SYSTEMS

 1  –  AIRCRAFT  STRUCTURES  &  AERODYNAMIC  LIMITATIONS  

STRESSES   TENSILE  STRENGTH   BEAM  MOMENTS  

     
• Load  per  cross  sectional  area.   • Even   more   stretching   after   the   elastic   limit   • Moment  =  Force  x  Distance  
  will  cause  the  material  to  neck  (get  thinner).   • Max   bending   moment   on   a   wing   occurs   at  
• Tension  (tensile  stress)  –  EG/  fuselage   • Stress   increases   since   the   cross   sectional   the  root  due  to  furthest  distance  from  load.  
• Compression  –  EG/  top  of  wing   area  reduces.   • Support  is  thicker  and  end  is  thinner  –  thus  
• Shear  (cutting)  –  EG/  wing  root  bolts   • Just   before   failure,   the   material   has   saving  weight.  
• Torsion  (twisting)     maximum   strength   per   unit   of   cross  
• Bending  –  Compression  +  Tension  +  Shear   sectional  area.  This  is  the  tensile  strength.  
• Buckling  –  Uneven  compressive  load   STRUTS  
 
TYPES  OF  LOADS   BASIC  STRUCTURAL  MEMBERS   • Struts   are   designed   to   withstand   mainly  
  compressive  loads.  
• Static  –  Continually  applied,  no  change.   • Tend  to  buckle  under  load  before  failure.  
• Dynamic  –  Constantly  changes   BEAMS  
• Normally  hollow.  
• Cyclic  –  Continually  applied  and  removed.    
• They  can  be   either  simply  supported  (both  
ends)  or  be  cantilever  (one  end  only).   TIE  
STRAINS  
• They  are  subject   to   bending  with   one   side   in    
 
tension  and  the  other  in  compression.   • Ties   are   designed   mainly   to   withstand  
• Strain  is  deformation  due  to  stress.  
• Beams  in  aircraft  are  usually  an  I  /  H  section   tensile  loads.  
• Initially  proportional  to  stress  and  will  
and   the   same   strength   as   a   whole   beam   is   • Normally  constructed   of  solid   rod  or  a   wire  
return  to  original  shape.  
possible   due   to   interaction   of   compression   of  relatively  small  diameter.  
• Plastic  deformation  -­‐  Once  elastic  limit  is   and  tension  (but  it  is  of  course  lighter).  
exceeded,  stretching  will  continue  but  will  
not  return  to  original.  
 SYSTEMS  1  –  AIRCRAFT  STRUCTURES  &  AERODYNAMIC  LIMITATIONS  

THE  FUSELAGE   SEMI  -­‐  MONOCOQUE  FUSELAGE   FUSELAGE  TYPES  

   
• Majority   of   stress   dissipated   by   internal   • Circular  
THE  FUSELAGE   components  and  very  little  by  the  skin.   o Good  for  containing  hoop  stress  
  • Gives  a  strong,  relatively  light  structure  with   o Lowest  amount  of  skin  drag  for  volume  
• Accommodates  crew  and  payload   lots  of  space.   o Bad  for  space  
• Supports  other  components  of  the  aircraft.   • Longerons  –  Longitudinal  (Main  stresses)   • Rectangular  
• Subject  to  a  number  of  stresses  in  flight:   • Frames  –  Vertical  (Stress  +  gives  rigidity)   o Max  use  of  space  
o Nose  and  tail  droop  down  causing   • Stringers  –  Support  the  skin   o Bad  for  pressurization  
tension  on  top  and  compression   • Bulkheads  –  Airtight  for  pressurisation   o Used   in   light   a/c   and   non   pressurised  
underneath.   transporters.  
o Compounded  by  tail  exerting  downforce   • Oval  
o A380  Design  
o Good  use  of  space  
TRUSS  TYPE  FUSELAGE   o Best  compromise  for  pressurisation  
  o Requires  very  strong  floor  beams.  
• Frame   supports   the   load,   skin   is   merely   to   o Double   bubble   section   can   be   used   to  
cover  and  reduce  drag.   reduce  total  tension  on  each  frame.  
• Longerons   run   longitudinally   and   provide  
the  main  load  bearing.  
• Supported   both   vertically,   horizontally   and   PRIMARY  VS  SECONDARY  STRUCTURE  
diagonally   with   web   members   to   give    
complete  rigidity.   • Primary  -­‐  A  critical  load-­‐bearing  structure.  
• No   space   for   payload   so   mainly   on   light   • Secondary   –   Structural   elements   mainly   to  
aircraft.   HOOP  STRESS   provide  enhanced  aerodynamics.  
 
• Large   forces   which   push   the   fuselage  
MONOCOQUE  FUSELAGE   outwards  as  a  result  of  pressurisation.  
  • Tension  in  frames.  
• Skin  takes  all  the  load.   • Bending  in  longerons,  stringers  and  skin.  
• No  internal   load   bearing  structure   although  
former   rings   sometimes   fitted   to   give  
shape.  
• No   ability   to  add  doors  etc  otherwise   ability  
of  skin  to  withstand  stress  is  destroyed.  
 SYSTEMS  1  –  AIRCRAFT  STRUCTURES  &  AERODYNAMIC  LIMITATIONS  

THE  WINGS  /  MAINPLANE   TORSION  BOX   THE  TAIL  

 
  • Supporting  the  twisting  motion  of  lift  of  the  
THE  WINGS   wings.   TAIL  SECTION  
  • Links  the  spars,  skins  and  ribs.    
• Semi-­‐monocoque  design   • One  in  each  wing  plus  a  centre  spar  to  link   • Semi-­‐monocoque  design  
• Spars  –  Withstand  bending  and  torsional   the  two  wings.  
loads   • Wing  torsion  can  result  from  positive  sweep  
• Ribs  –  Gives  shape.  Holes  make  it  stronger  
and  lighter.  
• Stringers  –  Support  the  skin.  
• Centre  spar  can  also  be  included  to  
supported  undercarriage  etc.  

SANDWICH  TYPE  CONSTRUCTION   HONEYCOMB  CONSTRUCTION  

   
 
 SYSTEMS  1  –  AIRCRAFT  STRUCTURES  &  AERODYNAMIC  LIMITATIONS  

WING  BENDING  ON  GROUND   AIRCRAFT  STRUCTURAL  MATERIALS   ATTACHMENT  METHODS  

     
• Wings  and  undercarriage  on  ground  are   • Aluminum  Alloy   • Riveting  
subject  to  heavy  loads  so  the  Maximum   o Raw  aluminum  lacks  strength  +  rigidity   o Can  be  flush  or  round  headed  
Ramp  Mass  is  set  to  limit  stress.   o Mixed  with  4-­‐6%  copper  =  Duralumin   o Flush   type   is   more   aerodynamic   but  
o Good  conductor  and  improved  strength   more  expensive.  
o Difficult   to   weld   &   good   thermal   o Cracks  can  originate  at  rivet  points.  
WING  BENDING  IN  FLIGHT   conductivity   • Bolts  
  • Magnesium  Alloy   o Allows   for   separation   of   materials  when  
• Lift  acts  to  bend  wings  upwards.   o Lightweight   but   lack   strength   and   are   required.  
• Fuel  and  engines  help  to  reduce  bending.   brittle.   o Vibrations   can   cause   nuts   to   become  
• The   greatest   bending   moment   at   the   wing   o Easily  moulded  into  complex  shapes   loose.  This  is  prevented  by  wire  locking.  
root   occurs   with   high   fuselage   mass   and   o Used  in  gearbox  casing  and  wheel  rims   • Welding  
zero   fuel   (wings   bending   up).   The     • Steel   o A  very  tough  bond  is  created.  
maximum   zero   fuel   mass   is   therefore   set   o Bolts  etc   o Load  spread  over  a  large  area.  
to  limit  stress.   o Carbon  added  to  improve  load  bearing   • Pinning  
• The   leading   edge   is   subject   to   compression   o +  chromium  =  stainless  steel   o Good   for   attaching   components   that  
then  tension  (from  root  to  tip)   • Titanium   experience  shear  stress.  
o Very  resistance  to  high  temperatures   o Can  be  undone  at  a  later  date.  
o Turbines  etc   • Adhesives  
     
• Plastic   o Easy  to  use  and  can  bond  large  areas.  
FUSELAGE  BENDING  IN  FLIGHT   o Easy  to  mould  but  has  poor  strength.   o Permanent   and   have   relatively   low  
  o Interiors   mechanical  strength.  
• Bending   moment   around   fuselage   due   to   • Fibre  Reinforced  Plastics  (FRPs)  
download   on   the   horizontal   stabiliser   to   o Layers   of   fibres   (glass,   Kevlar,   carbon)  
counteract  the  lift-­‐weight  couple.   provide  the  strength  and  the  filler  gives  
the  stiffness.  
o CFRP  =  Carbon  Fibre  
o KFRP  =  Kevlar  
o GFRP  =  Glass  
 SYSTEMS  1  –  AIRCRAFT  STRUCTURES  &  AERODYNAMIC  LIMITATIONS  

DESIGN  LIMIT  LOAD  (DLL)   OXIDATION   DAMAGE  TOLERANT  

     
• Max  load  a  designer  thinks  a  component  will   • When  a  substance  mixes  with  oxygen  in   • Compromise  between  safe  life  and  fail  safe.  
be  subjected  to  in  the  normal  lifespan  of  the   the  air  to  form  a  different  substance.   • Components   are   made   thicker   and  
aircraft.   • Corrosion  –  When  metal  mixes  with  oxygen   stronger   than  required  so  they  still  have  the  
  required   strength   if   damaged   /   fatigued   /  
• Can  be  accelerated  by  moisture.   corroded.  
DESIGN  ULTIMATE  LOAD  (DUL)   • Electrolytic   oxidation   –   Accelerated   by   a  
         
flow   of   electrons   due   to   two   dissimilar  
• DUL  =  1.5  x  DLL   materials  touching  each  other.  
• Components  are  designed  not  to  fail  until   o Prevented  by  bonding.   CABIN  WINDOWS  
this  load  is  reached.    
• Gives  an  extra  ‘safety  factor’   • Two  panes  of  laminated  glass  separated  by  
• Must  still  remain  substantially  intact  after   an  air  gap.  
experiencing  this  load.   • Lamination  increases  resistance  to  stress.  
DESIGN  PHILOSPHIES  

COCKPIT  WINDOWS  
SAFE  LIFE    
FATIGUE     • 3  layers  of  glass  separated  by  2  layers  of  
  • Each  component  tested  to  destruction  and  a   polythene.  
• High   repetitive   /   cyclic   stress   may   cause   a   safety  factor  then  applied.   • Iridium  heating  layer  also  used:  
small  crack  which  will  get  bigger  over  time.   • All  components  must  be  replaced  when  they   o Prevents  glass  breaking  from  its  
• As   cross   section   is   reduced,   the   stress   reach  the  safe  life  number  of  cycles.   brittle  nature  at  low  temperatures.  
increases  to  a  point  where  a  sudden  fracture   • Requires  lots  of  aircraft  downtime.   o Anti-­‐Ice  
will  occur.  This  is  fatigue  failure.  
• The   greater   the   magnitude   of   the   cyclic  
stress,  the  earlier  failure  will  occur.  
FAIL  SAFE  
• Fatigue  life  is  the   number  of  cycles   left  in   a  
 
component.  
• More  load  bearing  members  than  required  
are  installed  to  give  redundancy  in  the  event  
of  failure.  
• Large  increase  in  weight.  
 SYSTEMS  1  –  AIRCRAFT  STRUCTURES  &  AERODYNAMIC  LIMITATIONS  

AIRCRAFT  DOORS   CREW   SAFETY  

CLASSIFICATION   PROBABILITY   PAX  EFFECTS  
  WORKLOAD   MARGINS  
• Inwards   opening   so   when   cabin   is   FREQUENT  /  
Physical   No  effect  /  slight  
pressurised  they  cannot  be  opened.   MINOR   REASONABLY   Slight  Increase  
Discomfort   reduction  
• Unpressurised   doors   will   open   outwards   PROBABLE  (10-­‐3)  
but   hinges   are   on   the   forward   edge   so   Physical  Distress  
Significant  
airflow  keeps  them  almost  shut  in  case  they   MAJOR   REMOTE  (10-­‐5)   Significant  Increase   (Inc  Possible  
reduction  
are  opened.   Injuries)  
Excessive   Serious  or  fatal  
EXTREMELY  
HAZARDOUS   Workload  (Inc   injury  to  small   Large  reduction  
REMOTE  (10-­‐7)  
POSITION  REFERENCING   Physical  Distress)   number  of  pax  
 
EXTREMELY  
CATASTROPHIC   Multiple  fatalities   Possible  hull  loss  
REMOTE  (10-­‐9)  

 
 
           
 SYSTEMS  2  –  HYDRAULICS  

PASCALS  LAW   DISADVANTAGES  OF  HYDRAULIC  SYSTEMS   FLUID  TYPES  CANNOT  BE  MIXED  
     
• If   a   force   is   applied   to   a   liquid   in   a   • Expensive   • Seal  damage  
confined   space,   then   this   force   is   felt   • Risk  of  leakage   • Internal  leaks  
equally  in  all  directions.   • Susceptible  to  contamination   • Reduced  efficiency      
• Fluid  is  not  compressible.  
 
HYDRAULIC  FLUID  PROPERTIES   SINGLE  ACTING  HAND  PUMP  
CONVERSIONS      
  • Incompressible   • Does  not  provide  a  continuous  flow  as  pump  
• 1  inch  =  2.54  cm   • Low  viscosity  (flows  easily)   needs  to  be  refilled  after  every  stroke.  
• 1  lbs  =  0.454  kgs   • Good  lubrication  properties  
• PSI  (lbs  /  inch2)  is  used  in  aviation   • Remains  liquid  over  a  large  range  of  temps  
• Fire  resistant   DOUBLE  ACTING  HAND  PUMP  
• Prevent  corrosion    
MULTIPLACTION  OF  FORCES   • As   piston   moves   up,   fluid   expelled   via   the  
  top   non-­‐return   valve   and  bottom  non  return  
• Changing   the   area   of   pistons   will   give   us   a   MINERAL  BASED  FLUIDS   valve  allows  fluid  into  bottom  of  cylinder.  
multiplication  of  forces.     • As   piston   move   down,   transfer   valve   opens  
• A   system   with   greater   PSI   will   allow   a   • Red  in  colour   and   fluid   is   expelled   via   the   top   non   return  
smaller  area  to  be  used.   • Used  in  military  /  turboprops   valve.  
• Good  lubrication   • Hand   pumps   used   by   ground   personnel  
• Good  corrosion  prevention   only.  
ADVANTAGES  OF  HYDRAULIC  SYSTEMS  
  • Not  prone  to  foaming  
• Multiplication  of  forces  
• Flexibility   SYNTHETIC  BASED  FLUIDS  
• Compact    
• Economical   • Purple  /  green  /  amber  in  colour  
• Remotely  controlled  surfaces   • Used  in  commercial  aircraft  
• A.KA  Skydrol  /  Phosphate  Ester  Based  
           
• Less  prone  to  cavitation  
• Reduced  fire  risk  (assume  none)  
• Can  withstand  higher  pressures    
 SYSTEMS  2  –  HYDRAULICS  

PRESSURISED  RESERVOIR   DOUBLE  ACTING  ACTUATOR   GEAR  PUMP  

     
• Uses   air   from   the   high   pressure   • Fluid  on  both  sides  of  the  piston.   • Engine  Driven  
compressor  to  pressurise  the  reservoir.   • Significant   force   can   bow   be   applied   in   both   • One  of  the  gears  is  the  ‘driven  gear’  
o Connected   to   an   air   pressure   regulator   directions.     • Pressure  differential   between   gears   forces  
(APR)  on  the  reservoir.   • A  4  port  rotary  selector  is  used.   fluid  between  the  teeth  cavities.  
o Downstream   of   the   HPC   an   air   –   to   –   o Solenoid  used  to  move  between  the   o Increasing  Volume  =  Low  Pressure  
cooler   is   used   along   with   a   de-­‐hydrator   different  positions.   o Decreasing  Volume  =  High  Pressure  
to   remove   moisture   that   results   from    
cooling.    
• Pressurisation  prevents  cavitation.  
o Formation   of   air   bubbles   due   to   low  
pressure  which  can  damage  the  system.  
• Pressurisation   can  also   be  achieved  through  
a  piston  within  the  reservoir.  
• Variations  in  fluid  level  caused  by:  
o Actuator  displacement  
o Thermal  expansion  
• When   system   is   pressurised,   level   in   the  
BALANCED  DOUBLE  ACTING   PISTON  PUMP  
reservoir  will  fall.  
   
  • Volume   differential  requires  more  fluid  to   • Constant  Volume  Engine  Driven  Pump  
move  to  the  right  compared  with  left.   • AKA  Constant  Delivery  Pump  
SINGLE  ACTING  ACTUATOR   • Used   in   the   main   systems   such   as   flight  
• A  dummy  piston  rod  is  fitted  to  balance.  
  controls  and  landing  gears.  
• Fluid  on   one  side   of  the  piston  and  a  spring   • Has  a  larger  capacity  than  gear  pump.  
on  the  other.   • Regulator   (ACOV)   required   as   there   is  
TYPES  OF  PUMPS  
• Most   suited   for   when   a   force   is   only     always  a  supply  of  oil  into  the  system.  
required  in  one  direction.  
• Hand  
• A  selector  valve  is  used  to  extract  /  retract  
• Engine    
• Electrical  
              • RAT  
HYDRAULIC  LOCK   • PTU  
  • Air  Driven  Pumps  
• Actuator  Stationary  +  No  Fluid  Flow  
 SYSTEMS  2  –  HYDRAULICS  

HYDRAULIC  MOTOR   CLOSED  CENTRE  SYSTEM   PRESSURE  FILTER  

     
• Used  for  flaps  and  slats.   • Actuators  in  parallel   • Pressure  Filter  –  Supply  filter  located  after  
• High  pressure  supply  (via  a  piston  pump)  is   • Several  can  be  operated  at  the  same  time   the  pump.  
pumped   in   and   converted   into   rotary   • Scavenge   Filter   –   Return   filter   located  
movement.   before  reservoir.  
  AUTOMATIC  CUT  OFF  VALVE   • Rated  in  microns   (1  micron  =  1/1000  mm)  
    which  is  the  smallest  particle  it  will  allow.  
• Required   in   a   closed   centre   hydraulic   • A   pressure   differential   builds   up   on   the  
system  using  a  constant  volume  pump.   filter  as  particles  are  trapped.  
• Regulates  the  system  pressure  and  routes   o Causes  the  bypass  filter  to  open.  
fluid   back   to   reservoir   when   there   is   no   o Tell   tale   button   (for   engineers)   is  
demand.   popped   plus   a   cockpit   indication   is  
• The  PRV  acts  as  a  ‘back-­‐up’  in  this  case.   given.  
• An   internal   leak  will   cause   the   ACOV   to   cut  
in  frequently.  
ACCUMMULATORS  
PRESSURE  RELIEF  VALVE  
 
 
• Works  as  an  energy  storage  
• When   system   pressure   overcomes   the  
• Removes   the   need   for   a   pump   so   large   to  
spring  tension  the  valve  opens.  
cope  with  extremes  of  demand.  
• An   adjustment   screw   is   provided   to  
• Pre-­‐charged  to  1/3  SP  with  Nitrogen  
prevent  the  ball  floating  (internal  leakage).  
o Compressible  
o Oil  is  forced  through  the  narrow  gap  by  
o Inert  (no  reaction  with  oil)  
the   side   of   the   ball   causing   a  
• A   floating   piston   ensures   the   lines   receive  
temperature  increase.  
extra   pressure   when   system   pressure  
• In   isolated   oil   lines,   this   PRV   acts   as   a  
fluctuates  or  is  not  enough.  
thermal  pressure  relief  valve.     • Floating  piston  /  bladder  /  diaphragm  type  
o Brake  system,  flap  system  etc                •   Insufficient   pre-­‐charge   pressure  
causes:  
o  Reduced  brake  applications  in  the  
OPEN  CENTRE  SYSTEM  
event  of  failure  
 
o  Frequent  ACOV  operation  
• Actuators  in  series  
o  Pressure  fluctuation  +  chattering  
• Can  only  operate  one  at  a  time  
 SYSTEMS  2  –  HYDRAULICS  

CONSTANT  PRESSURE  PUMP   TWIN  ENGINE  JET  SYSTEM   ELECTRICALLY  DRIVEN  PUMP  
     
• A.K.A  Variable  Displacement  Pump   • 3  Hydraulic  Systems   • Used   to   supplement   the   engine   driven  
• Output  pressure  is  also  delivered  to  a  piston.   o Blue   pumps  if  required.  
• When   pressure   required   is   met,   spring   force   o Green  
is  overcome   and   swash   plates   reduces  angle   o Yellow  (Emergency)  
(and  hence  output).   • Each  has  their  own  reservoir   PUMP  PREFERENCES  
• Swash   plate  return   to  max   angle   when   there   • Fluid  cannot  be  transferred  between  them.    
is  demand  requiring  an  increase  in  output.   1. Engine  Driven  Pump  
• Removes  the  need  for  an  ACOV.   2. Power  Transfer  Unit  
• A   casing  drain  is   used   to   monitor   condition   DOUBLE  ACTING  TANDEN  ACTUATOR   3. Electrically  Driven  Pumps  
of  the  pump  by  collecting  an  oil  sample.     4. Ram  Air  Turbine  
o Also  includes  an  overheat  sensor   • Fed   directly   by   two   systems   to   provide  
redundancy  in  the  case  of  failure.    
• Used  for  the  critical  systems.   NON  RETURN  VALVE  
                 
 
ENGINE  DRIVEN  PUMP  CONTROL   • AKA  Check  Valve  
  POWER  TRANSFER  UNIT   • Flow  stops  when  input  press  <  output  press  
• Activation   of   the   fire   handle   causes   a     • Similar   to   an   electronic   diode   (flow   in   one  
solenoid  to  automatically  block  the  output.   • Used  to  transfer  power  from  one   system   to   direction  only)  
o Pressure  build   up   causes  swash  plate   to   another  without  exchanging  any  fluid.  
lower   its   angle   and   reduce   output   until   • Comprises   of   two   mechanically   coupled  
the  engine  stops.   hydraulic  pumps.  
• Activation  of  the  shut-­‐off   switch   blocks  the   o The  pump  in  the  good  system  acts  as   SHUTTLE  VALVE  
inlet  supply.   a  hydraulic  motor  to  allow  the  pump    
o Allows   the   pump   to   be   turned   off   in  the  failed  system  to  operate.   • Allows   two   hydraulic   sources   to   supply  
without  having  to  shut  down  engine.   one  service.  
• Will   use   the   system   supplying   the   highest  
RAM  AIR  TURBINE  (RAT)   pressure.  
   
• An  emergency  hydraulic  pump.  
• Power   by   a   constant   speed   turbine  
suspended  into  the  relative  airflow.  
• Used  in  the  yellow  system.  
 SYSTEMS  2  –  HYDRAULICS  

RESTRICTOR  VALVE   HYDRAULIC  FUSE   PRESSURE  MAINTAING  (PRIORITY)  VALVE  

     
• Permits  a  full  flow  in   one   direction  and  a   • Prevents   a   loss   of   hydraulic   fluid   in   the   • Will   shut   off   hydraulic  
limited  flow  in  the  other.   event   of   a   leak   occurring   downstream   of   supply  to  non-­‐essential  
• Fitted   to  u/c  up  line  (extension)  and  flap  up   the  fuse.   services  in  the  event  of  
line  (retraction)   a   significant   reduction  
in  system  pressure.  
 

PRESSURE  RELAY  
 
FLOW  CONTROL  VALVES   • Used   in   older   aircraft   that   use   a   direct  
  reading  gauge  such  as  a  Bourdon  Tube.  
• Maintains   a   constant   flow   of   fluid   to   an   • Prevents   fluid   from   entering   the   cockpit  
actuator   required   to   operate   at   constant   PRESSURE  REDUCERS   in  the  event  of  a  fracture.  
speed.     • Fitted  between  system  and  pressure  gauge.  
• Not   all   systems   are  
required   to   operate   at    
full  pressure.   HYDRAULIC  FLUID  HEAT  EXCHANGER  
• EG/  Autobrakes    
• Can   be   adjusted   in   • Friction   within   the   engine   driven   pump  
flight   whereas   PRV   is   heats  up  the  oil.  
fixed.   • Oil   from   the   case   drain   is   cooled   before  
returning  to  the  reservoir.  
• Ram   air   or   fuel   may   be   used   as   the   cooling  
SEQUENCE  VALVE   medium,  reducing  total  drag  of  the  aircraft.    
 
• Ensures  the  correct  order  of  operation  in                      
systems   such   as   the   landing   gear  
(undercarriage  +  door  actuator).  
• Hydraulic   &  Mechanical  sequence   valves  are  
possible.  
 SYSTEMS  2  –  HYDRAULICS  

HYDRAULIC  SEALS   WORKING  PRESSURE   OVERHEAT  DETECTORS  

     
• Shape   used   varies   depending   on   pressures   • The   maximum   steady   pressure   within   a   • Can  be  installed  at  the  pumps.  
and   direction   from   which   the   pressure   is   system   under   normal   operating  
applied.   conditions.  
• U  &  V  =  Pressure  from  one  direction    
• O  &  Square  =  Pressure  from  both  directions                        
LIMIT  PRESSURE  
 
• Anticipated   max   pressure   acting   on   a  
HOSE  ASSEMBLIES  
components.  
 
• Includes   a   tolerance   and   any   possible  
• Part  of  the   hydraulic   system  most  prone  to  
variations   in   normal   operating   modes   but  
failure.  
excludes   transient   pressures   (due   fluid  
• Bulge   in   hose   or   an   oily   residue   around  
hammer  effects).  
the  joints  are  sign  of  impending  burst.  

SAFETY  FACTOR  
POWER  PACK  HYDRAULIC  SYSTEMS    
  • System  must  be  designed  to  handle  PW  and  
• Normally  used  in   light   aircraft   where  gear  is   PL  loads  multiplied  by  a  safety  factor.  
the  only  hydraulic  system.  
• Pump  is  powered  by  a  DC  electric  motor.  
• Pump  only  active  for  a  few  seconds  during   LEAK  IDENTIFICATION  
extention  /  retraction.    
• Load   on   engine   and   maintenance   • Internal  Leak:  Rise  in  temperature  
requirements  are  significantly  reduced.   • External  Leak:  Fall  in  reservoir  level  

THERMAL  RELIEF  VALVES  

 
• Fitted  to  isolated  lines.  
 SYSTEMS  4  –  LANDING  GEAR  

TAILDRAGGER  DESIGN   SHOCK  ABSORBERS   TORQUE  LINKS  

     
• Simple  and  lightweight   • Provides  gradual  vertical  deceleration.   • Prevents   inner   cylinder   rotating   within  
• Loading  whilst  tilted   • A.KA.  Ole-­‐Pneumatic  Strut   the  outer  cylinder.  
• Reduced  forward  visibility   • Consists  of  Nitrogen  (pre-­‐charged)  and  Oil.   • Also  limits  max  entension  when  in  flight.  
• Pitch  down  tendency  on  braking   o Oil   is   the   dampening   agent.   It   limits   • Bearings   required   to   enable   smooth  
• Group  Loop   the   speed   of   extension   and   movement.  
• Poor   braking   action   (due  increased  AoA  on   compression  in  the  strut.   • A  ground  /  air  safety  switch  (squat  switch)  
landing)   o Nitrogen  acts  as  a  spring   can  be  fitted  to  the  torque  link.  
  • Inner  cylinder  is  connected  to  the  wheel   o Prevents  gear  retraction  on  ground  
• Above  are  removed  by  the  tricycle  design   • Outer  cylinder  is  connect  to  the  airframe  
• Sliding  restrictor  prevents  bouncing  
  SHIMMY  DAMPER  
o AKA  Metering  Orifice  
GEAR  TYPES   o Low  resistance  during  compression    
  o High  resistance  during  extension   • Shimmy  is  oscillations  during  ground  ops  
Main  |  Body  |  Nose  |  Body  |  Main   • A   separator   is   normally   present   although   • Possible  on  both  main  and  nose  gears.  
  not  required.   • Causes  of  shimmy:  
• Main  &  Body  =  Braking   o Lighter,  simpler  and  cheaper  without   o Uneven  tyre  pressures  
• Nose  =  Steerable  but  no  braking   o Oil   and   nitrogen   mix   however   and   o U/S  shimmy  damper  
damping  ability  reduced  with  cycles.   o Work  torque  link  bearings  
  • Shimmy   damper  connected  to  strut  /  toque  
GEAR  ARRANGEMENTS     link  to  reduce  effects.  
 
 
  CENTERING  CYLINDER  
 
• Centres   the   landing   gear   after   takeoff   to  
ensure  it  fits  within  the  wheel  well.  

STEERING  CYLINDER  
                         
• Allows  for  hydraulic  steering.  
• Operated  by  rudder  pedals  /  tiller  
 SYSTEMS  4  –  LANDING  GEAR  

GROUND  LOCKS   ACCIDENTAL  RETRACTION  PREVENTION   BOGIE  LANDING  GEAR  

     
• Prevent   retraction   of   gear   when   static   on   • When  weight  comes  off  wheels,  the  switch  is   • Used  when  4  /  6  wheels  are  on  one  strut.  
the  ground.   closed   and   a   solenoid   removes   the   locking   • Allowed  to   pitch   up  and   down   to   ensure  all  
• Must  be  removed  before  flight.   pin  from  gear  handle.   4  wheels  take  equal  loads.  
• An   override   button   is   present   for   • Allows  smaller  wheels  to  be  used.  
emergency  use.   • Taxiing   with   a   small   turning   radius   will  
NOSEWHEEL  STEERING   give   the   greatest   loads   on   a   torsion   link   if  
  fitted.  
• Tiller   provides   greater   deflection   than  
rudder.   HYDRAULIC  RETRACTION  SYSTEM  
• 747   body   gear   also   rotates   in   opposite    
direction  to  nosewheel.   • Extension  is  slowed  with  a  restrictor   valve  
• NWS   disconnect   allows   powered   steering   to   prevent   rapid   extension   when   combined  
to  be  turned  off  for  push  /  tow.   with  airflow.  
o Prevents  cavitation  
o Normally  on  mains  only  
UP-­‐LOCK   GEAR  INDICATIONS   • Actuator   dimension   cause   nosewheel   to  
    retract  faster  than  mains.  
• Hydraulically  operated  uplock.   • None  =  Up  &  Locked  
• Spring   “over-­‐centre”   used  to  hold  hook  in  a   • Red  =  In  Transit  
locked  /  unlocked  position.   • Green  =  Down  &  Locked   EMERGENCY  EXTENSION  
   
• Truck  light  (amber)  illuminates  when  trucks   • Uplocks   removed   and   gear   lower   in   free  
DOWN-­‐LOCK   not  in  level  position  for  retraction.   fall  due  to  gravity.  
  • A   door   position   light   will   also   illuminate   if   • Main  doors  will  remain  open  
• Hydraulically  locked.   doors  are  not  locked.   • Initially  3  greens  and  2  reds  
• Overcentre  geometric  lock  used.   o Selector  still  in  up  position  
o 1   red   to   indicate   open   doors   once  
  PISTON  VS  MOTOR   selector  is  moved  to  down  position.  
                           
• Piston   actuators   are   used   instead   of  
hydraulic   motors   as   alternate   gear  
extension   can   be   done   easier.   (Linear   vs  
rotary)  
 SYSTEMS  4  –  LANDING  GEAR  

WHEELS  BRAKE  PURPOSE   MULTI  DISC  BRAKE  UNIT     ANTI-­‐SKID  UNIT  

                                 
• Convert  kinetic  energy  into  heat  energy.   • Actuator   used   to   compress   the   pressure   • Purpose  
• Heat  generated  depends  on:   plate.   o Provides  max  braking  efficiency  
o Aircraft  mass   • Rotor   discs   move   with   the   wheel   whilst   o Reduced  landing  run  
o Brake  application  speed   stator  discs  remain  fixed.   o Better  directional  control  
o Runway  slope   • Either   side   of   the   stator   disc   are   friction   o Increases  tyre  life  
o Wind  component   pads.    
  • Function  1  –  Normal  Skid  Control  
 
LP  BRAKE  SYSTEM   𝑵𝑳𝑮  𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 − 𝑴𝑳𝑮  𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
  𝑺𝒍𝒊𝒑  𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 =    ×  𝟏𝟎𝟎%  
𝑵𝑳𝑮  𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅
• Shuttle   valve   used   to   decide   whether    
footbrake  or  parking  brake  pressure  is  used.   o NLG   is   used   as   the   ground   speed  
reference  since  it’s  not  used  for  braking  
o 10  –  30  %  is  the  ideal  ratio  
DRUM  BRAKE   o When  ratio  exceeded,  brakes  released  
   
• Type  fitted  to  most  cars.   • Wear   measurement   pin   becomes   flush   • Function  2  –  Touchdown  Protection  
• Poor  heat  dissipation   when  brake  pads  are  worn.   o When  weight  off  wheels,  an  artificial  full  
• Rapid  expansion  when  heated.   o Brakes  must  be  set  when  checking.   skid   signal   is   generated   before  
• Carbon   fibre   brakes   most  commonly  used   touchdown.  
nowadays:    
DISC  BRAKE   o Lighter   • Function  3  –  Locked  Wheel  Protection  
  o Absorb  more  heat   o Brakes   fully   released   when   wheels  
• C152  style   o Stopping   capability   improves   with   locked  to  prevent  a  skid.  
• Disc  rotates  with  wheel   temperature    

• Two  brake  pads  either  side  of  wheel   • Some  disadvantages  of  carbon  brakes:   • Function  4  –  Failsafe  Protection  
o Expensive   o Returns   brake   system   to   full   manual  
o One   fixed   and   one   moved   by   a   small  
actuator.   o Corrosive  (react  with  de-­‐ice  fluid)   operation  in  case  of  systems  failure.  
o More  prone  to  wear  when  cold    
o Very   susceptible   to   wear   when   • System  disconnects  when  <20  kts  
snubbed  during  taxi.   • Works   on   the   principle   of   decreasing  
  pressure  at  the  slower  turning  wheels.  
• Brake   unit   dragging   caused   by   incorrect  
operation  of  the  adjuster  assemblies.  
 SYSTEMS  4  –  LANDING  GEAR  

AUTOBRAKE  SYSTEM   BRAKE  FADE   PARKING  BRAKE  

     
• Prerequisites:   • In   a   drum  brake  system,   heat   from   friction   • No   parking   brakes   in   hangar   –   allows   for  
o Hydraulic  Pressure   causes   radial   expansion   which   reduces   emergency  evacuation.  
o Autobrake  System  ON   stopping  power.   • No   parking   brakes   during   refueling   –  
o Deceleration  rate  selected     allows  to  aircraft  to  adapt  to  CoG  changes.  
o Anti-­‐skid  ON  and  serviceable   • In   a   multi-­‐disc  brake,   when   oil  is   heated   to   • When   ON,   all   other   braking   systems  
o Spoilers  armed   its   boiling   point   vapour   bubbles   are   including   ASU   and   TD   protection   are  
o Brake  pedals  not  depressed   formed  making  it  less  effective.   inhibited.  
o Idle  throttle  setting   o Do  not  set  park  brake  in  flight.  
 
• Disengage  Triggers:  
BRAKE  OVERHEAT  
o Anti-­‐skid  system  selected  OFF   BRAKE  ACCUMULATOR  
 
o Manual  braking  applied    
• Loss  of  braking  performance  
o Speedbrake  lever  moved  forwards   • Pressurised  to  3000  psi  
o Throttle  levers  advanced   • Fire  hazard  
• Minimum   of   6   brake   applications  
  • Tyre  deflation  /  explosion  
available  to  stop  aircraft.  
• Normal   autobrake   settings   provide   o Explosion  prevented  by  a  fusible  plug  
• Once   1000  psi   is  present,   only   Nitrogen   is   in  
constant  deceleration.   that  deflates  tyre  gradually.  
the  accumulator  so  it  has  been  used  up.  
• RTO  is  not  controlled.  
 
• Autobrakes   become   most   effective   once   BRAKE  FAILURE   BRAKE  EFFECTIVENESS  
reverse  thrust  has  been  disengaged.      
• Runway  excursions   • No  spoilers  =  60%  of  weight  on  wheels  
  • Unwanted  a/c  ground  movement   • With  spoilers  =  80%  of  weight  on  wheels  
 BRAKE  
                            TEMPERATURE  SENSORS   • Braking  effectiveness  and  drag  increased  by  
  130%  with  spoilers  deployed.  
• Fitted  to  each  brake  unit   BRAKE  FIRE  
• Refuelling   not   possible   when   brakes   are    
overheated.   • Never  use  water  based  extinguishers.   WHEEL  TYPES  
• Overheat  warning  can  be  fitted   to  the  wheel   • Dry  powder  is  the  extinguishing  agent.    
/  undercarriage  bay.   • Usually  of  aluminium  /  magnesium  alloy  
• Most  aircraft  are  tubeless  
• C152  is  a  tubed  tyre  
• Inflated  with  Nitrogen  (inert)  
 SYSTEMS  4  –  LANDING  GEAR  

AQUAPLANING  
TUBELESS  TYRES   TYRE  VENTING  
 
   
• Occurs  when  runway  is  contaminated  
• Has  a  radial  side  casing   • Tyres  are  made  from  piles.  More   piles   gives  
o >  3mm  standing  water  /  snow  /  slush  
• Requires  solid  /  branched  wheels   a  stronger  tyre.  
• Zero  friction  coefficient  
  • A  casing   vent   is  installed  on  tubeless   tyres  
• Rubber   reversion   (burning)   can   occur  
• Less  weight   to   prevent   Nitrogen   from   getting   between  
the   piles   and   causing   separation   which   will   when   aquaplaning   as   standing   water  
• Less  chance  of  punctures  and  deflation.  
becomes  superheated.  
• Will  not  burst  in  event  of  puncture   reduce  their  strength.  
• If  tyre  pressure   is   too   low,  aquaplaning   can  
• Has  a  better  adjustment  to  wheels   • Indicated  by  green  dots  on  tyre.  
occur  at  a  lower  speed.  
• Runs   cooler  due   to  lack  of  friction  between    
tyre  and  tube.  
TYRE  CREEP   𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈  𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝟗  ×  √𝑷  (𝒑𝒔𝒊)  
  𝑨𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈  𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝟑𝟒  ×  √𝑷  (𝒃𝒂𝒓)  
TYRE  STRESS   • Movement  of  tyre  around  the  rim.  
  • Can   result   in   inflation   valve   being   ripped  
• High  Impact  Load   out  causing  deflation.   TYRE  WEAR  
• High  Speeds   • Check  tyre  creep  before  flight.    
• High  Temperature  Due  Braking   • When   marker   tie   bar   becomes   visible   /  
  flush,  tread  must  be  replaced.  
• Tyre  Limiting  Speed  –  Max  Ground  Speed   TREAD  PATTERNS  
• If   a   tyre   is   left   in   the   same   spot   for   a   long    
period  of  time  a  flat  spot  can  occur.   • Ribbed  Tread  
  o Most  widely  used  
• Crown   –   Withstands   the   wear   of   normal   o Low  rolling  resistance  
operation  (contains  tread).   o Good  directional  stability  +  traction  
• Shoulder  –  Not  designed  to  take  wear.   • All  Weather  Tyres  
• Sidewalls   –   Thinnest   and   weakest   section   • Chined  Tyres  
designed  to  flex  when  load  applied.   o Deflect  water  away  from  rear  mounted    
• Bead  –  Fits  against  rim  of  wheel.   engines.   TYRE  WEAR  
• Anti-­‐Shimmy    
o Twin  contact  tread   • Taxy  less  than  20   kts  /  40  kph   to  reduce  
                                tyre  wear  
 SYSTEMS  4  –  LANDING  GEAR  

  TYRE  INFLATION  /  PRESSURE   TYRE  DAMAGE  

                                     
• Nitrogen  used  to  inflate  tyres.   • The  following  have  a  detrimental  effect  on  
• Ventilation  holes  =  Expected  loss  of  5%.   tyre  rubber:  
o Tyres  should  be  reinflated  as  normal.     o Hydraluic  fluid  
• 5  –  10%  drop   should  be  inflated  and   a  note   o Oil  
made  in  the  tech  log.   o Grease  
o Should   be   subsequently   rejected   if   it   • If   not   removed,   the   tyre   will   swell   and  
falls  below  5%.   become  soft  and  spongy.  
• >  10%  drop  should  be  rejected   • Cut  Tolerances  –  Reject  if:  
  o Cut  penetrates  casing  piles  
• Hot   tyre   pressures   will   be   approx.   10%   o Cuts  exposes  the  casing  cords  
above  normal  pressure.   • Bulges  –  Sign  of  delamination.  
• A   tyre   fitted   to   an   aircraft   should   only   be   • Excessive  Shoulder  Wear  –  Underinflation  
inflated  by  4%  
 
• If   aircraft   has   taxied   with   a   deflated   tyre,  
that  tyre  and  its  axial   companion  should  be  
scrapped  (due  supporting  excessive  load).  
o If   more   than   one   tyre   has   been   used  
deflated,  all  tyres  on  that  undercarriage  
must  be  scrapped.  
 SYSTEMS  3  –  FLYING  CONTROLS  

  TYPES  OF  FLYING  CONTROLS   MASS  BALANCE   ELECTRICAL  FLAPS  

                                         
• Mechanically  Operated   • Reduced  flutter   • Driven   by   a   reversible   motor   geared  
o Reversible  Controls   • Fitted  forward  of  the  hinge   through  a  lead  screw.  
o Cables  /  Push-­‐Pull  Roads   o Electric  motor  –  small  aircraft  
• Hydraulically  Operated   o Hydraulic  motor  –  larger  aircraft  
o Irreversible  Controls   AILERON  UPFLOAT   • Lead   screw   prevents   aerodynamic   loads  
o Power  Assisted  /  Fully  Powered     from  driving  back  the  motor  
• Fly-­‐By-­‐Wire   • Reduces  flutter   • Micro-­‐switch   used   to   cut   off   supply   when  
o No   mechanical   connection   between   • Neutral  position  of  ailerons  is  set  above  the   flap  reaches  the  requested  position.  
cockpit  and  control  surface.   trailing  edge  of  the  wing.   • Flap   asymmetry   will   lock   flaps   in   position  
• Upgoing   wing   produced   more   drag   and   when  detected.  
downgoing  produces  less.  
CABLE  COMPONENTS  
 
GUST  LOCKS  
• Turnbuckle   –   Joins   cables   together   and    
provides  cable  tension.  
• Can  be  both  internal  /  external  
• Rigging   Pins   –   Allows   for   adjustment   of  
• External   locks   consist   of   two   wooden  
push-­‐pull  rod  length.  
blocks   with   neoprene   rubber   insets   to  
• Bell   Crank   –   Allows   for   changing   of   push-­‐ protect  the  surfaces.  
pull  rod  angle.  
• Pulleys  –  Change  direction  of  control  cables  
• Fairleads   –  Keeps  cables   straight   and  clear   TRIM  TABS  
of  the  structure.    
• Can   be   operated   both   mechanically   and  
electrically.  
CONTROL  LIMIT  STOPS  
• Electrical  type  requires  two  switches  to  be  
 
operated  simultaneously.  
• Protects   the   structure   from   excessive  
o Prevents  uncommanded  trim  runaway  
loads.  
• Operated  via  a  screw  jack.  
• Lock  wired  &  adjustable  
• Primary  Stops  –  Located  on  control  surface  
• Secondary  Stops  –  Located  in  cockpit  
o Provide   redundancy   in   case   of   primary  
failure.  
 SYSTEMS  3  –  FLYING  CONTROLS  

  POWERED  FLYING  CONTROLS   FAIL  SAFE  SYSTEMS   POSITION  INDICATORS  

                                       
• Manual  Reversion  
POWERED  FLYING  CONTROLS   POSITION  TRANSMITTERS  
o Release  Unit  
   
o By-­‐Pass  Unit  
• The  following  components  are  required  in   a   • Position   transmitters   installed   on   each  
• Dual  PCFU  
powered  flying  control  system:   control   surface   to   indicate   position   to   the  
o Control  Input  System   flight  deck  crew.  
o Power  Flying  Control  Unit  (PFCU)   TRIMMING  POWERED  FLYING  CONTROLS  
o Artificial  Feel  Unit  
LIFT  AUGMENTATION  DEVICES  
WHY  TRIM  
 
CONTROL  INPUT  SYSTEM   • Pitch  trim  required  for  changes  in:   LIFT  AUGMENTATION  DEVICES  
  o Speed    
• Allows  for  the  mechanical   positioning  of  the   o Power   • Normally  powered  via  a  hydraulic  motor  
servo  valve  within  the  PFCU.   o CG  Positions   • Load   limit   devices   will   prevent   flap  
• Yaw  trim  required  for:   extention   below   the   limiting   speed   and  
o Changes  in  prop  torque   automatically   retract   them   if   their  operating  
PFCU  
o Counter-­‐acting   asymmetric   power   on   speed  is  exceeded.  
 
• When   hydraulic   lock   occurs,   aerodynamic   multi-­‐engine  aircraft  
loads  cannot  move   the   control  surface.  This   • Roll   trim   is  not  normally  required  by  can  be  
SPOILERS  
is  therefore  an  irreversible  system.     used   to   correct  for   low-­‐wing   tendencies   and  
lateral  displacements  of  the  CG    
ROLL  SPOILERS  
ARTIFICIAL  FEEL    
  VARIABLE  INCIDENCE  STABILISER  
  • Mechanically  linked  to  the  ailerons.  
• Prevents  overstressing  the  aircraft.     • Remain   retracted   on   the   upgoing   wing   and  
• Results  in  less  form  drag  
• Failure   of   the   unit   will   result   in   light   extended  on  the  downgoing  wing.  
controls  at  all  speeds.   • Since   the  elevator   is  in   the  neutral   position  
when  trimmed,  the  range  of  pitch  control  is   • The  inner  most  spoiler  remains  retracted  to  
  prevent  tail  buffet.  
not  reduced.  Full  deflection  still  possible.  
• Simple  Spring  Feel  Unit  
• Two   switches   are   used   to   prevent   trim  
• Q  Feel  Unit  
runaway.  
• Hydraulic  Q  Feel  Unit  
• Operated   by   all   3   hydraulic   systems   for  
• Combined  System  Layout  
redundancy.  
• Manual   trim   option   provided   in   case   of  
pitch  trim  malfunction.  
 SYSTEMS  3  –  FLYING  CONTROLS  

 
ROLL   +  SPEEDBRAKE  OPERATION   REVERSE  THRUST   FBW  COMPUTERS  
                                           
• If   the   speedbrakes   are   extended   and   a   roll   • ELAC  (x2)  =  Elevator  /  Aileron  Computer  
command   is   input,   a   spoiler   mix   unit   will   REVERSE  THRUST  
• SEC  (x3)  =  Spoiler  /  Elevator  
determine  the  correct  deflection  to  apply.    
• FAC  (x2)  =  Flight  Augmentation  Computer  
• There   will   be   greater   extension   on   the   • Active   when   the   blocker   doors   are  
 
downgoing  and  only  partial  extention  on  the   deployed.  
• There   are   multiple   versions   of   each  
upgoing  wing.   computer  to  provide  redundancy.  
AUTOPILOT   • Furthermore,  pitch  axis  control  for  example  
will   be   spread   across   the   ELAC   and   SEC  
computers  to  provide  further  redundancy.  
AUTOPILOT  INPUTS    
  • In   the   event   of   complete   computer   failure,  
• Command   signal   energises   electrical   coil   rudder  pedals  and  stabiliser  trim  can  still  
windings   which   cause   a   transfer   valve   to   be  operated  manually.  
relay  inputs  to  the  power  control  unit.  
LIFT  DUMPERS  
FBW  MODES  
 
 
• Lever   moves   automatically   from   armed   to   FLY  BY  WIRE  
• Normal  
UP  position.  
o Complete  envelope  protection  
• Conditions  required:  
FBW  ADVANTAGES   o Reversion   to   alternate   /   direct   can  
o Anti-­‐skid  unit  operative  
  occur  in  event  of  system  failures.  
o Speedbrake  lever  ARMED  
• Reduced  Mass   • Alternate  
o Weight  on  wheels  
• Reduced  Maintenance   o Partial  protection  provided  
o Rotation  of  wheels  
More  rapid  control  response   o Possible  to  stall  the  aircraft  
o Thrust  levers  idle   •
• Remote  sensing  /  fault  diagnostics   • Direct  
• Automatic  gust  load  alleviation   o No  protection  provided  
TAIL  UNIT  AIRBRAKES   • Fuel  saving   o Control   surfaces   move   in   direct  
  proportion   to   the   amount   of   control  
• Some   aircraft   (BAE   146)   have   roll   spoilers   input.  
and   lift   dumpers   on   top   of   the   wing   and  
separate   airbrakes   installed   on   the   tail  
section.  
 SYSTEMS  5  –  AIR  CON,  PNEUMATICS  &  PRESSURISATION  

  PRESSURE  &  ALTITUDE   TURBO-­‐CHARGER  DISADVANTAGES   BLEED  AIR  SYSTEM  

                                             
• Oxygen  accounts  from  21%  of  atmosphere   • Possible  carbon  monoxide  poisoning  
• Partial  pressure  of  O2  will  decrease  with  height   • At  high  altitude,  engine  requires  more  of  the  air   BLEED  AIR  SYSTEM  
however.   from   turbo-­‐charger   so   pressurisation   and   air    
• At  MSL:  1013  x  21%  =  212  hPa  (Approx)   con  ability  etc  is  reduced.   • The  most  common  way  of  providing  pressurised  
• At  18,000  ft:  500  x  21%  =  106  hPa  (Approx)   air  on  large  aircraft  is  using  bleed  air.  
  • Air  is  extracted  from  the  H PC  
• A   cabin   altitude   limit   of   8,000   ft   is   normally   ROOTS  DISPLACEMENT  BLOWER   • Normally   extracted   from   the   5th   Stage  
used  where  the  partial  pressure  is  750  x  21%  =   (Intermediate  Pressure  Stage).  
150  hP   • At   low   RPM,   this   is   done   from   9 th   Stage   (High  
ROOTS  DISPLACEMENT  BLOWER   Pressure   Stage)   at  the  pressure   at  the  5th   is   too  
  low.  
PNEUMATIC  AIR   • Another  method  of  obtaining  pressurised  air  for   • A   check   valve   prevents   air   from   the   9th   stage  
  various   services   is   via   a   dedicated   cabin   entering  the  5th  stage.  
• Used  for  cabin  pressurisation,  air  con,  reservoir   compressor.  
pressurisation  etc.   • It  is  connected  to  the  AGB.  
AUXILLARY  POWER  UNIT  
  • Ram  air  is  fed  in  and  compressed.  
 
• Can   be   generated   using   a   turbocharger,   roots   • Prevents   extracting   air   from   the   turbocharger  
• On   the   ground   when   the   engines   are   not  
displacement  blower  or  bleed  air.   (in   piston   aircraft)   or   the   compressor   (in   gas  
running,  the  APU  provides  the  bleed  air.  
turbine   aircraft)   which   lowers   the   engine  
efficiency.  

PISTON  ENGINE  SYSTEM   HEAT  EXCHANGERS  

 
• Used   to   cool   the   bleed   air  
TURBO-­‐CHARGER  DESIGN   to  approx.  2000C  
   
• Turbocharger  is  utilised   • Utilises  bleed  air  from   the  
• Can   be   the   same   one   as   used   for   power   engine  fan.  
augmentation.  
 SYSTEMS&5&–&AIR&CON,&PNEUMATICS&&&PRESSURISATION&

( COMBUSTION&HEATING&
PISTON&ENGINE&CABIN&PRESSURISATION& TEMPERATURE&CONTROL&
(((((((((((((((((((((( &
• Used(on(the(Seneca(for(example.&
TURBOCHARGER& METHODS& • Part( of( the( fuel( supply( is( used( to( power( a(
& & combustion(heater.&
• Achieved(using(the(turbocharger(design.& • Control(of(temperature(is(achieved(by(either:& • A( temperature& sensor( will( cycle& the& fuel&
o Engine(Exhaust(Heating& supply( as( required( to( achieve( the( temperature(
o Combustion(Heating& level(as(set(by(the(pilot.(&
o Air(Cycle(Cooling& • In(flight,(ram&air(is(supplied(via(a(fan.&
• Stationary,( a( combustion& blower( provides( the(
required(air(supply(in(the(absence(of(ram(air.&
ENGINE&EXHAUST&HEATING& o Switched(off(in(flight.&
&
• Used(on(light&aircraft.&
• Ram& air( enters( through( forward( facing( air(
intakes.&
• Some( of( this( is( passed( through( a( heater& muff(
OUTFLOW&VALVE& where( exhaust( gas( in( close( proximity( heats( the(
& air(as(required.&
• To(fulfill(the(pressurisation(function,(an(outflow& • When( stationary,( a( fresh& air& blower& is( used(
valve&is(used(to(regulate(the(cabin(altitude.& when(there(is(no(ram(air.&
• Closed(at(high(altitude.& • Air( is( dumped( overboard( via( a( vent( on( the(
underside(of(the(aircraft(once(used.&
• There( is( always( a( constant& flow& in& and& out&
otherwise( the( pressure( would( build( up( and( the(
cabin(would(explode.&
• A( cabin& altitude& controller& controls( the( • Blockage( of( either(the( ram( air(/(combustion( air(
supply(causes(a(differential&pressure&switch&to(
position(of(the(outflow.&
cut(the(fuel(supply.&
• In( the( event( the( outlet( air( temp( becomes( too(
great,( a( limit& switch& will( temporarily( stop( the(
OTHER&COMPONENTS&
supply(of(fuel((hence(combustion)(thus(allowing(
&
air(to(cool.&
• Cabin&altimeter&is(used(to(provide(an(indication(
• A( second( protection( with( a( higher( temp( limit(
of(the(cabin(altitude.&
than(the(limit(switch(is(also(installed(in(case(the(
• Safety& /& dump& valve& opens(when(the(pressure(
limit(switch(fails(or(temp(is(too(great.&
differential(becomes(too(great.&
o Reset(can(only(be(done(on(the(ground.&
o Protects( against( failure( of( the( outflow(
valve.&
 SYSTEMS&5&–&AIR&CON,&PNEUMATICS&&&PRESSURISATION&

( ROOTS&BLOWER& WATER&SEPERATOR&
AIR&CYCLE&COOLING&
((((((((((((((((((((((((( & &
• Utilises(the(roots& blower&to(provide(pneumatic( • Removes&excess&water&vapour&from(air.(
AIR&CYCLE&COOLING& air.& • An( ice& screen& can( also( be( fitted( to( prevent(
& • It(does(not(compress(air(but(merely(helps(air(to( blockage(of(the(turbine.(
• Main( method( of( temperature( control( within( overcome&the&back& pressure(that(exists(in(the( (
modern(jet(transport(aircraft.& system.& • Water( vapour( will( condense,( releasing( latent(
• The(following(system(designs(can(be(used:& • A(silencer&is(fitted(to(reduce(noise(created(when( heat(and(reducing(the(cooling(effect.&
o Displacement(Blower((Bootstrap)& air(passes(through(the(roots(blower.& • Water( vapour( must( also( be( removed( before(
o Bleed(Air((Bootstrap)& entering(cabin.&
o Brake(Turbine(System&
o Turbo(Fan(System& SPILL&VALVE&
• Air(cycle(machines( are( commonly(known( as(air& & TEMPERATURE&CONTROL&
conditioning&packs.& • Vents&excess&air&flow(to(atmosphere.& &
• Controlled(via(the(mass&flow&controller.& • Warm( (uncooled)( air( is( mixed( with( the( cooled(
• At(high(RPMs((blower(is(driven(by(the(AGB),(the( air( as( required( to( ensure( the( correct(
spill(valve(will(open(to(ensure(a(constant& mass& temperature(is(delivered(to(the(cabin.&
AIR&CYCLE&COOLING&–&DISPLACEMENT&BLOWER&
flow(is(delivered.&

OPERATION&
&
• Air(is(preJcooled&by(ram(air(across(the(primary&
heat&exchanger.&
• The( pressure( of( the( air( is( boosted( by( the(
compressor& in( order( to( make( the( energy(
conversion(at(the(turbine(stage(more(efficient.&
• A(secondary&heat&exchanger&removes(the(heat(
generated(as(a(result(of(compression.&
• Air(expands(in(order(to(drive(the(turbine&which(
results(in(lower&temperature(and(pressure.(&

“BOOTSTRAP&SYSTEM”&
&
• It( is( called( a(bootstrap( system( it( becomes(selfJ
sustaining&once(started.&
o Turbine(drives(compressor(which(drives(
turbine(etc.&
 SYSTEMS  5  –  AIR  CON,  PNEUMATICS  &  PRESSURISATION  

AIR  COOLING  –  BLEED  AIR  (BOOTSTRAP)   OTHER  AIR  CYCLE  SYSTEMS   DUCTING  SYSTEM  

OPERATION   BRAKE  TURBINE  SYSTEM   MIX  MANIFOLD  

     
• Same   as   bootstrap   system   except   bleed   air   is   • Uses  only  one  heat  exchanger  so  is  lighter.   • The   airflow   that   is   circulated   within   the   cabin  
used  instead  of  the  blower  as  the  pneumatic  air   • The   compressor   functions   as   a   brake   to   ensure   comes  from  the  mix  manifold.  
supply.   turbine  rpm  does  not  become  too  great.   • This  receives  inputs  from  the  following  sources:  
• The   engine   bleed   air   valve   is   normally   open   • Cannot  be  used  when  stationary  however  due  to   o Packs  (ACMs)  
but  is  closed  when  the  fire  handle  is  pulled.   lack  of  ambient  airflow  through  compressor.   o Ground  pre-­‐conditioned  air  
o Cabin  re-­‐circulated  air  
 
• In   order   prevent   an   increase   in   fuel  
consumption   by   continuously   using   bleed   air,  
air   from   the   cabin   is   sent   back   to   the   mixing  
unit.  
o It  passes  through  filters  which  ensure  it  is  
99%  clean  before  entering  mix  unit.    
 
• This   recirculated   air   is   mixed   with   fresh   air  
from  the  packs  and  distributed  to  the  cabin.  
• Flight  deck  is  supplied  with  air  straight  from  the  
TURBO  FAN  SYSTEM   left  pack  without  mixing.  
  o Switches  to   right  pack   in  case  of   left  pack  
• Turbine   drives   a   fan   to   assist   with   the   ram   air   failure.  
cooling  through  the  heat  exchanger.  
• This   is   a   development   of   the   brake   turbine  
system   which   allow   for   cooling   whilst   on   the  
ground.  
 
 SYSTEMS  5  –  AIR  CON,  PNEUMATICS  &  PRESSURISATION  

  SAFETY  VALVES  
AUXILLARY  POWER  UNIT   PRESSURISATION  
 
• Positive  Pressure  Relief  Valve  
PURPOSE   LEGAL  REQUIREMENTS   o Opens  when  the  Max  Pressure  Differential  +  
    0.25  psi  is  exceeded  
• The   APU   is   a   gas   turbine   engine   that   can   be   • Cabin  conditions  equivalent  to  8,000  ft  or  less   • Inward  Pressure  Relief  Valve  
used  on  the  ground  or  in  flight  (on  some  types)   • Heating   /   cooling   facilities   to   ensure   a   o Opens   when   ambient   pressure   exceeds   the  
• It  is  a  free  turbine  type  with  the  turbine  driving   comfortable  cabin  temperature   cabin  pressure  by  0.5  –  1  psi  
a  compressor  that  provides  pneumatic  air.   • 1  lb  of  air  per  pax  minute  (0.4  lb  in  emergency)   o Protects   from   structural   compression   in   a  
  • ROC  <  500  fpm  &  ROD  <  300  fpm   rapid  descent  for  example.  
• It  can  be  used  to  provide  bleed  air  in  case  of  a   • Dump  Valve  
pack   failure   or   when   engines   are   not   o Operated  by  the  flight  crew  
running.   PRESSURISATION  CONSIDERATIONS   o Cabin  pressure  is  rapidly  reduced  to  zero  
• It  is  used  to  provide  bleed  air  for  engine  start.     o Allows   for   clearing   of   cabin   air   in   event   of  
  • A   suitably   low   cabin   ROC   and   ROD   must   be   smoke  etc  
• It   also   drives   a   gearbox   to  which   a  generator   is   achieved  for  passenger  comfort.   • Blow  Out  Panels  
attached  so  electrical  power  can  be  provided.   • Too  low  cabin  ROC  and  ROD  however  can  cause   o Fitted   between   cabin   and   cargo  
the   maximum   pressure   differential   to   be   compartments.  
exceeded  (red  line).   o Prevents   collapsing   of   the   floor   in   event   of  
  cargo   section   undergoing   rapid  
• Pressurisation  results  in  hoop  stresses.     decompression  (cargo  door  blow  out).  
o Structure   must   be   strong   enough   to  
withstand   pressurisation   without   being  
too  heavy.   PRE-­‐PRESSURISATION  
   
• Occurs   on   ground   when   throttle   levers   are  
advanced  more  than  10  degrees.  
• Cabin  pressurised  slightly  below  ambient  
• Allows  for  smoother  transition  when  climbing  
OTHER  USES  OF  PNEUMATIC  AIR  
• Prevents  inflow  of  exhaust  gases.  

OTHER  USES  
 
• Cargo  brake  systems  
• Ice  protection  systems  
• Pressurisation  of  hydraulic  reservoirs  
• Pneumatic  engine  start  
• Thrust  reverse  
 SYSTEMS  5  –  AIR  CON,  PNEUMATICS  &  PRESSURISATION  

   
PRESSURE  CONTROLLERS   DOOR  SEALING   ALTITUDE  TRIGGERS  
     
• In  AUTO  mode,  computers  automatically  control   • Seals  are  fitted  with  adjustable  rubber  seals.   • 10,000  ft  
the  required  pressurisation.   • These   expand   with   an   increase   in   pressure   o Pilots   provided   with   audible   and   visual  
• There  is  an  AUTO  1  &  AUTO  2  option.   differential  to  ensure  adequate  sealing.   warnings.  
o AUTO  1  =  AC  from  engine  1     o Must  don  m asks  at  this  point.  
o AUTO  2  =  AC  from  engine  2   • Unlocked  door  indications  will  be  present  above    
  doors  and  delivered  to  flight  deck.   • 14,000  ft  
• Should  AC  sources  fail,  MAN  can  be  selected.   o Pax  oxygen  automatically  deployed  
• Uses  DC  power  source.    
• Pilots  must  manually  set  ROC  &  ROD   CABIN  SEALING   • 15,000  ft  
    o Outflow  valve  automatically  closes  
• Cabin   altimeter   and   “cabin   VSI”   installed   to   • Control   runs,   pipelines   etc   may   have   to   pass  
monitor  pressurisation.   through  b ulkheads.  
  • Adequate   sealing   must   be   ensured   to   maintain   RESIDUAL  DOOR  INDICATION  
• For  AUTO  to  function,  following  inputs  must  be   cabin  pressure.    
provided  to  the  system:   • Max  leak  rate  is  300  fpm   • If   cabin   is   still   pressurised   after   landing,   a  
o FLT  ALT   residual  pressure  light  illuminates  on  the  door.  
o LAND  ALT   • Pushing   this   switches   open   the   outflow   valve  
o CABIN  ALT   manually  to  equalize  the  pressure.  
TYPICAL  FLIGHT  PROFILE  
 
• Ground   /   Flight   switch   changed   to   flight   before  
OUTFLOW  VALVE  OPERATION   takeoff.   DITCHING  SWITCH  
  o Pre-­‐pressurised  to  0.1  psi    
• Controlled  by  pressure  controllers.   • After   takeoff,   ground   /   air   logic   switched   is   • Will  close  all  discharge  valves  to  prevent  inflow  
• Open  on  ground  and  closed  at  altitude.   activated.   of  water  in  the  event  of  ditching.  
• There  is  always  a  constant  mass  flow  into  the   o System  enters  proportional  control  
cabin.   • System  changes  to  isobaric  control  whilst  in  the  
• Within   the   isobaric  range   (cruise)  there  is   also   cruise.  
a  constant  mass  flow  out.   • Reverts   back   to   proportional   control   for   the  
• Within   the   proportional   range,   there   is   a   descent.  
variable   mass   flow   out   as   the   valve   is   o Aims  to  achieve  0.1  psi  on  touchdown  
continuously  adjusted.   • After  landing,  ground  /  flight  switch  changed  to  
ground.  
o Outflow   valve   fully   opens   to   equalize   cabin  
pressure  
 SYSTEMS  5  –  AIR  CON,  PNEUMATICS  &  PRESSURISATION  

     
DECOMPRESSION  TYPES   OXYGEN  SYSTEMS  
 
• Explosive  Decompression  
o Catastrophic  Leak   OXYGEN  REQUIREMENTS  (UNPRESSURISED)  
o Equalised  in  less  than  0.5  seconds    
o Very  high  risk  of  lung  trauma   • Oxygen  must  be  available  if  flown  above  10,000  
• Rapid  Decompression   ft  
o Equalised  in  more  than  0.5  seconds  
o Risk   of   lung   damage   still   present   bu  
significantly  reduced.   OXYGEN  REQUIREMENTS  (PRESSURISED)  
• Gradual  Decompression    
o Occurs  very  slowly   • In   pressurized   passenger   aircraft,  
o May  not  b e  sensed  before  hypoxia  sets  in   supplementary   oxygen   is   normally   only   used   OXYGEN  SYSTEMS  -­‐  CREW  
temporarily   in   emergency   until   a   descent   to   a  
lower  altitude  has  been  achieved.  
FACTORS  AFFECTING  DECOMPRESSION     CREW  OXYGEN  SYSTEM  
  • Emergency  oxygen  equipment  must  be  provided    
• Decompression  will  b e  most  severe  with:   for   pressurised   aircraft   certified   to   operate   • Normally  consists  of  a  diluter   demand   system  
o Small  Cabin   above  2 5,000  ft.   with  oxygen  stored  in  high  pressure  gaseous  
o Large  Structural  Damage   • Pressurised  aircraft  certified  to  25,000  ft  or  less   form.  
o High  Pressure  Differential   do   not   require   emergency   oxygen   equipment   if   • Oxygen   is   stored   at   1800   psi   and   reduced   in  
they  can  descend  to  13,000  ft  or  below  within  4   pressure  before  consumption.  
minutes   (when   taking   into   account   route   • The   pure   oxygen   is   mixed   with   cabin   air   in  
SIGNS  OF  EXPLOSIVE  /  RAPID  DECOMP.   structure).   order   to   save   oxygen   and   prevent   physiological  
  side  effects.  
• Loud  bang  (contact  between  air  masses)   o 100%  Pure  is  provided  at  33,000  ft  
• Cloud  /  Fog  (Increase  in  RH  due  lower  temp)   CREW  OXYGEN  REQUIREMENTS   o Below  33,000  ft  an  aneroid  controller  mixes  
• Rush  of  air     the  oxygen  and  cabin  air  in  the  appropriate  
• Decrease  in  temperature   • Above   25,000   ft   with   no   quick   donning   masks   amount.  
• Release  of  oxygen  masks   require  one  pilot  to  be  wearing  a  mask.   • Flow   of   air   is   only   provided   when   the   pilot  
• Above   41,000   ft   one   pilot   should   wear   a   mask   inhales.  This  is  indicated  by  a  blinker  indicator.  
even  if  quick  donning  is  fitted  (depends  on  state   • There  are  3  settings  available:  
regulations)   o Normal  –  Automatically  mixed  as  req.  
o 100%  -­‐  Pure  oxygen  provided  
o EMER  –  100%  pure  oxygen  provided  at  an  
overpressure   to   prevent   inhalation   of  
fumes  etc.  
 SYSTEMS  5  –  AIR  CON,  PNEUMATICS  &  PRESSURISATION  

        CONTINOUS  FLOW  W/CHEMICAL  OXYGEN  

OXYGEN  SYSTEMS  -­‐  PASSENGERS   EROS  –  QUICK  DONNING  MASKS  
 
• Instead  of  gaseous  oxygen,  chemical  oxygen  can  
be  used.  This  is  the  most  common  type.   EROS  (QUICK  DONNING)  MASKS  
CONTINOUS  FLOW  W/GASEOUS  OXYGEN  
• As  there  is  no  b arometric  valve,  a  28V  electrical    
 
signal   releases   the   masks   to   the   half-­‐hung   • Emergency  Regulating  Oxygen  System  
• When   the   cabin   altitude   reaches   14,000   ft,   a  
position.   • When  tabs  are  depressed,  the  mask  is  pre-­‐filled  
barometric   valve   opens   and   oxygen   flows   to  
the  low  pressure  regulator.   • When   pulled   down,   a   firing   mechanism   is   with  oxygen  allowing  it  to  be  fitted  to  the  head.  
triggered   and   a   chemical   reaction   produced   • When   tabs   are   released,   the   oxygen   is   drained  
• Pneumatic   pressure   opens   the  PSU   doors  and  
100%  oxygen.   and  it  fastens  to  the  head.  
masks  are  deployed  to  the  half-­‐hung  position.  
• Thermal  insulation  is  required  due  to  the  high  
• When   face   masks   are   pulled   down,   the   valve  
temperatures  arising  from  the  reaction.  
opens  and  oxygen  flows.  
 
• Holes   on   the   masks   allow   the   oxygen   to   be   SMOKE  HOODS  
 
mixed  with  cabin  air.  
 
• In   smoke   conditions,   pax   masks   should   not    
be   used   as   the   oxygen   widens   the   trachea   SMOKE  HOODS  
 
allowing  for  deeper  smoke  inhalation.    
 
• Should   an   overpressure   occur   (due   to   a   leak   in   • Provide  complete  coverage  of  the  head.  
the   cylinder   for   example)   a   blow-­‐out   disc   will   • Contain  a  chemical  oxygen  generator.  
be  activated.  This  a  pre-­‐flight  check  item.   • Provides  a  minimum  of  15  mins  supply.  
• Again,   this   is   mixed   with   cabin   air   in   the   mask  
• America  =  Green  Oxygen  Bottles  
face.  
• Europe  =  Black  Oxygen  Bottles  
• A  cylinder  is  fitted  to  each  row.  
• When   one   mask   is   pulled   down,   oxygen   is   then  
supplied  to  all  masks  within  the  row.  

PORTABLE  OXYGEN  

PORTABLE  OXYGEN  
 
• Typically  hold  120  litres  at  1800  psi  
• Normal  Mode  –  2  litres/min  
NUMBER  OF  MASKS   • High  Mode  –  4  litres/min  
  • EMER  Mode  –  10  litres/min  
• Seating   Capacity   >   200   required   10%   more  
masks  to  be  fitted.  
 SYSTEMS  6  –  FUEL  SYSTEMS  

         
USES  OF  THE  FUEL  SYSTEM   5  –  FEEDERBOX   10  –  FUEL  /  OIL  HEAT  EXCHANGER  
     
• Engine  Fuel   • Contains  two  low  pressure,  electrically  driven   • Used  to  cool  the  oil  and  heat  the  fuel.  
• APU  Fuel   fuel  pumps  of  the  centrifugal  type.   • Warming   the   fuel   helps   keep   the   fuel   above   it’s  
• Trim  Tank   • Provides   an   uninterrupted,   de-­‐aerated,   pour  point.  
• Fuel  /  Oil  Heat  Exchangers   supply  of  fuel  to  the  engine  driven  pumps.   o This  is  the  temperature  at  which  it  becomes  
• Wing  Bending  Relief   • 2   pumps   are   installed   to   ensure   continuous   too  viscous  if  cooled  below  it.  
supply  irrespective  of  attitude.  
• Non-­‐return  valve   prevent   flow   back   to   the   tank  
when  in  extreme  attitudes.   11  –  MEC  /  FCU  
1  –  FUEL  TANK    
  • Connected  to  the  AGB  
• Vented  to  prevent   tank   deformation   and   fuel   • Contains  the  HP  Fuel  Cock  
6  –  LOW  PRESSURE  FUEL  SHUT  OFF  VALVE  
starvation.  
 
• Normally  open  
• Closed  with  activation  of  the  fire  handle   12  –  P&D  VALVE  
2  –  RECEPTACLES  
 
 
• Ensures   fuel   pressure   is   high   enough   to   allow  
• Access  to  tank  for  fuelling.   8  –  CROSS  FEED  VALVE   proper  atomization  of  the  fuel  and  adjustment  of  
• Small  Aircraft  =  Gravity  (Over-­‐Wing)     the  variable  geometry  
• Large  Aircraft  =  Pressure  (Under-­‐Wing)   • Normally  Closed   • Drain  function  ensure  the  manifold  is  drain  after  
• Used   in  event  of  engine   failure  to  ensure  fuel  is   shutdown.  
balanced  on  each  side  of  the  aircraft.  
3  –  BAFFLE  PLATES  
  • Allows   the   left   tank   to   feed   the  right  engine   for  
example.  
• Prevent   fuel   surging   where   the   fuel   pools   on  
one  side  of  the  tank  during  turns.  
9  –  ENGINE  DRIVEN  PUMP  
 
4  –  DRAIN  VALVE   • High  Pressure  P umps  
  • Connected  to  the  AGB  
• For   removal   of   water   that   condenses   and  
collects  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank.  
 SYSTEMS  6  –  FUEL  SYSTEMS  

           
CALORIFIC  VALUE   CONTAMINATION   FILTRATION  
     
• The  amount  of  heat  release  by  burning  1  kg  fuel.   • AVTUR   is   more   viscous   than   AVGAS   so   water   • Mesh  installed  around  LP  pump  inlets  
• Fuel  requires  a  high  calorific  value.   suspension  is  more  likely.   • Filters  installed  after  both  LP  and  HP  pumps  
• Higher  value  =  less  fuel  required   • Water  detectors  and  drain  valves  required.  

FUEL  SYSTEM  TYPES  

FUEL  TYPES   FUEL  SYSTEM  ICING  INHIBITOR  (FCII)    
    • Gravity  (C152)  
• Mixing  of  JET  A  /  JET  A1  /  AVTAG  is  permitted.   • Used  in  small  aircraft  /  military  aircraft.   • Pump-­‐Feed  (PA28)  
• If   just   using   AVTAG,   FCU   must   be   adjusted   to   • Additive  is  added  to  the  fuel  in  order  to:   • Multi-­‐Engine  Type  
account  for  the  lower  specific  gravity.   o Reduce   tendency   of   water   in   the   fuel   to   o Cross  feed  mandatory  
• Fuelling  with  AVTAG  not  permitted  with  pax  on   freeze   o Fuel  transfer  optional  
board  due  to  the  low  flash  point.   o Reduce  fungus  formation  
• Large  Jet  Fuel  System  
o Act  a  lubricant  for  the  HP  fuel  pump  which  
is  immersed  in  fuel.  
LOW  FUEL  TEMPERATURES   LARGE  JET  FUEL  SYSTEM  
  TYPES  OF  LEAKS  ETC  
• Must   be   avoided   –   change   of   altitude   may   be    
required.   LOW  PRESSURE  PUMPS  
• Dripping  –  Drops  at  slow  rate  
• Low   temps   result   in   increased   viscosity   and    
• Leaking  –  Drops  at  fast  rate  
formation  of  wax  /  paraffin  crystals.   • Two  centrifugal  type  AC  pumps  are  installed  
• Seaping  –  Uninterrupted  flow  
in  each  inner  tank  and  the  centre  tank.  
• Ensures   a   continuous   supply   at   varying  
VAPOUR  LOCKS   attitudes.  
TANK  TYPES  
    • Should   the   booster   pumps   fail,   the   HP   pumps  
• With   a   decrease   in   temperature,   a   decrease   in   will   still   draw   fuel   but   a   decrease   in   altitude   or  
• Rigid  
boiling  point  occurs.   o C152   throttle  setting  may  be  required.  
• This   makes   formation   of   vapour   lock   more   o Small  tank  installed  at  wing  root   o Especially   true  when  using   AVTAG  due   to  
likely.   its   low   volatility   which   has   an   increased  
• Flexible  /  Bladder  Cell  
• Pressurisaton   of   fuel   tank   and   use   of   fuel   chance  of  vapour  lock  with  LP  pump  fail  
o Helicopters  &  some  commercial  aircraft  
booster  pumps  helps  prevent  this.   o Rubber   layers   ensure   self-­‐sealing   in   event  
of  puncture  
• Integrated  /  Wet  Tank  
o Fuel  is  carried  in  the  wing  
o Max  space  with  min  weight  
o Ribs  act  as  b affleplates  
 SYSTEMS  6  –  FUEL  SYSTEMS  

             
APU  PUMP   SURGE  /  VENT  TANK   TOTALISER  &  FUEL  USED  
     
• The  APU  uses  a  DC  pump  to  draw  its  fuel  supply   • To   prevent   damage   from   the   movement   of   fuel   • Totaliser  indicated  total  FOB  
from  one  of  the  tanks.   during   maneuvers,   in   the   case  of  over-­‐refueling   • Fuel   used   indicator   is   reset   with   each   engine  
and  expansion.   start  and  indicates  fuel  used.  
• Fuel   that   enters   the   surge   tank   is   transferred  
JET  EJECTOR  PUMP  
back  to  the  main  tanks  via  gravity.  
  VISUAL  FUEL  MEASUREMENT  
• Used  to  allow  for  a  flow  of  fuel  from  the  outer  to    
inner  tanks.   TANK  VENTS   • Drip  Stick  
• Uses   the   LP   booster   pump   to   create   suction     o Located  under  the  wing  
through   a   venturi,   thus   drawing   the   fuel   • Fitted  to  the  bottom  of  the  tanks  where  there  is   o Suffers  from  leakage  down  the  stick  
through.   higher  pressure.   • Magnetic  Drop  Stick  
o Located  under  the  wing  
o Rests  on  top  of  a  float  and  does  not  leak  so  
FUEL  JETTISON  (DUMP)   is  more  user  friendly.  
 
• Required  when  MTOW  significantly  >  MLM  
• Required  to  jettison  enough  fuel  in  10  -­‐15  min   FLOW  METER  
• After   jettison,   fuel   remaining   must   be   sufficient    
to   takeoff   and   climb   to   10,000   ft   with   a   45   • Fuel   flows   through   and   impeller   motor   which  
minute  reserve.   allows  for  measurement  of  fuel  flow  rate.  

FUEL  GAUGES   REFUELING  TYPES  

   
• Fuel  Volume  Types   • Open  Line  /  Gravity  (Overwing)  
o Float  Type   o No  electrics  allowed  
o Resistance  Type   • Pressure  (Under  Wing)  
o Both   prone   to   error   from   variations   in   o Electrics  required  
TANK  OPERATION  
temperature  and  different  attitudes.  
 
• Fuel  Weight  Types  
• Inner  tanks  used  first  down  to  5000  kgs  
o Capacitive  Type   DEFUELING  
• Contents  of  the  trim  tank  are  then  transferred  to  
o Compensates  for  attitude  changes    
the  inner  tank.  
• Refueling  requires  an  empty  bowser  
• Contents  of  the  outer  tanks  are  then  transferred  
to  the  inner  tank.  
 SYSTEMS  6  –  FUEL  SYSTEMS  

               
REFUELING  ZONE  
 
• Extends   at   least   6m   radially   from   the   filling  
and  venting  points.  
• Within  this  zone:  
o No  Smoking  
o GPU  as  far  away  as  possible  
o Filler  caps  removed  after  APU  start  
o Fire  extinguishers  readily  accessible  

REFUELING  PRECAUTIONS  
 
• No  pax  on  board  for  AVGAS  /  Jet  B  (AVTAG)  
• No  fuelling:  
o Within  30m  of  radar  equipment  in  test  /  use  
o Within  20nm  of  TS  
o Within  6m  of  flash  equipment  
o With  overheated  brakes  
 SYSTEMS  7  –  ICE  PROTECTION  

                 
ICING  CONDITIONS   DE-­‐ICING   WINDSHIELD  HEATING  
     
• Visible  moisture,  standing  water  /  snow  present   • Removal  of  ice   • Heated  to  prevents  brittleness  and  icing.  
with  a  temperature  of:     • Temperature   control   prevents   overheating  
o OAT  <  100C  (Ground  Ops  +  T/O)   • Used   on   turbo-­‐props   where   continuous   anti-­‐ which  can  lead  to  delamination.  
o TAT  <  100C  (In  Flight)   icing   decreases   EPR   too   much   due   to   HPC  
  extraction.  
• The   critical   temperature   range   is   +100C   to   –   • On  demand  use  of  HPC  air  is  preffered.   PROP  ANTI-­‐ICE  
100C  as  large  SCWDs  exist  at  these  temps.      
• De-­‐Icing  Boots   • Lower   part   of   propeller   is   electrically   heated  
o Pneumatically  operated   to  prevent  the  build  up  of  ice.  
ANTI-­‐ICING   o Small  aircraft  use  a  vacuum  pump  
  • Spinner   oscillates   slightly   in  order   to  prevent  
o Larger  aircraft  use  HPC  air  
• Prevention  of  ice  formation   ice  build  up.  
o A  sequence  is  used  (root  boots  –  tip  boots  –  
  elevator  boots  –  rudder  boots)  
• Electrical  Anti-­‐Ice   o Symmetrical   operation   minimizes  
o Probe  &  Sensor  Heating   aerodynamic  disturbance   INTAKE  ICING  
   
• Thermal  Anti-­‐Ice   • Most   likely   at   low   forward   airspeed   with  
o Wing  Heating,  Engine  Inlets   high  RPM.  
FLUID  TYPES   o  Intake  pressure  <  ambient  pressure  
o Air  extracted  from  HPC  
   
o From  wing  heating,  the  inside  of  the  wing  is  
• Type  I   • Also  more  likely  with  TAS  >  250  kts  
heated.  
o Unthickened  (low  viscosity)   o High  catch  efficiency  
 
o High  glycol  content  
• Fluid  Anti-­‐Ice  
o Usually  clear  
o DA42  for  example  
o Mainly  de-­‐icing  rather  than  anti-­‐ice  
o Fluid  exits  through  tiny  holes  in  the  leading   UNDERCARRIAGE  ICING  
• Type  II  
edge  (weeping  wing)  and  covers  the  surface    
o Thickened  (high  viscosity)  
in  a  thin  layer  of  anti-­‐ice  fluid.   • Consider   cycling   undercarriage   after   takeoff  
o Usually  straw  colour  
o Prevents  SCDWs  from  freezing   from  contaminated  runways  to  remove  deposits.  
o Additional  anti-­‐ice  properties  
o Sprayed  onto  props  via  a  feed  tube   • Prevents   deposits   freezing   at   altitude   with   the  
• Type  IV  
lower  temperature.  
o Same  as  type  II  with  longer  HOT  
 
• Heating   may   be   required   in   order   improve  
spray  ability  in  cold  temperatures.  
• Overheating   can   result   in   a   gelled   formation  
that  will  not  shear  on  takeoff.  
 SYSTEMS  7  –  ICE  PROTECTION  

                   RAIN  REPLLENT  SYSTEM  

 
• Only  to  be  used  in  rain  conditions  in  conjunction  
with  the  wipers.  

ICE  DETECTION  METHODS  

 
• Spot  Lights  
o Refract  when  ice  is  present  
 
• Vibrating  Rod  Detectors  
o Ice  accretion  changes  oscillation  frequency  
 
• Pressure  Detectors  
o Normally   open   switch   (due   air   pressure)  
that  is  closed  when  ice  blocks  the  air  intake.  
 
• Hot  Rod  Detectors  
o Visible  from  the  cockpit  
o Intentionally   ‘attracts   icing’   and   contains  
and  heating  element  
 
• Rotary  Ice  Detectors  
o Rate   of   rotation   decreases   with   ice  
accretion  

COLD  SOAKED  WING  

 
• Tanks   contains   very   cold   fuel   after   landing  
from  a  flight  at  high  altitudes.  
• Moisture  in  the  air  can  cause  hoar  frost  to  form.  
• Precipitation  can  cause  clear  ice  to  form.  
• Fueling   tanks   after   the   last   flight   of   the   day   to  
warm  the  tank  contents  can  prevent  ice  forming  
overnight.  
 SYSTEMS  8  –  FIRE  AND  EMERGENCY  EQUIPMENT  

                      TRIANGLE  OF  FIRE   ENGINE  ZONE  CLASSIFICATIONS   FIRE  EXTINGUISHER  OPS  

     
• Fuel  +  Oxygen  +  Heat   • Zone  1-­‐  AGB  (Coolest)   • Silence  Master  Caution  
• Zone   2   –   Surrounds   compressor   (Hot   although   • Throttle  Lever  –  Idle  
no  components  to  actively  support  combustion)   • HP  Cock  -­‐  Closed  
EXTINGUISHERS   • Zone   3   –   Surrounds   combustion   chamber   o Fuel  now  removed  from  triangle  
  (Hottest  zone)   • Extinguisher  1  -­‐  Discharge  
• Type  A  &  C  fires  most  common  on  aircraft   o Oxygen  now  removed  from  triangle  
• Water  and  Halon  most  common  on  aircraft.   • Extinguisher  2  –  Discharge  if  required  
FIRE  DETECTION   o Oxygen  now  removed  from  triangle  
 
COMPARTMENT  CLASSIFICATIONS   • Engines,   APU   and   wheel   wells  fitted   with  fire  
  detectors.   SMOKE  DETECTORS  
• Compartments  are  classified  to  indicate  fire  risk   • Circuit  tested  for  continuity  before  each  flight    
  • Only   engine   and   APU   have   fire   extinguishers   • Fitted   to   cargo   and   lavatories   (places   where  
• A  –  Pax  Cabin   fitted.   constant  observations  not  possible)  
• B  –  Avionics     • The   lavatories   use   automatic   fire   extinguishers  
• C  –  Baggage  /  Cargo   • Detector  Types   in  the  bins  
• D  –  Cargo  (Doesn’t  endanger  pax)   o Resistive    
• E  –  Cargo  Aircraft  Only   o Capactive   • Smoke  Detector  Types  
o Systron  (Pressure  Based)   o Labyrinth  Seal  
  o Ionised  Radiation  
• Dual   Loop   Logic   is   used   in   the   resistive   and   o Photoelectric  
capacitive  types.  
o Requires   both   loops   to   indicate   overheat  
before  warning  is  triggered.   INERTIA  CRASH  SWITCH  
 
• Operates  all  LPSOVs  and  fire  extinguishers.  
  FIRE  TYPE  
A  –  Solids  
B  –  Liquids   C  –  Electrical  
Extinguisher   (Grey   D  –  Metals   HALON  BCF  USE  
(Black  Smoke)   (Light  Grey)  
Smoke)    
Halon  (BCF)  -­‐  Green   ✓   ✓   ✓     • Non-­‐alcoholic  liquid  to  be  used  afterwards  
Dry  Chemicals  -­‐  White   ✓   ✓   ✓     • Face  masks  should  be  worn  during  use  
Dry  Powder  /  Sand-­‐  Blue         ✓  
CO2  -­‐  Black     ✓   ✓    
Water  -­‐  Red   ✓        
 
 SYSTEMS  8  –  FIRE  AND  EMERGENCY  EQUIPMENT  

               E    XTINGUISHER  
FIRE           REQUIREMENTS   BREAK-­‐IN  PANEL  
   
• 7  –  30  Pax  =  1   • Areas   marked   on   the   fuselage   where   there   are  
• 31  –  60  Pax  =  2   no  hydraulics  /  electrical  lines  etc  behind.  
• 61  –  200  Pax  =  3   • Allows  entry  points  for  emergency  services.  
• Every  extra  100  pax  =  +1  
• Does  not  include  flight  deck    requirements  
LOCATOR  BEACON  
 
• Functions  for  48  Hrs  
FIRST  AID  KIT  REQUIREMENTS  
• Range  of  80  miles  
 
• 0  –  99  Pax  =  1  
• 100  –  199  =  2  
• 200  –  299  =  3   PYROTECHNICS  
 
• 300  +  =  4  
• Flare  (red)  for  use  at  night    
• Smoke  (orange)  for  use  during  the  day  
SLIDES   • Flare  end  is  marked  with  a  ribbed  end  
 
• Required   when   exit   sill   height   is   >   6   ft   from  
surface  
• The  upperdeck  and  overwing  exits  only  function  
as  slides  and  cannot  be  used  as  rafts.  

EVACUATION  TIME  
 
• When  capacity  >  44  seats  
• 90   seconds   with   ½   of   exits   and   emergency  
lighting  in  operation