Critical Thinking Skill

Understanding Implication and Inference

Why it’s useful Understanding implication and inference can help you to more fully
comprehend an author’s intentions, purpose, and point of view. It can also help you to think
critically about what you have read.

A written text may have ideas that are implied, meaning they are not stated directly by the
author. As a reader, you can understand the implied meaning, or implications, in a text by
making inferences. An inference is a logical conclusion that you reach based on your
background knowledge and evidence that is presented in the text.

To make inferences, you should consider what you already know, have experienced, or
believed about a topic, as these will influence how you perceive the ideas presented in a text. If
you already know something about a topic, this knowledge can help you to comprehend a text
more easily. However, your background knowledge and opinions about a topic can also mislead
you, causing you to make false conclusions about an author’s intended meaning. By being
aware of your own biases, or tendency to favor or believe certain ideas, you can engage more
freely with the ideas presented in a text and focus on what the author intends to communicate.

By considering your background knowledge and by looking for evidence in the text-clues that
indicate the author’s intended meaning--you can use your reasoning skills to make strong, well-
supported inferences. The stronger the evidence you gather, and the more carefully you reason,
the more likely you are to make logical inferences that reflect the author’s intent.

A. Discuss the questions with a partner before you read.

1. Look at the photo of the iceberg. Why do you think the author chose to show this photo?
What do you think the connection is between an iceberg and culture?
2. This passage you will read is an excerpt from an introductory textbook on business
ethics. What can you infer about the style of writing or type of information you expect to
encounter in the passage?
 3. Based on your background knowledge, predict the meaning of cultural ethos. As you
read, underline the definition. Once you finish, compare it to your prediction. How are
they similar or different?

Introduction to Cultural Ethos

1. When we think of culture, we might define it as the observable characteristics of a group
of people, such as their dress, food, art, and customs. Culture, in fact, includes all of
these, but it is also much more. Cultural ethos is a broad set of beliefs, moral values,
and norms--the expectations and rules of behavior-- that belong to a group of people. To
better understand these hidden aspects of culture, social psychologists often compare
culture to an iceberg. What you see on the surface of an iceberg is only a small part of
what is really there because most of the ice actually lies under the surface of the water.
Similarly, what you see on the surface when you visit a culture
is only part of a culture’s whole identity, so to speak. A much
larger, invisible part of a culture, its ethos, lies under the
surface. When people connect across cultures, such as in a
business environment, our attitude is influenced by our cultural
values and can affect our behavior. These cultural differences
in thinking may not always be apparent, but they can cause
misunderstanding. An American Businesswoman’s attitude
about punctuality, for example, might cause her to be offended
if a person arrives late to a meeting. An indian businesswoman,
on the other hand, might not think twice about a late arrival.
2. Three main dimensions of a cultural ethos are worldview,
mindset, and ideology. Worldview is the overall way that members of a culture view life
and the world. In other words, it is the shared perspective of the members of a culture.
Cultural mindset, on the other hand, is the set of attitudes that individuals develop based
on their worldview but filtered through their own personal experiences. Mindset, unlike
worldview, is unique to each individual. For example, two people may share an
American worldview, yet they may have very different mindsets if one is wealthy and the
other poor. It is from this individual perspective that each understands and judges the
world. Finally, an ideology, or a system of beliefs and ideas, is also often part of culture
and influences a person’s way of thinking. Ideologies are often religious, political, or
 economic. A capitalist ideology, for example, is common in the United States. That is to
say, many people in America have the underlying belief in a capitalist approach to
managing the economy.

C. Read the passage again. Then match each term with its meaning.

1. cultural ethos a. the overall way that members of a culture

view life and the world

2. cultural norms b. a system of beliefs and ideas that is often

religious, political, or economic
3. attitude
c. the way a person feels about something

4. worldview d. a set of beliefs, moral values, and norms

held by a group of people
5. mindset
e. the set of attitudes that a person develops
that is informed by his or her worldview and
personal experiences
6. ideology
f. the expectations and rules that guide
behavior in a culture

Supporting Skill 1
Making Predictive Inferences

Why It’s Useful Making inferences about upcoming content before and during readings
helps you to engage actively with a text, assess your background knowledge, and check
your expectations against the information presented and implied in the text. This can
help you to gain a deeper understanding as you read.

Making predictive inferences, or educated guesses about what you will read, will help you to
engage actively with a text and use your background knowledge to help you to improve your
comprehension. This can be done both before and while you read a text.
Before Reading
When previewing a text, you can make predictions by asking yourself questions such as these:
● What type or genre of text is this? How will this affect the style of writing or kind of
information in the text?
● What is the purpose of the text? Is it meant to inform or teach the topic? Persuade?
Entertain?
● Who is the author? What is the author’s background? How might this influence the ideas
in the text?
● What do the title and visuals tell me about the topic? How can this help me to predict the
content?
● What do I already know about this topic? What new information can I expect to learn? Is
there anything I expect to find confusing?
● How do I feel about this topic? Do I expect to agree or disagree with the author’s
opinions about anything?

While Reading
As you read you can check your predictions and make new ones by asking questions such as:

● Were the predictions I made before reading correct? If not, what is different? What
evidence in the text supports or discounts my predictions?
● Do I agree with the ideas or opinions of the author? If not, why might my perspective be
different?
● Based on what I have read so far, what information do I expect will come next?

Vocabulary Preview
The following vocabulary items appear in the reading. Circle the ones you know. Put a
question mark next to the ones you don’t know.

feminine masculine traits tough

sexist tendencies stereotypes derive

Global Business Culture: Getting in Touch with Your Feminine Side

1. It goes without saying that global business leaders need to be aware of cultural
differences when doing business abroad, but one difference that many of us may
not be aware of is the distinction between “masculine” and “feminine” cultures.
The cultural domain of “masculinity-femininity” is part of social psychologist Geert
Hofstede’s cultural dimensions theory and is based on what are considered to be
traditional male and female traits. It is meant to describe the focus on competition
and achievement in some cultures in contrast to the emphasis on cooperation in
others. Assertiveness and ambition are considered masculine characteristics in
the theory, while modesty and caring are designated as feminine ones. Hofstede
also refers to this contrast as the “tough-tender” cultural dimension. These
traditional distinctions between “masculine” and “feminine” traits may seem old-
fashioned and sexist in today’s workplace, but keep in mind Hofstede originally
developed this theory more than 40 years ago! All the time, his goal was to
describe general cultural tendencies, not to create gender stereotypes. Despite
its name, the masculinity-femininity category has nothing
to do with the expectations people place on either men or
women in the workplace.
2. Most nations fall somewhere in the middle on the tough-
tender dimension. A few nations, however, have strong
tendencies on one way or the other. Italy, Mexico, and
China are nations in which many people are competitive
and may aim to be number one at any given task. On the
other hand, Hofstede would point to the Scandinavian
countries--Norway, Denmark, and Sweden--as well as, for
instance, Guatemala, Costa Rica, and Chile--as ranking
low on the masculinity-femininity scale. In these nations,
a high quality of life is generally valued more than
individual achievement of financial rewards. In “feminine”
Sweden, for example, people may measure success
according to how much happiness they derive from doing
their work. A good Swedish manager would not try to
promote competition between employees. By contrast,
Italian workers might judge their success based on how well they perform relative
 to others around them. Further, Italian employees may be offended if their
individual efforts are not acknowledged. If you are an American, you would be
wise to consider these differences when doing business abroad. The United
States leans toward the masculine side due to our emphasis on financial
success, power, and dominance, especially on Wall Street. As a result, we may
come across as too aggressive or arrogant when operating in more feminine
cultures.

C. Read the passage again. Complete each statement. Use the words and phrases in the
box. Then compare answers with a partner.

competitive Scandinavian

dominance stereotypes

modesty tough-tender

quality of life traits

1. The masculinity-femininity cultural domain is based on traditional male and female

____________ , according to the article.
2. Masculine cultures are more ______________ than feminine cultures, which focus on
cooperation.
3. According to the cultural dimensions theory, ____________ and caring are
characteristics of fiminine cultures.
4. Another name for the masculinity-femininity category is the __________ dimensions.
5. The goal of the cultural dimensions theory is not to create gender ___________.
6. Feminine cultures measure success based on _________ rather than individual
achievement.
7. Italy, Mexico, and China are examples of masculine countries, whereas _____________
countries are considered to be more feminine.
8. US culture is more masculine due to its emphasis on financial success, power, and
__________.

Answer the questions about making predictive inferences.

1. How did making predictions help you comprehend the text? Were any of your predictions
incorrect? If so, what do you think led you to these incorrect predictions? What evidence
in the text helped you to correct them?
2. Did your background knowledge help you to comprehend the content of the text? If so,
how?
3. Were you surprised by any of the information in the text? Do you agree or disagree with
any of the ideas? How might your background knowledge or experiences affect your
opinions?