Chapter Four

BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN

MEXICO

Robert Bye l , Edelmira Linares I , and Eric Estrada2

I Instituto
de Biologia
Universidad Nacional Aut6noma de Mexico
04510 Mexico, DF, Mexico
2 Departamento de Fitotecnia
Universidad Aut6noma Chapingo
Chapingo, Mexico, Mexico

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
Richness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
Inventory of medicinal plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 67
Infraspecific variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 72
Changes in importance .......................................... 75
Conservation .................................................. 76
Conclusions ................................................... 78

INTRODUCTION

Biological diversity can be described as the product of the richness or

variety of entities (usually species) and the variance of that richness or its
importance value. I Diversity can be extended to include ecological and bio-
geographic heterogeneity, and various indices can be used to measure it. 2 Bio-
logical diversity also can be appreciated by the number of endemic species whose
distributions are restricted to a confined geographic area. In recent years, public
attention has been given to diversity at the world leveP as well as in the Western
Hemisphere4 and Mexico. 5
Preliminary evaluation indicates that Mexico is the third ranked megadi-
versity country after Brazil and Colombia, followed by Madagascar, Zaire and
Indonesia, 6 even though its 1,972,544 km2 territory places it as the 14th largest

65

J. T. Arnason et al. (eds.), Phytochemistry of Medicinal Plants

© Springer Science+Business Media New York 1995
66 CHAPTER 4

Table 1. Plant diversity by vegetation types expressed in terms of richness (number of

species and percentage of flora) and endemism (percentage of species). 7.73 The
ecological zones are: ASA-arid and semi-arid; SHTm--subhumbid temperate;
HTm-humid temperate; HTr-humid tropical; SHTr-subhumid tropical

VEGETATION TYPE ECOLOGICAL ZONE % AREA #1% SPECIES % ENDEMICS

desert shrub& grassland ASA 50 6,000/20 60

conifer-oak forest SHrm 21 7,000/24 70
cloud forest HTm I 3,000/10 30
tropical evergreen forest HTr II 5,000/17 5
tropical deciduous forests SHrr 17 6,000/20 40

country in world. The juxtaposition of this country's medley of topography with

the confluence of the Neotropical Kingdom with warm tropical floristic elements
and the Holarctic Kingdom with cold temperate floristic components amplifies
the variety of organisms and their interactions.
Although the vascular plant flora is not thoroughly explored, it is esti-
mated that it consists of at least 21,600 species. 7 The diversity within Mexico's
flora can be appreciated by considering the distribution of richness and endemism
by vegetation types (Table 1). One of the most striking observations from this
summary is that the conifer and oak forest, which is usually associated with the
mountains and the subhumid temperate zones, has the greatest number of species
(about 24%) and the highest number of endemics (7,000) even though it covers
only about 21 % of country's land surface. The other vegetation types of impor-
tance are the desert shrub and grassland vegetation and the tropical deciduous
forests, which have about 6,000 species each and cover 60% and 17% of the
Mexican territory, respectively.
In addition to biological diversity, cultural diversity of Mexico is high,
placing it third in the Western Hemisphere after Brazil and Colombia. Over 8
million indigenous people (or about 7.5% of the population in 1980) speak a
native language. Ofthe original 120 language families that were spoken in Mexico
at the time of European contact, 54 persist today.
A third type of diversity, ethnobotanical diversity, is based upon the
interaction of biological and cultural diversities. 7 Although only one-fifth of
Mexican indigenous societies has recorded ethnobotanical information,8,9 Mexico
is recognized as a pivotal geographic point for plant-human interaction. For
example, one of the three primary centers of the origin of agriculture is located
here. 10 Mexican wild and cultivated plants are recognized as a major source of
germplasm for world exploitation. II Nonetheless, one should be cautious in
assuming a positive correlation between high taxonomic richness and high
importance value of plants. For example, the century plant or Agave, a multiple
use plant that was critical to human survival in Mexico for many centuries and
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MEXICO 67

which has 136 species distributed primarily in Mexico,12 produces "aguamiel"

(the sugar rich sap) and "pulque" (the fermented juice used as medicine and
beverage). This represents one ofthe most intricate relationships between humans
and plants. Nonetheless, this significantly important ethnobotanical interaction
that evolved in the arid southern Mexican Central Plateau is not correlated
geographically with the three areas of high species richness (in the Sierra Madre
Occidental, the southern Sierra Madre Oriental and the southern Valley ofTehua-
can).13 A greater degree of species richness does not necessarily indicate higher
ethnobotanical diversity. Although medicinal plants have not been studied com-
parably as to their richness and variation, the Agave-man symbiosis suggests that
the more phytochemically interesting plant-human interactions may be found in
environmentally marginal or stressful areas rather than in species-dense regions.

RICHNESS

The richness of Mexican medicinal plants can be estimated from the

number of species utilized. Since the first contact with Spaniards, efforts have
been made to provide a basic listing of plant species that afford remedial
properties. Such endeavors, using different sources and conducted on diverse
scales, continue today. Even less well known is the variation within species. On
one hand, there is little documentation of variation in phytochemistry of Mexican
plants in response to different environmental factors such as altitude, day length,
fertilizers and other components, although it is assumed that plasticity in the
production of biodynamic principles follows the general patterns known for plants
in other parts of the world. 14 On the other hand, the existence of genetically
distinct chemical races in Mexican plants is suspected based upon preliminary
research.

Inventory of Medicinal Plants

The richness of medicinal plants in Mexico has been estimated using

various sources. To date, however, there is no systematic survey of medicinal
plants grown and consumed in Mexico. Programs at various universities and
national agencies (e.g., Secretaria de Salud, Instituto Mexicano de Seguro Social,
Instituto Nacional Indigenista) are compiling inventories based upon bibliog-
raphy, specimens, and field surveys. Attempts to survey the medicinal flora have
been documented since the early colonial period. A selection of the critical
publications are discussed below.
During the first half century of the colonial period, three major works were
compiled in central Mexico. Martin de la Cruz l5 prepared an herbal with a Nahuatl
text and colored illustrations. Known as the Badianus Manuscript, for Juan
Badiano who translated the text into Latin, it was discovered in the Vatican
Library in 1929 and subsequently published. The original document, which was
prepared in 1552, contains 263 plants named in Nahuatl along with remedial
68 CHAPTER 4

animals, stones and soil. Present-day analysis of 185 plants recognizes 83 plants
to species, 53 to genus, and 21 to family, all of which are distributed in 61
botanical families. 16 The most important vascular plant families in order of
greatest number of species are Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Convolvulaceae, Lamiaceae
and Solanaceae. Many of the ethnomedical concepts are native in origin; thus this
document probably is the closest of all postConquest material to prehispanic view
of illnesses and curatives.
In order to aid the conversion of the natives to the Catholicism, Fray
Bernardino de SahagUn 17 worked from 1558 to 1582 on various manuscripts that
were condensed into the Florentine Codex which first became available to
Western scholars in 1829. 18 Fray SahagUn's technique of systematic questioning
and recording in the native language with illustrations distinguishes his work as
the first major ethnographic study of the New World. Certain sections were
translated into Spanish so that the Church authorities could use the information
to identify pagan rituals and plants of the devil. Of the 11 books that survive today,
Book 10 (The People) and Book 11 (Earthly Things) list 724 useful plants with
native names. The most important anthropocentric use category is that of medici-
nal with 266 species. 19
In addition to the inventories made by the native health practitioner and
the church ethnographer, the representative of the Spanish royalty, Francisco
Hernandez (King Philip II's physician), also made a systematic study of the
curative flora ofNew Spain as part of his Natural History ofNew Spain. 20 Between
1571 and 1576, he travelled in a geographic area that was larger than that visited
by SahagUn and characterized the properties of the Mexican plants in European
terms. Although indigenous information is included, this document is least
reflective of the native knowledge and employment of medicinal plants during
the early colonial period. The Latin text later was complemented by illustrations
and the data were incorporated into the works of other authors. 21 Of the 3,076
plants listed by common names, only 667 have been identified to species, 249 to
genus and 98 to family.22
These three references document the importance of various medicinal
plants during the early colonial period and probably reflect to a certain degree
their significance prior to the arrival of Heman Cortes. Although many of the
same plants are found in all three references, the ethnobotanical data do not always
coincide. In some cases (e.g., jimson weed, Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae)
called "tlapatl"), the names, uses, plant parts utilized, and forms of preparation
and administration are similar, while in others (e.g., the hand flower tree, Chiran-
thodendron pentadactylon Larr. (Sterculiaceae) known as "macpalxochitl") there
is little correspondence. 23
As part of the Spanish colonial interest in recording and exploiting the
natural resources of New Spain, a systematic program of questioners known as
the Relaciones Geognijicas were answered by church authorities throughout the
New Spain. Particular attention was given to the medicinal plants of the region,
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MEXICO 69

especially antidotes for poison arrows and venomous animals. No contemporary

analysis of the plants in these surveys has been made.
Based on the accumulated knowledge of the missionaries in New Spain,
Esteyneffer 4 compiled the Florilegio Medicinal as a medical guide for his
colleagues who were saving souls and bodies throughout the Spanish colony. A
preliminary study of this provincial manual first published in 1712 reveals that
about 273 plants are mentioned. 24
Later, other books recorded the plants used in medical practice in the
colony.25 The reawakening of scientific interest and the desire of Charles III to
promote the medical sciences (which included botany) in New Spain formed the
basis of the Royal Scientific Expedition (1875-1803). The Expedition's base was
the Royal Botanical Garden of Mexico that was established in 1788 in order to
promote the experimentation and use of Mexican medicinal plants. 26 The botani-
cal publications (Flora Mexicana and Plantae Novae Hispaniae) did not become
available until 1894 and contain little information on medicinal plants. In 1801,
Juan Navarr0 27 assembled information about medicinal plants of central Mexico
along with color illustrations of the plants that are incorporated in the recently
discovered Historia Natural 0 Jardin Americano.
After the release from colonialism and stabilization of the country, the
Mexican government sponsored a concentrated effort to document, analyze and
promote medicinal plants in Mexico. Between 1888 and 1915 the Instituto Medico
Nacional (IMN) published results of interdisciplinary studies in such publications
as "EI Estudio" (4 volumes), "Anales del Instituto Medico Nacional" (12 vol-
umes), 14 monographs, and 5 books.28 At the same time, the United States
Department of Agriculture and the Smithsonian Institution were conducting field
studies on medicinal and other plants in Mexico. Rose 29 was so impressed with
the advancement of the Mexican program that he decided not to publish all their
information so that the Mexican program would have full credit. Unfortunately,
the Mexican Revolution terminated the program and the remnants of the speci-
mens and data were used to create the Instituto de Biologia de la Universidad
Nacional de Mexico in 1929.
Much of the information generated by IMN was used in the formulation
of the Mexican Pharmacopeia and in the classic work on medicinal plants of
Mexico written by Maximino Martinez. 3o Martinez' Plantas Medicinales de
Mexico first appeared in 1933. Considered the bible of Mexican medicinal plants,
it contains information on 883 species and is divided into three parts. The first
section contains data derived from the beginning of this century while the last
two portions have only fragmentary data. Unfortunately, there are no voucher
specimens with which one can confirm the botanical identity of the entries. Given
the poor state of knowledge of the Mexican flora during that period, the species
to which curative powers are attributed are not reliable. Popular guides to Mexican
medicinal plants and herbolaria that were published subsequently often copy and
miscopy data from Martinez' pioneering work.
70 CHAPTER 4

The next major compilation was published in 1976 by the Instituto

Mexicano sobre el Estudio de Plantas Medicinales (IMEPLAM), a multidiscipli-
nary group from universities and governmental institutions that promoted the
evaluation and use of Mexican medicinal plants. Both the species inventory3! and
the summary of the uses and state of experimental knowledge 32 are based
primarily on 35 references from historical documents, Instituto Medico Nacional,
compilations based upon IMN studies and Martinez' book. Recorded were 2,196
species of vascular plants in 900 genera and 161 families. The initial compilation
of botanical, nomenclatural, phytogeographical, ecological, historical, chemical,
pharmacological, and bibliographic data to create the medicinal flora of Mexico
was undertaken by the Instituto Mexicano de Seguro Social (IMSS).33
As part of a national evaluation of the genetic resources in Mexico, a list
of medicinal plants was generated based upon publications, state inventories and
student theses. This study!4 revealed 3,352 vascular plant species distributed in
1,214 genera and 166 families in Mexico. Hence, 15% of the Mexican flora has
been employed for remedial purposes. The five families with the greatest number
of species are: Asteraceae (383), Fabaceae (324), Euphorbiaceae (137),
Lamiaceae (92), and Solanaceae (92). The geographic distribution revealed few
studies from the states of Baja California Norte, Baja California Sur, Sinaloa,
Coahuila, Nayarit, Zacatecas, Colima, Aguascalientes and Campeche. Most sur-
veys are concentrated in central Mexico, where major universities and institutions
have been located throughout Mexican history. The ecological arid and semi-arid
zones have the least number of studies.
In order to produce catalogs of regional medicinal plants, many institu-
tions have compiled state inventories. These initial works are unreliable as they
are often based on limited information and they report plants as being medicinal
based on the species' presence within the state's boundary although there are no
documented uses for remedial purposes in the state. The states with highest
percentage of locally documented medicinal plants are in order: Quintana Roo
(99% of 373 species),34 Yucatan (60% of 623 species),35 Veracruz (28% of 548
species),36 Durango (26% of255 species), 37 and Sonora (18% of 450 species).38
The most recent effort to produce systematically an inventory of Mexican
medicinal plants was carried out by Instituto Nacional Indigenista (INI) using
native participants as well as bibliographic and herbarium sources. 39 Based upon
four phases of development, the project documented the plants used in 35
contemporary rural communities 40. The bibliography4! consists of 2049 refer-
ences on medicinal plants used in Mexico and contains chemical studies on 394
species, chemical and pharmacological studies on 280 species, chemical, phar-
macological, and active principal studies on 88 species, chemical, pharmacologi-
cal and toxicological studies on 177 species, and chemical, pharmacological,
toxicological and active principal studies on 69 species. Combining these
sources,42 3103 species in 183 families are currently used in Mexico. Based upon
the 1000 principal medicinal plants, 45.2% are herbs, 28.2% shrubs, 27.7% trees
and 5.7% vines. 42 These vegetal remedies grow, in order of importance though
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MEXICO 71

not limited exclusively to, in dry tropical forest (44.4%), oak forest (44.1 %), pine
forest (37.5%), desert (34.7%) and humid tropical forest (32.5%).42

Infraspecific Variation

Although phytochemical variation in medicinal plants based upon genetic

forms has been demonstrated in many European plants,43 few detailed studies
have been made to verify the existence of chemovars in Mexican plants. Two
exceptions are described here.
Mexican hyssops of the genus Agastache section Brittonastrum
(Lamiaceae) has its center of diversity in Mexico and adjacent southwestern USA
where 14 species grow in the pine-oak forests.44 Agastache mexicana (HBK.) Lint
& Epling) is highly prized as a calmative tea where it grows naturally in the
Transvolcanic Mountains of central Mexico. Two subspecies are readily recog-
nized by flower color and distinctive aroma. "Toronjil rojo" (A. mexicana subsp.
mexicana) has reddish flowers and an anise odor, while "toronjil blanco" (A.
mexicana subsp. xolocotziana Bye, Ramamoorthy & Linares) has white flowers
and a lemon fragrance. The red and white hyssops are mixed with "toronjil blue"
(Dracocephalum moldavica L., Lamiaceae) and drunk as a tea to calm the nerves
and irregular heartbeats. 45 Filtered infusions of each plant (25 gm dry biomass in
300 ml of double distilled water) have been used to immerse isolated tissue of
aorta, trachea, ileum, bladder and uterus from laboratory rats.46 While the infu-
sions produced contraction in aorta and bladder muscles and no response in
tracheal muscle, there were notable differences with the others. Agastache mexi-
cana subsp. mexicana induced intense relaxation of the intestinal and utreal
muscles while A. mexicana subsp. xolocotziana produced intense contraction.
Preliminary chemical studies 47 also confirm the differences between these two
subspecies. The red Mexican hyssop has 6 flavonoids while the white hyssop has
12, of which they share only 3. Of the 46 components of the essential oil in the
red Mexican hyssop and 31 in the white hyssop, only 14 are common to both taxa.
The four principal essential oils (comprising over 30%) of the red Mexican hyssop
are a-terpinene, a-thujene, a-pinene and camphene, while the four major con-
stituents (accounting for 80%) of the white Mexican hyssop are isopulegone,
pulegone, a-terpinenol and p-cimene. Of the 14 shared compounds, pulegone and
isopulegone are the most abundant. Only thujene, menthone, estragol and methyl-
anthranilate are found in "toronjil rojo" while only bornyl acetate and linalyl-ox-
ide are present in "toronjil blanco".
The center of diversity of Datura (Solanaceae) is Mexico where all 14
species of these annual or perennial herbs are native. Jimson weed (Datura
stramonium), a cosmopolitan weed, produces well known physiological effects
in traditional medicine that are attributed to its alkaloids which are ofpharmaceu-
tical interest. Mika48 has demonstrated the existence of chemovars which have a
total alkaloid content as low as 0.086% dry weight to as high as 0.248%. The
72 CHAPTER 4

hyoscyamine varies from 0.051 to 0.215% while scopolamine ranges from 0.033
to 0.092%.

IMPORTANCE

One measure of the importance of medicinal plants is their direct utiliza-

tion by people. The consensus or repetitive use of remedies by a group of people
has been considered an important measure of consistency while studying cultural
dynamics and searching for biological active and efficacious medicinal plants. 49 .50
Often, considered an error in sampling, the use of different species of plants that
are thought to be the same medicinal plant complex may be based upon human
experience that spans time and geographic space. The consistency of specific
plants in herbal remedies in the market nonetheless suggests the existence of
fundamental plants for classes of ailments. The continued use of plants over time,
as well as the cross-cultural acceptance of those effective plants by people with
differing ethnomedical concepts, is a measure of the importance value of vegetal
remedies. It also serves as a guide for selecting samples for phytochemical and
pharmacological analyses. The therapeutic effectiveness of plants is another
measure of importance, and although there are no systematic studies of this nature
in Mexico, selected examples provide insight as to the variance ofthis component
of biological diversity.
A nation-wide consensus of the important medicinal plants of Mexico
requires an infrastructure covering all sections of the country and the human
population. Although limited to selected medical practitioners in rural areas, the
IMSS's 1983-1984 national survey suggests productive tendencies. Made in
collaboration with the rural development program (COMPLAMAR) and 3,500
IMSS's rural clinics) 13,034 traditional medical practitioners were interviewed. 51
Each person designated the ten most important medicinal plants based only on
common names, resulting in 6,175 plant names. Because no specimens were
collected, the scientific name most commonly associated with the particular
common name was applied. Of the ten most important plants, half were introduced
(Mentha piperita L., Lamiaceae; Ruta chalepensis L., Rutaceae; Matricaria
recutita L., Asteraceae; Ocimum basilicum L., Lamiaceae; Aloe barbadensis
Mill., Liliaceae) and the other half were native (Zea mays L., Poaceae; Artemisia
ludoviciana Nutt., Asteraceae; Chenopodium ambrosioides L., Chenopodiaceae;
Calamintha macrostema Benth., Lamiaceae; Heterotheca inuloides Cass., Aster-
aceae).
A survey of selected medicinal plants throughout Mexico revealed the
existence of medicinal plant complexes in which taxonomically distinct plants
share a common name, traditional remedial use, and certain morphological and
chemical properties. 52 Each medicinal plant complex had species that extended
the length of Mexico but usually only one species was universally recognized as
the best form. The dominant taxon was not only employed within its geographic
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MEXICO 73

distribution but also available through the marketing system that extended beyond
its range. Ifthe dominant taxon, which is considered to the be best, is not available,
people would use local forms (i.e., other species) whose employment was usually
limited to their native range. For example, the dominant species of the "matari-
que" medicinal complex, which is valued for treating diabetes, kidney ailments
and pains, is Psacalium decompositum (Gray) H. Robins. & Brett. (Asteraceae).
It grows in the pine-oak forests of the northern Sierra Madre Occidental but is
commercialized throughout Mexico and adjacent USA. The other species that are
employed for similar purposes, when P decompositum is not available, also
belong to the Asteraceae. They are P peltatum (HBK.) Cass., P sinuatum (Cerv.)
H. Robins. & Brett., P palmeri (Greene) H. Robins. & Brett., and Acourtia
thurberi (Gray) Reveal & King (Asteraceae). They, however, are employed only
within each plant's geographical distribution.
In central Mexico, remedial infusions often consist of mixtures of medici-
nal plants. A survey of these mixtures in the Sonora Market (Mexico's principal
medicinal plant market that is located in Mexico City 53) for treatment of different
ailments suggests there is a consistency in the use of specific plants for treating
classes of ailments. For each class, there are fundamental plants that are always
included. Then, depending upon the variant of the illness, the degree of severity,
and the time of the year, supplementary herbs are added. Often taken into
consideration is the appropriate balance of the mixture from the perspective of
the "hot-cold" classification of illness and the corresponding plants that counter-
act it. For instance, an herbal remedy for diarrhea (primarily a cold illness) (Table
2) usually includes five fundamental plants (mostly hot plants) and one or more
supplementary plants that are added in order to provide the correct balance
depending upon the type of diarrhea (e.g., bloody, mucus, chunky, watery, etc.).
Cross-cultural comparison of medicinal plants of two ethnic groups with
access to the same vegetal resources but who do not share ethnomedical concepts
can provide an indication of the probable efficacy of species with similar uses.
For example, in the state of Chihuahua, the Tarahumara Indians inhabit the
pine-oak forest as well as the dry tropical forest in the west. The major urban
centers with markets that sell medicinal plants are found along the central
north-south axis. There is little communication between the native peoples of the
mountains and canyons who retain their indigenous world view and the urban
Mexicans who have access to institutional Western medicine. Of the hundreds of
vegetal remedies sold in the market, 47 plants originate from the western moun-
tains of Chihuahua. Of these 30 species are used in a similar fashion by both the
Tarahumara and the mainstream Mexicans. 54 The continued employment by both
groups assumes that they are effective in the same human physiological system
and hence produce favorable biodynamic effects independent of mental expecta-
tions.
The therapeutic effectiveness of medicinal plants, evaluated upon the
cultural basis of disease etiology and its cure, can provide meaningful insight into
the phytochemical properties of plants and human perception and exploitation of
74 CHAPTER 4

Table 2. Fundamental medicinal plants for the treatment of diarrhea based upon
remedial mixtures sold in Mexican markets
Fundamental plants

Name part utilized hot-cold classification

Psidium guajava L. leaves hot

guayaba
Artemisia mexican Willd. plant hot
cstafiate
Waltheria americana L. plant hot
tapacola
Teloxys graveolens (Willd.) Weber plant hot
epazote de zorrillo
Tagetes erecta L. flowers temperate
cempasuchil
Supplementary plants

Name part utilized hot-cold classification

Hintonia latif/ora (Sesse &. bark hot

Mocifto ex DC.) Bullock
quina
Satureja oaxacana (Fernald) Briq. leaves hot
menta verde
Hedeoma piperitum BentIl. plant hot
tabaquillo
Tecoma stans (L.) HBK. leaves, flowers hot
tronadora
Buddlela scordioides HBK. leaves hot
hierba de perro
Matricaria recutita L. flowers hot
manzanilla
Peumus boldus Mol. leaves temperate
boldo
Krameria secundif/ora DC. roots temperate
cIameria
Senna skinneri (Bentl1.) Irwin &. Bameby bark temperate
paraca
Agastache mexicana (RBK.) Lint &. Epling plant temperate
toronjiJ
Heterotheca inuloides Casso flowers cool
amica
Equisetum myriochaetum Schlecht. &. Cham. plant cool
cola de caballo
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MEXICO 75

them. There is growing interest world wide in promoting the assessment of herbal
medicines. 55 Although there are insufficient data to evaluate Mexican plants at
this time, the pharmacological activities of known phytochemicals of 16 of 25
native vegetal remedies from the early colonial period coincide with the expected
therapeutic benefits in the native healing system. 56
Bioassays also provide an indication of the probable effectiveness of
medicinal plants. The importance of the cultural context for evaluating the
effectiveness of a given plant remedy is supported by a more detailed study of 20
Aztec plants used in treating headaches. 57 Based upon the pharmacological
properties of chemical constituents of the plants and Aztec etiological beliefs and
Western biomedical standards, either 90% or 30%, respectively, of these herbs
would be considered effective. 57
Bioassays not only indicate possible effectiveness but also are useful in
fractionation of extracts while in pursuit of active principles. Many ethnophar-
macological and phytochemical studies of Mexican medicinal plants incorporate
bioassays as part of the sampling routine. Summaries of such broad screens of
Mexican medicinal plants can be found in Dominguez and Alcorn,58 JiU,59 and
Rojas et al. 6o

CHANGES IN IMPORTANCE
Cultural interactions with vegetal remedies may alter the importance of
and, hence, the diversity of medicinal plants. The suppression of indigenous
beliefs and practices often drove traditional medicine and its associated plants
underground. Efforts of the Mexican government to provide modern health care
to all sectors of the population have revealed unexpected levels of resistance to
modern treatments. This situation is due, in part, to the persistence of centuries'
old traditional medical practices. There has been sensitivity on part of institution-
alized medicine in Mexico to recognize and tolerate this "invisible medicine"
which successfully attends a large percentage of the rural and urban Mexican
population. 61 Examples of the changes of importance can be seen in continuity
and disjunction, discontinuity, and synchronism.
The continued use of medicinal plants represents continuity in which the
element and the context in which it operates have not been altered over time. 62
On the other hand, certain elements of the past may be employed today but not
in the same context or with the same conceptual background; this situation is
disjunction. This permanence of vegetal elements but in altered cultural contexts
can be found in several Mexican plants. 63 "Nantzinxocotl" or "nanche" as it is
known today (Byrsonimia crassifolia (L.) HBK., Malpighiaceae) was present in
the Aztec markets of the 16 th century in the form of a powdered bark or an edible
but bland fruit that was used to cure sores, aid digestion, assist in childbirth, and
to treat swollen legs. Today, "nanche" is represented only in the context of fresh
and preserved fruits that are exported from the lower tropical zones to the higher
76 CHAPTER 4

markets of central Mexico; the knowledge and commercialization of its medicinal

properties have been lost.
The loss of importance of certain vegetal remedies represents discontinu-
ity, which may occur due to socioeconomic determinants among others (e.g.,
extinction of plant, lack of efficacy, etc.). For example, "goma de Sonora" (an
exduate from Coursetia glandulosa Gray (Fabaceae) that is produced by the scale
insect Tachardiellafulgens (Homoptera:Coccidae» was gathered in northwestern
Mexico and commercialized by the Jesuits who prized it for treating stomach
ailments. When the Jesuits were expelled from Mexico in 1775, the highly
esteemed orange gum disappeared from world commerce. Only indigenous
groups in this region, such as the Tarahumara who call it "ad", use it today.
One characteristic of acculturation is synchronism of elements from the
socioeconomically dominant culture that substitutes similar components in the
subjected society. The synchrony of medicinal plants is common in central
Mexico where European ideas and plants have gradually substituted those of the
Aztecs. Shared concepts of independent origins, such as the "hot - cold" spectrum
of illnesses classification,64 may have contributed to the ready acceptance by the
Aztecs of European medicinal plants. For example, "hot" plants are used to treat
"cold" ailments. In preHispanic times, the "cold" illnesses attributed to Tlaloc
(the god of rain) were treated ritually with such hot plants as "iztauhyatl"
(wormwood or Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. subsp. mexicana (Willd.) Keck,
Asteraceae) and "yauhtli" (sweet marigold or Tagetes lucida Cav., Asteraceae).
Today, these have been substituted by introduced "hot" plants such as rue (Ruta
chalepensis) and rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L., Lamiaceae).65 The gradual
substitution may have occurred in order to disguise the plants' ritual connection
with Tlaloc or also because of unavailability of native species as the frontier of
New Spain moved northward beyond the original Aztec Empire.

CONSERVATION

Biological surveys and inventories are the first step to successful, long-
term conservation. 66 This initial process should determine the genetic strains,
species, ecological assemblages, distribution, abundance, patterns in the land-
scape, role in ecological processes, utility (potential or proven) for human benefit
and response to human or natural disturbances. The need to focus on the conser-
vation of medicinal plants on a world basis has drawn considerable attention. 67
As of 1981, about 30% of the natural vegetation of Mexico had been altered by
humans for agricultural, grazing and other purposes (Table 3). Habitat alteration
has increased since then so this approximation is an underestimate of the actual
situation that threatens the destruction of natural populations of medicinal plants.
Shade-requiring plants such as "chuchupate" (Ligusticum porteri C. & R.,
Apiaceae) of the pine-oak forests of Chihuahua have disappeared entirely as clear
cutting for pulpwood harvest advances. 68
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MEXICO 77

Table 3. Land use patterns in Mexico based upon 1981 agricultural and forestry
census by ecological zones. 7,7] The ecological zones are: ASA-arid and semi-arid;
SHTm--subhumbid temperate; HTm--humid temperate; HTr-humid tropical;
SHTr-subhumid tropical
ECOLOGICAL ZONE % FOREST AGRICULTURE CATTLE OTHER NO-FOREST
USES VEGETATION

ASA 5 9 II 2 72
SHTrn 63 15 II II
HTrn 64 8 22 6
HTr 58 13 19 6 4
SHTr 45 24 9 6 4

Over-collecting of certain plants has lead to the local extinction of certain

species. In the temperate forests of central Mexico, "valeriana" (Valeriana cera-
tophylla HBK. and V. edulis Nutt. subsp. procera (HBK.) Meyer, Valerianaceae)
has disappeared as a consequence of increased pressure to gather wild plants to
satisfy European markets' demand for this sedative root. The popularity of
"cancerina" (Hemiangium excelsum (HBK.) A.C. Sm., Hippocrateaceae) in treat-
ing ulcers throughout Mexico has increased the demand for root of this vine of
the dry tropical forest; it is especially vulnerable because the plant remains green
during the dry season when most ofleaves fall off trees.
Plants with roots are especially susceptible to local extinction. Trees that
yield medicinal bark may also become locally extinct if massive bark harvesting
girdles the tree or if the stems are cut for massive stripping elsewhere. The
regeneration of bark and persistence of harvested trees is possible, but only if
traditional appropriate technology is applied such as in the case of the dry tropical
forest tree "cuachalalate" (Amphypterigium adstringens (Schlecht.) Schiede,
lulianiaceae) whose bark is prized for its gastrointestinal ulcer healing properties. 69
Currently there is no legal regulation for the collecting of wild medicinal
plants, if the collectors do so for personal consumption. Commercial collecting
is regulated by official norms of the Secretaria de Agricultura y Recursos Hidrauli-
cos and the Secretaria de Desarrollo Social y Ecologia. Nonetheless, reckless
hoarding of high-demand medicinal plant occurs in many parts of Mexico in order
to satisfy foreign commercial interests.
Conservation of medicinal plants calls for both in situ and ex situ efforts.
Maintenance and restoration of original habitats where medicinal plants grow natu-
rally is most desirable. Traditional harvesting schedules and techniques may assure the
permanence and, in some cases, enhancement of populations of some species.
Ex situ conservation programs carried out by the government or universi-
ties are scarce. There are a few germplasm banks in Mexico but all are dedicated
to major food plants. There is no officially designated Mexican seed bank for
medicinal plants. Botanical gardens could play an important role in the study,
78 CHAPTER 4

education and conservation of medicinal plants. Of the 35 botanical gardens

registered in Mexico, two are dedicated to the propagation and exhibition of this
class of plants}O
Meanwhile, farmers and medicinal plant suppliers have taken the initiative
at the local level to relieve the collection pressure on natural populations by
cultivating medicinal plants. This activity is part of the domestication process that
existed in prehispanic times and continues to influence plant diversity in Mex-
ico.7' Various medicinal plants exploited for their roots (e.g., "jalapa" or Ipomoea
purga (Wender.) Hayne, Convolvulaceae), woody stems and leaves (e.g., "laurel"
or Litsea glaucescens HBK., Lauraceae), and leaves and flowers (e.g., "arnica"
or Heterotheca inuloides; Agastache mexicana; "epazote" or Teloxys am-
brosioides (L.) Weber, Chenopodiaceae) are cultivated on small farms in order to
satisfy the local and national markets. 68 ,72

CONCLUSIONS

Mexico is favorably positioned so that its rich flora is derived of both

temperate and tropical elements. Cultural diversity has persisted over the centu-
ries so that over 3,350 species of21 ,600 vascular plants form part ofthe medicinal
flora. Although native, church, and government authorities began to inventory
remedial plants shortly after the Spanish Conquest of Mexico, most of the plants
in these documents remain unidentified today. The effort to provide a preliminary
list of Mexico's medicinal plants continues along with an interest in measuring
their importance. The frequency of use, their inclusion as fundamental elements
in remedial mixtures, the recognition and substitution within medicinal plant
complexes, and the assessment of their effectiveness are some of the avenues
being explored to evaluate their prominence.
Changes have occurred in the use of medicinal plants. Because many
native plants were associated with ritual, they were disguised and substituted with
introduced European plants. Some plants have continued over time to be used in
the same manner and cultural context while others, although still used, are disjunct
from their original context. In some cases, medicinal plants have been abandoned
or the knowledge about them lost.
The demand for medicinal plants continues in Mexico. A few cases oflocal
extinction of plant populations are known to be caused by overcollecting. Perhaps
the greatest threat is the alteration of the natural habitat. Some highly valued plants
have been brought into cultivation by local farmers interested in the conservation
and commercialization of remedial herbs.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

F. Basurto and M. Trejo assisted in the compilation of data used in part of

this paper.
BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN MEXICO 79

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