CE 221 Geotechnical Engineering 1

SOIL COMPACTION

In the construction of highway embankments, earth dams, and many other

engineering structures, loose soils must be compacted to increase their unit
weights. Compaction increases the strength characteristics of soils, which increase
the bearing capacity of foundations constructed over them. Compaction also
decreases the amount of undesirable settlement of structures and increases the
stability of slopes of embankments.
Soil compaction is the densification—reduction in void ratio—of a soil through the
expulsion of air. This is normally achieved by using mechanical compactors, rollers,
and rammers with the addition of water.
The degree of compaction of a soil is characterized by its dry density. The degree of
compaction depends upon the moisture content, the amount of compactive effort or
energy expended and the nature of the soil. A change in moisture content or
compactive effort brings about a change in density. Thus, for compaction of soil, a
certain amount of water and a certain predetermined amount of rolling are
necessary. The following are the important effects of compaction:
a) Compaction increases the dry density of the soil, thus increasing its shear
strength and bearing capacity through an increase in frictional characteristics ;
b) Compaction decreases the tendency for settlement of soil ; and,
c) Compaction brings about a low permeability of the soil.
COMPACTION TEST
To determine the soil moisture-density relationship and to evaluate a soil as to its
suitability for making fills for a specific purpose, the soil is subjected to a
compaction test.
Proctor (1933) showed that there exists a definite relationship between the soil
moisture content and the dry density on compaction and that, for a specific amount
of compaction energy used, there is a particular moisture content at which a
particular soil attains its maximum dry density. Such a relationship provides a
satisfactory practical approach for quality control of fill construction in the field.
 Moisture Content—Dry Density Relationship

The relation between moisture content and dry density of a soil at a particular
compaction energy or effort is shown in Fig. 12.1

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The addition of water to a dry soil helps in bringing the solid particles together by
coating them with thin films of water. At low water content, the soil is stiff and it is
difficult to pack it together. As the water content is increased, water starts acting as
a lubricant, the particles start coming closer due to increased workability and
under a given amount of compactive effort, the soil-water-air mixture starts
occupying less volume, thus effecting gradual increase in dry density. As more and
more water is added, a stage is reached when the air content of the soil attains a
minimum volume, thus making the dry density a maximum. The water content
corresponding to this maximum dry density is called the ‘optimum moisture
content’. Addition of water beyond the optimum reduces the dry density because
the extra water starts occupying the space which the soil could have occupied.
The curve with the peak shown in Fig. 12.1 is known as the ‘moisture-content dry
density curve’ or the ‘compaction curve’. The state at the peak is said to be that of
100% compaction at the particular compactive effort; the curve is usually of a
hyperbolic form, when the points obtained from tests are smoothly joined.
The wet density and the moisture content are required in order to calculate the dry
density as follows:

 Effect of Compactive Effort

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Increase in compactive effort or the energy expended will result in an increase in the
maximum dry density and a corresponding decrease in the optimum moisture
content, as illustrated in Fig. 12.2.

SATURATION (ZERO-AIR-VOIDS) LINE

A line showing the relation between water content and dry density at a constant
degree of saturation S may be established from the equation:

Substituting S = 95%, 90%, and so on, one can arrive at γ d values for different values of
water content in %. The lines thus obtained on a plot of γd versus water content
“w” are called 95% saturation line, 90% saturation line and so on.
If one substitutes S = 100% and plots the corresponding line, one obtains the
theoretical saturation line, relating dry density with water content for a soil
containing no air voids. It is said to be ‘theoretical’ because it can never be reached
in practice as it is impossible to expel the pore air completely by compaction.
We then use

The saturation lines when superimposed on compaction curves give an indication of

the air voids present at different points on these curves; this is shown in Fig. 12.3.

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LABORATORY COMPACTION TESTS

Standard Proctor Test (ASTM D698)
In the Proctor test, the soil is compacted in a mold that has a volume of 944 cm 3. The
diameter of the mold is 101.6 mm (4 in.). During the laboratory test, the mold is
attached to a baseplate at the bottom and to an extension at the top (Figure6.2a). The
soil is mixed with varying amounts of water and then compacted in three equal layers
by a hammer/ rammer (Figure 6.2b) that delivers 25 blows to each layer. The hammer
has a mass of 2.5 kg (6.5 lb) and has a drop of 30.5 mm (12 in.). Figure 6.2c is a
photograph of the laboratory equipment required for conducting a standard Proctor
test. For each test, the moist unit weight of compaction, g, can be calculated as

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For each test, the moisture content of the compacted soil is determined in the
laboratory.
With the known moisture content, the dry unit weight can be calculated as

………6.2
where w (%) _ percentage of moisture content.
The values of  d determined from Eq. (6.2) can be plotted against the corresponding
moisture contents to obtain the maximum dry unit weight and the optimum
moisture content for the soil.

Modified Proctor Test

With the development of heavy rollers and their use in field compaction, the standard
Proctor test was modified to better represent field conditions. This revised version
sometimes is referred to as the modified Proctor test (ASTM D1557). For conducting the
3 3
modified Proctor test, the same mold is used with a volume of 944 cm (1/30 ft ), as in
the case of the standard Proctor test. However, the soil is compacted in five layers by a
hammer that has a mass of 4.54 kg (10 lb). The drop of the hammer is
457 mm (18 in.). The number of hammer blows for each layer is kept at 25 as in the
case of the standard Proctor test.
The compaction energy for this type of compaction test can be calculated as 2700
3 3 3
kN-m/m (56,000 ft-lb/lb ). (590 kN-m in Standard test)
Because it increases the compactive effort, the modified Proctor test results in an
increase in the maximum dry unit weight of the soil. The increase in the maximum
dry unit weight is accompanied by a decrease in the optimum moisture content.

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Factors Affecting Compaction

Effect of Soil Type

The soil type—that is, grain-size distribution, shape of the soil grains, specific
gravity of soil solids, and amount and type of clay minerals present—has a great
influence on the maximum dry unit weight and optimum moisture content. Figure
6.4 shows typical compaction curves obtained from four soils. The laboratory tests
were conducted in accordance with ASTM Test Designation D-698.

Note also that the bell-shaped compaction curve shown in Figure 12.1 is typical of
most clayey soils. Figure 6.4 shows that for sands, the dry unit weight has a general
tendency first to decrease as moisture content increases and then to increase to a
maximum value with further increase of moisture. The initial decrease of dry unit
weight with increase of moisture content can be attributed to the capillary tension
effect. At lower moisture contents, the capillary tension in the pore water inhibits
the tendency of the soil particles to move around and be compacted densely.
Lee and Suedkamp (1972) studied compaction curves for 35 soil samples. They
observed that four types of compaction curves can be found. These curves are shown in
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Figure 6.5. The following table is a summary of the type of compaction curves
encountered in various soils with reference to Figure 6.5.

 Effect of Compaction Effort

The compaction energy per unit volume used for the standard Proctor test can be
given as

If the compaction effort per unit volume of soil is changed, the moisture–unit weight
curve also changes. This fact can be demonstrated with the aid of Figure 6.6, which
shows four compaction curves for a sandy clay. The standard Proctor mold and
hammer were used to obtain these compaction curves. The number of layers of soil
used for compaction was three

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Compaction Equipment
Most of the compaction in the field is done with rollers. The four most common
types of rollers are
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers)
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers
3. Sheep foot rollers
4. Vibratory rollers

Smooth-wheel rollers are suitable for proof

rolling subgrades and for finishing operation of
fills with sandy and clayey soils. These rollers
provide 100% coverage under the wheels, with
ground contact pressures as high as 310 to 380
2 2
kN/m (45 to 55 lb/in ). They are not suitable for
producing high unit weights of compaction when
used on thicker layers.
Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers are better in many respects than the smooth-wheel
rollers. The former are heavily loaded with several
rows of tires. These tires are closely spaced—four to
six in a row. The contact pressure under the tires
2 2
can range from 600 to 700 kN/m (85 to 100 lb/in ),
and they produce about 70 to 80% coverage.
Pneumatic rollers can be used for sandy and clayey
soil compaction. Compaction is achieved by a
combination of pressure and kneading action.
Sheep foot rollers are drums with a large number of projections. The area of each
2 2
projection may range from 25 to 85 cm ( 4 to 13 in ).
These rollers are most effective
in compacting clayey soils. The contact pressure
under the projections can range from 1400 to 7000
2 2
kN/m (200 to 1000 lb/in ). During compaction in
the field, the initial passes compact the lower
portion of a lift. Compaction at the top and middle
of a lift is done at a later stage.

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Vibratory rollers are extremely efficient in compacting granular soils. Vibrators can
be attached to smooth-wheel, pneumatic
rubber-tired, or sheep foot rollers to provide
vibratory effects to the soil. The vibration is
produced by rotating off-center weights.
Handheld vibrating plates can be used for
effective compaction of granular soils over a
limited area.

IN SITU UNIT WEIGHT DETERMINATION

Unit weight is necessary to compute overburden pressure at any depth within a
soil. The methods commonly used for the determination of in situ unit weight of a
natural soil deposit or a compacted earth fill are:
(a) Core-cutter method
(b) Sand replacement method
(c) Water displacement method
a) Core-cutter Method
The core-cutter method consists of driving a core-cutter of
known volume (1000 cc) into the soil after placing it on a
cleaned soil surface. The core-cutter is usually provided with
a 25 mm high dolly. The driving of the core-cutter is usually
done by hitting the dolly mounted on top of the core-cutter
with a suitable hammer. The cutter filled with soil is removed
and the excess soil trimmed off. The cutter with the soil is
weighed. The volume of the cutter is calculated from the
dimensions of the cutter and the in situ unit weight is
determined by dividing the weight of the soil in the cutter by
the volume of the cutter. If the water content of the soil the
cutter is determined in the laboratory, the dry unit weight of
the soil can also be computed.
b) Sand Replacement Method
The core-cutter method cannot be used in the case of hard or gravelly soils. Under
such situations, the sand replacement method is better suited. The sand
replacement method consists of making a hole into the ground. The excavated soil
is weighed. The volume of the hole is determined by replacement with sand.
Knowing the weight of excavated soil and the volume of the hole, the in situ unit
weight can be easily determined.

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The site is cleaned and a square tray with a central hole in it is placed on the
cleaned surface.
A hole of diameter equal to the diameter of the hole in the tray and depth about 10-
15 cm, is made in the ground. The excavated soil is collected in the tray and
weighed. Next, a sand bottle (see fig) about two-thirds full of clean, dry sand is
weighed and placed upside down centrally over the hole. The tap is opened and the
sand allowed to run to fill the excavated hole and the conical end. When no further
flow of sand takes place, the tap is closed and the bottle with remaining sand is
weighed. The bottle is then placed over a level surface and the weight of sand filling
the cone of the sand bottle is noted. Thus, the weight of sand filling the excavated
hole is computed.

The unit weight of sand in the bottle is determined by pouring sand in a calibrating
can of known dimensions and weighing the sand in the calibration can. Having
computed the unit weight of sand in the bottle, and the weight of sand required to
fill the excavated hole, the volume of the hole is determined. By dividing the weight
of the excavated soil by its volume, the insitu unit weight of the soil is determined.
The water content of the excavated soil is also determined and the dry unit weight

f
is worked out, using the relation d  1 w
c) Water Displacement Method
This method is suitable for cohesive soil only, where it is possible to have a lump
sample. A small sample is trimmed to a regular shape from a larger sample
brought from the field. The sample is weighed. Let the weigh be W 1. The sample is
then coated with a thin layer of paraffin wax. The sample coated with paraffin wax
is weighed again (W2). A metal container with an overflow arrangement is taken. It
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is filled with water up to the brim and excess water is allowed to flow out through
the overflow sarrangement. The coated sample is then gradually lowered into the
metal container and the overflow water is collected in a measuring jar. The
measured volume of water, Vw is the volume of the displaced water. The volume of
the uncoated soil specimen, V is calculated.

Specifications for Field Compaction

RELATIVE DENSITY (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between
the loosest and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as determined by
experiments:
D emax  e
r  e e
max min

Where emax is the maximum void ratio (loosest condition), emin is the minimum void
ratio (densest condition), and e is the current void ratio.
The relative density can also be written as
γ dmax  γ d -γ dmin 
Dr =  
γ γ -γ
d  dmax dmin 
RELATIVE COMPACTION OR DEGREE OF COMPACTION (R c) is the ratio
between the dry unit weight of soil obtained in the field to the max dry unit weight
of soil obtained in the lab.
 γd 
Rc =  100
γ
 dmax 
γ
Rc = 100% means d obtained in lab and in field are same but it is very difficult to
obtained. Rc = 95% is possible.

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