INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING

 
DEPARTMENT CIVIL
Master of Engineering (Transportation
Engineering)
SOIL MECHANICS FOR HIGHWAY
ENGINEERS (CEB- 616)

Compaction of soils
 Compaction

Compaction means pressing of the soil particles

close to each other by mechanical methods.
Air is expelled from soil mass and mass density is
increased.
Soil Compaction - Objectives
1. Increasing shear strength : the bearing capacity of
foundations;

2. Reduces compressibility

• Decreasing the undesirable settlement of structures;

• Control undesirable volume changes;

3. Reduction in hydraulic conductivity;

4. Increasing the stability of slopes.

 Reduction of volume :
Compaction or
Consolidation
Compaction Consolidation
• Rapid process • Gradual process
• By mechanical means • Under sustained static load
• Expulsion of air from voids • Squeezing out of water
(water content unaltered) (decrease in water content)
• In partially saturated soil • In saturated soil
• Artificial process done to • Natural process caused by
increase soil properties weight of buildings and
structures
 Compaction tests
Some standard compactive effort is applied to the
soil in laboratory
Dry density (dry unit weight) increases with increase
in water content to a limit and then decreases.
To obtain the maximum dry unit weight of
compaction and the optimum moisture content
The water content at which maximum dry density is
obtained => optimum moisture content
 Compaction curve
115
114
113
112
111

gdry max 110

109
108
107
Standard proctor test
106
105
104
103
102
101
100
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Optimum Water Content
 Compaction tests
Compactive energy
Number of
Weight of  Height of  Number
drop of blows per 
hammer of layers
hammer layer
E=
Volume of mold

Modified Proctor Test

Standard Proctor Test
Indian standard tests (IS 2720: Part VII)
Light compaction test Heavy compaction test
• Equivalent to Modified Proctor
• Equivalent to Standard Proctor
Test
Test
• Volume of mould: 1000 cc
• Volume of mould: 1000 cc
• Mass of hammer: 4.9 kg
• Mass of hammer: 2.6 kg
• Height of drop: 450 mm
• Height of drop: 310 mm
• Number of layers: 5
• Number of layers: 3
• Number of blows: 25
• Number of blows: 25
• Compactive energy: 275625
• Compactive energy: 60450
m.kg/m3
m.kg/m3
Poll Question
 Which of the following equipment is not used in
standard compactor test? C
a) Cylindrical metal mould
b) Rammer
c) Circular face plate
d) Collar
Poll Question
The water content corresponding to the maximum
density in compaction curve is called __B__________
a) Water content of compacted soil
b) Optimum water content
c) Air void water content
d) None of the mentioned
Zero air voids line
Line of optimum
Dry density (gm/ml) 
COMPACTION OF SAND

Air dry Full saturation

Maximum bulking

Water content (%) 

Poll Question
 A line showing the water content dry density relation for
the compacted soil is ___B________
a) Zero air voids lines
b) Air-voids line
c) Density line
d) All of the mentioned
In a compaction test on soil, the mass of wet soil when compacted
in the mould was 1.855kg. The water content of soil was 16%. If
the volume of mould is was 0.945 litres. Take G=2.68.
Calculate bulk density
Dry density
void ratio
Porosity
Degree of saturation
 FACTORS AFFECTING
COMPACTION

1. Water content 2. Amount of compaction

 4. Method of compaction
• For same compactive energy, dry
3. Type of soil density depend upon the method
utilized. (kneading, dynamic or
static)
• Different methods have their own
compaction curves

5. Admixtures
• To improve compaction
characteristics
• Eg: lime, cement, bitumen etc.
Poll Question
The compacted density is increased when the water
content of the soil is _______A__
a) Increased
b) Decreased
c) Constant
d) None of the mentioned
Poll Question
The amount of compaction greatly affects
____A_______
a) Water content and Maximum dry density
b) Saturation of soil
c) None of the mentioned
d) All of the mentioned
Poll Question
A cohesive soil yields a maximum dry density of 1.8 g/cc
at an OMC of 16 % during a standard proctor test. What
will be its degree of saturation? Take G=2.65
a) 100 %
b) 60.45 %
c) 43.27 %
d) 89.79 % ANS
Following results were obtained from a standard compaction
test on a sample of soil.
Water content (%) Mass of wet soil(gm)
12% 1680
14% 1850
16% ans i.e.1.76 gm/cc 1910
18% 1870
20% 1860
22% 1850
Take volume of mould as 950 ml obtain maximum dry density and
optimum water content . Take G=2.70
 EFFECTS OF COMPACTION ON
SOIL PROPERTIES
1) Soil structure
2) Permeability
3) Swelling
4) Pore Water Pressure
5) Shrinkage
6) Compressibility
7) Stress-Strain Relationship
8) Shear Strength
 EFFECT ON SOIL STRUCTURE

Soils compacted at water

content less than
optimum water content
have flocculated
structure.
Soils compacted at water
content more than
optimum water content
have dispersed structure.
EFFECT ON SOIL STRUCTURE
 EFFECT ON PERMEABILITY

Permeability of soil depends on

void size.
As water content increases, there
is an improved orientation of
particles resulting in reduction of
void size and permeability.
Above optimum water content,
the permeability slightly
increases.
If compactive effort is increased,
the permeability decreases due
to increased dry density.
 EFFECT ON SWELLING

Soil compacted dry of

OMC
Higher water deficiency
Random orientation of
particle
Imbibes more water
Swelling is more
Soil compacted wet of
OMC
Less swelling
 EFFECT ON SHRINKAGE

Soils compacted dry of

optimum shrink less when
compared to compacted
wet of optimum.
The soils compacted wet
of optimum shrink more
because the soil particles
in dispersed structure can
pack more efficiently.
 EFFECT ON PORE WATER PRESSURE

It is defined as pressure of ground water held

within a rock or soil, in gaps between particles
(pores).
The pore water pressure for soil compacted dry
of optimum is less than that for the same soil
compacted wet of optimum.
 EFFECT ON COMPRESSIBILITY

The flocculated structure on the dry side of

optimum offers greater resistance to
compression than the dispersed structure on
wet side.
So, the soils compacted dry of optimum are
less compressible.
 EFFECT ON STRAIN-STRESS
RELATIONSHIP
The soil compacted dry of
optimum have steeper stress-
strain curve than those on wet
side.
The strength and modulus of
elasticity of soil on dry side of
optimum will be high.
Soil compacted dry of optimum
shows brittle failure.
And soils compacted on wet
side experience increased strain
 EFFECT ON SHEAR STRENGTH

In general, the soils

compacted dry of optimum
have a higher shear
strength than wet of
optimum at lower strains.
However at large strains
the flocculated structure of
soil is broken and ultimate
strength will be equal for
both dry and wet sides.
 SUMMARY
DRY SIDE WET SIDE

STRUCTURE MORE RANDOM MORE ORIENTED

PERMEABILITY MORE PERMEABLE LESS PERMEABLE

COMPRESSIBILITY MORE MORE

COMPRESSIBLE IN COMPRESSIBLE IN
HIGH PRESSURE LOW PRESSURE
RANGE RANGE
SWELLING AND SWELL MORE SHRINK MORE
SHRINKAGE
STRENGTH HIGHER LESSER
Poll Question
Higher density and lower optimum water content is
easily achieved by _a________
a) Coarse grained soil
b) Fine grained soil
c) Cohesion less soil
d) Saturated soil
Poll Question
Which of the following property of soil is improved by
compacting the soil? d
a) Reduction of compressibility
b) Water absorption
c) Permeability
d) All of the mentioned
Poll Question
When compacted dry of optimum, the structure of clay
is always ____b_______
a) Flocculated
b) Dispersed
c) Disoriented
d) Honey comb shaped
Poll Question
When compacted dry of optimum, the structure of clay
is always ___b________
a) Flocculated
b) Dispersed
c) Disoriented
d) Honey comb shaped
A cylindrical specimen of a cohesive soil of 10cm diameter
and 20cm length was prepared by compaction in a mould.
If the wet mass of the specimen was 3.25kg and its water
content was 15%.
a. For the standard compaction test the mass of hammer
is
b. For the standard compaction test the drop of hammer
is
c. determine the dry density
d. Determine the void ratio
e. find the degree of saturation
 PLACEMENT WATER CONTENT

OMC in the field may not be same as in the

laboratory
OMC field depends upon the compaction methods
OMC obtained from lab tests is taken as a rough
guide for placement water content.
For some particular purposes placement moisture
content is kept different from OMC intentionally
 PLACEMENT WATER CONTENT
More than OMC Less than OMC
To avoid swelling For high shear strength
and low compressibility
• Under pavements and
floors • Highway embankments
• Impervious core of an • Outer shells of earth
earth dam dams (low pore water
pressure)
 RELATIVE COMPACTION
 d ( field )
R (%)   100
 d max (lab)
Cohesive soil Cohesionless soil
• 95% relative compaction • 100% or more than that
can be achieved by can be obtained using
sheep-foot roller or pneumatic-tyred rollers,
pneumatic-tyred roller vibratory rollers and other
vibratory equipment
 Field compaction control
Compaction control is done by measuring the dry
density and water content in the field
Field dry density
• Core cutter method
• Sand replacement method
Water content
• Sand bath method
• Alcohol method
• Calcium carbide method
• Proctor needle
1. CORE CUTTER METHOD

Reference:
Google
1. CORE CUTTER METHOD

Reference:
Google
 1. CORE CUTTER METHOD

Bulk density,

M1
Dry density,

Where, w is the water content

M2
 2. SAND
REPLACEMENT
METHOD

Determination of
• Mass density of sand
• Volume of excavated
hole
• Mass density of soil

Reference:
Google
Mass density of sand

Reference:
Google
 SAND REPLACEMENT
METHOD

M1  M 2  M 3
Mass density of sand s 
VC

Where, M1 initial mass of cylinder with sand

M2 mass of sand in cone only
M3 mass of cylinder after pouring sand into the
cone and the container
Vc volume of the container
Reference:
Google
Reference:
Google
 SAND REPLACEMENT
METHOD

M1  M 2  M 4
Volume of the hole Vh 
s

Where, M1 initial mass of cylinder with sand

M2 mass of sand in cone only
M4 mass of cylinder after pouring sand into the
hole
rs mass density of sand
 SAND REPLACEMENT
METHOD
Bulk density, M soil

Vhole
Dry density,

Where, w is the water content

 SAND BATH METHOD

Field method
Rough value of the water content
The container with the soil is
placed on a sand bath
Heated over a stove
The soil become dry within ½ to
1 hrs
Not suitable for organic soil or
soil containing higher Reference:
google
percentage of gypsum
 ALCOHOL METHOD

Sample is mixed with methylated

spirit (alcohol)
1ml for every gram of soil
Mix should be uniform
Spirit is then ignited
Takes 10 minutes
Rapid but not accurate
Not suitable for soil with large
proportion of clay, organic Reference:
Google
matter, gypsum
 CALCIUM CARBIDE METHOD

Wet soil is mixed with CaC2 in a

sealed container

CaC2+2H2O=C2H2+Ca(OH)2

Acetylene (C2H2) gas is produced

Quantity of gas is indicated on a Reference:
pressure gauge Google

Calibrated scale of pressure gauge

shows the water content
PROCTOR NEEDLE
(PLASTICITY NEEDLE)
 PROCTOR NEEDLE
(PLASTICITY NEEDLE)
A suitable needle point is screwed to the needle shank
After the soil has been compacted at the given water
content, proctor needle is forced 7.5 cm into it at the
rate of 1.25 cm/sec
Maximum force is found from the compression of
spring
Penetration resistance, R per unit area is calculated and
plotted against water content : calibration curve
 PROCTOR NEEDLE
(PLASTICITY NEEDLE)
Soil is compacted in the
standard mould in the field
Penetration resistance is
determined at the field
water content
From the calibration curve,
water content is
determined
Theoretical Maximum Dry
density
The water content of soil is 16%, mass of wet soil is
1.91kg, the volume of mould was 950ml. Take specific
gravity is 2.70
calculate bulk density
Determine degree of saturation
determine void ratio
Determine dry density
Determine theoretical maximum dry density
Poll Question
The performance of a compaction equipment depends
on _____________
a) Soil type
b) Water type
c) Particle size distribution
d) All of the mentioned
 The compaction depends upon the following factors:

1. Contact pressure
2. Number of passes
3. Layer thickness
4. Speed of roller
 Methods of Compaction of Soil
used in Field

Several methods are used in the field for compaction of soils. The
choice of method will depend upon the soil type, the maximum
dry density required and economic consideration. The commonly
used methods are
1. Tampers
2. Rollers
3. Vibratory compactors
 Types of rollers

1. Smooth Wheel rollers

2. Pneumatic tyred rollers
3. Sheep foot rollers
 Smooth Wheel rollers

•This type of roller incorporates a large steel drum at the front and

one or two wheels or drums at the rear.
•The weight of a tandem roller ranges from 2-8 tonnes.
•The performance  of a smooth wheeled roller depends on
the load per cm width transferred to the soil (which is derived
from the gross weight of the drum), and the drum diameter.
•They are most suitable for consolidating stone
gravel, sand ,hardcore and ballast, but are not suitable for
embankments, soft sub grades or uniform sands.
 Pneumatic tyred rollers

•Also known as rubber tyred rollers, these consist of a heavily-

loaded wagon with several rows of closely-spaced tyres.
•They provide uniform pressure throughout the width covered, and
are often used in pavement subgrade works, as they are suitable for
compacting uniform coarse soils and rocks.
•They are also used to finish embankments compacted by sheep foot
rollers.
•The factors which affect the amount of compaction that can be
achieved are the weight, tyre inflation pressure and the area of
contact.
 Sheep Foot Rollers

•Sheep foot rollers consist of a steel drum on which round or

rectangular protrusions known as ‘lugs’ or ‘feet’ are fixed.
•The drum’s weight can be increased by ballasting
with water, damp sand, or by mounting steel sections.
•They are commonly used for compacting fine-grained soils such
as silty clays.
•They are often used for compacting soils in dams, embankments
and sub grade layers in pavements, road and railway projects.
Poll Question
The number of layers of soil compaction depends on
_____a______
a) Type of soil and Amount of compaction required
b) Water content of soil
c) None of the mentioned
d) All of the mentioned
Poll Question
Sheep-foot-rollers is most suitable for compacting
______b______
a) Fine-grained soil
b) Cohesive soil
c) Cohesion-less soil
d) Clay soil
Poll Question
Pneumatic tyred rollers are best suited for
____d________
a) Cohesion-less sand
b) Cohesive soils
c) Cohesion-less gravels
d) All of the mentioned
Thank
You
…