Hoysala
Kingdom and once again after the Gangas, a Jain state came
into existence.

39.King Vinayaditya was the first noble King after Sala

among them. He ruled from 1047 to 1100. A.D. and extended
the Hoysala Kingdom by his wisdom and prowess. He was an
ardent followers of Jainism. His religion preceptor was the Jain
Guru Shanti Sena.

40.King Ereyanga succeeded him. He was also a great warrior

and supporter of Jainism. His preceptor was the celebrated
Acharya Gopanandi.

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41.Kind Ballal I, the elderest son of Ereyanga ruled next from
1102 to 1106 A.D. The great debater Charukirty Muni was his
Guru. When the King was in moribund* condition through
severe illness, he quickly restored him to health.

42.Vishnu Vardhana Deva succeeded Kind Ballal. He was the

most brilliant monarch of Karnataka and was the rescuer of his
country from the

43.Cholas.Many of the notable victories which marked his rule

were won by his great Jain generals. In his early life he was a
firm believer of Jainism, but he was converted to Vaishnavaism
by Ramanuj in 1116. Inspite of his conversion he continued to
honour and patronise the Jain Gurus.

44.His queen Shantladevi was a devout Jain. An expert in

singing, instrumental music and dancing , he was renowned for
her beauty. Her activities for glorifying Jainism were uneding
and she was styled “a rampart of the Jain faith”.

45.His son Narasimha was crowned from the very day of his
birth. One of his most capable generals was the Jain
commander Hulla, who intense devotion to the Jain Dharma
was responsible for the devotion Narasimha showed to the Jain
religion.

46.The Chuhanas and the other Rajour Clans. It was during

the 7th century A.D. that the Rajpur Chiefs came into
prominence. They were great warriors , whose home was
Rajputana. According to the legend, current in Rajpurana, the
new race of Rajputas was produced from the children of fire on
Mount Abu, the Jain place of pilgrimage, the rule the earth by
the gods, when the Ksatriya were entirely destroyed by
Parshuram. They ruled for a long time and most of their earlier
princes patronised and followed the religion of the Jinas:

47.King Parithvi Raj I of Ajmer honoured the Jain Saint

119
Abhaya deva Maladhari. He receied religious instruction from
him and constructed the gold pinnacle of the Jain temple at
Ranathambhora.*

48.King Prothvi Raj II was also a patron of Jainism and a

powerful Kind. He gained the Chauhan throne through his
prowness and heroism. He was pleased to honour the Jain
Gurus of Bijaloya (Mewar) and bestowed the village of
Morakuti for the keep of a Jain temple. He was succeeded by
his uncle Someshwara Partapa-Lankesva, who was a great and
powerful King. Someshwara patronised the Jains and made a
fift of the village Renuka to the Parshwa Nath temple of
Bijoyala. He was the illustrious fater of Prithvi Raj III who
fought bravely with Shahabudin Mohmmed Ghori.*

49.King Ashvaraja was a feudatory lord. He patronised the

Jain and gave commands for the full observance of Ahimsa in
his Kingdom on certain days in a year.

50.His son Alhandeva was also an ardent lover of Jainism. He

fought may battle for his King Emperor Kumarapal and like his
father iussued commands for the stopping of himsa on the 8th,
11th and the 14th day of every lunar fortnight. In 1162 A.D. he
made a grant in favour of the temple of Lord Mahavira at
Nadol.** Jainism flourished well under him.

51.King Bhoja , the Parihar Rajpur, was a powerful ruler if the

whole of Northern India, he honoured the Jain Guru Boppa
Suri. He was a Sanskrit scholar and a follower of Jainism.

52. King Kakkuka. He was another Prithihara rular, who ruled

at Mandore(Rajputana). He became famous for his victories
over the Kings of Maru, Meda, Valla, Guyar and the Bhillas.
He was a Sanskrit scholar and followest of Jainism. He had
built temple of Jinendra.***

53.King Manuja Vakpatiry II the Paramara Rajput conquered

the southern countries of Karnataka, Lata, Kerla and Chola. He
was himself a great scholar and a good poet. His court was ever

120
thronged with learned a men and poets. In his time the Jain
scholar were successful in making many convert to Jainism.

54.Solankis ruled over Gujrat from 964 to 1242 A.D. and

Jainism flourished under them.

55.Kumarapal gained the Solanki throne through his Valour

and prowness. He became a paramount monarch by waging
successful wars with many important rules of his time. The
Shevtambra Jain scholar Hem Chandra converted him to
Jainism. The Jain wielded great power at his court.
Kumarapal’s conversion to Jainism produced a great change in
him. He gave up flesh food, abstained from intoxicating drink,
refused to make aggressive wars and expressed great respect
for the rights of his weaker neighbours. Like the Mauryan
Emperor Ashkka he sent religious missions to the rulers of
different territories. He founded 21 libraries and had copied
hundred of old manuscripts.

56.The Rathors of Hathundi (Rajpurana) were a ruling clan,

during the 10th centuryA.D. King Vidhoraj of these Rathors
was a Jain, who built a temple of Rsabha Deva at Hathundi and
also made a gift of land on it.-

REFERENCES

121
1. The Jain Ontological Model according to Kundakunda
and Umāsvāti ,Ana BAJŽELJ Asian Studies I (XVII),
1 (2013), pp. 3–16
2 Harmless Souls: Karmic Bondage and Religious Change
in Early Jainism , WH Johnson
3. Jaina Sutras (Part II Book 45) Kindle Edition
by Prakrit (Author), Hermann
Jacobi (Translator) Format: Kindle Edition

4. Defining Division: An Historical Overview of Jain Social

Organization,Marcus J. Banks,Modern Asian
Studies, Cambridge University Press, Vol. 20, No. 3 (1986),
pp. 447-460 See also A Sketch of the Religious Sects of the
Hindus.Horace Hayman Wilson,Asiatic Researches,
Calcutta,1828

122
 CHAPTER III
Ontology and Epistemology of
Jainism
Mahavira- the Revered One has taught-the truth
(comprehension and renunciation). For the sake of
the splendour, honour, and glory of this life, for the
sake of birth, death, and final liberation, for the
removal of pain, all these causes of sin are at work,
which are to be comprehended and renounced in this
world. He who, in the world, comprehends and
renounces these causes of sin, is called a reward-
knowing sage (muni).

ÂKÂRÂṄGA SÛTRA. FIRST BOOK. KNOWLEDGE OF

THE WEAPON. First lesson. Jaina Sutras, Part II (SBE22), tr.
by Hermann Jacobi, [1884], at sacred-texts.com.

123
Ontology and Epistemology are probably the most complex
terms that one might come across while studying philosophy.
Ontology and Epistemology are branches of philosophy. Let us
try and simplify these complex topics.
Ontology
The word ontology is derived from the Greek words ‘ontos’
which means being and ‘logos’ which means study. It tries to
pin point things around us that actually exist. It is the study of
the nature of being or becoming existence and their differences
and similarities. It tries to answer questions that begin with
‘What’. The scope of ontology can be generalised from
philosophy to other fields like medicine, information science or
even advanced physics. Ontology helps us to understand
questions like what is God, what is a disease, what happens
after death, what is artificial intelligence etc. The field is
dedicated towards understanding whether things exist or don’t
exist. Ontology also studies how various existing entities can
be grouped together on the basis of similar characteristics and
it tries to find out those similarities. The field also tries to find
a relation between the objects that exist. People who deal in
ontology try to understand why a particular thing occurs how it
is related to other things.

Epistemology
This is one of the core branches of philosophy which deals
with the aspect of procuring knowledge. It is more concerned

124
with the natural sources and scope and limits of knowledge.
Epistemology is also derived from the Greek word ‘episteme’
meaning knowledge and ‘logos’ means study. This branch of
philosophy aims at discovering the true meaning of knowledge.
The branch is divided into two parts:
 Nature of knowledge: This tries to explain what is
meant when a person says he knows about something
or event or when he says he doesn’t know about a
particular thing.
 Limits of knowledge: through this researchers try to
define the scope of knowledge. They want to know if
knowledge is limitless. Can we know everything or
there are certain limitations to what we can know.

According to epistemology, there are different types of

knowledge.
Empirical knowledge is gained through prior experience. A
person states a fact based on his previous experience or
encounters related to a particular topic. For example when he
says that fire is hot or ice is cold, it is because of his own
experience.

Non- empirical knowledge is based reasoning. When a person

says Antarctica is cold he reasons that by saying regions near
the south-pole get less sunlight and hence they are cold.
Propositional knowledge is when a person knows facts about

125
different fields. Individual knowledge is based on what one
person claims to know. Collective knowledge is based on what
a particular community of people know. Epistemology
encompasses all these types of knowledge.

Epistemology believes that knowledge is a mental state. It

exists in one’s mind. If a person doesn’t believe that a
particular thing exists then he cannot be knowledgeable about
it. The belief has to be true and only then will it be considered
as knowledge. It has to be factual and justified by sound
reasoning before it is considered as knowledge. Evidence and
reasoning are a must to acquire knowledge. Facts based on
misinformation or just lucky guesses cannot be construed as
knowledge.

To wrap up we can say that ontology tries to find out what is

there in the universe and epistemology finds out ways to know
what exists in the universe.
Yoga in Jainism, edited by Christopher Key Chapple
Jainism is considered as Non-Brahmanic or Sramanic
system. It is a heterodox system in the sense that it is
non-Kedic, ascetic and monastic in character. The basic
ideas of Jainism are radically different from those of the
so-called traditional and orthodox Brâhmanism. It is
quite independent of the Brâhmanical system. Jainism
does not acknowledge the authority of Vedic tradition. It

126
is a system, which believes in non-theistic. Many
scholars attempt to describe it, as an atheistic. religion
discussing its origin and antiquity of Jainism. Jainism
represents an important branch of Sramanic system of
ancient India. Jainism is believed to be one of the oldest
indigenous religions of India, probably to be a pre-Medic
religion. It is mentioned that “Jainas are referred to in
early vedic literature by the name of Vrâtyas. They are
identified as the members of Sraniana cultural system,
which is led by Jainas.

Asceticism is a lifestyle characterizing abstinence, no

sensual pleasures, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual
goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their
practices or continue to be part of their society, but typically
adopt a frugal lifestyle, characterised by the renunciation of
material possessions and physical pleasures, and also spend
time fasting while concentrating on the practice of religion or
reflection upon spiritual matters. Asceticism has been
historically observed in many religious traditions,
including Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity,
and Judaism, and contemporary practices continue amongst
some religious followers.

The practitioners of this philosophy abandon sensual pleasures

and lead an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit

127
of redemption,[4] salvation or spirituality. Asceticism is seen in
the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual
transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is
within, the frugal is plenty. Inversely, several ancient religious
traditions, such as Zoroastrianism, Ancient Egyptian
religion, and the Dionysian Mysteries, as well as more
modern Left Hand traditions, openly reject ascetic practices
and focus on various types of hedonism.

Asceticism in one of its most intense forms can be found in one

of the oldest religions, Jainism. Ascetic life may include
nakedness symbolizing non-possession of even clothes, fasting,
body mortification, penance and other austerities, in order to
burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of
which are believed in Jainism to be essential for
reaching siddha and moksha (liberation from rebirths,
salvation). In Jainism, the ultimate goal of life is to achieve the
liberation of soul from endless cycle of rebirths
(moksha from samsara), which requires ethical living and
asceticism. Most of the austerities and ascetic practices can be
traced back to Vardhaman Mahavira, the twenty-fourth
"fordmaker" or Tirthankara who practiced 12 years of
asceticism before reaching enlightenment.

Six outer and six inner practices are most common, and oft
repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete

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fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items,
abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh and guarding
the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation).

Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting

and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation and ignoring
bodily wants in order to abandon the body.

The Jain text of Kalpasutra describes Mahavira's asceticism in

detail, whose life is a source of guidance on most of the ascetic
practices in Jainism:

The Venerable Ascetic Mahavira for a year and a month wore

clothes; after that time he walked about naked, and accepted
the alms in the hollow of his hand. For more than twelve years
the ascetic Mahivira neglected his body and abandoned the
care of it; he with equanimity bore, underwent, and suffered all
pleasant or unpleasant occurrences arising from divine
powers, men, or animals.
— Kalpa Sutra 117

Both Mahavira and his ancient Jaina followers are described in

Jainism texts as practicing body mortification and being abused
by animals as well as people, but never retaliating and never
initiating harm or injury (ahimsa) to any other being. With such
ascetic practices, he burnt off his past Karma, gained spiritual

129
knowledge, and became a Jina. These austere practices are part
of the monastic path in Jainism. The practice of body
mortification is called kaya klesha in Jainism, and is found in
verse 9.19 of the Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati, the most
authoritative oldest surviving Jaina philosophical text.

In Jain monastic practice, the monks and nuns take ascetic

vows, after renouncing all relations and possessions. The vows
include a complete commitment to nonviolence (Ahimsa). They
travel from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and
always barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for
more than two months to prevent attachment to any place.
However, during the four months of monsoon (rainy season)
known as chaturmaas, they stay at a single place to avoid
killing life forms that thrive during the rains. Jain monks and
nuns practice complete celibacy. They do not touch or share a
sitting platform with a person of the opposite sex. Jain ascetics
follow a strict vegetarian diet without root vegetables. Prof.
Pushpendra K. Jain explains:

Clearly enough, to procure such vegetables and fruits, one must

pull out the plant from the root, thus destroying the entire plant,
and with it all the other micro organisms around the root. Fresh
fruits and vegetables should be plucked only when ripe and
ready to fall off, or ideally after they have fallen off the plant.

130
In case they are plucked from the plants, only as much as
required should be procured and consumed without waste.

The monks of Shvetambara sub-tradition within Jainism do

not cook food, but solicit alms from
householders. Digambara monks have only a single meal a day.
Neither group will beg for food, but a Jain ascetic may accept a
meal from a householder, provided that the latter is pure of
mind and body, and offers the food of his own volition and in
the prescribed manner. During such an encounter, the monk
remains standing and eats only a measured
amount. Fasting (i.e., abstinence from food and sometimes
water) is a routine feature of Jain asceticism. Fasts last for a
day or longer, up to a month. Some monks avoid (or limit)
medicine and/or hospitalization out of disregard for the
physical body.

Shvetambara monks and nuns wear only unstitched white robes

(an upper and lower garment), and own one bowl they use for
eating and collecting alms. Male Digambara sect monks do not
wear any clothes, carry nothing with them except a soft broom
made of shed peacock feathers (pinchi) to gently remove any
insect or living creature in their way or bowl, and they eat with
their hands. They sleep on the floor without blankets, and sit
on wooden platforms. Other austerities include meditation in
seated or standing posture near river banks in the cold wind, or

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meditation atop hills and mountains, especially at noon when
the sun is at its fiercest. Such austerities are undertaken
according to the physical and mental limits of the individual
ascetic.

When death is imminent from an advanced age or terminal

disease, many Jain ascetics take a final vow
of Santhara or Sallekhana, a fast to peaceful and detached
death, by first reducing intake of and then ultimately
abandoning all medicines, food, and water. Scholars state that
this ascetic practice is not a suicide, but a form of natural death,
done without passion or turmoil or suddenness, and because it
is done without active violence to the body.
In Jainism, monasticism is encouraged and respected. Rules
for monasticism are rather strict. A Jain ascetic has neither a
permanent home nor any possessions, wandering barefoot from
place to place except during the months of Chaturmas. The
quality of life they lead is difficult because of the many
constraints placed on them. They don't use a vehicle for
commuting and always commute barefoot from one place to
another, irrespective of the distance. They don't possess any
materialistic things and also don't use the basic services like
that of a phone, electricity etc. They don't prepare food and live
only on what people offer them.

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Kundakunda, Umāsvāti and Siddhasena Divākara
Jain ontological model,is frequently referred to as an identity-
in-difference and a permanence-in-change view of reality.
These three thinkers are the pioneers of Jaina philosophy
whose basic ideas set the trend for most later thinkers.
Biographical details of all of them are mixed with legend and
there are differences of opinion as to whether they really wrote
all the works ascribed to them; there is also a lack of consensus
about their dates.
Kundakunda. If recent research is correct in considering him
to have belonged to the second or third century AD, then this
would make him the first significant and independent thinker
of the post-canonical period whose views are accepted as
representing the essence of Jaina thought. Still others put his
reign as between 8 bc to 44 AD. Although he was a pioneering
Digambara thinker, probably from South India, appreciation
for his views also comes from the Śvetāmbara sect of Jainism.
He was also known as Padmanandi. The name Gṛdhrapiccha,
erroneously used for him since about the fourteenth century,
has led to confusion because it is also an alias for Umāsvāti.

A total of eighty-four works on various themes are ascribed to

Kundakunda, of which fifteen are extant and three may be said
to be philosophical masterpieces, all written in the Prakrit
language. These are the Pañcāstikāyasāra (Essence of the Five

133
Existents), the Pravacanasāra (Essence of the Scripture) and
the Samayasāra (Essence of the Doctrine).
The Pañcāstikāyasāra is an elementary work dealing with the
Jaina substances (excluding time because it does not occupy
any spatial points) and the fundamental truths, to which two
additional categories are added, namely the meritorious and
demeritorious acts related to karma (puṇya and pāpa).
The Samayasāra emphasizes, among other things, two
standpoints mentioned in the canonical literature which seem to
have no relation to the standard sevenfold standpoint
(see Manifoldness, Jaina Theory of). These are the ‘definitive’
standpoint (niścayanaya), used synonymously with the ‘pure’
or ‘transcendental’ (śuddha or paramārtha) standpoint, and the
‘mundane’ standpoint (vyavahārikanaya). It is an illuminating
work dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination
by matter, and whether the soul’s intrinsic nature is in any way
affected or changed through karma bondage in so far as it is the
doer and enjoyer of activities. An attempt is made to reconcile
these problems, solutions to which depend on the standpoint
from which one approaches the issues. The Pravacanasāra is an
insightful work whose three sections clearly delineate its scope:
knowledge, the objects of knowledge, and conduct. The
problem of substance, quality and mode, is one of the pivotal
issues in Jaina philosophy and a few points are outlined below
in order to show how Kundakunda deals with it. It forms the
subject matter of the second section of the Pravacanasāra,

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which the tenth-century commentator Amṛtacandra says
Kundakunda ‘properly discusses’.
The problem is basically that of how change in the world may
be explained given the permanent, eternal nature of the two
basic substances of ultimate reality; this has obvious
implications for the essential nature of the soul. Kundakunda
begins the section with the statement: ‘The object of
knowledge is made up of substances, which are said to be
characterized by qualities, and with which, moreover, are
(associated) the modifications’ (Pravacanasāra II, 1; trans. A.N.
Upadhye). The basic problem is then evident when he
says: ‘There can be no origination without destruction, nor is
there destruction without origination; origination and
destruction are not possible in the absence of permanent
substantiality’ (II, 8). How ‘origination’ and ‘destruction’,
which in fact refer to change, are to be understood is expressed
by Kundakunda in typical Jaina language in II, 19: ‘The
substance forever retains its position, its own nature, as
endowed with positive and negative conditions according as it
is looked at from the substantial and the modificational
viewpoints.’ This is further elaborated:
All substances are nondifferent from the substantial viewpoint,
but again they are different from the modificational view-point,
because of the individual modification pervading it for the time
being. According to some modification or the other it is stated

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that a substance exists, does not exist, is indescribable, is both
or otherwise.
(II, 22–3)

What Kundakunda means by origination and destruction is

distinctively Jainist and is clarified later in the same
section: ‘In this world, in which modifications originate and
pass away at every moment, nothing is absolutely produced or
destroyed; what is the production of one modification is the
destruction of another; and thus origination and destruction are
different’ (II, 27). The change that occurs in matter is
understandable on the analogy of objects and colour. Just as
gold (regarded here as a substance), for example, can have not
only different shades of colour (with colour being its basic
quality) but also different forms (with the object made out of
gold being its modification), so too all substances retain their
substantiality despite the apparent destruction of their qualities
and modes. The situation is more complicated with the soul
substance. The problem is technical, and relates to two
‘operations’ (upayogas) ascribed to the soul, namely
‘indeterminate intuition’ and ‘determinate knowledge’; these
operations are described as two qualities (guṇas) of the soul.
The concern is with the unity or identity of the soul and
involves the question of whether the two upayogas operate in
the soul simultaneously or in succession, and if in succession,
which is first, and whether they maintain their distinctness in

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the state of omniscience. Kundakunda maintains that they
operate successively at the mundane level and simultaneously
at the transcendental level of omniscience. His view, which is
also held by Umāsvāti, represents the attitude of the Digambara
sect and is opposed, for example, by Siddhasena Divākara,
who, in regarding quality and mode as synonyms, says that
they are not separate operations in the state of omniscience. His
view represents the general Śvetāmbara standpoint, based on
the fact that the canonical literature distinguishes only
substance and quality, without mentioning the standpoint
connected with the modifications of a substance.

Umāsvāti. He is famous for the first Jaina work written in

Sanskrit, called the Tattvārthasūtra or Tattvārthādhigamasūtra
(Mnemonics on the Meaning of the Fundamental Principles).
The Jain ontological model is unique in the context of Indian
philosophies in so far as it refuses to agree with any of the
absolute ontological positions. It adopts an intermediary
approach, synthesizing the extreme ontological positions of
absolute identity/permanence and absolute difference/change.
Taking into account all of the four above-mentioned features of
reality, Jainism, moreover, rejects the subordination of any one
of these aspects of reality to the other,7 maintaining the
relationship between the identical/permanent and the
different/changing aspects of reality to be coordinated . Hence,

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what exists must be permanent, yet changing at the same time.
Also, identity as well as difference may be recognized between
various aspects of individual existents in time.1

Again, biographical details are scanty and both the sects of

Jainism claim him as one of their own (with the Digambaras
also calling him Umāsvāmī) and regard his work, in traditional
Indian manner, as authoritive for Jaina thought. His dates vary
from the second to the fifth centuries AD, with recent
preference for the fourth or fifth centuries. Of the five works
ascribed to him, the Praśamaratiprakaraṇa (Treatise on the
Love for Tranquility) – a popular work dealing with ethical
issues and addressed to ascetics and householders – and
the Tattvārthasūtra are philosophically important. There is an
ongoing debate about whether, as the Śvetāmbaras believe, a
commentary on the Tattvārthasūtra was written by Umāsvāti
himself, or whether, as the Digambaras believe, the first
commentary on it is Pūjyapūda’s fifth-century Sarvārthasiddhi
(Attainment of the Meaning of Everything). There are two
versions of the work by the two sects, with hardly any
philosophically significant differences.

The Tattvārthasūtra contains a series of aphorisms, divided into

ten chapters, which are understandable only with a
commentary. The value of the work is evident from the fact
that throughout the history of Jaina philosophy, every major

138
thinker has written a commentary on it. Until around the tenth
century, the Digambara thinkers, such as Akalaṅka (c. eighth
century) and Vidyānandin (c. ninth century), took centre stage.
They wrote in a difficult style and hardly any research related
exclusively to their writings has been done.

Commentators often took the opportunity to criticize other

views and defend the Jaina standpoint. For example, in his
commentary on Umāsvāti’s aphorism on the means of
knowledge and the standpoints (Tattvārthasūtra I, 6),
Vidyānandin enters into an interestingly detailed debate with
the Buddhists (even quoting from Dharmakīrti’s seventh-
century work on the means of knowledge, Pramāṇavārttika)
regarding the knowledge of an object, namely, whether an
object is cognized as a whole or in parts. The issue is raised in
the context of the Buddhist view that an object as a whole does
not exist, against which it is asserted that a part of an object,
which can be understood to be a whole in itself, cannot then be
cognized, putting the Buddhist standpoint in jeopardy.
Vidyānandin, applying the Jaina theory of standpoints, says
that both a part of an object and the object as a whole are
cognized from different standpoints.

Umāsvāti’s contribution lies in presenting the basic issues in

Jaina philosophy in a systematic form, so much so that his
work usually forms the standard for Jaina thought as a whole.

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The ontology, metaphysics and epistemology summarized in
parts §§1–2 are based on his Tattvārthasūtra. 2.

Siddhasena Divākara. It seems certain that Siddhasena lived in

the fifth century AD and that he wrote in Sanskrit and Prakrit.
He is generally considered to have belonged to the Śvetāmbara
sect, although he is claimed by both the sects of Jainism as one
of their own, serving as the first Jaina logician for both. Apart
from the canonical literature, there seems to be little influence
from other sources in his writings, despite similarities of ideas
between him and, for example, Kundakunda. Reference to
Siddhasena’s work on logic, the Nyāyāvatāra, has been made
in part §2. His second most important work on philosophy,
Proper Understanding; Sanskrit, Sanmatisūtra), dealing with
the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of
knowledge. It is in the last section that he clearly discusses the
issue of the standpoints, taking into consideration the quality of
a substance, which according to him is not sanctioned by Jaina
scripture as a separate category.
Siddhasena is also credited with having written twenty-one
short compositions, each consisting of thirty-two verses (and
simply called the ‘thirty-twos’), on a variety of themes,
including eulogies to Mahāvīra, critiques of Buddhist and
Hindu schools, and an exposition of Jaina concepts. The work
on logic is also written in this form.
Share

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ORIGIN AND ANTIQUITY OF JAINISM

H. H. Wilson as “... Jainism came into existence only

during the 8” or 9" century A.D. From all credible
testimony, therefore, it is impossible to avoid the
inference that the Jainas are a sect of comparatively
recent institution who came into power and patronage
about the 8'h and 9t' century: they probably existed before
that date as a division of the Bauddhas, and owed their
elevation to the suppression of that form of faith to
which they contributed.

This is positively asserted by the traditions of the south

in several instances: the Baudhas of Kanchi were
confuted by Akalanka, a Jain priest, and thereupon
expelled from the country. Vara Pandya of Madura, on
becoming a Jain, is said to have persecuted the Bauddhas,
subjecting them to personal tortures, and banishing them
from the country. There is every reason to be satisfied,
therefore, that the total disappearance of the Bauddhas in
India proper is connected with the influence of the Jainas
which may have commenced in the sixth or seventh
centuries and continued till the twelfth”. These kind of
conflicting views were presupposed basing on
similarities and resemblance between some of the
doctrines and practices of Jainism and Buddhism. Charles

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Eliot maintains: “Many of their doctrines especially their
disregard not only of priests but of Gods, which seems to
us so strange in any system which can be called a religion,
are closely analogous to Buddhism and from one point of
view Jainism is a part of the Buddhist movement. But
more accurately it may be called an early specialized
form of the general movement which culminated in
Buddhism” (cf Gopalan, 1973: 4-5).

H. Jacobi 3 strongly opposed the view that Jainism is an

offshoot of Buddhism and he made correction of this
view with a thorough investigation into the historical and
traditional records of the two traditions, commenting the
fact that Jainism was an earlier and independent religion
of India (Jacobi, 1946: 3-4). In 1884, the antiquity of
Jainism was established by Jacobi for the first time as an
independent and pre- Buddhist religion on the basis of
the available from the Pali Canon (Bhaskar, 1972: 22).
H. Jacobi says: “ln conclusion let me assert my
conviction that Jainism is an original system, quite
distinct and independent from all others; and that therefore
it is

142
of great importance for the study of philosophical
thought and religious life in ancient India” (cf
Bhattacharya, 1957: ix). According to J.P. Jain, Jainism
is one of the oldest living religions of India and certainly
it is not an offshoot of any religion or in revolt to any
religion (Shah, 1997: 41). Hermann Jacobi rightly

143
believed that Jainism is not a mere offshoot of
Buddhism. J. P Jain writes “Dr. Harmann Jacobi and
others are also of the opinion that Jainism was related
to the primitive philosophy of India, because of certain
of its metaphysical conceptions, animistic belief, hero-
worship in the form of worship as deities of perfected
mortals, and of its being a very simple faith, be it in
worship, rituals or morals” (Jain, 1977: 2). Regarding
the origin of Jainism, S. Radhakrishna said “there is
nothing wonderful in my saying Jainism was in
existence long before the Vedâs were composed”

(Bhattacharya, 1957: xiv).4

Many scholars regarded Jainism as reformation

movement of Brâlimanism, appealing to advocate a
virtuous life and believed that it arose as a reaction
against the extreme Vedic ritualism of sacrifice and
killing of animals. There was a propensity of anti-
ritualistic within the religion of Brâhmanism itself. It is
believed that the Vedic religion tarnished its original
purity by the sixth century B.C. The period from the
seventh to the fifth centuries BC was a turning point in
the intellectual and spiritual development of the whole
world. In transition period, many people felt themselves
adrift socially and morally. Religious confiision also arose
as divergent streams of religious thought and practice

144
came into contact and conflict. The killing of living
animals as ritual ceremonies which advocated sacrifices to
please God was one of the reasons to instill a feeling of
revolt and contempt against such kind of activities among
the people and started as a religious movement. The
disapproval of Vedic authority and revolt against the
ritualistic sacrifices of the Vedic religion has resulted to the
emergence of Jainism as anti-theism. The social outlook of
the Vedic system was based on the caste system. The
lower communities like Sudra were not allowed to
perform religious rites. People are fed of such kind of
social discrimination. This led to reject the institutions of
caste and animal sacrifices.

The ultimate aim of Jainism is the attainment of salvation or

moksa bo rn the chain of birth and dead, which is same as
that of Brâhman ism or Hinduism. Jainism believes the
Hindu’s concept of karma and soul. It means that it
follows the essential principle of Hinduism. The concept
of the Vedic origin of Jainism is mainly based on the
following assumptions. These assumptions support this
theory of the origin of Jainism.

The Sramana thought (the ascetic stream of culture) was

believed to be developed within the Vedic-Brâhmanic

145
tradition and was a reaction to sacrificial ritualism of the
Vedic Aryans.

The earliest culture in India is the Vedic culture.

Jainism and Buddhism are believed to be later than the

earliest Upanishads and some of the Vedic sutra texts
are also believed to be pre- Jinist and pre-Buddhist.

Origin of Jainism based on Pre-Vedic background: While

attempting to point out a brief sketch of the origin of Jainism,
many difficulties have to be faced from the historical point of
view; since there was almost non-existent of factual history in
ancient times. Though, Jaina’s scholar rejected the above
mentioned concept of the origin of Jainism, mainly based on
'edic background. They believed that Jainism is to be a pre-
Kedic tradition of independent origin. There is no manipulation
from any other religious systems. Jt is supposed to be one of
the oldest and earliest religions of India.Looking back to the
archaeological evidences, there is probability to consider that
the origin of Jainism is pre- Medic. “The ruined cities of
Harappa and Mohenjodaro reveal that before the ludo-Aryans
arrived in lndJa, a highly advanced and mature culture had
been flourishing in North-West India. The pre-Vedic and pre-
Aryan Harappan culture is much more ancient than the Vedic
Aryan culture. The legacy of the Harappans has been
acknowledged by several modem archaeologists. It is now

146
accepted that several elements of our ancjent thought and
culture are of non-Aryan and pre-Aryan origin. The ascetic
strand in Indian culture has been traced to non- Vedic Harappan
culture complex.

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 CHAPTERIV
CHAPTER EARLY LIFE OF MAHAVIRA

The preceding description of Indian society in 6th

century B.C. has been given in such detail, for it is only
with a full knowledge of that background that a correct
evaluation of the noble work and achievements of
Mahavira is really possible. Mahavira was born in the
year 599 B.C. at Kundagrama, which was a suburb of
the flourishing town of Vaisali, about twenty-seven
miles north of Patna. His father Siddhartha was
apparently the chieftain of the place and his mother,
Trisala, was the sister of the Vaisali ruler, whose name
has been given in the Jaina texts as Cetaka. According
to the Jaina belief, Mahavira’s parents were
worshippers of Parsva and followers of the Sramanas.

Tirthankara Parsva:

There is a Jaina tradition that Jainism is as old as the

human race, that the religion shall remain in existence
till eternity, and that it has been and will be revealed
again and again in the endless succeeding periods of the
world by innumerable Tirthankaras. In each of these
periods there are twenty-four Tirthankaras, the first

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Tirthankara of present age being Rsabha and the last
two being Parsva and Mahavira. Historical research in
India was so crude and unorganized at one time that all
these Tirthankaras, including Mahavira, were looked
upon by the historians of ancient India as just mythical
personages. The credit of recognizing the historical
existence of Mahavira goes surprisingly enough, to a
German scholar in the field of Indology, Professor
Herman Jacobi, who made an English translation of the
first Jaina Anga: Acaranga, and published it with a
masterly introduction in the series called the “Sacred
Books of the East” in 1884. Ancient historical research
has made some progress since then, and today Indian
historians are prepared to freely recognize not only that
Mahavira was a historic personage but also that the
twenty-third Tirthankara, Parsva, and some at least of
his predecessors had historical existence.

Parsva was the son of King Asvasena of Benares, who

belonged to the Iksvaku race of the Ksatriya. In his
marital relations he was connected with the royal family
of King Prasenajit, whose father Naravarman
designated himself as the lord of the universe. It has not
been possible so far to historically identify Asvasena of
Benares or Prasenajit and his father Naravarman of
Kusasthala; but in spite of that limitation historians

149
have been willing to accept the historicity of Parsva
because of certain other historical and geographical
coincidences. The existence of the great tirtha, the hill
of Samet-Sikhara (which is locally known as the
Parsvanatha Hill), on the spot at which the twenty-third
Tirthankara attained his final liberation (Nirvana)
affords a monumental proof of his historicity. Jaina
literature, of course, contains numerous references to
Parsva and records the facts of his life, but even
contemporary Buddhist and other literature affords
striking evidence about the existence
of Nirgranthas before the time of Mahavira.

These Nirgranthas or followers of Parsva were

undoubtedly Jaina monks; Mahavira himself was
referred to as such, and he insisted on calling his
followers by the same name. This system preached by
Parsva must have been philosophically founded upon
the same presuppositions that mark the present-day
Jaina Siddhanta, but it is presumable that it did not
quite offer the same pattern of ethical conduct or moral
discipline. First, the religion of Parsva laid down only
four vows (chaturiam) for the observance of his
followers: ahinsa (non-killing); sunirij (truthful
speech), astay (non-stealing), and aprigreh (renouncing
of all illusory objects) ; while Mahavira specified, and

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present day Jainism recognizes, five great vows, the
vow of chastity being given the same status as the vow
of ahimsa. Jacobi is of the opinion that ”the
augmentation in the text presupposes a decay of the
morals of the monastic order to have occurred between
Parsva and Mahavira.” It was possibly a reflection in
the domain of social ethics of the newly growing ideas
of sanctity of property which marked the rise of
economic capitalism in Indian society. Secondly,
although it is clear that Parsva’s sanha as well as
Mahavira’s comprehended the monk and the nun, and
the layman and the laywoman, the type of distinction
between an ordinary layman (shravak) and a layman
who took a special type of diksha and undertook to
observe the twelve lay vows (shramano pasak), which
undoubtedly formed a peculiar feature of
Mahavira’s sangha, did not seem to characterize
Parsva’s sangha at all. The difference between
a sravak and sramano pasek in
Mahavira, sangha consisted presumably in this, that
a Sravaka took no definite vows but merely expressed
sympathy and his faith as a Jaina while
a Sramanopasaka took definite vows: Mahavira drew a
distinction between the five great vows which laid
down the practice of right conduct for the ascetic, and
the five lesser vows which indicated the rules of

151
discipline for the layman and were reinforced by seven
more lay vows under which the layman imposed on
himself voluntary limitations regarding the areas of his
desires, his travel, the things of his daily use, the
performance of meditation every day and every month,
and the giving of alms to the ascetic. There is an
occasional mention of the twelve vows of
the sravaka in Parsva’s sangha also, but that appears to
be no more than a conventional way of writing for it is
obvious that there could not be twelve-there could be at
best only eleven-vows of Parsva’s sravakas. What is
significant is that Parsva’s sravakas. What is significant
is that Parsva’s system is invariably spoken of
as catuyram in the Buddhist and the Jaina texts, and
such invariable use of the term does not warrant the
type of distinction which Mahavira felt impelled to
draw between the great and the lesser vows.

The Jaina Idea of Biography:

It is amazing that historical scholars should have ever

been inclined to doubt the existence of Mahavira. Jaina
literature, particularly Jaina canonical literature, which
is avowedly older than the classical Sanskrit literature
and which vies in its antiquity with the oldest books of
the northern Buddhists, is replete with the facts of

152
Mahavira’s life. Jacobi is of the view that European
scholars were confounded by the similarities between
Buddhism and Jainism and between Buddha’s and
Mahavira’s life and that they came to this conclusion
due to their lack of study on the subject. The numerous
names and appellations by which these two prophets
were called Jina, Arhat, Mahavira, Sugatta, Sarvajna,
Tathagata, Siddha, Buddha, Sambuddha, Parinivrtta,
Mukta, etc., and the fact that both of them were given
the same titles and epithets further confused historical
scholars. But, Jacobi has stated, with the exception of
Jina and perhaps Sramana, which were quite commonly
used by both the sects, the Buddhists and the Jainas
made a preferential selection of certain titles only.
Thus, Buddha, Tathagata, Sugata and Sambuddha are
common titles of Sakyamuni and are only occasionally
used as epithets of Mahavira. On the other hand,
Mahavira is often referred to in the Jaina Agama as
Vardhamana, Because of the ‘increase that had taken
place in the popularity of his parents ever since the
moment he had been begotten’, still more often as
Jnatrputra. The Buddhist texts refer to him as Nataputta,
and it was not until quite late that Jacobi identified the
term Nataputta to be a variation of Janatrputra. He is
also called Vira, Ativira, Sanmati and by a host of other
names in the later literature of the Jainas.

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These names are clearly qualitative names, that is to
say, they are meant to draw attention to certain qualities
possessed by Mahavira; and they are all indicative of a
distinct point of view which underlay the Jaina idea of
biography. The Jaina viewpoint while writing a
biography is not that of the usual historical biographer.
The Jaina interest is not diffused over the whole range
of the subject’s activities; it is all centered at one point,
and that point is the attainment by his subject of
salvation. The Jaina biographer writes about other
things only in so far as they have to do with the
attainment of his ultimate object. Interest would be
spread over the whole wide field of activity when a
biography like that of Rama or Krishna, is written with
a view to help the codification of the principles
of dharma. The Brahmanic view, which was based on a
desire for success in the world as well as the next and
which linked up, in the significant phrase of Sir S.
Radha-Krishna, “the realm of desires with the
prospective of the eternal’, thought in terms of
the purusharth or human values- Dharma, artha,
kama, and moksa- and considered the acquisition of
wealth and the enjoyment of the present life as
worthwhile as the ultimate attainment of the moksa. But

154
to the Jaina there is no such thing as a real enjoyment
of material things.

The Jaina siddhanta is based upon the presupposition

that the whole universe can be classified into one or
other of the two everlasting, uncreated, coexisting but
independent categories, the jiva and the ajiva; and the
Jaina metaphysics proceeds on the assumption that
the Jiva (which corresponds in general to the atman of
the other schools of Indian thought) not only exists but
that it also acts and is acted upon. The intrinsic nature
of the Jiva is one of perfection and is characterized by
infinite intelligence (anantgyan), infinite perception
(anantdarshan), infinite peace (anantsukh), and infinite
power (anantveeriya). During the period of the union,
however, of the Jiva with matter which
constitutes samsara, the characteristic features of the
Jiva’s qualities are obscured, although not destroyed,
and “the exterior semblance of the Jiva belies its innate
glory’; and from this obscuration it becomes the duty of
each individual soul to free itself. Man’s personality in
this view consists of two elements, the spiritual and the
material; and according to Jainism, the object of life is
so to subdue the latter as to completely sake off its
malignant influence and thereby enable the Jiva to all

155
its inherent excellencies in their fullness. A man’s
action in life may be of two kinds, that which
maintains, or even strengthens, the bond of union
between Jiva and the matter, and thus-whether it brings
pleasure or pain to the doer-effectually keeps the Jiva in
a state of bondage, and that which tends to cut asunder
the union between Jiva and matter and thus helps the
Jiva to attain its freedom and ultimately perfection. The
first kind of action, and its is just this action which is
germane to what we call worldly achievements, is from
a spiritual point of view undeserving of very much
attention; and so the Jaina biographer, whose main
interest is centered on the attainment of the ultimate,
has been on the whole inclined to omit it from his
analysis. It is only the spiritual activity of the individual
about which he has written.

Mahavira’s Biographies:
Thus, there is no dearth of biographical material for
Mahavira, who holds the honored position of being the
twenty-fourth and last in the galaxy of Tirthankaras of
the present age and who is also the ruling personality of
the present patriarchate; but this material is primarily
and essentially concerned with the details of the
spiritual activities of Mahavira. Of the purely material

156
side of his life, the details provided are not many and
not sufficiently lucid or specific.

Jacobi is of the opinion that the first book

(Shrutskandh) of the Acarangasutra and of
the Sutrakrtanga sutra may be reckoned among the
most ancient parts of the Jaina siddhanta. Their style
and meter prove the correctness of this opinion.

The date of these Sutras would be somewhere between

the Pali literature and the composition of
the Lalitavistara, and has been worried out by Jacobi to
be in the 4th century B.C. It is in the first book of
the Acaranga that the outlines of Mahavira’s life appear
for the first time, but these outlines have been drawn in
a rather rough and limited way. There is no mention
here of early or householder’s life at all; the story
begins with Mahavira’s ‘entry into the order’ and goes
on to the narration of his daily habits of life as a monk
and the numerous penance’s he went through. The
second book of the Acranga, which obviously is a later
composition and which does not even fit in with the
scheme of writing adopted in the first book, refers
possibly, in point of time, to the first part of the 3rd
century B.C. when the whole canon was brought
together under the patriarchate of Sthulibhadra; and in

157
this book we can obtain the first glimpse of the detailed
account of Mahavira’s birth and early life. Certain
specific details mentioned here, like the change of
embryo, the periodic attendance upon Mahavira of the
four orders of Bhavanapati, Vyantara, Jyotiska and
Vaimanika gods and goddesses, the enunciation of the
five great vows, etc. were described more elaborately
and certainly with an element of exaggeration by later
writers on the life-history of Mahavira.

The Kalpasutra, written and composed by Bhandrabahu

I, is elaborated upon these details with poetic imagery
and in picturesque style and further added to them the
new element of the fourteen dreams according
to Svetamber and 16 according to Digambara sect-the
dreams of (1) an elephant; (2) a land; (3) a lion; (4) the
anointing of the Goddess Sri; (5) a garland; (6) the
moon; (7) the Sun; (8) a flag; (9) a vase; (10) a lotus
lake; (11) the ocean; (12)a celestial abode; (13) a heap
of jewels; and (14) a flame which a Tirthankara’s
mother was believed to have seen. The final forms of
Mahavira’s life was attained in the Avasyaka-Niryukti
of Bhadrabahu II, which may be ascribed to the 5th
century A.D. and in an anonymously written
commentary on it added some time in the 6th or 7th
century A.D. These books, however, represent the

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Svetambara version of Mahavira’s life. At the hands of
the Digambara acaryas a somewhat different version
was prepared on the basis of pumchriya written by
Vimala, whose date may be somewhere between the 1st
and 3rd century A.D., fist in the Padmapurana, which
may be ascribed to the 8th century A.D. and later on by
others in various Puananas. The Digambara version
gave the facts of life with the usual and in certain ways
with more than usual embellishment, but it differed
from the prevailing Svetambara version in one or two
major details.

Parentage and Birth:

The first difference between the Svetambara and
Digambara version relates to the fact of Mahavira’s
birth. Both versions agree that Mahavira was the son of
Siddharatha and Trisala, that he belonged to a clan of
the Ksatriyas called Jnatrkas (known as Natikas in the
Buddhist works), and that he was a Kasyapa by gotra.
But the Svetambara version speaks of a transfer of
embryo; the Acaranga says-

“Here, forsooth, in the continent of Jambudvipa in

Bharatavarsa, in the southern part of it, in the
Brahamanical part of the place Kundapura, he took the
form of an embryo in the womb of Devananda, of the

159
Jalandhrayana gotra, wife of the Brahmana
Rsabhadatta, of the gotra of Kodala....... “Then in the
third month of the rainy season, the fifth fortnight, the
dark (fortnight) of Asvina, on its thirteenth day, while
the moon was in conjunction with Uttaraphalguni, after
the laps of eighty-two days, on the eighty-third day
current, the compassionate god (Indra) reflecting on
what was the established custom (with regard to the
birth of the Tirthankaras), removed the embryo from
the southern Brahmanical part of the place Kundapura
to the northern Ksatriya part of the same place,
rejecting the unclean matter, lodged the fetus in the
womb of Trisala of the Vasistha gotra, wife of the
Ksatriya Siddhartha, of the Kasyapa gotra, of the clan
of Jnatrs, and lodged the fetus of the Ksatriyani Trisala
in the womb of Devananda, of the Jalandhrayana
gotra........”

The Digambara account rejects this legend as ‘absurd’,

but the Svetambaras strongly uphold its truth. As the
legend is found in the Acaranga, the Kalpasutra, and
many other books it cannot be doubted that it is very
old; but it is not at all clear why it was invented and
given such currency. There are, however, in
the Bhagavati-another sutra in the Svetambara canon,
two references that would throw further light on the

160
question and would possibly help us in finding a
solution. In Sataka V Uddesa IV, in reply to a question
regarding the possibility and the procedure of the
change of embryo, Mahavira declared that a change of
embryo was quite possible and stated his position
regarding the procedure by which the change might
take place, but significantly omitted to mention-
although it would have been quite proper for him in that
context to do so- the change of his own embryo. Again,
in Sataka IX, Uddesa XXXIII, there is reference to the
visit to Mahavira’s camp of the Brhmana Rsabhadatta
and his wife Devananda. On the sight of Mahavira,
Devananda had a sudden maternal emotion and milk
started coming out of her breast. Asked by his chief
disciple Gautama to explain the reason of this unusual
occurrence, Mahavira plainly stated that Devananda
was his mother. He made no mention whatever of
Trisala or of the episode of the change of embryo.

These two references are pointer to the fact that actually

there was no change of Mahavira’s embryo.
The Bhagavati, which makes a record of the actual
conversations and sayings of Mahavira, is certainly
more trustworthy as a source of information than
the Kalpasutra. Which after all is the work of
an acarya, however learned. It is not impossible that the

161
story was invented by the author of the Kalpasutra as
an occasion to express the prevailing sentiment of
contempt for the Brahmanas, and that it was later on
embodied in the second book of the Acaranga. But that
alone does not solve the problem. In
the Bhagavati Mahavira says that Devananda is his
mother and in the Acaranga and the Kalpasutra the
name of Mahavira’s mother is given as Ksatriyani
Trisala. Of this Professor Jacobi offered a some what
fanciful solution. “I assume”, he said “that Siddhartha
had two wives, the Brahmani Devananda, the real
mother of Mahavira, and he Ksatriyani Trisala; for the
name of the alleged husband of the former, viz.
Rsabhadatta, cannot be very old, because its Prakrit
form would in that case probably be Usabhadinna
instead of Usabhadatta. Besides, the name is such as
could be given to a Jaina only, on to a Brahmana. I,
therefore, make no doubt that Rsabhadatta has been
invented by the Jainas in a order to provide Devananda
with another husband. Now Siddhartha was connected
with persons of high rank and great influence through
his marriage with Trisala. It was, therefore, probably
thought more profitable to give out that Mahavira was
the son, and not merely the stepson, of Trisala, for this
reason that he should be entitled to the patronage of her
relations.” This is obviously far-fetched and also

162
incorrect, for it is certain that in the days of Mahavira
the marriage of a Brahmana girl with a Ksatriya was not
at all an easy adventure and that anyhow the offspring
of such a marriage would not be considered very
respectable. What seems more likely is that Devananda
was Mahavira’s foster-mother. This likelihood finds
substantial support in the text of the Acaranga (second
book) which specifically speaks of Mahavira as having
been attended by five nurses, one of them being a wet-
nurse.

Facts of Early Life:

The facts of the early life of Mahavira given in the

several biographies whose names we have recounted
above are very few indeed. The later accounts have
connected him with certain anecdotes, myths and
miracles; but they appear to have been allied from the
other traditional sources and cannot, therefore, be
justifiably recounted as the facts of Mahavira’s life.
There is, for instance, an anecdote in one of
the Digambara books, illustrative of Mahavira’s
supreme valour, which runs thus: “One day, while
playing with his friends in the garden of his father,
Mahavira saw an elephant, which was mad with fury
with juice flowing from his temples, rushing towards

163
him. His companions, all boys, shocked and frightened
on the sight of the impending danger, deserted their
comrade and ran away. Without losing a moment,
Mahavira made up his mind to face the danger squarely,
went towards the elephant, caught hold of his trunk
with his strong hands and mounted his back at once.”

It is nevertheless a fact that the Jainas never attempted

to give a connected account of the life of his great
Master as the Buddhists gave a life of the Buddha in
the Mahavagga, from the obtainment of the
Enlightenment to the admission of Sariputta and
Moggallana into the order and in the Mahaparinibbana
sutta, which recounts the events of Buddha’s last days.
The Kalpasutra used a somewhat conventional style
while writing about the great rejoicing that took pace in
the family and the town on the birth of Mahavira, about
illumination of the streets, about he liberation of
prisoners, and about the performance of numerous other
charitable deeds. At the core of much that is
conventional, however, a few facts would seem to
clearly emerge. In person Mahavira seems to have been
handsome and impressive; all descriptions agree on that
point. The several names by which he is called in the
Jaina books-Vira, Ativira, Mahavira, etc., all clearly
indicate that the chief quality of his character was

164
courage and valour. Being the scion of a Ksatriya
chieftain and brought up in the free atmosphere of a
republican society, he must have right from his
childhood taken the most vigorous interest in the
outdoor games and material exercises. He was naturally
intelligent and possessed of a very keen intellect.
The Kalapasutra mentions that from his very birth he
possessed ‘supreme, unlimited and unimpeded
knowledge and intuition’ and that he had the aspirations
of a man of knowledge. That his education was
carefully looked after may be safely presumed: the
Jaina scriptures speak again and again of princes who
were trained in “the seventy-two arts,” the list including
dancing, music gambling, rules of society, fighting,
archery, knowledge of birds, animals and trees, etc.
besides purely literary and philosophical attainments.

The Svetambara books say that Mahavira had an elder

brother, whose name was Nandivardhana, with whom
he lived in his boyhood. This fact is omitted, but not
positively denied, by Digambara books. Both books,
however, agree that Mahavira was very well-
connected. By birth he was a member of at least the
ruling class in a republican democracy. The description
of his father’s palace and the dimensions of rejoicing
made there on the birth of Mahavira, who according to

165
the Svetambara version was only a second son, would
lead one to the conclusion that Siddhartha was a ruling
prince. Jacobi, however, does not feel inclined to that
view. According to him, Kundagrama (or Kundalapura)
was “a halting place of caravans, an insignificant place
and an outlying village and a suburb of Vaisali, the
capital of Videha”, so that Siddhartha was only “a petty
chief, a baron, no king, nor even the head of his clan,
but only a landowner, and exercised only the degree of
authority which in the East usually falls to the share of
one belonging to the recognized aristocracy of the
country.” Such description is belied by later historical
research. Historians are now prepared to accept that
Kundagrama was the headquarters of the Jnatrka
Ksatriya, “who were already known for their piety and
non-violence, and abstention from sin and meat-eating,”
and that the republic was governed by an assembly of
elders, one of whom assumed the position of the
president. It is presumable that Siddhartha occupied the
position of the president of this republic; for otherwise
it might be somewhat difficult to explain his marriage
with the sister of Cetaka, whom even Jacobi recognizes
as ‘the powerful king of Videha,’ belonging to the
Licchavi sect of the Ksatriya. Through his wife,
Siddhartha-and following him, Mahavira-was related
tot he ruling dynasty of Magadha and the dynasties of

166
Sauvira, Anga, Vatsa (Vamsa) and Avanti. Cetaka had
seven daughters, one of whom became a nun, but the
other six were married in one or the other royal family
of Eastern India. The youngest Celana became the wife
of Srenika (Bimbisara), king of Magadha: one
Prabhavati was married to King Udayana of Vitabhya,
which has been identified at various places in Jaina
literature with a town in Sindhu-Sauvira country;
another Padmavati was married to King Dadhivahana
of Campa, the capital of Anga; Mrgavati was married to
King Satanika of Kausambi, the capital of Vatsa; and
Shiva was married to Canda Pradyota of Ujjani, which
was the capital of Avanti. That the tie of these
relationships was real and strong, may be judged from
the fact that the books are always very particular in
stating the names and Gotra of all relations of
Mahavira, although they have recorded little further
information about them.

From the above it is clear that the environment in which

Mahavira grew up was necessarily royal atmosphere
tempered with healthy influenced of a republican
character. His maternal relatives were practically all of
them ruling princes, but his father was a republican
chief and even his maternal uncle was a territorial ruler
under the auspices of a republican confederacy- the

167
famous Vajji confederacy of which eight republics,
Vajji, were constituent units. The real strength of the
republic in Mahavira’s time as, to a large extent, today
lay not so much in its government as in the character of
its people. The Buddha mentioned in one of his
discourses that republican population was free from
luxury and sloth, ‘sleeping on logs of wood as pillows
and not on cushions of the finest cotton, active in
archery, and not delicate, tender and soft in their arms
and legs.’ The youths were rowdy, but by no means
devoid of honor or lacking in moral courage; they
frankly admitted their mistakes, and were inspired by a
fundamental sense of respect for elders and women, and
their national institutions. It was in this atmosphere that
Mahavira’s early life was spent. His upbringing must
have been quite exceptionally balanced and his
development proportionate, for his life was a life of
comfort but not luxury and his ambition was an
ambition to conquer but not with view to mastery over
others. He was deeply influenced by the democratic
ethos of the society in which he lived. He was
impressed by the inadequate application of this ethos in
the political, economic and social life of the community
without its being based upon a really democratic
religious system; and he took it upon himself to
workout and propagate a system of complete spiritual

168
democracy in the form of Jainism.
https://s3.amazonaws.com/jainworldwp/jainbooks/images/
26/EARLY_LIFE_OF_MAHAVIRA.htm

169
 CHAPTER V
Jain Brahmans Including the
Disciples of Mahavira By Himanshu
Bhatthttp://www.hindupedia.org/en/Main_Page-

(for the dialogue or teachings of the Saint to his disciples see

Chapter VIII GANDHARVAVADH )

Pic of Mahavira's Ganadhara Sudharma. He outlived all of

the other Ganadharas and Tirthankara Mahavira himself,
and continued the tradition of Jain discipleship.

170
 Jain Brāhmans are the Brahmins or Brāhmans who
follow Jainism. They are known by different names according
to the regions they are in India. These titles are Arcaka, Indra,
Pandit, Purohit, Upadhye, or simply Jain Brāhman.[1]

Brāhmans have played a major role in the diffusion of Jainism

throughout India from the royal ministers
like Chanakya and Bhadrabahu to monarchs themselves like
King Mrigesvarman of the Kadamba Dynasty and King Bhadra
Bhatt of the Harikela Dynasty. Several scholarly works greatly
revered by the Jain community even today was composed by
Brāhmans such as those of Jinasena Suri and Siddhasena
Divakara. Even Jain Brāhman laypeople contributed in
spreading Jainism. For example, a revival of Jainism is
identified in the 5th century BCE when a Brāhman couple
(Nathasarman and Rami) donated land grants and made
offerings at Vatagohai (Goalbhita) for the maintenance of a
Jain vihara founded by Acharya Guhanandin.[2]

A Ganga Dynasty epigraph at Sravana Belgola reads,

he celebrated Gopanandi accomplished what had been impossible for any one ; for he cause
e Jina dharma which had for a long time been at standstill, to attain the prosperity and fame
e time of the Ganga kings.[3]

There are also some ethnic groups that claim to descend from
Jain Brāhmans. For example, the Kotila caste of Gujarat claim

171
to descend from the firstborn son Kotila, of Trikam the Jain
Brāhman (who married an Ahir woman.)[4]

Some Brāhmans declared that Jainism was the best religion for
a Brāhman to follow. Their ideas of tolerance were well
preached. Haribhadra Suri prayed, "As Brahma or Visnu or
Siva or Jina— we salute all."

There are also Brāhmans historically that were not Jain but
offered their aid and solidarity to Jain preachers. For example,
when in the 12th year as a monk, Mahavira took shelter in the
cottage of Brāhman Svatidatta with a view to pass monsoon
months there, and him and Mahavira often entered into
philosophical conversations with Mahavira and believed
Mahavira was a great monk.[5] There was also Bahula who
gave hospitality at his settlement in Kollaga near Sravasti to
Mahavira.[6]

It was also historically common for Jains to participate in many

ceremonies of mainstream Hindu societies. The priest of the
temple there was Challapilla, a Jain Brāhman from the
Sittannavasal area in the south, Ponnamaravati Sima, as it was
then called. The Sambhavanatha idol at Sankarpur, Burdwan,
WB, was found in the Ajaya riverbed by the forefathers of the
current Brahman custodians of the idol.[7]

Communities

172
Mahavira's Ganadhara Indrabhuti Gautama. He was Mahavira's
first disciple and was initially a debater against Jainism and
Mahavira but was convinced it was proper.

It is even stated in the Vikramarjumasijayam, that Bhima, the

father of two great Jain scholars Adikavi Pampa and
Jinavallabha, who was a wise man embraced Jainism as he
considered it as the best dharma.[8]

The Sevaks of Rajasthan are of Sakaldwipiya (Sakhadwipi

Brāhman) descent and originally converted because of the
promise of their king. The story goes that the monarch was
bitten by a venomous snake and a Jain saint said he would cure

173
the king upon the condition that all his subjects become Jain, to
which the ruler agreed. The students living in the Osia gurukul
partook in this feast and hence although they didn't know the
terms of the feast, they honored it and converted.[9]

174
Jain Brāhmans exist in most regions where there are Jain
communities. There is a Brāhman community in southern
Karnataka which is traditional follower of Jainism and is

175
known as Jain Brāhman. They have a hostel for students in
Mysore, known as Jain Brāhman Hostel.[1] This community is
different from the Jain priests in Jain temples. There is an event
in Indian history wherein the Vaji Brāhmans of the Vengi
region (in modern-day Andhra Pradesh) converted to Jainism.
Padmaksi Temple of Hanumakonda is managed by Brahmans,
and Padmaksi is worshiped as Durga.

Modern priestly duties

176
Bhadrabahu, a guru in the discipleship of Ganadhara
Sudharma, and the spiritual guru of Chandragupta
Maurya.Bhadrabahu.Jinasena admits the utility of a Jain
Brāhman or ksullaka for the performance of kriyas.[10]

1) Kundakunda.
2) Manatunga.
3) And Pujyapada Bhatt's feet that are venerated by Jains.
There are two types of Jain Brāhman priests - the Bhojak
and the flower priests. The duties of the Bhojak are to act as a
Jain temple pujari or worshiper. In one account their origin is
said to be of Audichya Brāhmans, in another account as Maga
Brāhmans that were hired to be pujaris in a temple by King
Kumarapala, and in the third account as Maga Brāhmans
brought by King Jayasimha Siddharaja from Mandal (in
Saurashtra.)[11] In Ahmedabad, Gujarat there are epigraphs of
Jain sites which speak of Brahmana Gacchhas.[12] Also in
Gujarat, there was a shrine of Sri Ajitnath Bhagwan in the
Bhamati (a cloistered corridor for a covered walk around the
inner sanctum of the temple) of Sri Mahavir Swami (of
Brahman Gachchha or Brahman Order) installed in Vikram
year 1242.[13][2] The Jain Brāhmans priests dress like normal
Brāhmans priests.[14] While in Shvetambar temples, the lay
Jains will enter the inner sanctum of the temple to make
offerings onto the murti or icon, in southern Digambara

177
temples the priests make the offerings on behalf of the lay
Jains.[15]

In Kohlapur, Maharashtra amongst the Jain community the

sixteen samskaras or sacraments that Jain initiate into, are
nearly the same as the sixteen Brāhman samskaras. Except that
the Jain priest's ritual texts are not Vedic the rites do not differ
from those performed by Brahmans.[16] Even their birth
ceremonies are the same.

Notable scholars and sages

The influence brought by Brāhmans or tactics borrowed from

them into Jainism is described by scholars. For example, some
Jain teachers like Vardhamanadeva and Munichandra partook
in royal administration and even directing military, and so it is
said that Jains adopted traditional Brāhman tactics in dynastic
governments.[17] Certainly the scriptural contributions of
Brāhmans are well known, and before Indrabhuti
Gautama there were none for Jainism. The organization of
writing as well was borrowed from the existing Brāhman
system. Some scholars like Dr. Vide Hoernle, even believe that
the model of the Brāhman ascetic was the prototype from the
beginning of Indian history for all ascetics to borrow important
practices and institutions from though this is disputed.
However, it is also believed by some scholars such as

178
Oldenberg that related ascetic orders such as the Buddhists
derived the disciplic successive tradition from Brāhmans.[18]

There are also Jains who by legend are believed to have been
Brāhman but scriptural evidence isn't available to confirm their
backgrounds. For example, Kundakunda Acharya (or
Elachariya) the Tamil sage is believed to be the son of
Brāhman father and weaver mother.[19] Another is poet
Tolkappiyar, author of the Tolkappiyam, who is called a
"padimaiyon" or observer of Jain "padimai" (vow).[20] Also
because Mantunga Acharya mentions mainstream Hindu
demigods' names in his poems so often, Professor Hiralal
Kapadia says that it is possible the poet Mantunga was a
Brāhman.[21]

Mahavira's eleven Ganadharas

Mahavira's eleven ganadharas or "Masters of Jainism" were

very important for preaching and spreading the message of
Jainism, and attracting new followers. Mahavira's first converts
was Indrabhuti who bought into the group 10 other Brāhmans
he converted.[22] Mahavira's nine ganadhars managed nine
classes of Jain followers. All but sages Mandita and Maurya
managed the classes. Sudharma is honored as one of the most
important Jains in history. The author of the Kalpa-Sutra says
that all the Jains are successors of Sudharma and that all the
sakhas or orders of priests (including the ones today) originate

179
from his historical leadership. Out of Mahavira and the other
Ganadharas, he was the last survivor of that group of leaders.

Scriptural contributions

Kautilya, the political guru of Chandragupta Maurya. He is

known by other names, such as Vishnugupta and Chanakya.

2. File:Puspadanta.jpg
3. Puspadanta.
4. File:Akalanka.jpg
5. Akalanka Bhatt.

Sushil Kumar.

The nine ganadharas of Mahavira were as follows:

180
 Birth
place
Name Ethnicity and Accomplishments
time
period
Magadhi-
Achalabhrata
Prakrit
Magadhi- Govara-
Agnibhuti
Prakrit gama
Akampita Mathili Mithila
It is believed he composed the
twelve Angas, twelve Puvvas,
Magadhi-
Indrabhuti Gorbara twelve Upangas, ten Payannas,
Prakrit
six Cheda-sutras, four Mula-
sutras, and two Culika-sutras.
Magadhi- Mauryaga
Mandita
Prakrit ma
Magadhi-
Metarya Vatsa
Prakrit
Magadhi-
Maurya
Prakrit
Magadhi-
Prabhasa Rajagriha
Prakrit
Magadhi- Kulluka-
Sudharma
Prakrit gama
Magadhi- Kulluka-
Vyakta
Prakrit gama
Magadhi-
Vayubhuti
Prakrit
More important persons

181
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
He was the son of
Jinadasa (an
Arhaddvija) and
Jinamati. His brother
was Nihkalanka.
Their guru was
Buddhist Bhagavad
Dasa. He was said to
be the pioneer in the
field of Jain logic.
Upon discovery by
Savanaballu
Akalanka and his
gole (near
Akalanka brother's Buddhist
Cinraipatam Digambar
Bhatt Kannada guru Bhagavad that
, 8th a
Deva they were Jain, he
century
ordered their deaths.
CE)[23]
Nihkalanka
sacrificed himself so
that Akalanka could
escape. He competed
in debate against
both Brāhmans
Kumarila Bhatt
of Mimamsa and
Dignaga
of Mahayana
Buddhism.
He is believed to
have written on Jain
Balachand Modheraka
[24] Gujarati leaders ganadharas
ra (in Gujarat)
but this work has yet
to be found.
Bhadraba Bengali He was the chief

182
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
hu spiritual mentor of
Chandragupta
Maurya.
He had great
knowledge of 14
Poorvas, which he
passed on to Acharya
Sthul Bhadra and
thus, the legacy of
great literature could
survive. Acharya
Bhadrabahu has a
record of entering
into Yoga
Meditation of
Mahapran Yoga. For
(Born 94
twelve years
years after
Bhadraba continuously
Mahavira's
hu Swami Acharya Bhadrabahu
attaining of
moved all over India
Nirvana.[25])
and made profound
development of
Jainism and its
spreading all over.
He is respectfully
remembered as first
and last "shrut
kevali" (most
versatile
knowledgeable
personality) both in
Svetambara and
Digambara sects.

183
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
His Vasudev Charit,
which contains
125,000 words.
He converted King
Ama, son and
Bhadrakir
successor or Yaso
to (Bappa
Varman in
Bhatti)
Kanyakubya to
Jainism.
(11th
Bilhana Kashmiri
century CE)
He was a Kannada
Brahmasiv (12th
[26] Kannada Saiva at first but
a century CE)
became a Jain.
He started (or
Svetamba restarted) the
Buddhisag ra worship of
ara Suri (11th (Nagpuriy Ghantakarna in
Gujarati
(also century CE) a Jainism in Mahudi
Sripati) Tapagacc (northern Gujarat) by
ha) installing a shrine
there.[28]
He migrated from
Tamil Nadu to
Bhulokanat
Andhra for securing
ha or
royal patronage of
Sittanvasal
Chala Jainism from
Tamil (near
Pille[29] [30]
competitors. He
Pudakottai,
was priest of the
Tamil
Brahma-Jinalaya
Nadu)
Temple of
Parshvanatha.

184
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
The image erected
by Chamunda Raya,
"is not only the most
ancient in date and
considerably the
highest of the three,
but from its striking
position on the top of
the very steep hill
and the consequently
greater difficulty
Chamund Digambar
Marathi involved in its
a Raya[31] a
execution, is by far
the most
[32]
interesting." He
earned several titles
such as Samara-
Parashurama.[33] So
me of these titles
were because of his
moral behavior, and
others because of his
military skills.
He established the
city of Chandravati
wherein most
residents were Jain,
Bhinmal
Chandra Maharast and several of them
(4th century
Sen[34] ri-Prakrit rich. The wealthy
BCE)
denizens of the city
spent money for
construction of Jain
temples and other

185
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
institutions.
He was a renowned
stotra writer. He was
converted by his
brother Shobana
from
Buddhism.[36] He is
best known for his
hymns
Dhanapala Avanti- Ujjain (10th Digambar named Rsabhapanca
[35] Prakrit century CE) a sika, written in
Prakrit (Jaina-
Maharastri.)[37] Bhav
issayatta Kaha is
another work in the
Apabhramsa
language. He also
wrote Paiyalacchi in
Prakrit.
He was a reputedly
wealthy Brāhman, in
Tumbhivan the town of
(or Tumbhivan, lost his
Saurasen Tumbavana Svetamba interest in wealth and
Dhangiri
i-Prakrit grâma in ra[38] decided to take
Malwa, 5th Diksha, after hearing
century CE) the sermons of the
Jain Acharya
Sinhgiri.
He was a wealthy
Durgasva Dingal- (10th Svetamba
man but left for
min Prakrit century CE) ra
living as ascetic.

186
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
Maharaja
Indravarman donated
one hala of land to
him in Siddarthaka-
grama of Varaha-
Varttini
(district.)[39] Also, he
was a teacher of the
reputed Siddharsi in
Marwar around the
10th century.[40] He
attained Nirvana in
Bhillamala.
Gunabhad Digambar
Disciple of Jinasena.
ra a
He was a Rajasthani
Brāhman, very well
noted in the 8th-
century Jain
community. He had
taken a personal vow
to be the disciple of
Haribhadr
Chittor, any person whose
a Suri
Saurasen Rajasthan Svetamba work proved beyond
(also
i-Prakrit (705 CE to ra his understanding.He
Virahunka
775 CE) wrote in Sanskrit and
)
Prakrit on ethics,
ascetism, yoga,
logic, and rituals. He
also composed
works on satire and
astrology as well as
novels and canonical

187
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
commentaries. With
his Compendium of
Six
Philosophies (Sad
Darsana
sammucayas). He
created a novel style
of logic in an era
noted for the equality
of its philosophical
debates. The Essence
of
Religion (Dharmabin
du) is a major
contribution to the
religious life of the
laity. He was the
royal priest of King
Jitari. He converted
the Porwals
(Pragwata) of
Shrimala (modern
Bhillamala) to
Jainism. He assumed
the title of
"Virahunka" when
his nephews were
defeated in debate by
a Buddhist.
He was a Bengali
Harihara[4 (13th poet patronized by
1] Bengali
century CE) Vaghela King
Vastupala.

188
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
He was the son and
successor of Kesava
Irivabedeh
Bhatt, and he
ga Kannada Yapaniya
continued to extend
Satyasraya
patronage to
Jainism.[42]

He is mentioned in
the Uttaradhyayana
Sutra as a famous
Magadhi
Jayaghosa Jain monk that
-Prakrit
undertook Jain vows
and subdued all his
senses.
Vengipura,
Andhra
Jinavallab Digambar
Telugu Pradesh
ha Suri[43] a
(11th
century CE)
Jinesvara Svetamba
Suri ra
(also Maharast (11th (Nagpuriy
Sivadasa ri-Prakrit century) a
or Tapagacc
Sridhara) ha)
He was a Nagar
Brāhman and
Svetamba subsequently became
Kadua Dingal-
(1438 CE) ra (Ancala a lay member of the
Sah Prakrit
Gaccha) Ancala Gaccha, a
subsect of the
Svetambara.
Kapila Magadhi Kaushambi He was a great

189
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
-Prakrit scholar and is
remember for having
sprinkled powder on
the Parshvanatha's
icon in Ujjain.
He was [according to
Shanti Suri] was the
son of Kashyapa and
Yasha, and he wrote
the Adhyaya VIII
Kapila Svetamba
section of Mula-
Muni ra
Sutra scripture,
which forms an
independent
discourse titled
"Kaviliyam". [44]

Kongumand
Karmegha
Tamil alam (17th
Pulavar
century CE)
Mahavira refers to
Kakuda
Magadhi (6th century his philosophy of
Katyayana
[45] -Prakrit BCE) pluralism or
Anekavada.
Kankamar (11th
Muni century)
He befriended
Chandragupta
Maurya and aided
Kautilya him in politics to
become emperor of
the Mauryan
Dynasty, and

190
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
successor to the
Nandas. He is
considered one of the
greatest politicians
of Indian history.
At Betole we see a
record telling that he
belonged to the
Kesava
Kannada Yapaniya Mulasangha of the
Bhatt
Yapaniya
gachcha.[46] His son
was his successor.
He wrote the non-
spiritual
Keshiraja Kannada Permadi
text Shabdamanidar
pana of grammar.
Khandaga He was an apostle of
(6th century
Kaccayana Parshva's doctrine in
[47] BCE)
Mahavira's period.
He is stated to have
belonged to the
anvaya of
Kundakunda
Meghacha
Acharya, Mesha
ndra
(12th Pashanagacchha and
Bhattar Tamil
century CE) Kanurgana from an
Siddhanta
inscription of
deva
Jadcherla in
Mahabubnagar
district from 12th
century CE.
Nagamiah[ Kannada Punganur

191
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
48]

(also
Nagamayy
a)
Tradition goes that
after he wrote the
grammatical
text Nannul, the then
Nannul ruler Ciyakahkan
Pavananti[ Tamil requested Pavananti
49] to write a simple
Tamil grammar so as
to enable even
ordinary people to
understand it.
(19th
Pundarik
century CE)
Puspadanta was a
Digambara and
patronized by
Bharata of the
Rashtrakuta court.
After he embraced
Pushpada Digambar Jainism, he became
nta[50] a the leading
Apabhramsha of the
period, and was
patronized by
Krishna III's
ministers Bharata
and Nanna.[51]
Nagavarm Kannada Vengipura, Digambar He was the army

192
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
aI Andhra a general of Chalukya
Pradesh King Jagadekamalla.
(11th
century CE)
An inscription
Vengipura,
declares he was
Andhra
Nagavarm Digambar "born of a heavenly
Kannada Pradesh
a II[52] a coral tree arising in
(11th
the ocean of
century CE)
Brahmans."
Vengipura,
Andhra
Digambar
Pampa[53] Kannada Pradesh
a
(11th
century CE)
Pampaiah[
54] Rona

Vengipura,
His Shanti
Andhra
Digambar Purana was on the
Ponna[55] Kannada Pradesh
a 16th Tirthankara
(11th
Shantinatha.
century CE)
He was a Kannada
Brāhman ascetic. He
Pujyapada
was a poet,
Bhatt
philosopher,
(also Kolangala
Digambar grammarian and
Acharya Kannada (510 CE to
a expert of indigenous
Devanandi 600 CE)
medicines. He has
, Jinendra
been credited with
Buddhi)[56]
many
accomplishments,

193
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
which aided in the
promotion of Jainism
in the south.
Raghava His Dvisamdhana-
Pandaviya Virincipura kavya poems were
Digambar
(also Telugu m (near from
a
Shrutakirt Nellore) the Mahabharata an
i) d Ramayana.
His Ajita
Purana was on the
Ranna[58]
2nd Tirthankara
Ajitanatha.
He was another born
Rajgriha from Rajgriha and
Sajjambha
(4th century was elected the head
va[59]
CE) of the Jain order by
Prabhava.
He was a Jain ascetic
who founded the Jain
system of logic, and
Siddhasen Avanti (c. was instrumental in
a 500 CE to the popularity of
Divakara 610 CE) Jainism in eighteen
kingdoms of central,
southern and western
India.[61]
Srimala,
Marwar Svetamba
Siddharshi
(10th ra
century CE)
Skandaka (6th century He was a disciple of

194
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
Katyayana BCE) Mahavira.
He was one of the
Magadhi
Soma[62] chief disciples of
-Prakrit
Tirthankara Parshva.
He was well-versed
Kotindra, in the Vedas and
Soma[63] Gujarati Saurashtra, Agamas and
Gujarat performed the six
prescribed rites.
Medak district
Soma
Telugu inscription mentions
Bhatt
him.
He was a royal
patron of the
Vaghela King
Vastupala and
composed
Gujarat
Somesvara the Kirtikaumudi and
Gujarati (13th
Suri[64] Prasasti, and
century CE)
several inscriptions
of in Girnar and an
inscription at the Mt.
Abu temple of
Neminatha. [65]

Was an Acharya
known better to Jains
Shakarpur, Svetamba as "Guruji", was
Sushil Haryana ra born a Vaidik in the
Hindi
Kumar[66] (1926- (Sthanaka Shakarpur village of
1994) vasi) the Haryana
province. At the age
of 15, he

195
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
took Diksha (became
a sanyassin) into the
Sthanakvasi, a
Svetambara sub-sect.
He is believed to be
the fulfillment of a
prophecy. Brigu
Samhita says, "In
this era, Sushil Muni
is a perfect
master...he is briliant
as the sun, as
peaceful as the
moon, as wise as the
Buddha...every word
he speaks becomes a
mantra. He is the
door to
liberation..."[67]
He was a dasapurvi
(leader) of the
Kotikapra, srutakevalins to
Pundravard which Bhadrabahu
Sayambha
hana (4th which eventually
va
century become leader after
BCE) scholarly succession
of a few other
leaders.
He was the teacher
Sahkarada of Paramara king and
sa[68] was converted by
Abhayadeva Suri.

196
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
He converted upon
seeing an image of
Sayyambh
Shantinatha. He was
ava
an Acharya who
lived at Griha.
He was a wandering
Skandhak
ascetic that was
a (a.k.a.
converted by
Khandaka
Tirthankara
)
Mahavira.[69]
A grant was made to
Vadiganga
him by King
Bhatt (10th
Kannada Marasimha of the
(Munjaray century CE)
[70] Western Ganga
a)
Dynasty.
He compiled in the
Sanskrit
Vidyanand (8th century Digambar
language, Ashta
a CE) a
Shahastri with eight
thousand verses.
Vishalaksh
He was minister of
a Pandita
Chikka Devaraja of
(also Telugu
the Wodeyar
Yelendur
Dynasty.
Pandit)
He was a composer
who was so loved by
Umasvati
Jains that he is
(also (2nd
considered by the
Umaswam century CE)
Digambara sect to be
i)
a Digambara
member and the

197
 Birthpl
Ethni ace and
Name Sect Significance
city time
period
Svetambara sect to
be a Svetambara
member.
His Tattvartha
Sutra is accepted as
authoritative by all
Jain traditions.[71]
(5th century
Vag Bhatt
CE)
Vag Bhatt
I
Vag Bhatt (12th
II century CE)

198
Before Indrabhuti, the Jain Brāhman Ganadhara of
Mahavira, there were no Jain scriptures. He is credited with
writing several Jain sastras.The Jain canons, both Digambara
and Svetambara were organized based on the Vedic Brāhman

199
literature. As Buddhists emulated the textual organization
system of Vedic Brāhman scholars[72] so did the Jains. The
scriptural division of sastras into Anga and Upanga categories
for major Jain scriptures was brought by Umasvati. In about
800 CE Jinasena's Parsvabhyudaya poetic biography by him
included also poet Kalidasa's Meghaduta.[73]

Sanskrit became a language to learn for many educated Jains.

Because local Jain scriptures throughout India were in the
vernacular languages, in order to spread their wisdom to the
entire Jain community and educated Indians everywhere, they
were translated into Sanskrit. For example, Muni Sarvanandin
translated Lokavibhaga. With the Sanskrit writing education
and emulation of scriptural organization from the mainstream
Hindu scholars, Jainism became a very academic religion
which debated intellectually.

Local languages too flourished with Jain Brāhmans. Pampa,

Ponna and Ranna, popularly known as 'three jewels of
Kannada literature' enriched Kannada literature.[74] Nannul
Pavananti wrote the Tamil grammatical text Nannul. Legend
says that after he wrote the Nannul, the then monarch
Ciyakahkan requested Pavananti to write a simple Tamil
grammar so as to enable even ordinary people to understand it.
Pujyapada Bhatt was also a Kannada grammarian. Keshiraja
was also a Kannada grammarian who composed
the Shabdamanidarpana. The greatest poet of Apabhramsa is

200
 said to be Puspadanta who wrote
his Mahapurana, Jasaharacariu, and Nayakumaracariu at
Manyakheta under patronage of minister of Rashtrakuta King
Krishna III.

The importance of Brāhmans was recognized, and the need to

protect them is explicitly referred to in
the Purananuru, Silappadikaram, and the Jivaka-
chintamani.[75]

Monarchs

 Kadamba Dynasty kings of Palasika were Jain Brāhmans who

supported Jainism and gave land grants, and erected many
temples. King Mrigesvarman of Palasika further went on to
give grants to Yapaniyas, Nigranthas and Kurchakas. King
Shivakoti had also adopted Jainism.

 Harikela Dynasty King Bhadra Bhatt, was grandfather of the

Buddhist King Kantideva (aharajadhiraja) of Harikela, and was
a devotee of Jinendra.

Ministers and clerics

Tradition mentions that Rashtrakuta Dynasty's Krishna I

appointed Jain Brāhmans as his negotiators in Calukyan
dominions.[76] A copperplate grant from the Gupta period

201
 found in the vicinity of Somapura mentioned a Brāhman
donating land to a Jain vihara at Vatagohali.

 Bhadrabahu was the guru of Chandragupta Maurya of

the Magadhan Empire, who had converted the Magadan
Emperor to Jainism. Titles he's called by are Bhagwan,
Sramana Guru, Swami, and Yatindra.
 Buddhisagara Suri, was a teacher of Jainism to Akbar in the
Mughal court, and was the son of Soma, and brother of
Jinesvara Suri.[77]
 Jatha Simhanandi is believed to have been the guru that aided
two brothers Daddiga and Madhava, whom founded the Ganga
Dynasty.[78]
 Jinesena along with his teacher Virascna, is credited with
converting Amoghavarsha, the Rastrakuta Dynasty king, to
Jainism.
 Jinesvari Suri was a mendicant leader and founder of the
Svetambara Murtipujaka Kharatara Gaccha. It is said that in a
debate at the court of King Durlabha of Patan in Gujarat, in
1024 CE, he defeated Suracharya, a prominent temple monk
who had argued that it was proper for mendicants to live
permanently at temple complexes and to own property.[79]
 Kapalka, the minister of the Nanda Dynasty's king was born in
Pataliputra, and the Nanda king desperately wanted Kapalka to
become his minister due to Kapalka's powerful political
skills.[80]

202
 Sri Silaguna Suri of Brahmana gaccha[81] was the guru
Vanaraja of Gujarat's Cavada Dynasty.
 Vadighangala Bhatt was Rashtrakuta royal guru to Krishna III
and upon his advice, Krishna III conquered surrounding
regions
 Vasudeva, a Brāhman general in the army of Kamadeva in
the Vijayaditya dynasty had built a temple dedicated to Lord
Parshvanath.

Legends about Brāhman figures

Ambika Devi is also known commonly as Agnila and

Kuṣmāṇḍinī amongst other names. As all Tirthankaras have a
Yaksha guardian, she is the guardian of Neminatha, the 22nd
Ford-Maker. She is a popular deity of worship in Jain temples
and homes. In the unpublished scripture Ambika-devi-kapla of
Subhacandra, "Om Kusmandini rakte rakta-mahisa-samradhe
subhasubham kathaya jhvim svaha" is the mantra. Haribhadra
Suri in his Lalitavistara refers to her as Vaiyavrttakara and a
Sasanadevata. Her sons Siddha and Buddha are also known as
Subhankara and Prabhankara. According to legends, after
human life she was reborn in the Kohanda Vimana heaven,
where she also became known as Kohandi.

In legends, Parsvanatha in his previous incarnation was

Marubhuti.

203
There are stories about two non-ascetic Brāhman brothers born
to Hutasana and Jalanasikha. They were Jalana who was
straightforward, and Dahana who was deceitful. They were
born reborn in Indra's internal assembly. Later Jalana achieved
Nirvana because he was the truthful one.

The 24 Tirthankaras forming the tantric meditative syllable Hrim, painting on cloth, Gujarat, c. 1800

Jainism and Vedic scriptures-Tirthankaras in Vedic

scriptures

Some mainstream Hindu scriptures like the Puranas clearly

mention the Tirthankaras. It is now accepted that Vedas and
other Vedic scriptures do too.

204
 The Rig Veda mentions Rishabha the 1st Tirthankara, and
Arishtanemi the 22nd. The Yajur Veda mentions both of them,
and then Ajitanatha and Suparshva too, in cantos 25 and 92.
Below are documented sections of scripture that reference one
or more of the 24 Jinas venerated in Jainism:

 Rig Veda (8,8,24; and 10,178,1)

 Yajur Veda (25, 19 and 9, 25)
 Sama Veda (4, 1)
 Atharva Veda (20, 143, 10)
 Aitareya Brahmana (20, 2)
 Yask Nirutka (10, 12)
 Sarvanukramanika by Katyayana
 Vedartha Dipika by Sadguru Sishya
 Sayana Bhasya (P. 678)
 Skanda Purana - Prabhas Khanda (16, 96)
 Bhagavata Purana (2, 7, 10)
 Markandeya Purana (50, 39-41)

Jainism not nastika doctrine

Scholar Annasaheba Latthe writes that Jainism cannot be called

a nastika doctrine because some its Tirthankaras are "worshiped and
praised" in the Vedas.[83]

Jains themselves have been branded nastikas for not accepting the
Vedas, and they in turn have accused many non-Jains of being
Nastikas. According to Jainism, nastikavada is a system of beliefs that
are nastika in nature. Jains assign the term nastika to one who is
ignorant of the meaning of the religious texts[84] or those who deny the
existence of the soul.[85]

205
The Jains acharyas, Manibhadra and Haribhadra associated Jainism of
astika classification and associated the Lokayata (Charvaka)
philosophy and pro-Vedic Vedanta with nastika.[86]

Jain interpretation of Vedas

As mainstream Hindu scriptures don't declare the Vedas themselves

fundamental to achieving Moksha but as holy texts, so too many Jains
view them as sacred but not fundamental for Moksha. Vasishtha
Rishi for instance, in his Dharmasutra (VI, 3) declared, "acharahinam
na punanti vedah" ("Vedas do not purify one.")

Some historical Jain scholars have believed the Vedas actually

represent metaphorical sacrifices (a claim which the Upanishads also
endorse!) In this view, the sacrifices are seen as proper human
behavior to destroy desire. The Uttaradhyayana Sutra outlines the
story of Jain Brāhman Jayagosha confronting a staunch orthodox
Vedic sage and when the sage asks Jayagosha to tell him the meaning
of Vedas, the latter supplies the Jain view. Uttaradhyayana Sutra,
Chapter 25

Orthodox Vedic Sage: Tell us the most essential subject in the

Vedas, and tell us what is most essential in the sacrifice; tell us
the first of the heavenly bodies, and tell us the best of dharmas.
Jayagosha: The most essential subject in the Vedas is the
agnihotra, and that of the sacrifice is the purpose of the
sacrifice; the first of the heavenly bodies is the moon, and the
best of dharmas is that of Kashyapa (e.g., Rishabha).

206
Jayagosha: The beautiful (gods) with joined hands praise and
worship the highest Lord (i.e. the Tirthankara) as the planets,
&c., (praise) the moon.
According to the Dipika commentary of Uttaradhyayana
Sutra by Harshakula, the "sacrifice" here means the ten virtues:
truth, penance, content, patience, right conduct, simplicity,
faith, constancy, not injuring anything, and Samvara.

In the Uttaradhyayana Sutra, Harikesa states:

Austerity is my agni, the soul is fire place, meditation is

offering-ladle, the body is the dried cow-dung as fuel and
actions are the enkindling wooden-sticks;.[87]
Renowned scholar Vimalasuri in Ussesa (canto XI) in another
scripture interprets the Vedic sacrifices as metaphorical to
sacrifice the animals within, and that this true way is the Arsa-
Veda (Veda of Rishis)[88] or the Vedas:[89][90]

"Body is the altar, mind is the fire blazing with the ghee of
knowledge. This fire consumes or destroys completely the heap
of sacrificial sticks of sins produced by the tree of karman.
Anger, pride, deceit, greed, attachment, hatred, and delusion-
these passions along with the senses, are the sacrificed animals
which are to be killed. Truth, forgiveness, nonviolence are the
adequate sacrificial fee which is to be paid. Right faith,
conduct, self-control, celibacy, etc., are the gods (to be
propitiated). This is the true sacrifice as laid down in the

207
venerable Vedas and expounded by the venerable Jinas. This
sacrifice, when performed with complete contemplation or
profound meditation, brings the reward, not heaven, but the
highest nirvana (=moksha) liberation.
Those, however, who perform sacrifices by actually
slaughtering animals go to hell just like hunters."

This "Arsa-Veda" spoken of by Vimalasuri is also spoken of by

some other scholars such as Madhava and Aurobindo.[91] So
then some scholars believe that originally both the Samanic
and mainstream Hindu sects had the same Vedas. The
Buddhist Suttanipata makes a reference to "the Vedas of the
Samanas as well as those of the Brāhmans."[92] There are Jains
even in modern time that believe the Jainism originates from
the Veda. An example is given by scholar T.N. Dhar who
visited Mathura and met with a Swami Vijayananda of the
Digambara sect that made this claim.[93]

Another scholar that claimed to have the compassionate

message of the true Vedas is Thiruvalluvar, who is believed by
many scholars to have been a Jain. His parentage is from a
Brāhman father and he was addressed "Aravalianthanan"
(Brahmin who possesses the wheel of dharma.[94]) Many
writers have written of him and in one quote is a relationship
made between him and the message of the Vedas, "Of him It is
no other than Ayan (Brahma) himself, seated on the beautiful

208
lotus-flower, who, assuming the form of Valluvar, has given to
the world the truths of the Vedas, that they may shine without
being mixed up with falsehood."[95] Silappadikaram quotes a
verse from it. Nikakesi too quotes from it a few times, and
whenever it does it proclaims of the Kural, "as is mentioned in
our scripture".[96]

Further, Jain Sage Jinabhadra in his Visesavasyakabhasya cites

a number of passages from the Vedic Upanishads.[97]

Even many of the Vedic sages are honored by Jain scholars, for
their asceticism. Sages like Yajnavalkya,
Rajaputra, Nara, Narada, Gautama, Apastamba, Angirasa, and
Romapada are also mentioned in the Yasastilaka for their
austerities.[98] Somadeva, author of the Yasastilaka goes on to
honor the priest craft of Pingala, Matanga, Marichi, and
Gautama chanting the Saman, and quotes some Vedic
authorities like Manu, Vyasa, Vasistha and others.[99]

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209
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26. P.58 A Dictionary of Indian Literature: Beginnings-1850 By Sujit
Mukherjee
27. . 4 Bharatiya Vidya, Volume 53 By Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan
28. . 97 Journal of the Oriental Institute, Volume 32 By Oriental
Institute, 1982 - Indic literature
29. P. 41 Epigraphia Andhrica, Volume 5 By Government of
Andhra Pradesh
30. p. 41 Epigraphia Andhrica, Volume 5 By Government of
Andhra Pradesh
31. P. 52 Beyond Genius: The 12 Essential Traits of Today's
Renaissance Men By Scott Griffiths, Eric Elfman
32. P. 5 The Prefaces By K. B. Jindal
33. P. 34 Epigraphia Carnatica: Rev. ed By Benjamin Lewis
Rice

211
34. P. 93 Abu to Udapiur By Jodh Singh Mehta
35. P. 322 A History of Indian Literature: Scientific and
technical ..., Volume 5 By Claus Vogel
36. P. 532 A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature
and Jaina literature By Moriz Winternitz
37. P. 136 A History of Classical Poetry: Sanskrit, Pali, Prakrit
By Siegfried Lienhard
38. P. 48 Jaina Tradition In Indian Thought By Hiralala Jaina,
Dharmacandra Jaina
39. P. 160 Buddhism & Jainism By Harish Chandra Das,
Chittaranjan Das, Satya Ranjan Pal
40. P. 506 A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature
and Jaina literature By Moriz Winternitz
41. P. 142 JAINISM IN GUJARAT By CHIMANLAL
BHAILAL SHETH
42. P. 40 Jainism: art, architecture, literature & philosophy By
Haripriya Rangarajan, G. Kamalakar, A. K. V. S. Reddy, K.
Venkatachalam
43. History of the minor Chalukya families in medieval
Andhradesa By Kolluru Suryanarayana
44. P. 449 A History of Indian Literature: Buddhist literature
and Jaina literature By Moriz Winternitz
45. P. 230 The Jains By Paul Dundas
46. P. 40 Jainism: art, architecture, literature & philosophy By
Haripriya Rangarajan, G. Kamalakar, A. K. V. S. Reddy, K.
Venkatachalam
47. J P. 34 Encyclopaedia of religion and ethics, Volumes 11-12
By James Hastings

212
48. P. 23 Jinmanjari: Contemporary Jaina Reflections, Volumes
23-28 By Bramhi Society
49. P. 13 The Journal of Oriental Research, Madras, Volumes
71-73 By Kuppuswami Sastri Research Institute, Mylapore
50. P. 674 Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Puranas, Volume 1 By
Swami Parmeshwaranand
51. P. 1028 A Comprehensive History of India: pt. 1-2. A.D.
300-985 By Kallidaikurichi Aiyah Nilakanta Sastri
52. P. 670 The Language of the Gods in the World of Men :
Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India By Sheldon
Pollock
53. P. 243 History of the minor Chalukya families in medieval
Andhradesa By Kolluru Suryanarayana
54. P. 23 Jinmanjari: Contemporary Jaina Reflections, Volumes
23-28 By Bramhi Society
55. P. 52 Social Mobility in Medieval Andhra By B. S. L.
Hanumantha Rao
56. P. 27 Prominent Jain Eulogies By Dashrath Jain
57. P. 49 Jainism: The World of Conquerors, Volume 1 By
Natubhai Shah
58. P. 111 Govinda Pai By Venkat Madhurao Inamdar
59. P. 243 History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 1 By Umesha
Mishra
60. P. 48 Journal, Volumes 19-25 By Asiatic Society of Bombay
61. Jainism: The World of Conquerors, Volume 1
62. P. 73 Rishibhashit, a Study: A Comparative Study of the
Period and Views of Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain Thinkers

213
 Detailed in a 2400 Years Old Philosophical Work By
Sagaramala Jaina, Vinayasagara
63. P. 181 Some Jaina Canonical Sutras By Bimala Churn Law
64. P. 87 JAINISM IN GUJARAT By CHIMANLAL
BHAILAL SHETH
65. P. 30 Chaulukyas of Gujarat: a survey of the history and
culture of Gujarat from the middle of the tenth to the end of
the thirteenth century By Asoke Kumar Majumdar
66. P. 79 India beyond today & tomorrow : dialogues on the
future of India and search for alternatives By Samyak
67. P. 79-80 India beyond today & tomorrow : dialogues on the
future of India and search for alternatives By Samyak
68. P. 219 Amrita: The Collected Papers Contributed by Prof.
A.M. Ghatage By Jitendra B. Shah
69. Bhagavati Sutra (II, I); P. 76 Jain Agamas: an introduction to
canonical literature By K. L. Chanchreek
70. P. 327 History of the Western Gangas, Volume 1 By Ali, B.
Sheik
71. P. 222 The A to Z of Jainism By Kristi L. Wiley
72. P. 6 The Buddhist Forum edited by Tadeusz Skorupski
73. P. 83 India's Past: A Survey of Her Literatures, Religions,
Languages and Antiquities By Arthur Anthony Macdonell
74. P. 120 History & Civics 9 By Sudeshna Sengupta
75. P. 24 The Brahmin in the Tamil Country By N.
Subrahmanian
76. P. 509 A Thousand Laurels--Dr. Sadiq Naqvi: Studies on
Medieval India with Special Reference to Deccan, Volume 2
By ?adiq Naqvi, V. Kishan Rao, A. Satyanarayana

214
77. P. 5 Bharatiya Vidya, Volume 53 By Bharatiya Vidya
Bhavan
78. P. 354 History of Kongu, Volume 1 By V. Ramamurthy
79. P. 111 The A to Z of Jainism By Kristi L. Wiley
80. P. 144 The Lives Of The Jain Elders By Hemacandra
81. P. 101 Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bombay By Asiatic
Society of Bombay
82. P. 126 Ritual Worship of the Great Goddess: The Liturgy of
the Durga Puja with By Hillary Rodrigues.) This mantra also
appears in the Kaivalya Upanishad P. 5-6 Kaivalya Upanisad
By Swami Chinmayananda
83. P. 32 An Introduction to Jainism By A??asaheba La?h?he
84. Page i, Forms of Indian Philosophical Literature and Other
Papers by V.S. Kambi
85. P. 163 Mahavira: His Life and Teachings by Bimala Churn
Law
86. P. 173 Unifying Hinduism: philosophy and identity in Indian
intellectual history By Andrew J. Nicholson
87. P. 9 Studies in Buddhism By O?isa Sa?skr?ti Parishada
88. Arsa means "speech of a Rishi"
89. P. 136-137 sacrifice in India By Sindhu S. Dange
90. P. 92 Studies in Jain literature by Vaman Mahadeo Kulkarni,
Sresh?hi Kasturabhai Lalabhai Smaraka Nidhi
91. P. 112 History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and its
literature : from the earliest beginnings to our own times By
B N K Krishnamurti Sharma
92. P. 154 Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge By Kulatissa
Nanda Jayatilleke

215
93. Inner World Outer World By T.N. Dhar
94. P. 78 Jain Journal, Volume 5 By Jain Bhawan
95. P. 59 Tales and Poems of South India By Edward Jewitt
Robinson
96. P. 107 A Comprehensive History of Jainism: From the
Earliest Beginnings to AD 1000, Volume 1 By Asim Kumar
Chatterjee
97. P. 93 Studies in Jain literature by Vaman Mahadeo Kulkarni,
Sreshthi Kasturabhai Lalabhai Smaraka Nidhi
98. . 160 Brahmanism, Jainism, and Buddhism in Andhra Desa
By P. Arundhati
99. P. 21 Brahmanism, Jainism, and Buddhism in Andhra Desa
By P. Arundhati

216
 CHAPTER VI
Ganadharvada
Kshamashramanji.is a sacred text which comprises of
dialogues between Bhagwan Mahavira and the 11 pundits who
were to become His chief disciples (Gandhars).

This text gives a logical and thorough exposition on the nature

of the soul and sheds light on questions regarding karma,
transmigration, heaven, hell, liberation and other important
subjects. Witness how through Bhagwan’s sermons, the
pundits shed their doubts and surrender unconditionally at His
Lotus Feet.There are a number pf expositions of this text

217
Shri Devardhigani Kshamashraman

In A. D. 453 in the city of Vallabhi, under the leadership of

Acharyadev Shrimad Devardhigani, three unprecedented religious
tasks were undertaken which turned out to be landmarks in the history
of Jain religion. These tasks were preservation of shrut jnan (scriptural
knowledge), a more systematic compilation of the texts and conversion
of those texts into written script.
Owing to a famine some years ago many shrutdhar shramans (ascetic)
had died and this had made the collection and compilation of the shrut
jnan inevitable. At this time Vachanacharya Devardhigani
Kshamashraman invited the shraman sangh in Vallabhi to consider the
issue of preservation of the scriptures.

The task was daunting and in the beginning Devardhigani sat with
shramans and listened to the texts of agam and he memorised them all
and scripted them systemetically. There were two texts, Skandili and
Nagarjuniya. Acharya Kalak-IV was represented by Nagarjuniya text,
whereas Skandili text was represented by Acharya Shri Devardhigani.
Both the agam (Jain canonical literature) texts had variations because
Arya Skandil and Arya Nagarjun had never met. This type of

218
variations in the two texts had created a situation leading to division of
the Jain sangh itself. As a gesture of nobility, Devardhigani noted the
Nagarjuniya text as a variation. In this task full co-operation was made
available by Acharya Kalak. The prime urgency was about
agamlekhan and reading of texts made the simultaneous writing of
agam possible.
As regards his life, numerous anecdotes are available. Devarshi was a
Kshatriya of Kashyapa gotra (family lineage) and he was known by
the two names of Kshamashraman and Devavachak. Once Bhagwan
Mahavir had told Saudharmendra in a holy assembly in Rajgruhi city,
“Harinaigmeshin transferred me during my state of embryo from the
womb of Devananda to the womb of Trishala and after 1000 years of
my nirvan (emencipation) he would live again by the name of
Devardhigani and he would be the final authority on the twelfth anga
of Darshtivad (a title of twelfth anga work).
When Devardhigani was in the state of embryo in the womb of his
mother Kalavati, she saw the lord of Ruddhi and she named her son
Devardhigani. In his youthful days, he was very fond of hunting. Many
efforts were made to divert him from this sport. Once when he had
gone for hunting, he was faced by a roaring lion and behind him he
saw a deep ditch; moreover he was surrounded on either side by wild
animals with elephant-like tusks. The earth under his feet seemed to
move and it was raining heavily. Terror-struck Devardhi heard a voice,
“You still have the time to realize your condition of helplessness,
otherwise your death awaits you.” In a tone of utmost helplessness, he

219
said, “Do whatever you can but kindly save me. I am ready to do
whatever you want me to do.”
The Lord saved him and sent him to Acharya Lohityasuri and having
sincerely listened to the sermons of Lohityasuri, Devardhi became
Muni. By acquiring the knowledge of one dashangi (a knower of ten
anga works) and one purva (early canon) he became ‘acharya’,
‘ganacharya’ and ‘vachanacharya’. In A. D. 473 he passed away and
with his death the tradition of ‘shrutjnan’(scriptural knowledge) came
to an end.
Reference
1. Glory of Jainism by Kumarpal DesaiAlso
2. http://www.tattvagyan.com/jain-stories/shri-devardhigani-
3.kshamashraman/#ixzz6TUgpV2i7Collected Papers on Jaina Studies-
4.Ganadharvada- edited by Padmanabh S. Jaini

These are important notings on the words uttered by Mhavir, especially as

there was no written tradition but oral transmission Ganadhravada forms
one of the outstanding sections of
Vise~avasyaka-Bhai:Jya by Acarya Jinabhadra, which is esteemed
highly for the exposition of the Jaina Agamas.
Dr. Miss E. A. Solomon, now a Reader in Sanskrit in the
tainguage Department of the Gujarat University, has specialised
herself in the various systems of Indian Philosophy. She has
translated the gathas of the Gal_ladharavada in the Vise(;lavasyakaBhii.$
ya as well a'1 their elucidation given in its commentary by
Maladhari Hemacandra, supplemented the translation with
necessary annotations and given a studied Introduction on the
subject.It is printed here with due acknowledgment and grateful wishes.

220
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579
About the Author-Dr Uday Dokras
The author has worked for 30 years in the human resources arena in India and abroad. He
was Group Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi and has anchored Human
Relations in Go Air and Hotel Holiday Inn;was General Manager-Health Human
Resources at the Lata Mangeshkar Hospital amd Medical college. Is currently Consultant
to Gorewada International Zoo,Nagpur and visiting Faculty at the Central Institute of
Business Management and Research, Nagpur.

In Sweden he anchored HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB and advisor to a multi

millionaire. He has studied in Nagpur, India where he obtained degrees of Bachelor of
Science, Bachelor of Arts(Managerial Economics) and Bachelor of Laws. He has done
his Graduate Studies in labour laws from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston; a
MBA from USA, and Doctorate from Stockholm University, Sweden. Apart from that he
has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.

A scholar of the Swedish Institute, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth
Fund Awardee.A scholar for the Swedish Institute for 5 years.
In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labour Law Project of the University of
California, Los Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was
invited by the President of Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labour laws of
Seychelles.

Author of a book on a Swedish human resource law, his brief life sketch is part of the
English study text book of 7 th Class Students in Sweden -“Studying English.
SPOTLIGHT 7”- and 8th Class students in Iceland - “SPOTLIGHT 8- Lausnir.”

BOOKS written by Dr Uday

1. Act on Co-determination at work-an efficacy study - 1990

Doctoral thesis published by Almqvist & Wiksell International, Stockholm,Sweden
This is a first of a kind empirical study of both employees and business owners reactions

580
of how efficiently a labour law was functioning in a country(Sweden).Adorns Stanford
and Harvard University Libraries and granted Copyright by the Library of Congress,USA
in 1990.
2. Health Human Resource Management- 2006
A to Z of the Management of health workers starting from recruitment to training,
development and enhancing their efficacy. Good book for all health care institutions as
well as medical and nursing staff and students.
3. Theme Park Human Resource Engineering- 2007
How the workers in theme parks deal with a complex environment and need to be
managed in order to being out superior delivery of customer focused services helping in
more footfalls at the same time not compromising on safety.
4. Project Human Resource Management- 2008
Projects are cumbersome and their success rests not on the material but on the men who
move it. Book deals with management ideas to spur project workers and staff to greater
delivery parameters.
5. Creativity and Architecture -2009
Co-authored with Srishti Dokras, examines the parameters of creativity and how it will
raise design quotients.
6. Diffusion – Management and Design- 2009
Co-authored with Karan Dokras deals with a new and little known subject of Diffusion
or how predator ideas enhance own value in a market where dominant players call the
shots.
7. Hindu Temples of Bharat,Cambodia and Bali- 2020
Enigmatic designs, huge structures, massive projects all done before the invention of
cranes or bulldozers- the how and why of temples in Bharat,Nagpur,and the Far East.
Biggest and most comprehensive book on the subject -452 pages.
8. Win Diet 2020
Diets and fads come and go but not this one-A diet and exercise plan that will help you to
win over obesity,unhealthy lifestyles and make a dynamic YOU .Written by a 68 year old
who has been diagnosed with a 26 year old’s heart.
9. Celestial Mysteries of the Borobudur Temple of Java- 2020
This amazing biggest in the world Buddhist temple was built with technology and ideas
from India 1500 years ago using fractal geometry, Algorithms, Hindu temple technology
and archeoastronomy. Read HOW it was done.
10. LOTUS the Celestial Flower
11.Light house at Alexandria
12. Lighthouses in words and Pictures
13.Vayu- Man’s taming of the Winds
14. My Best Foot Forward- story of the Footware Industry in India
15.16,17… DEVARAJA- TRILOGY. The Celestial King and the
Mysteries of South Asian Hindu Temples -3 Volumes 1200 pages
18. VARDHAMAN- Jainism- for not the layman
581
 19. ATIVIR- The saga of Vardhaman the Prince and Mahavir the Saint.

RESEARCH PAPERS- 180+ in Researchgate and academia.edu

Followers(readers) 30,000 consolidated as on 28 th July,2020.

Authors-DR Uday DOKRAS

Dr. Uday Dokras

B.Sc., B.A. (Managerial Economics), LL.B., Nagpur University, India
Certificat'e en Droit, Queen’s University. Ontario, Canada,
MBA, CALSTATE,Los-Angeles, USA,
Ph.D. Stockholm University, Sweden,
Management and Efficacy Consultant, India

582
583
 Reviews of the Book PROJECT HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

The authors highlight the benefits of paying attention to human resources and offer success and
failure factors guideline for a variety of potential practitioners and students in global project
marketplace.
Ms.Ylva Arnold, Head HR- Norstedts Publishers, Stockholm SWEDEN

From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

584
Iceland Sweden both countries use the English Text SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in
which is about Dr Uday Dokras

585
Prof. S.Deshpande,President of the Indian Instituye of Architects, New Delhi INDIA
releasing the book of Dr Dokras HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA
gimes( May 2010)

586
587
MICHAMI

588
BAHUBALI
Dr UDAY DOKRAS

589