LECTURE 2

FUNDAMENTALS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE

 2.0 Fundamentals of Reinforced
Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of sand (fine aggregate) and stones (course
aggregate) with the paste of cement and water.
Sometimes one or more admixture is added to change or improve
certain characteristics of the concrete such as its workability,
durability, and time of hardening. Concrete has a high compressive
strength and a very low tensile strength.
Reinforced concrete is a combination of concrete and steel
(reinforcement) where the reinforcement provides the tensile strength
lacking in the concrete. Steel reinforcement is also capable of resisting
compression forces and is used in columns as well as in other situations
.
 Advantages of concrete:
It is a low maintenance material
It has great resistance to the action of fire provided that there is
adequate cover over the reinforcing steel
A special nature of concrete is its ability to be cast in to a variety
of shapes from simple slabs, beams, and columns to great
arches and shells
A lower grade of skilled labor is required for erection as
compared to other materials such as structural steel
In most areas, concrete takes advantage of inexpensive local
materials (sand, stones and water) and requires a relatively small
amount of cement and reinforcing steel.
 Disadvantages of Concrete
Concrete has a very low tensile strength, requiring the use of
tensile reinforcing
Forms are required to hold the concrete in place until it hardens
sufficiently. Forms could be expensive
The properties of concrete could vary widely vary due to variations
in its proportioning and mixing. Furthermore, the placing and curing
of concrete is not as carefully controlled, as is the production of
other materials such as structural steel
Generally, reinforced concrete members are relatively large, as
compared to structural members, an important consideration for tall
buildings and long span bridges.
 Significance of Reinforced Concrete
It is well-known fact that concrete is strong in compression and very
weak in tension. The tensile strength of concrete is about one-tenth
its compressive strength. As a result, a plain concrete beam fails
suddenly as soon as the tension cracks start to develop. Therefore,
reinforcing steel is added to in the tension zone to carry tensile
stresses, this is called a reinforced concrete beam.
Concrete and steel can work together well in reinforced concrete
structures, their material advantages seem to compensate for the
disadvantages of the other.
The great shortcoming of low concrete strength is compensated for
by high tensile strength of the steel.
 The tensile strength of the steel is approx. equal to 100-140
times the tensile strength of the usual concrete mix. Also, the two
materials bond together very well with no slippage, and thus act
together as one unit in resisting the applied loads.
The disadvantage of steel is corrosion, but the concrete
surrounding the reinforcement provides an excellent protection.
Again, the strength of exposed steel subjected to fire is reduced
to zero and the enclosure of the reinforcement in the concrete
produces very satisfactory fire protection
Further, concrete and steel work very well together in
temperature changes because their coefficients of thermal
expansion are almost the same.
The coefficient of thermal expansion for steel is 6.5x10exp-6, while
that for the concrete is about 5.5x10exp-6
The addition of steel reinforcement that bonds strongly to produces
a relatively ductile material capable of transmitting tension and
suitable for any structural elements, e.g, slabs, beams, column.
Reinforcement should be placed in the locations of anticipated
tensile stresses and cracking areas .
 Structural Elements and Frames

The complete building structure can be broken down into the

following elements:
Beams horizontal members carrying lateral loads
Slabs horizontal plate elements carrying lateral loads
Columns vertical members carrying primarily axial load but generally
subjected to axial load and moment
Walls vertical plate elements resisting vertical, lateral or in-plane
loads
Bases and foundations pads or strips supported directly on the
ground that spread the loads from columns or walls so that they can
be supported by the ground without excessive settlement.
Alternatively the bases may be supported on piles.
 2.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN
(BS 8110-1:1997)
The first function in design is the planning carried out by the architect to
determine the arrangement and layout of the building to meet the clients
requirements. The structural engineer then determines the best structural
system or forms to bring the architects concept into being. Construction
in different materials and with different arrangements and systems may
require investigation to determine the most economical answer. Architect
and engineer should work together at this conceptual design stage.
Once the building form and structural arrangement have been finalized
the design problem consists of the following:
 Idealization of the structure into loadbearing frames and
elements for analysis and design
Estimation of loads-(Dead and Imposed Loads)
Analysis to determine the maximum moments, thrusts and
shears for design
Design of sections and reinforcement arrangements for
slabs, beams, columns and walls using the results from 3
Production of arrangement and detail drawings and bar
schedules
 2.1.1 Design phylosophy
Limit state design- Deals with safety and
serviceability of structures

There are 2 Main Groups of Limit states:

i. Ultimate Limit State
ii. Serviceability Limit state
 Ultimate Limit States
The Ultimate Limit States include:

a) Limit State of Collapse:

>Rupture of a critical section
>Buckling of a Load bearing member

b) Limit state of Fire Resistance.

>Resistance to Structural Collapse
>Resistance to penetration of flames
>Resistance to Heat transmission
c) Limit State of Impact Resistance:
This is to be considered whenever there is a high
probability of shock loading e.g. earthquake
loading
 Serviceability Limit States
a) Limit state of deflection:
The Deflections should not impair the appearance or
efficiency of the structure.

b) Limit State of Vibrations:

The Vibrations should neither cause discomfort or alarm
or damage nor interfere with the proper function of the
structure.

c) Limit State of Durability:

Sometimes it is necessary to take special precautions
against Corrosions.
2.1.2 Failures in Concrete Structures
Incorrect selection of materials
Errors in design calculations and detailing (An independent
check should be made of all design calculations to ensure
that the section sizes, slab thickness etc. and reinforcement
sizes and spacing specified are adequate to carry the worst
combination of design loads.)
Poor construction methods and inadequate quality control and
supervision (incorrect placement of steel, inadequate cover to re-
bar, incorrectly made construction joint, grout leakage, poor
compaction, segregation, poor curing, too high water content),
 Chemical attack (chlorides, sulphates, carbonation-carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere slowly transforms calcium
hydroxide into calcium carbonate in concrete-harms
reinforcement), alkali-silica- reaction-take place between alkali
in cement and certain forms of silica in aggregate. The
reaction produces a gel which absorbs water and expands in
volume, resulting in cracking and disintegration of the
concrete), Acids-Portland cement is not acid resistant and
acid attack may remove part of the set cement. Acids are
formed by the dissolution in water of carbon dioxide or
Sulphur dioxide from the atmosphere. Acids can also come
from industrial wastes. Good dense concrete with adequate
cover is required and sulphate-resistant cements should be
used if necessary.
External physical and/or mechanical factors
(Restraint against movement)-Restraint against movement causes
cracking. Movement in concrete is due to elastic deformation and creep
under constant load, shrinkage on drying and setting, temperature
changes, changes in moisture content and the settlement of
foundations.
The design should include sufficient movement joints to prevent serious
cracking. Cracking may only detract from the appearance rather than be
of structural significance but cracks permit ingress of moisture and lead
to corrosion of the steel.
The contraction joint may be a complete or partial joint with
reinforcement running through the joint. There is no initial gap and only
contraction of the concrete is permitted.
The expansion joint is made with a complete discontinuity and gap
between the concrete portions. Both expansion and contraction can
occur. The joint must be filled with sealer.
There is complete discontinuity in a sliding joint and the design is such
as to permit movement in the plane of the joint.
The hinged joint is specially designed to permit relative rotation of
members meeting at the joint.
The settlement joint permits adjacent members to settle or displace
vertically as a result of foundation or other movements relative to each
other. Entire parts of the building can be separated to permit relative
settlement, in which case the joint must run through the full height of the
structure
Abrasion
Abrasion can be due to mechanical wear, wave action etc. Abrasion reduces
cover to reinforcement. Dense concrete with hard wearing aggregate and extra
cover allowing for wear are required.
Wetting and drying
Wetting and drying leaches lime out of concrete and makes it more porous,
which increases the risk of corrosion to the reinforcement. Wetting and drying
also causes movement of the concrete which can cause cracking if restraint
exists. Detail should be such as to shed water and the concrete may also be
protected by impermeable membranes.
Freezing and thawing
Concrete nearly always contains water which expands on freezing. The
freezing thawing cycle causes loss of strength, spalling and disintegration of
the concrete. Resistance to damage is improved by using an air-entraining
agent.
Overloading
Extreme overloading will cause cracking and eventual collapse. Factors
of safety in the original design allow for possible overloads but vigilance
is always required to ensure that the structure is never grossly
overloaded.

Structural alterations
If major structural alterations are made to a building the members
affected and the overall integrity of the building should be rechecked.

Settlement
Differential settlement of foundations can cause cracking and failure in
extreme cases. The foundation design must be adequate to carry the
building loads without excessive settlement.
Fire resistance
Concrete is a porous substance bound together by water-containing
crystals. The binding material can decompose if heated to too high a
temperature, with consequent loss of strength.
 2.1.3 Concrete Cover (section 3.3.1)
Mild- concrete is protected against weather
Moderate- concrete is sheltered from severe rain concrete under water
concrete in non-aggressive soil
Severe- concrete exposed to severe rain or to alternate wetting and
drying
Very severe- concrete exposed to sea water, de-icing salts or corrosive
fumes
Extreme- concrete exposed to abrasive action
Nominal cover to all reinforcement including
links to meet durability requirements
Nominal cover to all reinforcement including
links to meet specified periods of fire
resistance
Example 1
Using the data given, determine the nominal cover required
to the underside of the beam
Data:
Exposure condition- mild
Characteristic strength of concrete (fcu) 40 N/mm2
Nominal maximum aggregate size (hagg) 20 mm
Diameter of main tension steel 25 mm
Diameter of shear links 8 mm
Minimum required fire resistance 1.5 hours
SOLUTION
Clause 3.3.1.2: Nominal cover (main bar diameter link diameter)
(25 8) = 17 mm
Clause 3.3.1.3: Nominal cover nominal maximum aggregate size (20
mm), thus Norminal cover 20mm
Clause 3.3.3: Exposure condition is mild
From data: Grade of concrete is C40
Table 3.3: Nominal cover 20 mm
Clause 3.3.6: Minimum fire resistance = 1.5 hr
From data: The beam is simply supported
Table 3.4 Nominal cover 20 mm

Conclusion: The required nominal cover = 20 mm