Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control

Part IV - Intersection Control

GENERAL CONCEPTS OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

An intersection is an area shared by two or more roads. A simple intersection consists of two
intersecting roads; a complex intersection serves several intersecting roads within the same
area. The intersection is therefore an area of decision for all drivers; each must select one of the
available choices to proceed. This requires an additional effort by the driver that is not
necessary in non-intersection areas of a highway.
The flow of traffic on any street or highway is greatly affected by the flow of traffic through
the intersection points on that street or highway because the intersection usually performs at a
level below that of any other section of the road.
Intersections can be classified as grade-separated without ramps, grade-separated with ramps
(commonly known as interchanges), or at-grade. Interchanges consist of structures that provide
for the cross-flow of traffic at different levels without interruption, thus reducing delay,
particularly when volumes are high. Several types of traffic control systems are used to reduce
traffic delays and accidents in at grade intersections and to increase the capacity of highways
and streets. However, the appropriate regulations must be enforced if these systems are to be
effective.
The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to drivers, and thus to facilitate
highway safety by ensuring the orderly and predictable movement of all traffic on highways.
Control may be achieved by using traffic signals, signs, or markings that regulate, guide, warn,
and/or channel traffic. The more complex the maneuvering area, the greater the need for a
properly designed traffic control system. Many intersections are complex maneuvering areas
and therefore require properly designed traffic control systems,
To be effective, a traffic control device must
• Fulfill a need
• Command attention
• Convey a clear simple meaning
• Command the respect of road users
• Give adequate time for proper response
To ensure that a traffic control device possesses these five properties engineers should consider
the following five factors
1. Design- The device should be designed with a combination of size, color, and shape that

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
will convey a message and command the respect and attention of the driver.
2. Placement- The device should be located so that it is within the cone of vision of the
viewer and the driver has adequate response time when driving at normal speed.
3. Operation- The device should be used in a manner that ensures the fulfillment of traffic
requirements in a consistent and uniform way.
4. Maintenance- The device must be regularly maintained
5. Uniformity- To facilitate the recognition and understanding of these devices for drivers,
similar devices should be used at locations with similar traffic and geometric
characteristics.
In addition to these considerations, it is essential that engineers avoid using devices that
conflict with one another at the same location. It is imperative that devices aid each other in
transmitting the required message to the driver.
CONFLICT POINTS AT INTERSECTIONS
Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different directions interfere with each other.
The three types of conflicts are merging, diverging, and crossing. Figure 8.3 shows the
different conflict points that exist at a four-approach un-signalized intersection. There are 32
conflict points in this case. The number of possible conflict points at any intersection depends
on the number of approaches, the turning movements, and the type of traffic control at the
intersection.

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
The primary objective in the design of a traffic control system at an intersection is to reduce the
number of significant conflict points. In designing such a system, it is first necessary to
undertake an analysis of the turning movements at the intersection, which will indicate the
significant types of conflicts.
Factors that influence the significance of a conflict include the type of conflict, the number of
vehicles in each of the conflicting steams, and the speeds of the vehicles in these streams.
Crossing conflicts, however, tend to have the most severe effect on traffic flow and should be
reduced to a minimum whenever possible.

TYPES OF INTERSECTION CONTROL

Several methods of controlling conflicting streams of vehicles at intersections are in use. The
choice of one of these methods depends on the type of intersection and the volume of traffic in
each of the conflicting streams. The different types of intersection control are

• Yield Signs- All drivers on approaches with yield signs are required to slow down and
yield the right of way to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection. Stopping at yield
signs is not mandatory, but drivers are required to stop when necessary to avoid
interfering with a traffic stream that has the right of way.
• Stop Sign- A stop sign is used where an approaching vehicle is required to stop before
entering the intersection. Stop signs should be used only when they are warranted, since
the use of these signs results in considerable inconvenience to motorists. Stop signs
should not be used at signalized intersections or on through roadways of expressways.
The warrants for stop signs suggest that a stop sign may be used on a minor road when
it intersects a major road, at an un-signalized intersection, and where a combination of
high speed, restricted view, and serious accidents indicates the necessity for such a
control.
• Multi-way Stop Signs- Multi-way stop signs require that all vehicles approaching the
stop before entering it. They are used as a safety measure at some intersections and are
normally used when the traffic volumes on all the approaches are approximately equal.
When traffic volumes are high, however, the use of signals is recommended.
• Intersection channelization - Intersection channelization is used mainly to separate
turn lanes from through lanes. A channelized intersection consists of solid white lines
or raised barriers, which guide traffic within a lane so that vehicles can safely negotiate
a complex intersection. When raised islands are used, they can also provide a refuge for
pedestrians.
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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
• Traffic Signal- One of the most effective ways of controlling traffic at an intersection
is the use of traffic signals. Traffic signals can be used to eliminate many conflicts
because different traffic streams can be assigned the use of the intersection at different
times. Since this results in a delay to vehicles in all streams, it is important that traffic
signals be used only when necessary. The most important factor that determines the
need for traffic signals at a particular intersection is the intersection's approach traffic
volume, although other factors such as pedestrian volume and accident experience may
also play a significant role.

SIGNAL TIMING FOR DIFFERENT COLOR INDICATIONS

Terms commonly used in the design of signal times.

• A control1er -is a device in a traffic signal installation that changes the colors
indicated by the signal lamps according to a fixed or variable plan. It assigns the right
of way to different approaches at appropriate times.
• The cycle (cycle length) is the time in seconds required for one complete color
sequence. Figure 8.7 is a schematic of a cycle. In Figure 8.7, for example, the cycle
length is the time that elapses from the start of the green indication to the end of the red
indication.
• A phase (signal phase) is that part of a cycle allocated to a stream of traffic, or a
combination of two or more streams of traffic, having the right of way simultaneously
during one or more intervals. See Figure 8.7.

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
• An interval is any part of the cycle length during which signal indications do not
change.
• The offset is the time lapse in seconds or the percentage of the cycle length between
the beginning of a green phase at the intersection and the beginning of a corresponding
green phase at the next intersection. It is the time base of the system controller.
• The change interval is the total length of time in seconds of the yellow and all-red
signal indications. This time is provided for vehicles to clear the intersection after the
green interval.
• An all-red interval is the display time of a red indication for all approaches. sometimes
used as a phase exclusively for pedestrian crossing or to allow vehicles and pedestrians
to clear very large intersections before opposing approaches are given green indication.
• A split-phase is the part of a phase that is set apart from the primary movement thus
forming a special phase that relates to the parent phase.
• The peak-hour factor (PHF) is a measure of the variability of demand during peak
hour. It is the ratio of the volume during the peak hour to the maximum rate of flow
during a given time period within the peak hour. For intersections, the time period used
is 15 min, and the PHF is given as
Volume..during .. peak ..hour
PHF =
4 * Volume..during .. peak15 min ..within.. peak ..hour
The PHF may be used in signal timing design to compensate for the possibility that peak
arrival rates for short periods during the peak hour may be much higher than the average
for the full hour. Design hourly volume (DHV) can then be obtained as
peak ..hour..Volume
DHV =
PHF
Not all factors that affect PHF have been identified, but it is generally known that the PHF
is a function of the traffic generators being served by the highway, the distances between
these generators and the highway, and the population of the metropolitan area in which the
highway is located.
• The passenger car equivalent (PCE) is a factor used to convert straight-through
volumes of buses and trucks to straight-through volumes of passenger cars. This
conversion is necessary because buses and trucks require more time to cross
intersections than do passenger cars, depending on the predominant type of truck. PCE
factors commonly used for both buses and trucks at intersections range from 1.6 to 2.5,

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
since approaches to intersections are usually flat. When grades are long or are greater
than 3 percent, the PCE factors can be much higher.
• Turning movement factors are required because turning vehicles generally require a
longer green time than straight-through vehicles. These factors, which are used to
convert turning vehicles to equivalent straight-through vehicles, range from 1.4 to 1.6
for left-turning vehicles and 1.0 to 1.4 for right-turning vehicles.
• The critical lane volume is the maximum lane volume (vph) in a phase.

OBJECTIVES OF SIGNAL TIMING

The main objectives of signal timing at an intersection are to reduce the average delay of
all vehicles and the probability of accidents. These objectives are achieved by minimizing
the possible conflict points when assigning the right of way to different traffic streams at
different times. The objective of reducing delay, however, sometimes conflicts with that of
accident reduction. This is because the number of distinct phases should be kept to a
minimum to reduce average delay, whereas many more distinct phases may be required to
separate all traffic streams from each other. When this situation exists, it is essential that
engineering judgment be used to determine a compromise solution. In general, however, it
is usual to adapt a two-phase system whenever possible, using the shortest practical cycle
length that is consistent with the demand. At a complex intersection, though, it may be
necessary to use a multiphase (three or more phases) system to achieve the main design
objectives.

SIGNAL TIMING AT ISOLATED INTERSECTIONS

An isolated intersection is one in which the signal time is not coordinated with that of any
other intersection and therefore operates independently. The cycle length for an intersection
of this type should be short, preferably between 35 and 60 sec, although it may be
necessary to use longer cycles when approach volumes are very high. However, cycle
lengths should be kept below 120 sec, since very long cycle lengths will result in excessive
delay. Several methods have been developed for determining the optimal cycle length at an
intersection and, in most cases, the yellow interval is considered as a component of the
green time. Before discussing two of these methods, we will discuss the basis for selecting
the yellow interval at an intersection.

YELLOW INTERVAL
The main purpose of the yellow indication after the green is to alert motorists to the fact
that the green light is about to change to red and to allow vehicles already in the
intersection to cross it. A bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the creation of a
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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
dilemma zone, an area close to an intersection in which a vehicle can neither stop safely
before the intersection nor clear the intersection without speeding before the red signal
comes on. The required yellow interval is the time period that guarantees that an
approaching vehicle can either stop safely or proceed through the intersection without
speeding.

Figure 8.8 is a schematic of a dilemma zone. For the dilemma zone to be eliminated the
distance Xo should be equal to the distance Xc. Let Tmin be the yellow interval (sec) and
let the distance traveled during the change interval without accelerating be Uo (Tmin), with
Uo = speed limit on approach (ft/sec). If the vehicle just clears the intersection, then
X c = u o (τ min ) − (W + L)
Where: Xc is the distance within which a vehicle traveling at the speed limit (uo) during
the yellow interval time cannot stop before encroaching on the intersection. Vehicles within
this distance at the start of the yellow interval will therefore have to go through the
intersection; W =width of intersection (ft); L = length of vehicle (ft)
For vehicles to be able to stop, however,
u o2
X c = u oδ +
2a
Where: Xo = the minimum distance from the intersection for which a vehicle traveling at
the speed limit Uo during the clearance interval Yo cannot go through the intersection
without accelerating; any vehicle at this distance or at a distance greater than this has to
stop; δ = perception-reaction time; a = constant rate of braking deceleration (ft/sec2)
For the dilemma zones to be eliminated, Xo must be equal to Xc. Accordingly,

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
u2
u o (τ min ) − (W + L) = u oδ + o
2a
W +L u
τ min = δ + + u oδ + o
uo 2a
If the effect of grade is added,
W +L uo
τ min = δ + + u oδ +
uo 2(a + Gg )
Where: G is the grade of the approach, and g is the acceleration due to gravity
Safety considerations, however, normally preclude yellow intervals of less than 3sec and to
encourage motorists’ respect for the yellow interval, it is usually not made longer than
5sec. When longer yellow intervals are required as computed from the above equation an
all-red phase can be inserted to follow the yellow indication. The change interval, yellow
plus all-red, must be at least the value computed in the above equation.

CYCLE LENGTHS OF FIXED (PRETIMED) SIGNALS

The signals at isolated intersections can be pre-timed (fixed), semi-actuated, or fully
actuated. Pre-timed signals assign the right of way to different traffic streams in accordance
with a preset timing program. Each signal has a preset cycle length that remains fixed for a
specific period of the day or for the entire day. Several design methods have been
developed to determine the optimum cycle length, two of which are
-the Webster and the time
-budget methods
WEBSTER METHOD
Webster has shown that for a wide range of practical conditions, minimum intersection
delay is obtained when the cycle length is obtained by the equation
1 .5 L + 5
Co = φ
1 + ∑ Yi
i =1

Where: Co = optimum cycle length (sec); L = total lost time per cycle (sec); Yi =
maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to saturation flows for all traffic streams
using phase i (i.e.) Vij/Sj; φ = number of phases; Vij = flow on lane j having the right of
way during phase i; Sj = saturation flow on lane j

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
Total Lost Time- Figure 8.9 shows a graph of rate of discharge of vehicles at various times
during a green phase of a signal cycle at an intersection. Initially, some time is lost before
the vehicles start moving, and then the rate of discharge increases to a maximum. This
maximum rate of discharge is the saturation flow. If there are sufficient vehicles in the
queue to use the available green time, the maximum rate of discharge will be sustained
until the yellow phase occurs. The rate of discharge will then fall to zero when the yellow
signal changes to red. The number of vehicles that go through the intersection is
represented by the area under the curve. Dividing, the number of vehicles that go through
the intersection by the saturation flow will give effective green time, which is less than the
sum of the green and yellow times. This difference is considered lost time, since it is not
used by any other phase for the discharge of vehicles; It can be expressed as
l i = G ai + τ i − Gei

Where: l i = lost time for phase i; G ai = actual green time for phase i (not including yellow

time); τ i = yellow time for phase i; Gei = effective green time for phase i
Total lost time is given as
φ
L = ∑li + R
i =1

Where: R is the total all-red time during the cycle.

Allocation of Green Times- In general, the total effective green time available per cycle is
given by
 φ 
Gte = C − L = C −  ∑ l i + R 
 i =1 
Where: C = actual cycle length used (usually obtained by rounding off Co to the nearest
5 see); Gte = total effective green time per cycle;
To obtain minimum overall delay, the total effective green time should be distributed
among the different phases in proportion to their Y values to obtain the effective green time
for each phase.
Yi
Gei = Gte
Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yφ

and the actual green time for each phase is obtained as

G a 1 = G e1 + l 1 − τ 1

Ga 2 = Ge 2 + l 2 − τ 2
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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
Gai = Gei + l i − τ i

Gaφ = Geφ + l φ − τ φ

TIME-BUDGET METHOD
This method is used to determine the minimum cycle length for a pre-timed signal system,
based on the total time required for all vehicles to pass through the intersection during the
peak 15-min period. The volume moving through the intersection is represented by the
summation of the number of vehicles on the critical lane for each phase. Let
Vi = critical lane volume for phase i (vph)
τ i = yellow interval for phase i (sec)
n =number of signal cycles for a 15-min period
φ = number of phases in a cycle
φ ' = number of phases in a 15-min period
T = total time in seconds required for all vehicles to go through the intersection during the
peak 15-min period
hi = average headway for phase i on the critical lane (lane that carries the critical volume
Vi)(sec),
C = cycle length (sec)
To obtain T, we first have to compute the peak volume for a 15-min period for each phase.
This is obtained by first dividing the hourly volume by 4. This volume is then corrected for
the peak 15-min period by dividing it by the PHF. These are used to obtain T:
φ

∑V h i i
T= i =1

4( PHF )
φ
if the total yellow interval time per cycle is ∑τ
i =1
i , total yellow interval time during a 15-

min period can be found:

φ' φ

∑τ i = n∑τ i = n(τ 1 + τ 2 + τ 3 + ... + τ φ )

i =1 i =1

since the sum of the time T and the total change interval time cannot be greater than 15
min,
φ
T + n ∑τ i ≤ 900
i =1

the limiting condition for eq8.11 is

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
900 − T
T +n= φ

∑τ
i =1
i

the number of cycles in 15 min period, where C is the cycle length, is

900
n=
C
which implies
900 900 − T
= φ
C
∑τ
i =1
i

from which we obtain

φ
900∑τ i
C= i =1

900 − T
φ
900∑τ i
C= i =1

 φ 
 ∑Vi hi 
900 −  i =1 
 4( PHF ) 
 
 
thus
φ

∑τ i
C= φ
i =1

 
 ∑Vi hi 
1 −  i =1 
 3600( PHF ) 
 
 
This expression can also be used to determine the minimum cycle length when an all-red
phase is provided in each cycle. Hence,
φ

∑τ i +R
C= i =1

 φ 
 ∑Vi hi 
1 −  i =1 ( PHF )
 3600 
 
 
where R is the total time of the all-red intervals during the cycle (see).

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
The total actual green time is then distributed among the different green phases in
proportion to their critical-lane volumes to obtain the actual green time for each phase as
follows:

Vi   φ 
Gai = φ C −  ∑τ i + R 
V   i =1 
∑
i =1
i

This calculation assumes that the average headway between vehicles is approximately the
same for each approach.
DELAY AT PRETIMED SIGNALIZED INTERSECTIONS
One of the main objectives of installing a signal system at an intersection is to reduce the
average delay of vehicles at the intersection. Delay is therefore an important measure of
effectiveness to use in the evaluation of a signalized intersection. Delay at a signalized
intersection can be determined by using an expression developed by Webster. The Webster
delay model is the most commonly used model and is quoted most often in the literature. It
gives the average delay experienced per vehicle on the jth approach during the ith phase.
 B  100 − P
d j =  CA + 
 V j  100

where:
dj = average delay per vehicle on jth approach during ith phase
(1 − λi ) 2
A= (see Table 8.3)
2(1 − λi x j )

x 2j
B= (see Table 8.4)
2(1 − x j )

C = cycle length (sec)

Vj = actual volume on jth approach (vehicles/lane/see)
λi = proportion of cycle length that is effectively green (that is, Gei/C, where Gei is
effective green time for phase i)
Xj =degree of saturation for the jth approach = Vj/ λi S
Sj = saturation flow for the jth approach (vehicles/lane/see)
P = percentage correction, ranging from 5 percent to 15 percent for normal conditions (see
Table 8.5)

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Addis Ababa University, Technology Faculty, Civil Engineering Department Part IV –Intersection Control
The total hourly delay for any approach can be estimated by determining the dj for each
lane on that approach, multiplying each dj by the corresponding lane volumes, and then
summing these. The total intersection hourly delay can then be determined by summing the
total delay for each approach.

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