SOIL MECHANICS-II(CENG 2082)

Lecture 01: SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOILS

Programme: BSc in Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering

Lecture by: Yonas B.(MSc.)

Faculty of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering
Arba Minch Water Technology Institute
Objectives:
 How to determine the shear strength of soils
 Understands the differences between drained
and undrained shear strength
 Determine the type of shear test that best
simulates field conditions
 How to interpret laboratory and field test
results to obtain shear strength parameters.
 Importance of Shear Strength for geotechnical
engineering application
 Output

 When you complete this chapter, you should be able to:

 Determine the shear strength of soils.
 Understand the difference between drained and undrained
shear strength.
 Determine the type of shear test that best simulates field
conditions.
 Interpret laboratory and field test results to obtain shear
strength parameters.
 1.1 Introduction
 The shear strength of a soil mass is the internal
resistance per unit area that the soil mass can
offer to resist failure and sliding along any plane
inside it.
 The capability of the following comes from the soil
shear strength :
 Support its own overburden & loading from
structure
 Support Sustain slope in equilibrium
 1.1 INTRODUCTION…
 The safety of any geotechnical structure is dependent on the strength of

the soil. If the soil fails, a structure founded on it can collapse, endangering

lives and causing economic damages.

 Soils fail either in tension or in shear. However, in the majority of soil

mechanics problems (such as bearing capacity, lateral pressure against

retaining walls, slope stability, etc.), only failure in shear requires

consideration.

 The shear strength of soils is, therefore, of paramount importance to

geotechnical engineers.

 The shear strength along any plane is mobilized by cohesion and frictional

resistance to sliding between soil particles. The cohesion c and  angle of

friction of a soil are collectively known as shear strength parameters.

 Shear failure of soils
 Shear Failure happens if the shear stress along the failure surface
reaches the soil’s shear strength.
 Soil generally fail in shear.

Embankment

Strip footing

Failure surface

Mobilized shear
resistance

 At failure, shear stress along the failure surface

(mobilized shear resistance) reaches the shear
strength.
 Shear failure of soils…

Retai
Embankment Failure
ning
wall

 At failure, shear stress along the failure surface (mobilized shear

resistance) reaches the shear strength.
 Definitions of Key Terms

 Shear strength of a soil () is the maximum internal

resistance to applied shearing stresses.

 Angle of internal friction ( ) is the friction angle

between soil particles.

 Cohesion (c) is a measure of the forces that cement soil

particles.

 Undrained shear strength of a soil (Su) is the shear

strength of a soil when sheared at constant volume.

 1.2 Coulomb’s Frictional Law
 The law for the shear strength of soil was propounded as early as

1773 by Charles Augustine Coulomb, a French military engineer. In

fact Coulomb’s law for shear strength is considered the first

milestone in classical soil mechanics.

 Recall Coulomb’s frictional law from your courses in statics and

physics. If a block of weight W is pushed horizontally on a plane

(Fig. 1.1a), the horizontal force (H) required to initiating movement

is: H=*W; coef/t of static friction between the block and the

horizontal plane. The coefficient of friction The angle between the

resultant force R and the normal force N (Fig. 1.1) is called the

friction angle, .
 1.2 Coulomb’s Frictional Law

Figure 1.1: (a) Slip plane of a block. (b) A slip plane in a soil mass.

In terms of stresses, Coulomb’s law is expressed as:

=* σ =  *tan, since  = tan-1() (1.2)

Coulomb’s law requires the existence or the development of a critical sliding
plane, also called slip plane or failure plane. In the case of the block the slip
plane is at the interface between the block and the horizontal plane.
 1.2 Coulomb’s Frictional Law…

sn
t

The limiting shear stress (soil strength) is given by :

 = c +  tan 
where
c = cohesion
 = angle of internal friction
 1.3 Mohr’s Circle for Stress
 The stress states at a point within a soil mass can be
represented graphically by a very useful and widely
used devise known as Otto Mohr’s circle for stress.
 For simplicity, we will consider a 2D element with
stresses as shown in Fig. 1.2a. Let’s draw Mohr’s
circle. First, we have to choose a sign convention.
 In soil mechanics, compressive stresses and
clockwise shear are generally assumed to be
positive. We will also assume that z > x.
 1.3 Mohr’s Circle for Stress…

 zx
tan  
1   x

Figure 1.2: Stresses on a two-dimensional element and Mohr’s circle.

 1.3 Mohr’s Circle for Stress…
Steps to draw Mohr’s circle for stresses:
 The two coordinates of the circle are (z,zx) and (x,
-zx). Recall from your strength of materials course that,
zx=-zx for equilibrium .
 Plot these two coordinates on a graph of shear stress
(ordinate) and normal stress (abscissa) as shown by A and
B in Fig. 1.2b. Draw a circle with AB as the diameter.
 The circle crosses the normal stress axis at 1 and 3,
where shear stresses are equal to zero.
 The stresses at these points are the major principal
stress,1 , and the minor principal stress, 3.
 1.3 Mohr’s Circle for Stress…
The principal stresses are related to the plane
stresses by the following relations:
2
 z  x  z  x 
1       zx
2
Major pr stress
2  2 
2
 z  x  z  x  Minor pr stress
3       2
zx
2  2  tan2p=2*zx/(x-z)

1   3 Maximum shear stress @ s=p+-45

 max 
2
The stresses on a plane oriented at an angle 
1   3 1   3 to the majo principal stress plane are:
1   3
   cos 2   sin 2
2 2 2
 is measured in clockwise direction
 EXAMPLE 1.1
A sample of soil 100 mm×100 mm is subjected to the forces
shown in Fig. E1.1a. Determine (a)
 1 , 3 
; (b) the maximum shear stress,and (c) the stresses on a
plane oriented at 300 clockwise to the major principal
stress plane.
 Session 3;

1.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure

Criterion

17
 1.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion
 Coulomb (1776) suggested that the shear strength of a soil along a
failure plane could be described by:  f  c   f tan 
 Shear strength consists of two components: cohesive and frictional.
  c'  tan ' Drained condition
 cu  n tanu Un-Drained condition

Mohr-Coulomb

 f  c   f tan 
envelope
f
f tan  frictional
 component
c c
f 
f is the maximum shear stress the soil can take
without failure, under normal stress of . 18
 1.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion

 90   '   '
     45 0 
 2  2

Figure 1.5: Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion.

 z   x  (  u )  (  u )    
'
z
'
x
'
z
'
x
 1.4 Mohr-Coulomb Failure Criterion…
 Any point F at the failure plane represents the normal
and shear stresses on a failure plane at a specified point
in a soil. These stresses must also satisfy the equilibrium
conditions at the point, which is represented by Mohr’s
circle of stress.
 This implies that, at failure, Mohr’s circle of stress must
be tangent to the line expressed by coulomb’s law of
srtength.
 This condition known as the Mohr-Coulomb failure
criterion is shown in Fig. 1.5.
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr
circle of stress (Relation of stresses can be calculated as)
’v = s’1 t Failure envelope in terms
of effective stresses

’h = s’3
X F
effective stresses
B
(s’1 -
A f’ c’
s’3)/2
X is on failure O ’3 ’1 s’
c’ Cotf’ (s’1+
Therefore, s’3)/2
tan= op/adj= OB/AO
=c’/AO
   1'   3'    1'   3'  AO= c’/ tan = c’ *cot
c' Cot '  Sin  '   
  2   2 
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion with Mohr circle
of stress
   1'   3'    1'   3' 
c' Cot '  Sin '   
  2   2 
 '
1   
  3'   1'   3' Sin '2c' Cos '

 1' 1  Sin '   3' 1  Sin  '  2c' Cos '

 
' ' 1  Sin '  2c' Cos '
1 3
1  Sin ' 1  Sin '

 '   ' 
   tan  45    2c' tan 45  
'
1
'
3
2

 2  2
 Mohr Coulomb failure criterion…

If the cohesion c’, is small or zero, then

Eqs. (1.15 to 1.19) can be rearranged as
follows:
 1   3 
' '
sin    '
'

' 
1   3 

By rearranging  3' 1  sin  '


 1 1  sin  '
'

 '

'
Or  tan (45  )
3 2

 '
1 2
 EXAMPLE 1.2

 At a point in a soil mass, the total vertical and horizontal

stresses are 240 kPa and 145 kPa respectively whilst
the pore water pressure is 40 kPa. Shear stresses on the
vertical and horizontal planes passing through this point
are zero.
 Calculate the maximum excess pore water pressure to
cause the failure of this point.
 What is the magnitude of the shear strength on the
plane of failure? The effective shear strength
parameters are c’ = 10 kPa and ɸ= 300.
 1.5 Drained and Undrained Shear strength
 Drained condition occurs when the excess pore water pressure
developed during loading of a soil dissipates, i.e. u=0, resulting in
volume changes in the soil.
 Loose sands, normally consolidated clays and lightly
overconsolidated clays tend to compress or contract, whilst dense
sands and heavily overconsolidated (OCR > 2) clays tend to expand
during drained condition.

Effective stress
Effective stress

Pore water pressure

 1.5 Drained and Undrained Shear strength…
 Undrained condition occurs when the excess pore water
pressure cannot drain, at least quickly from the soil, i.e.
u≠0. During undrained shearing, the volume of the soil
remains constant.
 If the specimen tends to compress or contract during
shear, then the induced pore water pressure is positive.
It wants to contract and squeeze water out of the pores,
but it can not.
 Positive pore water pressures occur in loose sands,
normally consolidated clays and lightly overconsolidated
clays.
 1.5 Drained and Undrained Shear strength…

 If the specimen tends to expand and swell during shear, the

induced pore water pressure is negative. It wants to expand and
draw water into the pores, but it can not. Negative pore water
pressures occur in dense sands and heavily overconsolidated (OCR >
2) clays.
 During the life of the geotechnical structure, called the long-term condition, the
excess pore water pressure developed by a loading dissipates and drained condition
applies. Clays usually take many years to dissipate the excess pore water pressure.
 During construction, and shortly after, called the short-term condition, soils with low
permeability (fine-grained soils) do not have sufficient time for the excess pore water
pressure to dissipate and undrained condition applies.
 The permeability of coarse-grained soils is sufficiently large that under static
loading conditions the excess pore water pressure dissipates quickly. Consequently
undrained condition does not apply to clean coarse-grained soils under static loading.
 1.5 Drained and Undrained Shear strength…

 The shear strength of a fine-grained soil under

undrained condition is called the undrained
shear strength, Su. The undrained shear

strength Su is the radius of Mohr’s total stress

circle; that is:
 1   3 (  u )  (  u )   
' ' ' '
Su   1 3
 1 3

2 2 2
 Session 4;

1.6 Laboratory Shear

Strength Tests

29
 1.6 Laboratory Shear Strength Tests
 Different methods are available for testing shear
strength of soils in a laboratory. The following are the
more commonly used testing methods:
I. Direct shear test.
II. Triaxial compression test.
III.Unconfined compression test.
To do what?

 Determination of shear strength parameters

of soils (c, f or c’, f’)
 1.6.1 Direct Shear Test
 ASTM D 3080 - Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils
Under Consolidated Drained Conditions
 The direct shear test is the oldest and the simplest type of shear
test. It was first devised by Coulomb (1776) for the study of shear
strength.
 The test is performed in a shear box, illustrated in Figure 1.6. The box
consists of two parts, one part fixed and the other movable.
 Usually the box is a square of sides equal to 5/6 cm. The soil sample is
placed in the box.
 A vertical normal force N(at least 3; 1,2,3 kg) is applied to the top
of the sample through a metal platen resting on the top part of the box.
 Porous stones may be placed on the top and bottom part of the sample
to facilitate drainage.
 1.6.1 Direct Shear Test

Figure 1.6: Schematic of

direct shear apparatus.
1.6.1 Direct Shear Test
Direct shear device
 1.61. Direct shear test…
 The sample is subjected to shearing stress at the plane
of separation AA (Fig. 1.6) by applying horizontal forces
T.
 The horizontal force can be applied either at a constant
speed (strain controlled test) or constant load (stress
controlled test) until failure occurs in the soil. In most
routine soil tests the strain controlled test is used.
 Failure is determined when the soil can not resist any
further increment of horizontal force.
 The above procedure is repeated for several values
 1.61. Direct shear test…
 By plotting the normal stresses and corresponding
shear stresses from the results of such tests, a
failure envelope is obtained as shown in Fig. 1.7.
 Note that the normal stress σ=N/A, and the shear
stress =T/A, where A is the cross-sectional area of
the soil specimen. For example, if the normal and
horizontal forces for the second test are represented
by N2 and T2, respectively, the coordinate point for test
2 is given as (σ2=N2/A, 2=T2/A).
 1.61. Direct shear test…
 The corresponding Mohr’s circle for this case is shown in Fig. 1.7
and the shear strength parameters  and c could be measured
directly(two point method). It is not possible to obtain other
deformation parameters such Young’s modulus and Poisson’s ratio
from direct shear test.

Figure 1.7: Plotted direct shear test results and a Mohr circle.
 1.61. Direct shear test…
 In direct shear test, drainage should be allowed through out
the test because there is no way of sealing the specimen.
 In sands, due to their high permeability, dissipation of excess
pore water pressure is immediate, and the test can be
conducted quickly.
 In clayey soils full drainage may require long testing time to
allow for dissipation of excess pore water pressure. Some
practical engineers still attempt to perform undrained direct
shear test in clayey soils by shearing the soil very quickly.
However, this may lead to totally erroneous results.
 1.6.1 Direct Shear Test…
Advantages
 Test in inexpensive
 Fast and simple
 Easy to prepare for cohesion less samples

Disadvantages
 Failure plane is forced to be horizontal(but not always)
 Cannot control drainage

 Stress concentrations at the sample boundaries

 Uncontrolled rotation of principal planes and stresses
1.6.1 Direct Shear Test/example
1.6.1 Direct Shear Test
Maximum shear Tmax1=
45.82 kN/m2
1.6.1 Direct Shear Test

 c'  tan '

 Example
A direct shear test on remolded sand soil has the following observation at
time failure; normal stress of 288N shear load of 173N. The cross sectional
area of sample is 36cm2. then determine shear parameters, principal stresses
at zone of failure.

Solution:

Shear stress; f= 173/36=4.8kN/cm2=48kN/m2 (at failure pt)

Normal stress; σf = 288/36=8kN/cm2=80 kN/m2(at failure pt)

1. Put failure point(σf, f) on the Mohr’s circle coordinate

2. Connect failure point and coordinate origin; since soil is sand(c=0)

3. Then determine ɸ by compus( is 310)

4. Rotate ɸ degree to counter clockwise from vertical line passing through

failure point; to have center of circle.

5. Having center, draw Mohr circle with radius C to F

6. Then find principal stresses

Example DS
 Session 4;

1.6.2 Triaxial Compression

Test

48
 svc + Ds
Laboratory tests
Simulating field conditions in the shc shc
laboratory st
l te
i a
0 svc rax svc + Ds
T
Di svc
r
0 0 shc shc ect
s he
ar t
te
st
0 svc t

Representative Step 1 svc

soil sample taken Set the specimen in the
Step 2
from the site apparatus and apply the
Apply the corresponding
initial stress condition
field stress conditions
 1.6.2 Triaxial Compression Test
 Triaxial Compression Test was introduced by Casagrande and Terzaghi in 1936
 A widely used apparatus to determine the shear strength parameters and the
stress-strain behavior of soils is the triaxial apparatus; as shown in Fig. 1.8.
 The test is designed to as closely as possible mimic actual field or “in situ” conditions
of the soil.

Advantage over DST

 More versatile

 Drainage can be well controlled

 No rotation of principal plane and stresses

 Failure plane can occur anywhere

Triaxial tests are run by:

− saturating the soil

− applying the confining stress (called σ3)

− Then applying the vertical stress (sometimes called the deviator stress) until
failure
 1.6.2 Triaxial Compression Test

Principles of triaxial compression test(TC)

 Is used to measure shaer strength of soil under
controlled drainage condition
 Cylindrical soil specimen is enclosed and
subjected to confining fluid/air pressure and
then loaded axially to failure.
 Test is called triaxail b/c of three principal
stresses are known and controlled.
Principles of triaxial compression test(TC)..
 1.6.2 Triaxial Compression Test
 The soil sample(undistrubed) is protected by a thin rubber
membrane and is subjected to pressure from water that occupies
the volume of the chamber. This confining water pressure (also
called radial pressure) enforces a condition of equality on two of
the total principal stresses, i.e. 2=3 . Vertical or axial stresses
are applied by a loading ram (plunger), and therefore, the total
major principal stress, σ1 is the sum of the confining pressures and
the deviatoric stress (σ1=σ3+∆σ) applied through the ram.
 In a traditional triaxial compression test, the confining pressure
σ3 is kept constant whilst the major principal stress 1 is increased
incrementally by the loading ram until the sample fails.
Triaxial Test
Equipment
Part of machine 1.6.2 Triaxial Compression Test
Triaxial Shear Test
Specimen preparation (undisturbed sample)

Edges of the sample Setting up the sample

are carefully trimmed in the triaxial cell
1.6.2 Triaxial Compression Test;
Triaxial cell
 1.6.2 Triaxial Compression Test

Figure 1.8: Schematic diagram of a triaxial compression apparatus

(Budhu, pp. 225).
Triaxial Shear Test
Piston (to apply deviatoric stress)

Failure plane
O-ring

impervious
membrane
Soil sample Soil
at failure sample
Porous
Perspex stone
cell
Water

Cell pressure
Back pressure Pore pressure or
pedestal volume change
 1.6.2 Triaxial Compression Test

 The triaxial apparatus is versatile because we can ①

independently control the applied axial and radial loads, ②

conduct tests under drained and undrained conditions, and

③ control the applied displacements or stresses.

 Recorded measurements include deviatoric stress at

different stages of the test, vertical displacement of

the ram, volume change and pore water pressure.

 1.6.2 Triaxial Compression Test

 The average stresses and strains on a soil sample in a triaxial compression

apparatus are as follows:
Deviatoric stress Pz
Axial stress Pz 1   3 
1  3
A
A
Axial strain z Radial strain
1  r
H0 3 
r0
Volumetric strain Deviatoric strain
V  q  23 ( 1   3 )
p    1  2 3
V0

 where Pz is the axial load on the ram (from proving reading), A is the
cross-sectional area of the soil sample at any stage of test, r0 is the
initial radius of the soil sample, r is the change in radius, V0 is the
initial volume, is the change in volume, H0=ho is the initial height, and
Z=∆h is the change in height.
Area correction for the determination of additional
axial load/Deviatoric stress(∆σ)
•  

  , εa=ε1

 How about undrained test?

(∆V=0)

 V 
V0 1  
V V0  V  V0  A0 (1   p )
A   
H H 0  z  z  1   1 Where A0 (=*ro2) is the initial

H 0 1   
cross-sectional area and H is the
 H0  current height of the sample.
 Types of Triaxial Tests
 Depending on whether drainage is allowed or not during

 initial isotropic cell pressure application/ consolidation phase, and

 shearing(during loading valve is open or not) ,

 Having these; there are three special types of triaxial tests
that have practical significances. They are:

Consolidated Drained (CD) test(S-test)

Consolidated Undrained (CU) test(R-test)
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) test(Q-test)

63
Types of Triaxial Tests deviatoric stress
( = q)
Step 1
c Step 2

c c
c c

c c+ q
Under all-around cell pressure c Shearing (loading)

Is the drainage valve open? Is the drainage valve open?

yes no yes no

Consolidated Unconsolidated Drained Undrained

sample sample loading loading
 A. Consolidated – Drained Triaxial Test
 The purpose of a CD test is to determine the drained shear
strength parameters ’ and c’.
 The specimen is saturated
 Confining stress (σ3) is applied (stage 1)
 This squeezes the sample causing volume decrease
 Drain lines kept open and must wait for full consolidation (u = 0)
to continue with test
 Once full consolidation is achieved, normal stress applied to failure
with drain lines still open (stage 2)
 Normal stress applied very slowly allowing full drainage and full
consolidation of sample during test (u = 0)
 Test can be run with varying values of σ3 to create a Mohrs circle
65
and to obtain a plot showing c’ and φ’
A. Consolidated – Drained Triaxial Test…
 Test can also be run such that σ3 is applied allowing full
consolidation, then decreased (likely allowing some
swelling) then the normal stress applied to failure
simluating overconsolidated soil.
 In the CD test, the total and effective stress is the
same since u is maintained at 0 by allowing
drainage;means you are testing the soil in effective
stress conditions
 Applicable in conditions where the soil will fail under a
long term constant load where the soil is allowed to
66
drain (long term slope stability)
CD tests How to determine strength parameters c and f
(Dsd)f
s1 = s3 + (Dsd)f
Deviator stress, Dsd

c
Confining stress = s3c
Confining stress = s3b

(Dsd)f Confining stress = s3a s3

b (Dsd)f
a
Axial
strain
f
Shear stress, t

Mohr – Coulomb
failure envelope

s or s’
s3a s3b s3c s1a s1b s1c
(Dsd)fa (Dsd)fb
1. CD data and analysis Example 1 (CD)

∆V=0

2. σ1 determination
3. Mohr circle

4. CD Triaxial Test on Sand -Figure

Example 2 (CD)
Example 3 (CD)
 Example 4 (CD)
 A consolidated drained triaxial test was
conducted on granuar soil. At failure ratio of
major to minor principal stresses is 4. the
effective minor stress at failure was 100kN/m2.
compute ɸ’ and deviatoric stress.
Solution:
  
' '
sin   
' 1 3

  
' '
1. ɸ’=37 1 3

2. σ1’-σ3’=∆σ=300kN/m2
 Example 5 (CD)
 Triaxial compression test of two lots of tests , the
shearing resistance of which is governed by coulomb’s
law( = c +  tan )
Test 1; σ1’=800kN/m2 σ3’=200kN/m2
Test 2; σ1’=1050kN/m2 σ3’=350kN/m2
 Then determine shear parameters of given soil.

Solution:
1. Draw Mohr circle first for above two tests
2. Determine φ by
  1'   3' 
sin    '
'

' 
1   3 
3. Draw tangent to two circles having φ

4. Determine C’ by
 '  '  
 1'   3' tan 2  45    2c' tan 45  
 2  2
 B. Consolidated Undrained (CU) Test
 The purpose of a CU test is to determine both the undrained (cu,ɸu )

and drained (c’, ’) shear strength parameters; Eu and E’ are also
obtained from this test.
 The CU test is conducted in a similar manner to the CD test except
that after isotropic consolidation, the axial load is increased under
undrained condition and the excess pore water pressure is
measured.
 As explained in section 1.5, the excess pore pressure developed
during shear can either be positive or negative. This happens
because the sample tries to either contract or expand during shear.
 Positive pore pressures occur in loose sands and normally
consolidated clays. Negative pore pressures occur in dense sands and
heavily overconsolidated clays.
 B. Consolidated Undrained (CU) Test…
 The CU test is the most popular triaxial test because you can
obtain both drained and undrained shear strength parameters, and
most tests can be completed within a few minutes after
consolidation compared with more than a day for a CD test.
 Fine-grained soils with low permeability must be sheared slowly to
allow the excess pore water pressure to equilibrate throughout the
test sample. The results from CU tests are used to analyze the
stability of slopes, foundations, retaining walls, excavations and
other earthworks.
 For remolded and normally consolidated clays, the cohesion c’
parameter from a CU test is also essentially very small and can be
assumed to be zero.
 B. Consolidated – Undrained Triaxial Test
 The specimen is saturated
 Confining stress (σ3) is applied
 This squeezes the sample causing volume decrease
 Again, must wait for full consolidation (u = 0)
 Once full consolidation is achieved, drain lines are closed (no
drainage for the rest of the test), and normal stress applied to
failure
 Normal stress can be applied faster since no drainage is
necessary (u not equal to 0)
 Test can be run with varying values of σ3 to create a Mohrs circle
and to obtain a plot showing c & φ /c’ & φ’
 Applicable in situations where failure may occur suddenly such as a
rapid drawdown in a dam or levee
 This test can simulates long term as well as short term shear
strength for cohesive soils if pore water pressure is measured 76
during the shearing phase
 Triaxial Compression Test
Deviator Stress
1- Consolidated Undrained Test (CU)
Ds
s2
Step 1 Step 2

Ds Failure

t
s1 = Ds
+ + s2
Confining Ds Ds
Pressure fu
s tan
s2 s2 c +
n

t=
f
s2 s2 s2 s2 s2 s2 s2 c u
s2
s2 s2 s1 s2 s1 s1 sn

s2 s1 - s
s2 2
s1 - s 2
Ds
 CU for c & φ /c’ & φ’

s tan f
t= n
Over-consolidated clav Normally consolidated clav
ta nf
+ sn
t= c

Fig: Effective stress failure envelope for Normally/overconsolidated clav

 Example (cu)
Soil sample under triaxial compresion test has the following
observations: change in length is 0.04cm(h=16cm), area of sample
Ao=40cm2, confining stress of 200kpa and additional loading of 0.8kN.
Then calculate:
i. Deviatoric stress
ii. Principal stresses(σ1 & σ3)
Solution:
A=Ao/(1-εa) but εa=∆h/ho=0.04/16=0.002
A=40/(1+0.002)=40.1cm2=0.004m2
∆σ=0.8/0.004=199.5kpa
Σ1=200+199.5=399.5kpa
Σ3=200kpa
Example CU
 C. Unconsolidated Undrained (UU) Test
 The purpose of a UU test is to determine the undrained
shear strength (Su) of a saturated soil.

 The UU test consists of applying a cell pressure to the

soil sample without drainage of pore water followed by
increments of axial stress.
 The cell pressure is kept constant and the test is
completed very quickly because in neither of the two
stages – consolidation and shearing – is the excess pore
pressure allowed to drain. In the UU test, pore water
pressures are usually not measured.
 c. Unconsolidated – Undrained Test
 The specimen is saturated
 Confining stress (σ3) is applied without drainage or consolidation
(drains closed the entire time)
 Normal stress then increased to failure without allowing drainage or
consolidation
 This test can be run quicker than the other 2 tests since no
consolidation or drainage is needed. Test can be run with varying
values of σ3 to create a Mohrs circle and to obtain a plot showing c
and φ
 UU test simulates short term shear strength for cohesive soils.
 Applicable in most practical situations – foundations for example.
 This test commonly shows a φ = 0 condition
82
 Example(UU)
 UU triaxial test was conducted on soil sample and has
following laboratory observations were taken; confining stress
of 810kN/m2, vertical additional stress of 62.50 kN/m2 and
PWP = 31.25kN/m2
i. Total principal stresses

ii. Effective principal stresses

iii. Shear strength parameters

Solution:
 σ1=810+62.5=872.5kN/m2, σ3=810kN/m2
 Σ1’=872.5-31.25=….kN/m2, σ3’=810-31.25=….kN/m2

 SU=CU=(σ1-σ3)/2=810kN/m2 =(σ1’-σ3’)/2= …. kN/m2

 Failure Conditions
Unconsolidated Undrained (UU or Q)
 – Failure that occurs rapidly during or shortly
after construction.
Consolidated Undrained (CU or R)
 – Failure that occurs rapidly after the soil
has had time to consolidate.

Consolidated Drained (CD or S)

 – Failure that occurs slowly after the soil has
had time to consolidate.

84
 Fig: Mohr circle for ɸ=0
soil UU test

Fig: Mohr circle for C =0

soil UU test
Triaxial failure modes on specimens

plastic failure type

Brittle failure type
Comparison of Shear Strengths

UU CU CD

2.5
Shear Stress

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

Normal Stress

88
 Cell pressure and Backpressure
 Backpressure is a technique used for saturating soil specimens. It is
accomplished by applying water pressure u0 within the specimen,
and at the same time changing the cell pressure of an equal amount.
 Therefore, the net confining pressure remains unchanged.
 Backpressuring has no influence on the calculations. In most cases, a
backpressure of 300 kPa is sufficient to ensure specimen
saturation and it should be applied in steps as shown in the table
below.
 Session 5;

1.6.3 Unconfined

Compression (UC) Test

90
 1.6.3 Unconfined Compression (UC) Test
 The UC test is the simplest and quickest test used to determine
the shear strength of a cohesive soil.
 An undisturbed or remolded sample of cylindrical shape, about 38
mm in diameter and 76 mm in height is subjected to uniaxial
compression until the soil fails.
 Since the sample is laterally unconfined, only cohesive soils can be
tested. The sample is tested quickly and there is no drainage.
 Therefore, it is a special case of the UU test in which 3=0.
However, rather than in a triaxial cell, the test is performed in a
mechanical apparatus specially manufactured fro this purpose.
 See Figure 1.9 shows an unconfined compression test apparatus.
 1.6.3 Unconfined Compression (UC) Test..

Figure 1.9: (a) Direct shear test apparatus, (b) UC test apparatus
 Unconfined Compression Test…
 The specimen is not placed in the cell
 Specimen is open to air with a σ3 of 0
 Test is similar to concrete compression test, except with
soil (cohesive – why?)
 Applicable in most practical situations – foundations for
example.
 Drawing Mohrs circle with σ3 at 0 and the failure
(normal) stress σ3 defining the 2nd point of the circle –
often called qu in this special case
 c becomes ½ qu of the failure stress 93
Unconfined Compression Test

Deviator Stress
Ds

Ds Failure

t= cu

Cu =
qu/2
s1 sn

qu = s 1
qu = Unconfined compressive strength
Cu = Unconfined shear strength
 Example UC
Unconfined compressive test of soft clay data length of
sample L=10cm, initial area=10cm2, load at failure P=0.2kN.
Compression at failure ∆L=0.2cm. Then determine
unconfined compressive strength and shear strength of soil
sample.
Solution:
A=Ao/(1-εa) but εa=∆h/ho=2/10=0.2
A=10/(1-0.2)=12.5cm2=(12.5/10000)m2
i. ∆σ=0.2/(12.5/10000)=160kpa=qu(unconfined compressive strength)
ii.=qu/2=80kpa
 1.7 Field Tests for shear
 Sampling disturbances and sample preparation for laboratory tests
significantly affect the shear strength parameters. Consequently, a
variety of field tests have been developed to obtain more reliable
soil shear strength parameters by testing soils in-situ.
1.7.1 Shear Vane
 In soft and saturated clays, where undisturbed specimen is
difficult to obtain, the undrained shear strength is measured using a
shear vane test. A diagrammatic view of the shear vane apparatus
is shown in Fig. 1.20. It consists of four thin metal blades welded
orthogonally (900) to a rod where the height H is twice the
diameter D (Fig. 1.20). Commonly used diameters are 38, 50 and
75 mm.
Figure 1.20:
Shear vane
apparatus.

 The vane is pushed into the soil either at the ground surface or at the bottom of a
borehole until totally embedded in the soil (at least 0.5 m). A torque T is applied by a
torque head device (located above the soil surface and attached to the shear vane
rod) and the vane is rotated at a slow rate of 6 0 per minute. As a result, shear
stresses are mobilized on all surfaces of a cylindrical volume of the soil generated by
the rotation. The maximum torque is measured by a suitable instrument and equals to
the moment of the mobilized shear stress about the central axis of the apparatus.
T
The undrained shear strength is calculated from: Su 
D 2 ( H / 2  D / 6)
 1.7.2 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

 The Standard Penetration Test (SPT) was developed

around 1927 and it is perhaps the most popular field test
performed mostly in coarse grained (or cohesionless)
soils. The SPT is performed by driving a standard split
spoon sampler into the ground by blows from a drop
hammer of mass 64 kg falling 760 mm (Fig. 1.21).
 The sampler is driven 150 mm into the soil at the bottom
of a borehole, and the number of blows ( N) required to
drive it an additional 300 mm is counted.
 The number of blows N is called the standard penetration
number.
 Figure 1.21: Standard
Penetration Test (Budhu, 248)

 Various corrections are applied to the N values to account for energy losses,
overburden pressure, rod length, and so on. It is customary to correct the N values to a
rod energy ratio of 60%. The rod energy ratio is – the ratio of the energy delivered to
the split spoon sampler to the free falling energy of the hammer. The corrected N
values are denoted as N60. The N value is used to estimate the relative density, friction
angle, and settlement in coarse grained soils. The test is very simple, but the results
are difficult to interpret.
 1.8 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
 The Cone Penetrometer Test (CPT) is an in situ test used for
subsurface exploration in fine and medium sands, soft silts and
clays. The apparatus consists of a cone with a 35.7 mm end
diameter, projected area of 1000 mm2 and 600 point angle (Fig.
1.22) that is attached to a rod. An outer sleeve encloses the rod.

 
Figure 1.22:
CPT apparatus
(Budhu, 250)
 1.8 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)…
 The thrusts required to drive the cone and the sleeve
80 mm into the ground at a constant rate of 10 mm/s
to 20 mm/s are measured independently so that the
end resistance or cone resistance and side friction or
sleeve resistance may be estimated separately.
 A special type of the cone penetrometer, known as
piezocone has porous elements inserted into the cone
or sleeve to allow for pore water pressure
measurements.
 The cone resistance qc is normally correlated with the
undrained shear strength. Several adjustments are made
to qc. One correlation equation is

where Nk is a cone factor that depends on the geometry of the cone

and the rate of penetration. Average values of Nk as a function of
plasticity index can be estimated from

 Results of cone penetrometer tests have been correlated with the

peak friction angle. A number of correlations exist. Based on
published data for sand (Robertson and Campanella, 1983), you can
estimate ɸ’p using
References:
1. Das, Braja, Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 5th
ed.,Brooks/Cole, 2002.
2. Budhu M. (2000), Soil Mechanics and Foundations, Wiley
and Sons.
3. Lambe, T. W., Whitman, R. V. (1999), Soil Mechanics, John
Wiley & Sons Inc.
4. Teferra, A. & Mesfin, L., Soil Mechanics, AAU
5. Craig, R.F. (2004), Craig's Soil Mechanics, 7th edition,
Taylor & Francis.
6. Bowles, J. E., 1996. Foundation Analysis and Design,
Joseph E. Bowles, McGraw-Hill.
THANK
YOU!