Compaction

Compaction:
• Definition;
• Compaction fundamentals;
• Moisture density relationships;
• Standard Proctor test and modified AASHO test for compaction;
• Factors affecting compaction;
• compaction equipment;
• properties and structure of compacted soils;
• specifications, field control and measurement of in-situ density; and
• CBR Test.
 Definition
• Soil compaction is the process of mechanically increasing the density of soil by packing
the particles together with reduction in volume of air. The process does not involve
removal of water.
• The process primarily results in the increase of soil unit weight (density). The reduction
of the air content results in the reduction of pores which act as conduits of water and
consequently reduce the permeability of the soil.
• In addition compaction reduces the liquefaction and increases the erosion resistance of
the soil. The result is increased shear strength and less compressibility of the soil.
• The purpose of the compaction is to produce a soil having the physical properties
appropriate to the particular project.
• A good measure of compaction is needed in the construction of road embankments,
improvement of road subgrade, subbase and base layers.
• Compaction of materials in dams is needed to ensure stability and water tightness of the
dam walls
Compaction fundamentals
• The degree of compaction is measured quantitatively by the dry density (γ d). The increase in
dry density of soil is a function of the moisture content of the soil and the compaction effort.
The variation of dry density and moisture content (M) is shown in Fig below. Curve is usually
plotted by obtaining the dry density from bulk density and water content measurements as
follows;

• At low water content, the soil is stiff and difficult to compact. As the water content increases,
the soil is workable facilitating compaction and reduction in air. The dry density increases. As
the air is reduced and replaced by water, at certain water content the voids are occupied by
water and prevent any appreciable decrease in the air voids. The result is increase in the void
ratio and consequent decrease in the dry density. The curve has a peak which shows an
optimum moisture content (OMC) at which the soil would need to be compacted to achieve
the maximum dry density (MDD).
• If it was possible to remove all the air at various water contents, then the dry
density achieved at the zero air voids would be the maximum achievable for the
various water contents.
• This curve can be drawn by the relationship of dry density and Gs γw, and Sr and
assuming the degree of saturation Sr is equal to one.

• The dry unit weight can also be expressed in terms of, A, w and Gs. The zero air
voids curve is also obtained by assuming that A is zero.
 Moisture density relationships
• Increasing the compaction effort results in the increase in the maximum dry
density and a decrease in the optimum moisture content as shown in Fig. below.
Thus if light compaction is used more water would be needed to overcome the
resistance of the soil grains to packing. With more compaction effort the soil
grains need less water to occupy the available pore spaces.

Effect of compaction effort

Variation in soil grading soil type
• The particle size distribution influences the arrangement of particles in the
compaction of soils. A well-graded soil will compact to lesser voids than a poorly
graded soil. The effect is that the well-graded soils will have an increased density
and improved properties such as bearing capacity on compaction. These
enhanced strength characteristics of compacted fills are important because of the
increasing need of embankments capable of supporting higher loads.

• The behaviour of soils containing clay particles is different from that of granular
soils. Their behaviour is related to the arrangement of the clay minerals, the
inter-particle forces and the nature of soil water. Thus when two particles are
pressed together the contact is initially between a few grains. These grains
deform elastically to develop Van der Waal forces. The Van de Waal forces arise
from electrical forces developed in atoms bonding the particles together. They
hold the particles together and when they are brought closer more forces have to
be overcome during shearing. However, the overall effect of the cohesive forces
and the plasticity is reduction in the maximum dry density achieved upon
compaction
• Thus for the same compaction effort MDD and OMC increases and
decreases respectively as the soil grain size increases and the
plasticity decreases

Effect of soil type on compaction

Standard Proctor test
• Compaction is the process of densification of soil by reducing air voids. The
degree of compaction of a given soil is measured in terms of its dry density.
• The dry density is maximum at the optimum water content. A curve is drawn
between the water content and the dry density to obtain the maximum dry
density and the optimum water content.
Dry density of soil Where M = total mass of the soil, V= volume of soil,
w= water content.

Standard:
1. AASHTO: T99-86,
2. ASTM: D698-91,
3. BS1377: Part 4; Clause 3.
Standard Proctor Test Apparatus:
1. Cylindrical Metal Mold, having internal diameter 4” (10.16 cm) or 6”
(15.24 cm), the internal effective height of 4.6” (11.7 cm); and the mold
should have detachable base plate & collar of 2 inches (5.08 cm).
2. Rammer, weighing 5.5 lbs (2.5 kg) & having fall of 12 inches (30.5 cm),
with a flat circular face of 2” diameter.
3. Sensitive Balance, sensitivity ranging from 0.1 gram to 1 gram.
4. Thermostatically controlled oven (105°C +- 110°C)
5. Steel straight edge.
6. Moisture containers.
7. Sieve No.4.
8. Tray & scoop.
9. Graduated cylinder.
Standard Proctor Test Procedure:
• 1. Take sufficient quantity of representative soil, air dry & pulverize
it with a rubber mallet.
• Sieve the soil through No: 4 sieve & reject the coarser material.
• 2. Take about, 3 kg of soil, add water to bring its water content to
about 5% below the estimated optimum moisture content.
• (for coarse-grained soil 4% initial water content & for fine-grained
soil 10% initial water content is preferable).
• Then Mix it thoroughly.
• 3. Clean the mold, measure its diameter & height & weigh it
without the collar.
• 4. Fit the collar & compact the moist soil in three equal layers by
the rammer with evenly distributed blows to each layer.
• Use 25 blows for 4 inches diameter & 56 blows for 6 inches
diameter mold to the total height of mold with collar.
• 5. Remove the collar trim the compacted soil even with the top of
the mold with a straight steel edge.
Clean outside of the mold & base plate & weigh it.
• 6. Remove the soil from the mold, split it & take about 100 grams
• 7. Break the soil lamps, mix it with remaining soil in the tray.
• Add more water to increase the water content by 2 to 3% & repeat the compaction
procedure for each increment of water until the mass of the compacted soil decreases.
• 8. Calculate Water content for each trail & corresponding dry density.
• 9. Plot the compaction curve between water-content as abscissa & dry density as ordinate.
• 10. Note the water content against the peak of the curve as optimum moisture content &
the corresponding dry density as maximum dry density.

• Observation and Calculations.

• The wet Density or Bulk Density of soil is computed as: r = weight of compacted
soil/volume of mold.
• After determination of moisture content of the soil, the Dry Density of Soil is computed as:
rd = r / 1+m.
• Moisture Content Determination.
• Note:
• 1. wt. = weight.
• 2. cont: = container
• The Result of Soil Compaction Test.
• The Maximum Dry Density of the Soil = _____________.
• The Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) = _______________.
 Modified AASHO test for compaction
• A modified compaction test (AASHTO T 180) will yield 10 to 15 percent
higher maximum densities and 20 to 30 percent lower optimum
moisture due to the greater compactive effort used (as described in
Table 1.3). Drop of Rammer to Soil Surface 305 mm (12.0 in.) 475 mm
(18.0 in.)

Modified Proctor Test Standards:

• 1. AASHTO T180-90
• 2. ASTM D1557-91
• 3. BS1377 part 4; clause 4.
Apparatus.
• 1. Cylindrical Metal Mold, internal diameter 4″ (10.16 cm) or 6″ (15.24
cm),
• internal effective height of 4.6”(11.7 cm);
• and the mold should have detachable base plate & color 2″ (5.08 cm).
• 2. Rammer; weighing 10 lbs (4.5 kg) & having fall of 18 inches (45.7 cm).
• 3. Sensitive Balance; ranging from 1 gram to 0.I gram.
• 4. Thermostatically controlled oven (105°C – 110°C).
• 5. Steel straightedge.
• 6. Moisture containers.
• 7. Sieve No.4.
• 8. Tray & scoop.
• 9. Graduated cylinder.
• 10. Mixing Tools (spoon, trowel, Spatula).
Modified Proctor Test Procedure:
• 1. Take about 4 kg of air-dried soil passing No. 4 sieve and mix it with an
optimum quantity of water.
• 2. Weigh the empty mold without a collar, with base plate attached.
• 3. Place the mold With the collar attached on a solid base and compact
the soil mass into the mold using standard compaction in five layers with
25 blows per layer;
• and with a 4.5 kg rammer dropping from a height of 45 cm.
• Take care to distribute the blows uniformly over the surface of each layer,
and to let the rammer fall freely.
• 4. Remove the collar carefully strike off the projected part of the
compacted soil by steel straight edge.
• Then weigh the mold + soil.
• 5. Extrude the compacted soil specimen from the mold and split it on a large tray.
• Take a sample for moisture content determination.
• 6. Break-up the specimen to No.4 sieve size, and mix it with the remainder of the original
sample.
• Add suitable increments of water, and mix thoroughly for at least six trials.
• Then repeat 3 to 5 steps for each trial.
• 7. Draw compaction curve on a graph with dry density on ordinate and moisture contents
on the x-axis.
• Maximum dry density shall be at the apex of the curve and optimum moisture content
(OMC) at which maximum dry density is obtained.

Observation and Calculations.

• Moisture Content Determination.
• Note:
• wt. = weight.
• cont: = container
The Result of Soil Compaction Test.

The Maximum Dry Density of the Soil = _____________.

 Factors affecting compaction
1. Soil type,
2. Moisture Content,
3. Compactive effort,
4. Dry density of the soil.

Soil type and Moisture content.

• For a given type of soil and compactive effort, the dry density of a soil mass varies with moisture
content.
• At low moisture content, the internal friction and adhesion between the particles contribute to the
resistance to compaction. As the moisture content increases the particles develop moisture films
around them, which help in lubricating the particles, thus increase the workability of the soil mass.
• It does not increase any further when the moisture content is increased beyond a certain particular
value of the moisture content; as the water at this stage starts replacing the soil particles and as
the unit weight of water is less than that of soil particles the density starts decreasing.
• The particular value of moisture content at which maximum dry density of a soil mass is attained
for a given compactive effort and is known as the optimum moisture content (OMC).
Compaction Effort.
• Both the magnitude of compacting energy and the type of compactive effort influence to a
greater extent the compaction of soils.
• Cohesion less soils are efficiently compacted by Vibrations in the field hand operated vibrating
plates, and motorized vibratory rollers of various sizes are used for compaction of sand, gravel
, etc.
• Rubber-tired roller (pneumatic roller) can also be used for this purpose.
• Even large free falling weights have been used to dynamically compact loose granular fills.
• Fine-grained soils may be compacted in the laboratory by falling weights and hammers
(rammers) by special kneading compactors, and even under static pressure applied by
compression machine.
• In the field, sheep foot rollers, rubber-tired rollers and other type of heavy compaction
equipment including hand tamper may be used.
Compaction equipment
• In the field, compaction of soil is carried out by applying energy by application of
pressure, Impact or vibration or combination of two or three of the ways. The
application of energy is effected by different machinery including rollers,
rammers, vibrators, tampers and construction equipment. The type of
compaction method to be adopted in the field depends on the kind of soils and
the level of compaction required.
Varieties of compaction equipment
• The smooth wheeled rollers have their dead weight increased by water or sand. A smooth
surface is generally achieved after compaction. The compacted layers are laminated. These
rollers can be fitted with vibratory equipment for more effective compaction. They
generally come in three tandem or three axle tandem rollers and are particularly good for
finishing works on embankments and roads.

• The pneumatic – tired rollers are good for coarse and fine grained soils. They are set on two
axles. Usually the rear axle may have three wheels while the front axle has two wheels. In
between the axles a platform is mounted which carries loads for providing the needed
pressure on the soils under compaction. The tires are wide and increase in pressure
increases the compaction effort. It is common to have the rollers towed by tractors.

• The sheep’s foot rollers consists of a roller with hollow steel drums acting as wheels fitted
with numerous tapered or club shaped feet projecting from a drum surface. The feet take
the shape of a sheep’s foot and hence the name. Initially a soft soil is penetrated by the
sheep’s foot. As the soil increases in density upon rolling of the roller, the sheep’s foot rises
to the surface. The penetrating feet mix the soil up bonding it together. This type of roller is
suitable for water retaining earthworks.
• Rammers are usually employed when the site conditions are such that conventional
rollers are not suitable. They are usually in various shapes and are used by manual
labour. They are particularly useful in compacting corners and crevices. They are used
for compacting backfill soil below ground floor slabs
• Vibrators are generally used for compacting coarse grained soils. They are attached to
smooth wheeled rollers and fitted with out of balance weights or pulsating type engine
is fitted to the vibrator.
• Construction equipment can be utilized to compact soils to a reasonable degree of
compaction. This type of compaction has been used in reclaiming swampy fields where
the quality of the final surface need not be of high quality. In the field compaction
equipment employed is usually in different types depending on the complexity of the
works. This construction traffic should be channelled and directed on the earthworks
systematically on the loose earthworks to achieve beneficial compaction. The
construction equipment comes in an array of different types such as;
• Lorries
• Scrapers
• Excavators
• Graders
 Field Control of Compaction
• Tests for determination of bulk density and water content during earthwork
construction must be carried out at every layer of the compacted earthworks.
In the least at least four density tests per 8 hour shift with a minimum one test
for every 400m3 of earthworks are needed. Bulk density determination may
be carried out by means of a core cutter, sand replacement method or nuclear
radiation.
• In the core cutter method undisturbed sample is obtained by pushing a thin
walled cutter, 10cm in diameter and 12.5 cm high into a compacted soil. The
bulk density and the moisture content are determined to enable
determination of the field dry density. The sand replacement is by far the most
widely used method. In this method a hole of 100x150mm (diameter x depth)
is dug at the test site. The mass of soil from the hole is carefully retrieved and
weighed. The volume from where the soil has been excavated is gotten by
pouring loose dry sand from a fixed height through a cone shaped stand.
• The nuclear radiation technique uses a nuclear gauge. In the usage of the gauge,
an aluminum probe is inserted in the compacted soil. Neutrons are then released
from a source. The neutrons loose energy depending on the soil density and
water content as they pass through the soil. The instrument is calibrated to give
water content, bulk density and the dry density of the soil. The instrument should
be calibrated against the sand replacement test results.
Properties and structure of compacted soils
• Soil compaction occurs when soil particles are pressed together, reducing pore space
between them. Heavily compacted soils contain few large pores, less total pore
volume and, consequently, a greater density. A compacted soil has a reduced rate of
both water infiltration and drainage.
• Following are the properties of soil which get affected by compaction:
• Permeability
• Compressibility
• Shear strength
• Soil structure
• Swelling of soil
• Shrinkage of soil
• Pore water pressure
• Stress-strain behavior of soil
1. Permeability
• Compaction reduces the voids present in the soil hence permeability also reduces.
• At a particular density, for the same soil sample, permeability is more for soils which are
compacted to dry of optimum than those compacted to wet of optimum.

2. Compressibility
• The Compressibility of compacted soil varies according to the amount of pressure applied.
• For low-pressure range, compressibility is more for soils which are compacted to wet of
optimum than soil compacted to dry of optimum.
• Similarly, for high-pressure ranges, compressibility is more for soils which are compacted
to dry of optimum than soil compacted to wet of optimum.

3. Shear Strength
• Shear strength of soil compacted to dry of optimum is more than those compacted to wet
of optimum at lower strains.
• At higher strain, soil compacted to wet of optimum will have more shear strength.
• Type of compaction, drainage conditions and type of soil also influence the shear strength
of compacted soil.
4. Soil Structure
• Soils compacted to dry of optimum have flocculated structure due to the
attraction between soil particles because of low water content.
• Soils compacted to wet of optimum have dispersed structure due to
repulsive force between soil particles because of high water content.

Effect of Compaction on Soil Structure

5. Swelling of Soil
• When the soil is compacted to dry of optimum, the soil is in need of water
and it swells easily when contacted with water.
• When water is compacted to wet of optimum, the soil particles are
oriented in a dispersed manner and swelling does not occur.
• So, to avoid swelling, soils should be compacted to wet of optimum.
6. Shrinkage of Soil
• Shrinkage is more for the soil compacted to wet of optimum than dry of
optimum.
• In case of dry of optimum compaction, soil particles are in random orientation
and they are in stable condition.
• But in case of wet of optimum, soil particles are in parallel orientation and they
are unstable which makes it easy for packing of particles causing shrinkage.

Shrinkage Cracks in Wet Compacted Soil

9. Pore Water Pressure
• Pore water pressure is high for those soil whose water content is high. Hence, soils
compacted to wet of optimum compaction will exhibit more pore water pressure than
soil compacted dry of optimum.
8. Stress-strain Behavior of Soil
• Soils compacted to dry side of optimum will take more stress for little strain hence,
stress-strain curve of this type of soil is much steeper and elastic modulus is more. Brittle
failure occurs in this case.
• Similarly, soils compacted to wet of optimum will produce more stress even for smaller
stress. Hence, Stress-Strain curve, in this case, is much flatter and plastic-type failure
occurs at a larger strain. These type of soils have low elastic modulus.

Stress - Strain Behavior of Compacted

specifications, field control and measurement
of in-situ density
• The compacted density is usually specified as a percentage of the MDD as
determined in the laboratory. In some instances the moisture content is required
to be within a small band above or below the OMC. In rare instances the air
content is specified. The specification usually ranges from 95-100% MDD when a
2.5 kg hammer is used the field control. A minimum number of roller passes is
usually required to reach the desired compaction. The usual range is between 3
and 12 passes.
• In road work embankments the specification for the lower layers is usually a
minimum of 95% MDD. The compaction for the upper subgrade and the
pavement layers should however be raised to between 100 and 105 MDD.
Califonia Bearing Ratio of Soils
• The California Bearing Ratio or CBR test is performed in construction materials
laboratories to evaluate the strength of soil subgrades and base course materials.
Those who design and engineer highways, airport runways and taxiways, parking
lots, and other pavements rely on CBR test values when selecting pavement and
base thicknesses.
• California bearing ratio is the percentage of stress a soil specimen can resist for a
certain amount of penetration relative to the value of stress of which a standard
soil could resist. Basically, the value is an indicator of the strength of the soil.
• California Bearing Ratio Test of Soil
• California bearing ratio test is basically a load test that is performed
on the soil surface to determine its CBR value.
In summary
• A mold is filled with the soil specimen. It is compacted into the mold with a
rammer. Then the mold is soaked in water for a certain period of time. Then a
loading machine is used to apply load on a plunger.
• This will penetrate through the soil mold. The machine will penetrate through the
soil by increasing the load gradually.
• There are one proving ring and one dial gauge attached to the machine. The dial
gauge indicates the penetration amount. The proving ring indicates the amount
of load machine is applying to the surface. For certain amounts of penetrations,
corresponding load values have to be recorded.
• Later stress vs. penetration curve is drawn by using these values.
• From that curve, both for 1 in (2.54 mm) & 2 in (5.08 mm) penetration,
corresponding stress value is determined. These values are used in the equation
mentioned above to calculate the CBR value.
Laboratory California Bearing Ratio Test Apparatus
The followings are the apparatus required to perform the CBR test of
soil. Loading Machine
• Loading Machine with a capability of moving rate 0.05 in. (1.27 mm)/min to apply compressive force
in the piston. A penetration measuring device (dial indicator) has to be attached to
• Penetration Piston
the machine to provide accurate penetration measurements.
• Sieves
• Mold
• Spacer Disk
• Mixing Tools
Penetration Piston
• A metal piston with 1.954 ± 0.005 in. (49.63 ± 0.13 mm) in diameter and not less
than 4 in. (101.6 mm) long.
Sieves
• Two sieves are required. ¾ in. (19 mm) & #4 (4.75 mm).
Mold
• a rigid metal cylinder with an inside diameter of 6 ± 0.026 inch
(152.4 ± 0.66 mm) and a height of 7 ± 0.018 inches (177.8 ± 0.46 mm). It shall be
provided with a metal extension collar at least 2.0 inches (50.8 mm) in height.
Spacer Disk
• A circular metal spacer disc (see Figure 16.1) having a minimum outside
diameter of 5 15/16 inches (150.8 mm). The spacer disc shall be 2.416 ± 0.005
inches (61.37 ± 0.127 mm) in height.
Misc. Mixing Tools
• mixing pan, spoon, trowel, spatual, etc.
• Rammer for compaction, Balance, Filter Paper, Drying oven, Soaking Tank.
CBR Test Procedure
Detail CBR test procedure is described below.
Specimen Preparation
• A ¾ in (19 mm) sieve is used to sieve the soil specimen. If all material passes through
the sieve, we can use all of it for the test. But some of the material might be retained
in the sieve. In that situation have to replace the retained amount with an equal
amount of the materials which pass ¾ in the sieve and retained on the #4 sieve.
• After sieving, make 3 sample specimens each containing 6.8 kg (15 lb).
• Specimen 1,2,3 will be compacted with about 10, 30 & 56 blows respectively. This will
provide variations in the percentage of maximum dry density.
• Sufficient amounts of water shall be mixed with specimens to maintain optimum
water content.
• The mold shall be attached to the base plate with the extension collar. Then the
weight shall be measured. Then a spacer disk shall be placed into the mold with a
filter paper on top of the spacer disk.
• The mold shall be filled with soil in 3 layers. For example: for specimen 1, we have to
provide 10 blows per layer with the rammer for the compaction. The water content of
the material shall be determined before and after the compaction procedure.
• Then the extension collar shall be removed and the top of the mold shall be trimmed with a
straightedge to smoothen the surface.
• The other two specimens shall be compacted following the same procedures mentioned above.
• Remove spacer disk, base plate. then the weight of Mold plus compacted soil shall be measured.
• Then invert the mold and soil and attach the base plate to the mold with a coarse filter paper.

Soaking
• Place a specified amount of surcharge weight (typically 4.54 kg) on top of the base plate.
• Use a water tank to soak the specimen for around 4 days (96 hrs.)
• Measure the height of the specimen before and after soaking to determine the swell percentage
of the initial height. An expansion measurement equipment can be used for this purpose.
• After 4 days of soaking, the mold shall be from water. The base plate, filter paper, and surcharge
weights shall also be removed. mass of the mold plus soil shall be measured.
Load Test
• Place the mold under the penetration piston of the compressing machine. The same
amount of surcharge weight (4.54 kg) shall be placed on top of the mold.
• Then the compressing machine shall be started to apply load with a constant penetration
rate of 0.05 in. (1.27 mm)/min. The piston will start to penetrate through the soil for the
loading.
• The machine has two indicators. One is a proving ring and another is dial gauge. The dial
gauge indicates the penetration and the proving ring will indicate the amount of load is
applied to gain that penetration.
• See the table below, column 2 shall be filled in with corresponding proving ring readings
for the penetrations specified in column 1.
• Proving readings shall be multiplied with machine constant to find the piston load (col. 3)
• Then penetration stress shall be determined from piston load (col. 4)
California Bearing Ratio Calculation from the Test Values
Stress-Strain Curve
• Then Stress vs. Penetration (strain) curve shall be drawn. If the curve is concave upward
in the near of the origin, the values have to be adjusted according to the guidelines.
• CBR Calculation
• From the curve, corresponding stress shall be determined for 0.1 in. (2.55 mm) & 0.2 in
(5.08 mm) penetration. See the figure.
• Use the equation to determine the CBR value

•Generally, CBR0.1 is taken as a CBR value. But for the condition where, CBR0.1 in < CBR0.2
in significantly, the test shall be done again from the beginning.
•CBR of each specimen shall be determined in this process.
Design Bearing Ratio for Specified Dry Density
• The dry density of each specimen (10, 30 & 56 blows) shall be calculated. Then a
graph shall be drawn with dry density vs. corresponding CBR values of each
specimen. (see the figure). The curve shall be used to determine the CBR value
for specified dry density.