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8/15/2020 Tree - Wikipedia
Tree
In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or
trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species. In some
usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only
woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are usable as
lumber or plants above a specified height. In wider definitions, the
taller palms, tree ferns, bananas, and bamboos are also trees. Trees
are not a taxonomic group but include a variety of plant species that
have independently evolved a trunk and branches as a way to tower
above other plants to compete for sunlight. Trees tend to be long-
lived, some reaching several thousand years old. Trees have been in
existence for 370 million years. It is estimated that there are some
three trillion mature trees in the world.[1]
A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the

ground by the trunk. This trunk typically contains woody tissue for
strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the
tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark Common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), a
which serves as a protective barrier. Below the ground, the roots deciduous broad-leaved
branch and spread out widely; they serve to anchor the tree and (angiosperm) tree
extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the
branches divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots
typically bear leaves, which capture light energy and convert it into
sugars by photosynthesis, providing the food for the tree's growth
and development.
Trees usually reproduce using seeds. Flowers and fruit may be

present, but some trees, such as conifers, instead have pollen cones
and seed cones. Palms, bananas, and bamboos also produce seeds,
but tree ferns produce spores instead.
Trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the

climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store
large quantities of carbon in their tissues. Trees and forests provide a
habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests
are among the most biodiverse habitats in the world. Trees provide
shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and
heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In
parts of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to European larch (Larix decidua), a
increase the amount of land available for agriculture. Because of coniferous tree which is also
their longevity and usefulness, trees have always been revered, with deciduous
sacred groves in various cultures, and they play a role in many of the
world's mythologies.
Contents
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tree 1/29
Definition
Overview
Distribution
Parts and function
Roots
Trunk
Buds and growth
Leaves
Reproduction
Seeds
Evolutionary history
Ecology
Uses
Food
Fuel
Timber
Art
Bonsai
Tree shaping
Bark
Ornamental trees
Other uses
Care
Mythology
Superlative trees
See also
Notes
References
Further reading
Definition
Although "tree" is a term of common parlance, there is no universally recognised precise definition of
what a tree is, either botanically or in common language.[2] In its broadest sense, a tree is any plant with
the general form of an elongated stem, or trunk, which supports the photosynthetic leaves or branches at
some distance above the ground.[3] Trees are also typically defined by height,[4] with smaller plants from
0.5 to 10 m (1.6 to 32.8 ft) being called shrubs,[5] so the minimum height of a tree is only loosely
defined.[4] Large herbaceous plants such as papaya and bananas are trees in this broad sense.[2][6]
A commonly applied narrower definition is that a tree has a woody trunk formed by secondary growth,
meaning that the trunk thickens each year by growing outwards, in addition to the primary upwards
growth from the growing tip.[4][7] Under such a definition, herbaceous plants such as palms, bananas
and papayas are not considered trees regardless of their height, growth form or stem girth. Certain
monocots may be considered trees under a slightly looser

definition;[8] while the Joshua tree, bamboos and palms do not have
secondary growth and never produce true wood with growth
rings,[9][10] they may produce "pseudo-wood" by lignifying cells
formed by primary growth.[11] Tree species in the genus Dracaena,
despite also being monocots, do have secondary growth caused by
meristem in their trunk, but it is different from the thickening
meristem found in dicotyledonous trees.[12]
Aside from structural definitions, trees are commonly defined by

use; for instance, as those plants which yield lumber.[13]
Overview
Diagram of secondary growth in a
The tree growth habit is an evolutionary adaptation found in eudicot or coniferous tree showing
different groups of plants: by growing taller, trees are able to idealised vertical and horizontal
compete better for sunlight.[14] Trees tend to be tall and long- sections. A new layer of wood is
lived,[15] some reaching several thousand years old.[16] Several trees added in each growing season,
are among the oldest organisms now living. [17] Trees have modified thickening the stem, existing
structures such as thicker stems composed of specialised cells that branches and roots.
add structural strength and durability, allowing them to grow taller
than many other plants and to spread out their foliage. They differ
from shrubs, which have a similar growth form, by usually growing larger and having a single main
stem;[5] but there is no consistent distinction between a tree and a shrub,[18] made more confusing by the
fact that trees may be reduced in size under harsher environmental conditions such as on mountains and
subarctic areas. The tree form has evolved separately in unrelated classes of plants in response to similar
environmental challenges, making it a classic example of parallel evolution. With an estimated 60,000-
100,000 species, the number of trees worldwide might total twenty-five per cent of all living plant
species.[19][20] The greatest number of these grow in tropical regions and many of these areas have not
yet been fully surveyed by botanists, making tree diversity and ranges poorly known.[21]
The majority of tree species are angiosperms. There are about 1000
species of gymnosperm trees,[22] including conifers, cycads,
ginkgophytes and gnetales; they produce seeds which are not
enclosed in fruits, but in open structures such as pine cones, and
many have tough waxy leaves, such as pine needles.[23] Most
angiosperm trees are eudicots, the "true dicotyledons", so named
because the seeds contain two cotyledons or seed leaves. There are
also some trees among the old lineages of flowering plants called
basal angiosperms or paleodicots; these include Amborella,
Tall herbaceous monocotyledonous Magnolia, nutmeg and avocado,[24] while trees such as bamboo,
plants such as banana lack palms and bananas are monocots.
secondary growth, but are trees
under the broadest definition. Wood gives structural strength to the trunk of most types of tree; this
supports the plant as it grows larger. The vascular system of trees
allows water, nutrients and other chemicals to be distributed around
the plant, and without it trees would not be able to grow as large as they do. Trees, as relatively tall
plants, need to draw water up the stem through the xylem from the roots by the suction produced as
water evaporates from the leaves. If insufficient water is available the leaves will die.[25] The three main
parts of trees include the root, stem, and leaves; they are integral parts of the vascular system which
interconnects all the living cells. In trees and other plants that develop wood, the vascular cambium
allows the expansion of vascular tissue that produces woody growth. Because this growth ruptures the
epidermis of the stem, woody plants also have a cork cambium that develops among the phloem. The
cork cambium gives rise to thickened cork cells to protect the surface of the plant and reduce water loss.
Both the production of wood and the production of cork are forms of secondary growth.[26]
Trees are either evergreen, having foliage that persists and remains green throughout the year,[27] or
deciduous, shedding their leaves at the end of the growing season and then having a dormant period
without foliage.[28] Most conifers are evergreens, but larches (Larix and Pseudolarix) are deciduous,
dropping their needles each autumn, and some species of cypress (Glyptostrobus, Metasequoia and
Taxodium) shed small leafy shoots annually in a process known as cladoptosis.[5] The crown is the
spreading top of a tree including the branches and leaves,[29] while the uppermost layer in a forest,
formed by the crowns of the trees, is known as the canopy.[30] A sapling is a young tree.[31]
Many tall palms are herbaceous[32] monocots; these do not undergo secondary growth and never
produce wood.[9][10] In many tall palms, the terminal bud on the main stem is the only one to develop, so
they have unbranched trunks with large spirally arranged leaves. Some of the tree ferns, order
Cyatheales, have tall straight trunks, growing up to 20 metres (66 ft), but these are composed not of
wood but of rhizomes which grow vertically and are covered by numerous adventitious roots.[33]
Distribution
The number of trees in the world, according to a 2015 estimate, is 3.04
trillion, of which 1.39 trillion (46%) are in the tropics or sub-tropics, 0.61
trillion (20%) in the temperate zones, and 0.74 trillion (24%) in the
coniferous boreal forests. The estimate is about eight times higher than
previous estimates, and is based on tree densities measured on over
400,000 plots. It remains subject to a wide margin of error, not least
because the samples are mainly from Europe and North America. The
estimate suggests that about 15 billion trees are cut down annually and
about 5 billion are planted. In the 12,000 years since the start of human
agriculture, the number of trees worldwide has decreased by
46%.[1][34][35][36]
The Daintree Rainforest In suitable environments, such as the Daintree Rainforest in Queensland, or
the mixed podocarp and broadleaf forest of Ulva Island, New Zealand,
forest is the more-or-less stable climatic climax community at the end of a
plant succession, where open areas such as grassland are colonised by taller plants, which in turn give
way to trees that eventually form a forest canopy.[37][38]
In cool temperate regions, conifers often predominate; a widely

distributed climax community in the far north of the northern
hemisphere is moist taiga or northern coniferous forest (also called
boreal forest).[39][40] Taiga is the world's largest land biome, forming
29% of the world's forest cover.[41] The long cold winter of the far
north is unsuitable for plant growth and trees must grow rapidly in
the short summer season when the temperature rises and the days
are long. Light is very limited under their dense cover and there may
Conifers in the Swabian alps
be little plant life on the forest floor, although fungi may abound.[42] Similar woodland is found on
mountains where the altitude causes the average temperature to be lower thus reducing the length of the
growing season.[43]
Where rainfall is relatively evenly spread across the seasons in temperate regions, temperate broadleaf
and mixed forest typified by species like oak, beech, birch and maple is found.[44] Temperate forest is
also found in the southern hemisphere, as for example in the Eastern Australia temperate forest,
characterised by Eucalyptus forest and open acacia woodland.[45]
In tropical regions with a monsoon or monsoon-like climate, where a drier part of the year alternates
with a wet period as in the Amazon rainforest, different species of broad-leaved trees dominate the
forest, some of them being deciduous.[46] In tropical regions with a drier savanna climate and
insufficient rainfall to support dense forests, the canopy is not closed, and plenty of sunshine reaches the
ground which is covered with grass and scrub. Acacia and baobab are well adapted to living in such
areas.[47]
Parts and function
Roots
The roots of a tree serve to anchor it to the ground and gather water
and nutrients to transfer to all parts of the tree. They are also used
for reproduction, defence, survival, energy storage and many other
purposes. The radicle or embryonic root is the first part of a seedling
to emerge from the seed during the process of germination. This
develops into a taproot which goes straight downwards. Within a few
weeks lateral roots branch out of the side of this and grow
horizontally through the upper layers of the soil. In most trees, the A young red pine (Pinus resinosa)
taproot eventually withers away and the wide-spreading laterals with spread of roots visible, as a
remain. Near the tip of the finer roots are single cell root hairs. These result of soil erosion
are in immediate contact with the soil particles and can absorb water
and nutrients such as potassium in solution. The roots require
oxygen to respire and only a few species such as mangroves and the pond cypress (Taxodium ascendens)
can live in permanently waterlogged soil.[48]
In the soil, the roots encounter the hyphae of fungi. Many of these are known as mycorrhiza and form a
mutualistic relationship with the tree roots. Some are specific to a single tree species, which will not
flourish in the absence of its mycorrhizal associate. Others are generalists and associate with many
species. The tree acquires minerals such as phosphorus from the fungus, while the fungus obtains the
carbohydrate products of photosynthesis from the tree.[49] The hyphae of the fungus can link different
trees and a network is formed, transferring nutrients and signals from one place to another.[50] The
fungus promotes growth of the roots and helps protect the trees against predators and pathogens. It can
also limit damage done to a tree by pollution as the fungus accumulate heavy metals within its tissues.[51]
Fossil evidence shows that roots have been associated with mycorrhizal fungi since the early Paleozoic,
four hundred million years ago, when the first vascular plants colonised dry land.[52]
Some trees such as the alders (Alnus species) have a symbiotic relationship with Frankia species, a
filamentous bacterium that can fix nitrogen from the air, converting it into ammonia. They have
actinorhizal root nodules on their roots in which the bacteria live. This process enables the tree to live in
low nitrogen habitats where they would otherwise be unable to

thrive.[53] The plant hormones called cytokinins initiate root nodule
formation, in a process closely related to mycorrhizal association.[54]
It has been demonstrated that some trees are interconnected

through their root system, forming a colony. The interconnections
are made by the inosculation process, a kind of natural grafting or
welding of vegetal tissues. The tests to demonstrate this networking
are performed by injecting chemicals, sometimes radioactive, into a
tree, and then checking for its presence in neighbouring trees.[55]
Buttress roots of the kapok tree
(Ceiba pentandra)
The roots are, generally, an underground part of the tree, but some
tree species have evolved roots that are aerial. The common
purposes for aerial roots may be of two kinds, to contribute to the
mechanical stability of the tree, and to obtain oxygen from air. An instance of mechanical stability
enhancement is the red mangrove that develops prop roots that loop out of the trunk and branches and
descend vertically into the mud.[56] A similar structure is developed by the Indian banyan.[57] Many large
trees have buttress roots which flare out from the lower part of the trunk. These brace the tree rather like
angle brackets and provide stability, reducing sway in high winds. They are particularly prevalent in
tropical rainforests where the soil is poor and the roots are close to the surface.[58]
Some tree species have developed root extensions that pop out of soil, in order to get oxygen, when it is
not available in the soil because of excess water. These root extensions are called pneumatophores, and
are present, among others, in black mangrove and pond cypress.[56]
Trunk
The main purpose of the trunk is to raise the leaves above the ground,
enabling the tree to overtop other plants and outcompete them for light.[59]
It also transports water and nutrients from the roots to the aerial parts of
the tree, and distributes the food produced by the leaves to all other parts,
including the roots.[60]
In the case of angiosperms and gymnosperms, the outermost layer of the

trunk is the bark, mostly composed of dead cells of phellem (cork).[61] It
provides a thick, waterproof covering to the living inner tissue. It protects
the trunk against the elements, disease, animal attack and fire. It is
perforated by a large number of fine breathing pores called lenticels,
through which oxygen diffuses. Bark is continually replaced by a living layer
of cells called the cork cambium or phellogen.[61] The London plane Northern beech (Fagus
(Platanus × acerifolia) periodically sheds its bark in large flakes. Similarly, sylvatica) trunk in autumn
the bark of the silver birch (Betula pendula) peels off in strips. As the tree's
girth expands, newer layers of bark are larger in circumference, and the
older layers develop fissures in many species. In some trees such as the pine (Pinus species) the bark
exudes sticky resin which deters attackers whereas in rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis) it is a milky latex
that oozes out. The quinine bark tree (Cinchona officinalis) contains bitter substances to make the bark
unpalatable.[60] Large tree-like plants with lignified trunks in the Pteridophyta, Arecales, Cycadophyta
and Poales such as the tree ferns, palms, cycads and bamboos have different structures and outer
coverings.[62]
Although the bark functions as a protective barrier, it is itself

attacked by boring insects such as beetles. These lay their eggs in
crevices and the larvae chew their way through the cellulose tissues
leaving a gallery of tunnels. This may allow fungal spores to gain
admittance and attack the tree. Dutch elm disease is caused by a
fungus (Ophiostoma species) carried from one elm tree to another by
various beetles. The tree reacts to the growth of the fungus by
blocking off the xylem tissue carrying sap upwards and the branch
above, and eventually the whole tree, is deprived of nourishment and
dies. In Britain in the 1990s, 25 million elm trees were killed by this
disease.[63]
The innermost layer of bark is known as the phloem and this is

A section of yew (Taxus baccata)
involved in the transport of the sap containing the sugars made by
showing 27 annual growth rings,
photosynthesis to other parts of the tree. It is a soft spongy layer of
pale sapwood and dark heartwood
living cells, some of which are arranged end to end to form tubes.
These are supported by parenchyma cells which provide padding and
include fibres for strengthening the tissue.[64] Inside the phloem is a
layer of undifferentiated cells one cell thick called the vascular cambium layer. The cells are continually
dividing, creating phloem cells on the outside and wood cells known as xylem on the inside.[65]
The newly created xylem is the sapwood. It is composed of water-conducting cells and associated cells
which are often living, and is usually pale in colour. It transports water and minerals from the roots to
the upper parts of the tree. The oldest, inner part of the sapwood is progressively converted into
heartwood as new sapwood is formed at the cambium. The conductive cells of the heartwood are blocked
in some species. Heartwood is usually darker in colour than the sapwood. It is the dense central core of
the trunk giving it rigidity. Three quarters of the dry mass of the xylem is cellulose, a polysaccharide, and
most of the remainder is lignin, a complex polymer. A transverse section through a tree trunk or a
horizontal core will show concentric circles or lighter or darker wood – tree rings.[66] These rings are the
annual growth rings[67][68] There may also be rays running at right angles to growth rings. These are
vascular rays which are thin sheets of living tissue permeating the wood.[66] Many older trees may
become hollow but may still stand upright for many years.[69]
Buds and growth
Buds, leaves, flowers and

fruit of oak (Quercus robur)
Buds, leaves and

reproductive structures of
white fir (Abies alba)
Form, leaves and

reproductive structures of
queen sago (Cycas
circinalis)
Trees do not usually grow continuously throughout the year but

mostly have spurts of active expansion followed by periods of rest.
This pattern of growth is related to climatic conditions; growth
normally ceases when conditions are either too cold or too dry. In
readiness for the inactive period, trees form buds to protect the
meristem, the zone of active growth. Before the period of dormancy,
the last few leaves produced at the tip of a twig form scales. These
are thick, small and closely wrapped and enclose the growing point
Dormant Magnolia bud in a waterproof sheath. Inside this bud there is a rudimentary stalk
and neatly folded miniature leaves, ready to expand when the next
growing season arrives. Buds also form in the axils of the leaves
ready to produce new side shoots. A few trees, such as the eucalyptus, have "naked buds" with no
protective scales and some conifers, such as the Lawson's cypress, have no buds but instead have little
pockets of meristem concealed among the scale-like leaves.[70]
When growing conditions improve, such as the arrival of warmer weather and the longer days associated
with spring in temperate regions, growth starts again. The expanding shoot pushes its way out, shedding
the scales in the process. These leave behind scars on the surface of the twig. The whole year's growth
may take place in just a few weeks. The new stem is unlignified at first and may be green and downy. The
Arecaceae (palms) have their leaves spirally arranged on an unbranched trunk.[70] In some tree species
in temperate climates, a second spurt of growth, a Lammas growth may occur which is believed to be a
strategy to compensate for loss of early foliage to insect predators.[71]
Primary growth is the elongation of the stems and roots. Secondary growth consists of a progressive
thickening and strengthening of the tissues as the outer layer of the epidermis is converted into bark and
the cambium layer creates new phloem and xylem cells. The bark is inelastic.[72] Eventually the growth of
a tree slows down and stops and it gets no taller. If damage occurs the tree may in time become
hollow.[73]
Leaves
Leaves are structures specialised for photosynthesis and are arranged on the tree in such a way as to
maximise their exposure to light without shading each other.[74] They are an important investment by
the tree and may be thorny or contain phytoliths, lignins, tannins or poisons to discourage herbivory.
Trees have evolved leaves in a wide range of shapes and sizes, in response to environmental pressures
including climate and predation. They can be broad or needle-like, simple or compound, lobed or entire,
smooth or hairy, delicate or tough, deciduous or evergreen. The needles of coniferous trees are compact
but are structurally similar to those of broad-leaved trees. They are adapted for life in environments
where resources are low or water is scarce. Frozen ground may limit water availability and conifers are
often found in colder places at higher altitudes and higher latitudes than broad leaved trees. In conifers
such as fir trees, the branches hang down at an angle to the trunk, enabling them to shed snow. In
contrast, broad leaved trees in temperate regions deal with winter weather by shedding their leaves.
When the days get shorter and the temperature begins to decrease, the leaves no longer make new
chlorophyll and the red and yellow pigments already present in the blades become apparent.[74]
Synthesis in the leaf of a plant hormone called auxin also ceases. This causes the cells at the junction of
the petiole and the twig to weaken until the joint breaks and the leaf floats to the ground. In tropical and
subtropical regions, many trees keep their leaves all year round. Individual leaves may fall intermittently
and be replaced by new growth but most leaves remain intact for some time. Other tropical species and
those in arid regions may shed all their leaves annually, such as at the start of the dry season.[75] Many
deciduous trees flower before the new leaves emerge.[76] A few trees do not have true leaves but instead
have structures with similar external appearance such as Phylloclades – modified stem structures[77] – as
seen in the genus Phyllocladus.[78]
Reproduction
Trees can be pollinated either by wind or by animals, mostly insects. Many angiosperm trees are insect
pollinated. Wind pollination may take advantage of increased wind speeds high above the ground.[79]
Trees use a variety of methods of seed dispersal. Some rely on wind, with winged or plumed seeds.
Others rely on animals, for example with edible fruits. Others again eject their seeds (ballistic dispersal),
or use gravity so that seeds fall and sometimes roll.[80]
Seeds
Seeds are the primary way that trees reproduce and their seeds vary greatly in size and shape. Some of
the largest seeds come from trees, but the largest tree, Sequoiadendron giganteum, produces one of the
smallest tree seeds.[81] The great diversity in tree fruits and seeds reflects the many different ways that
tree species have evolved to disperse their offspring.
For a tree seedling to grow into an adult tree it needs light. If seeds only fell straight to the ground,
competition among the concentrated saplings and the shade of the parent would likely prevent it from
flourishing. Many seeds such as birch are small and have papery wings to aid dispersal by the wind. Ash
trees and maples have larger seeds with blade shaped wings which spiral down to the ground when
released. The kapok tree has cottony threads to catch the breeze.[82]
The seeds of conifers, the largest group of gymnosperms, are enclosed in a cone and most species have
seeds that are light and papery that can be blown considerable distances once free from the cone.[83]
Sometimes the seed remains in the cone for years waiting for a trigger event to liberate it. Fire stimulates
release and germination of seeds of the jack pine, and also enriches the forest floor with wood ash and
removes competing vegetation.[84] Similarly, a number of angiosperms including Acacia cyclops and
Acacia mangium have seeds that germinate better after exposure to high temperatures.[85]
The flame tree Delonix regia does not rely on fire but shoots its seeds
through the air when the two sides of its long pods crack apart
explosively on drying.[82] The miniature cone-like catkins of alder
trees produce seeds that contain small droplets of oil that help
disperse the seeds on the surface of water. Mangroves often grow in
water and some species have propagules, which are buoyant fruits
with seeds that start germinating before becoming detached from the
parent tree.[86][87] These float on the water and may become lodged
on emerging mudbanks and successfully take root.[82]
Wind dispersed seed of elm Other seeds, such as apple pips and plum stones, have fleshy
(Ulmus), ash (Fraxinus) and maple receptacles and smaller fruits like hawthorns have seeds enclosed in
(Acer) edible tissue; animals including mammals and birds eat the fruits
and either discard the seeds, or swallow them so they pass through
the gut to be deposited in the animal's droppings well away from the
parent tree. The germination of some seeds is improved when they are processed in this way.[88] Nuts
may be gathered by animals such as squirrels that cache any not immediately consumed.[89] Many of
these caches are never revisited, the nut-casing softens with rain and frost, and the seed germinates in
the spring.[90] Pine cones may similarly be hoarded by red squirrels, and grizzly bears may help to
disperse the seed by raiding squirrel caches.[91]
The single extant species of Ginkgophyta (Ginkgo biloba) has fleshy seeds produced at the ends of short
branches on female trees,[92] and Gnetum, a tropical and subtropical group of gymnosperms produce
seeds at the tip of a shoot axis.[93]
Evolutionary history
The earliest trees were tree ferns, horsetails and lycophytes, which grew in
forests in the Carboniferous period. The first tree may have been Wattieza,
fossils of which have been found in New York State in 2007 dating back to
the Middle Devonian (about 385 million years ago). Prior to this discovery,
Archaeopteris was the earliest known tree.[94] Both of these reproduced by
spores rather than seeds and are considered to be links between ferns and
the gymnosperms which evolved in the Triassic period. The gymnosperms
include conifers, cycads, gnetales and ginkgos and these may have appeared
as a result of a whole genome duplication event which took place about 319
million years ago.[95] Ginkgophyta was once a widespread diverse group[96]
of which the only survivor is the maidenhair tree Ginkgo biloba. This is
considered to be a living fossil because it is virtually unchanged from the
fossilised specimens found in Triassic deposits.[97]
During the Mesozoic (245 to 66 million years ago) the conifers flourished
and became adapted to live in all the major terrestrial habitats.
Subsequently, the tree forms of flowering plants evolved during the
Cretaceous period. These began to displace the conifers during the Tertiary Lepidodendron, an extinct
era (66 to 2 million years ago) when forests covered the globe.[98] When the lycophyte tree
climate cooled 1.5 million years ago and the first of four ice ages occurred,
the forests retreated as the ice advanced. In the interglacials, trees
recolonised the land that had been covered by ice, only to be driven back again in the next ice age.[98]
Ecology
Trees are an important part of the terrestrial ecosystem,[99] providing
essential habitats including many kinds of forest for communities of
organisms. Epiphytic plants such as ferns, some mosses, liverworts, orchids
and some species of parasitic plants (e.g., mistletoe) hang from
branches;[100] these along with arboreal lichens, algae, and fungi provide
micro-habitats for themselves and for other organisms, including animals.
Leaves, flowers and fruits are seasonally available. On the ground
underneath trees there is shade, and often there is undergrowth, leaf litter,
and decaying wood that provide other habitat.[101][102] Trees stabilise the
soil, prevent rapid run-off of rain water, help prevent desertification, have a
role in climate control and help in the maintenance of biodiversity and
ecosystem balance.[103]
Palms and cycads as they
Many species of tree support their own specialised invertebrates. In their might have appeared in the
natural habitats, 284 different species of insect have been found on the middle Tertiary
English oak (Quercus robur)[104] and 306 species of invertebrate on the
Tasmanian oak (Eucalyptus obliqua).[105] Non-native tree species provide a
less biodiverse community, for example in the United Kingdom the sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus),
which originates from southern Europe, has few associated invertebrate species, though its bark supports
a wide range of lichens, bryophytes and other epiphytes.[106]
In ecosystems such as mangrove swamps, trees play a role in developing the habitat, since the roots of
the mangrove trees reduce the speed of flow of tidal currents and trap water-borne sediment, reducing
the water depth and creating suitable conditions for further mangrove colonisation. Thus mangrove
swamps tend to extend seawards in suitable locations.[107] Mangrove swamps also provide an effective
buffer against the more damaging effects of cyclones and tsunamis.[108]
Uses
Silviculture is the practice of controlling the establishment, growth, composition, health, and quality of
forests, which are areas that have a high density of trees. Cultivated trees are planted and tended by
humans, usually because they provide food (fruits or nuts), ornamental beauty, or some type of wood
product that benefits people. An area of land planted with fruit or nut trees is an orchard.[109] A small
wooded area, usually with no undergrowth, is called a grove[110] and a small wood or thicket of trees and
bushes is called a coppice or copse.[111] A large area of land covered with trees and undergrowth is called
woodland or forest.[112] An area of woodland composed primarily of trees established by planting or
artificial seeding is known as a plantation.[113]
Food
Trees are the source of many of the world's best known fleshy fruits. Apples, pears, plums, cherries and
citrus are all grown commercially in temperate climates and a wide range of edible fruits are found in the
tropics. Other commercially important fruit include dates, figs and olives. Palm oil is obtained from the
fruits of the oil palm (Elaeis guineensis). The fruits of the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao) are used to
make cocoa and chocolate and the berries of coffee trees, Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora, are
processed to extract the coffee beans. In many rural areas of the world, fruit is gathered from forest trees
for consumption.[114] Many trees bear edible nuts which can loosely be described as being large, oily
kernels found inside a hard shell. These include coconuts (Cocos nucifera), Brazil nuts (Bertholletia
excelsa), pecans (Carya illinoinensis), hazel nuts (Corylus), almonds (Prunus dulcis), walnuts (Juglans
regia), pistachios (Pistacia vera) and many others. They are high in nutritive value and contain high-
quality protein, vitamins and minerals as well as dietary fibre.[115] A variety of nut oils are extracted by
pressing for culinary use; some such as walnut, pistachio and hazelnut oils are prized for their distinctive
flavours, but they tend to spoil quickly.[116]
In temperate climates there is a sudden movement of sap at the end

of the winter as trees prepare to burst into growth. In North
America, the sap of the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) is most often
used in the production of a sweet liquid, maple syrup. About 90% of
the sap is water, the remaining 10% being a mixture of various
sugars and certain minerals. The sap is harvested by drilling holes in
the trunks of the trees and collecting the liquid that flows out of the
inserted spigots. It is piped to a sugarhouse where it is heated to
concentrate it and improve its flavour. Similarly in northern Europe
the spring rise in the sap of the silver birch (Betula pendula) is
Sugar maple (Acer saccharum)
tapped to collect sap for maple
tapped and collected, either to be drunk fresh or fermented into an
syrup alcoholic drink. In Alaska, the sap of the sweet birch (Betula lenta) is
made into a syrup with a sugar content of 67%. Sweet birch sap is
more dilute than maple sap; a hundred litres are required to make
one litre of birch syrup.[117]
Various parts of trees are used as spices. These include cinnamon, made from the bark of the cinnamon
tree (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) and allspice, the dried small fruits of the pimento tree (Pimenta
dioica). Nutmeg is a seed found in the fleshy fruit of the nutmeg tree (Myristica fragrans) and cloves are
the unopened flower buds of the clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum).[118]
Many trees have flowers rich in nectar which are attractive to bees. The production of forest honey is an
important industry in rural areas of the developing world where it is undertaken by small-scale
beekeepers using traditional methods.[119] The flowers of the elder (Sambucus) are used to make
elderflower cordial and petals of the plum (Prunus spp.) can be candied.[120] Sassafras oil is a flavouring
obtained from distilling bark from the roots of the sassafras tree (Sassafras albidum).
The leaves of trees are widely gathered as fodder for livestock and some can be eaten by humans but they
tend to be high in tannins which makes them bitter. Leaves of the curry tree (Murraya koenigii) are
eaten, those of kaffir lime (Citrus × hystrix) (in Thai food)[121] and Ailanthus (in Korean dishes such as
bugak) and those of the European bay tree (Laurus nobilis) and the California bay tree (Umbellularia
californica) are used for flavouring food.[118] Camellia sinensis, the source of tea, is a small tree but
seldom reaches its full height, being heavily pruned to make picking the leaves easier.[122]
Wood smoke can be used to preserve food. In the hot smoking process the food is exposed to smoke and
heat in a controlled environment. The food is ready to eat when the process is complete, having been
tenderised and flavoured by the smoke it has absorbed. In the cold process, the temperature is not
allowed to rise above 100 °F (38 °C). The flavour of the food is enhanced but raw food requires further
cooking. If it is to be preserved, meat should be cured before cold smoking.[123]
Fuel
Wood has traditionally been used for fuel, especially in rural areas.
In less developed nations it may be the only fuel available and
collecting firewood is often a time consuming task as it becomes
necessary to travel further and further afield in the search for
fuel.[124] It is often burned inefficiently on an open fire. In more
developed countries other fuels are available and burning wood is a
choice rather than a necessity. Modern wood-burning stoves are very
fuel efficient and new products such as wood pellets are available to
burn.[125] Selling firewood at a market
Charcoal can be made by slow pyrolysis of wood by heating it in the

absence of air in a kiln. The carefully stacked branches, often oak,
are burned with a very limited amount of air. The process of converting them into charcoal takes about
fifteen hours. Charcoal is used as a fuel in barbecues and by blacksmiths and has many industrial and
other uses.[126]
Timber
Timber, "trees that are grown in order to produce wood"[127] is

cut into lumber (sawn wood) for use in construction. Wood has
been an important, easily available material for construction
since humans started building shelters. Engineered wood
products are available which bind the particles, fibres or
veneers of wood together with adhesives to form composite
materials. Plastics have taken over from wood for some
traditional uses.[128]
Roof trusses made from softwood
Wood is used in the construction of buildings, bridges,
trackways, piles, poles for power lines, masts for boats, pit
props, railway sleepers, fencing, hurdles, shuttering for concrete, pipes, scaffolding and pallets. In
housebuilding it is used in joinery, for making joists, roof trusses, roofing shingles, thatching, staircases,
doors, window frames, floor boards, parquet flooring, panelling and cladding.[129]
Wood is used to construct carts, farm implements, boats, dugout canoes and
in shipbuilding. It is used for making furniture, tool handles, boxes, ladders,
musical instruments, bows, weapons, matches, clothes pegs, brooms, shoes,
baskets, turnery, carving, toys, pencils, rollers, cogs, wooden screws,
barrels, coffins, skittles, veneers, artificial limbs, oars, skis, wooden spoons,
sports equipment and wooden balls.[129]
Wood is pulped for paper and used in the manufacture of cardboard and
made into engineered wood products for use in construction such as
fibreboard, hardboard, chipboard and plywood.[129] The wood of conifers is
known as softwood while that of broad-leaved trees is hardwood.[130]
Trees in art: Weeping
Willow, Claude Monet, 1918
Art
Besides inspiring artists down the centuries, trees have been used to create
art. Living trees have been used in bonsai and in tree shaping, and both living and dead specimens have
been sculpted into sometimes fantastic shapes.[131]
Bonsai
Bonsai ( 盆栽
, lit. The art of growing a miniature tree or trees in a low-sided
pot or tray) is the practice of hòn non bộ originated in China and spread to
Japan more than a thousand years ago, there are similar practices in other
cultures like the living miniature landscapes of Vietnam hòn non bộ. The
word bonsai is often used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature
trees in containers or pots.[132]
The purposes of bonsai are primarily contemplation (for the viewer) and the
pleasant exercise of effort and ingenuity (for the grower).[133] Bonsai
practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more small
trees growing in a container, beginning with a cutting, seedling, or small
Informal upright style of
tree of a species suitable for bonsai development. Bonsai can be created
bonsai on a juniper tree
from nearly any perennial woody-stemmed tree or shrub species[134] that
produces true branches and can be cultivated to remain small through pot
confinement with crown and root pruning. Some species are popular as
bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles, that make them
appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai and a miniature deciduous forest can even be created
using such species as Japanese maple, Japanese zelkova or hornbeam.[135]
Tree shaping
Tree shaping is the practice of changing living trees and other woody
plants into man made shapes for art and useful structures. There are
a few different methods[136] of shaping a tree. There is a gradual
method and there is an instant method. The gradual method slowly
guides the growing tip along predetermined pathways over time
whereas the instant method bends and weaves saplings 2 to 3 m (6.6
to 9.8 ft) long into a shape that becomes more rigid as they thicken
up.[137] Most artists use grafting of living trunks, branches, and
roots, for art or functional structures and there are plans to grow
People trees, by Pooktre
"living houses" with the branches of trees knitting together to give a
solid, weatherproof exterior combined with an interior application of
straw and clay to provide a stucco-like inner surface.[137]
Tree shaping has been practised for at least several hundred years, the oldest known examples being the
living root bridges built and maintained by the Khasi people of Meghalaya, India using the roots of the
rubber tree (Ficus elastica).[138][139]
Bark
Cork is produced from the thick bark of the cork oak (Quercus suber). It is harvested from the living trees
about once every ten years in an environmentally sustainable industry.[140] More than half the world's
cork comes from Portugal and is largely used to make stoppers for wine bottles.[141] Other uses include
floor tiles, bulletin boards, balls, footwear, cigarette tips, packaging, insulation and joints in woodwind
instruments.[141]
The bark of other varieties of oak has traditionally been used in Europe for
the tanning of hides though bark from other species of tree has been used
elsewhere. The active ingredient, tannin, is extracted and after various
preliminary treatments, the skins are immersed in a series of vats
containing solutions in increasing concentrations. The tannin causes the
hide to become supple, less affected by water and more resistant to bacterial
attack.[142]
At least 120 drugs come from plant sources, many of them from the bark of
trees.[143] Quinine originates from the cinchona tree (Cinchona) and was for
a long time the remedy of choice for the treatment of malaria.[144] Aspirin
was synthesised to replace the sodium salicylate derived from the bark of
willow trees (Salix) which had unpleasant side effects.[145] The anti-cancer
drug Paclitaxel is derived from taxol, a substance found in the bark of the
Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia).[146] Other tree based drugs come from the Recently stripped cork oak
paw-paw (Carica papaya), the cassia (Cassia spp.), the cocoa tree (Quercus suber)
(Theobroma cacao), the tree of life (Camptotheca acuminata) and the
downy birch (Betula pubescens).[143]
The papery bark of the white birch tree (Betula papyrifera) was used extensively by Native Americans.
Wigwams were covered by it and canoes were constructed from it. Other uses included food containers,
hunting and fishing equipment, musical instruments, toys and sledges.[147] Nowadays, bark chips, a by-
product of the timber industry, are used as a mulch and as a growing medium for epiphytic plants that
need a soil-free compost.[148]
Ornamental trees
Trees create a visual impact in the same way as do other landscape

features and give a sense of maturity and permanence to park and
garden. They are grown for the beauty of their forms, their foliage,
flowers, fruit and bark and their siting is of major importance in
creating a landscape. They can be grouped informally, often
surrounded by plantings of bulbs, laid out in stately avenues or used
Alleé of London plane trees
as specimen trees. As living things, their appearance changes with
(Platanus × acerifolia) in garden the season and from year to year.[149]
Trees are often planted in town environments where they are known
as street trees or amenity trees. They can provide shade and cooling through evapotranspiration, absorb
greenhouse gases and pollutants, intercept rainfall, and reduce the risk of flooding. Scientific studies
show that street trees help cities be more sustainable, and improve the physical and mental wellbeing of
the citizens. [150] It has been shown that they are beneficial to humans in creating a sense of well-being
and reducing stress. Many towns have initiated tree-planting programmes.[151] In London for example,
there is an initiative to plant 20,000 new street trees and to have an increase in tree cover of 5% by 2025,
equivalent to one tree for every resident.[152]
Other uses
Latex is a sticky defensive secretion that protects plants against herbivores.

Many trees produce it when injured but the main source of the latex used to
make natural rubber is the Pará rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis). Originally
used to create bouncy balls and for the waterproofing of cloth, natural
rubber is now mainly used in tyres for which synthetic materials have
proved less durable.[153] The latex exuded by the balatá tree (Manilkara
bidentata) is used to make golf balls and is similar to gutta-percha, made
from the latex of the "getah perca" tree Palaquium. This is also used as an
insulator, particularly of undersea cables, and in dentistry, walking sticks
and gun butts. It has now largely been replaced by synthetic materials.[154]
Resin is another plant exudate that may have a defensive purpose. It is a

viscous liquid composed mainly of volatile terpenes and is produced mostly
by coniferous trees. It is used in varnishes, for making small castings and in Latex collecting from a
ten-pin bowling balls. When heated, the terpenes are driven off and the rubber tree (Hevea
brasiliensis)
remaining product is called "rosin" and is used by stringed instrumentalists
on their bows. Some resins contain essential oils and are used in incense
and aromatherapy. Fossilised resin is known as amber and was mostly
formed in the Cretaceous (145 to 66 million years ago) or more recently. The resin that oozed out of trees
sometimes trapped insects or spiders and these are still visible in the interior of the amber.[155]
The camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) produces an essential oil[118] and the eucalyptus tree
(Eucalyptus globulus) is the main source of eucalyptus oil which is used in medicine, as a fragrance and
in industry.[156]
Care
Dead trees pose a safety risk, especially during high winds and severe storms, and removing dead trees
involves a financial burden, whereas the presence of healthy trees can clean the air, increase property
values, and reduce the temperature of the built environment and thereby reduce building cooling costs.
During times of drought, trees can fall into water stress, which may cause a tree to become more
susceptible to disease and insect problems, and ultimately may lead to a tree's death. Irrigating trees
during dry periods can reduce the risk of water stress and death.[157]
Mythology
Trees have been venerated since time immemorial. To the ancient Celts,
certain trees, especially the oak, ash and thorn, held special significance[158]
as providing fuel, building materials, ornamental objects and weaponry.
Other cultures have similarly revered trees, often linking the lives and
fortunes of individuals to them or using them as oracles. In Greek
mythology, dryads were believed to be shy nymphs who inhabited trees.
The Oubangui people of west Africa plant a tree when a child is born. As the
tree flourishes, so does the child but if the tree fails to thrive, the health of
the child is considered at risk. When it flowers it is time for marriage. Gifts
Yggdrasil, the World Ash of are left at the tree periodically and when the individual dies, their spirit is
Norse mythology believed to live on in the tree.[159]
Trees have their roots in the ground and their trunk and branches extended towards the sky. This
concept is found in many of the world's religions as a tree which links the underworld and the earth and
holds up the heavens. In Norse mythology, Yggdrasil is a central cosmic tree whose roots and branches
extend to various worlds. Various creatures live on it.[160] In India, Kalpavriksha is a wish-fulfilling tree,
one of the nine jewels that emerged from the primitive ocean. Icons are placed beneath it to be
worshipped, tree nymphs inhabit the branches and it grants favours to the devout who tie threads round
the trunk.[161] Democracy started in North America when the Great Peacemaker formed the Iroquois
Confederacy, inspiring the warriors of the original five American nations to bury their weapons under the
Tree of Peace, an eastern white pine (Pinus strobus).[162] In the creation story in the Bible, the tree of life
and the knowledge of good and evil was planted by God in the Garden of Eden.[163]
Sacred groves exist in China, India, Africa and elsewhere. They are places where the deities live and
where all the living things are either sacred or are companions of the gods. Folklore lays down the
supernatural penalties that will result if desecration takes place for example by the felling of trees.
Because of their protected status, sacred groves may be the only relicts of ancient forest and have a
biodiversity much greater than the surrounding area.[164] Some Ancient Indian tree deities, such as
Puliyidaivalaiyamman, the Tamil deity of the tamarind tree, or Kadambariyamman, associated with the
kadamba tree were seen as manifestations of a goddess who offers her blessings by giving fruits in
abundance.[165]
Superlative trees
Trees have a theoretical maximum height of 130 m (430 ft),[166] but the
tallest known specimen on earth is believed to be a coast redwood (Sequoia
sempervirens) at Redwood National Park, California. It has been named
Hyperion and is 115.85 m (380.1 ft) tall.[167] In 2006, it was reported to be
379.1 ft (115.5 m) tall.[168] The tallest known broad-leaved tree is a
mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) growing in Tasmania with a height of
99.8 m (327 ft).[169]
The largest tree by volume is believed to be a giant sequoia

(Sequoiadendron giganteum) known as the General Sherman Tree in the
Sequoia National Park in Tulare County, California. Only the trunk is used
in the calculation and the volume is estimated to be 1,487 m3
The General Sherman
(52,500 cu ft).[170]
Tree, thought to be the
world's largest by volume
The oldest living tree with a verified age is also in California. It is a Great
Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) growing in the White Mountains. It
has been dated by drilling a core sample and counting the annual rings. It is
estimated to currently be 5,069 years old.[a][171]
A little farther south, at Santa Maria del Tule, Oaxaca, Mexico, is the tree with the broadest trunk. It is a
Montezuma cypress (Taxodium mucronatum) known as Árbol del Tule and its diameter at breast height
is 11.62 m (38.1 ft) giving it a girth of 36.2 m (119 ft). The tree's trunk is far from round and the exact
dimensions may be misleading as the circumference includes much empty space between the large
buttress roots.[172]
See also
Arboretum
da Vinci branching rule

Dendrology
Dendrometry
Exploding tree
Fruit tree
Multipurpose tree – a tree grown and managed for more than one output
Tree climbing
Tree house
List of lists of trees
Notes
a. That bristlecone pine is unnamed, its location secret. The previous record holder was named
Methuselah, with an age of 4,789 years measured in 1957.[171]
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Further reading
Wohlleben, Peter; Flannery, Tim F.; Simard, S.; Billinghurst, Jane (2016). The Hidden Life of Trees:
What They Feel, How They Communicate: Discoveries from a Secret World (https://archive.org/detail
s/hiddenlifeoftree0000wohl). ISBN 978-1-77164-248-4. OCLC 933722592 (https://www.worldcat.org/o
clc/933722592).
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site,
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8/15/2020 Tree - Wikipedia

A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the

Trees usually reproduce using seeds. Flowers and fruit may be

Trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the

monocots may be considered trees under a slightly looser

Aside from structural definitions, trees are commonly defined by

In cool temperate regions, conifers often predominate; a widely

Parts and function

low nitrogen habitats where they would otherwise be unable to

It has been demonstrated that some trees are interconnected

In the case of angiosperms and gymnosperms, the outermost layer of the

Although the bark functions as a protective barrier, it is itself

The innermost layer of bark is known as the phloem and this is

Buds and growth

Buds, leaves, ﬂowers and

Buds, leaves and

Form, leaves and

Trees do not usually grow continuously throughout the year but

In temperate climates there is a sudden movement of sap at the end

Charcoal can be made by slow pyrolysis of wood by heating it in the

Timber, "trees that are grown in order to produce wood"[127] is

Trees create a visual impact in the same way as do other landscape

Latex is a sticky defensive secretion that protects plants against herbivores.

Resin is another plant exudate that may have a defensive purpose. It is a

The largest tree by volume is believed to be a giant sequoia

da Vinci branching rule

30. "Canopy" (http://www.thefreedictionary.com/canopy). TheFreeDictionary. Retrieved 2012-08-07.

19. "Honey" (https://web.archive.org/web/20111015230522/http://www.tropicalforest.com/Tropical_Fores

40. "Cork Flooring is Environmentally Sustainable" (http://www.azom.com/news.aspx?newsID=4951).

59. "The cultural and symbolic importance of forest resources" (http://www.fao.org/docrep/t9450e/t9450e

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tree&oldid=967730867"

This page was last edited on 14 July 2020, at 23:28 (UTC).

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