INTRODUCTION TO TRANSPORTATION

ENGINEERING

TOPIC: TRAFFIC CONTROL

Lecturer: Dr. Albert Forde

 INTRODUCTION
Traffic control devices are defined as all signs, traffic
signals/lights, markings, and other devices used to
regulate, warn, or guide traffic, placed on ,over, or
adjacent to a street, highway, pedestrian facility,
bikeway or private road open to public travel by
authority of a public agency or official having
jurisdiction, or, in the case of a private road, by
authority of the private owner or private official having
jurisdiction.
 PURPOSE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
 The purpose of traffic control devices, as well as
the principles for their use, is to promote highway
safety and efficiency by providing for the orderly
movement of all road users on streets, highways,
bikeways, and private roads open to public travel.
 To be effective, traffic control devices should meet
five basic requirements
 Fulfill a need
 Command attention
 PURPOSE OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
 Convey a clear, simple meaning.
 Command respect from road users.
 Give adequate time for proper response.
 TYPES OF TRAFFIC CONTROL DEVICES
 Signs
 Markings
 Traffic Signals
Signs
The functions of signs are to provide:
 Warnings.
 Regulations.
 Guidance information.
 WARNING SIGNS
 They call attention to unexpected conditions on or
adjacent to a highway, street, or private roads open to
public travel and to situations that might not be readily
apparent to road users.
 They alert road users to conditions that might call
for a reduction of speed or an action in the interest of
safety and efficient traffic operations.
 Based on US standards, they have a yellow
background.
WARNING SIGNS
 GUIDE SIGNS
 Guide signs are essential to direct road users along
streets and highways, to inform them of intersection
routes, to direct them to cities, towns, villages, or other
important destinations,
 To identify nearby rivers and streams, parks, forests,
and historical sites, and general to give such
information as will help them along their way in the
most simple, direct manner possible.
 Based on US standards, they mostly have a green
background.
GUIDE SIGNS
 REGULATORY SIGNS
 Regulatory signs are used to inform road users
of selected traffic laws or regulations and indicate
the applicability of the legal requirements.
 They should be installed at or near the
regulations apply.
 They should clearly indicate the requirements
imposed by the regulations and should be designed
and installed to provide adequate visibility and
legibility in order to obtain compliance.
 REGULATORY SIGNS
 Based on US standards, they mostly have a red
background.
 MARKINGS
 Markings on highways and private roads open to
public travel have important functions in providing
guidance and information for the road user.
 Major marking types include pavement and curb
markings, delineators, colored pavements, channelizing
devices, and islands.
 Markings must be visible at night.
 They should be retro reflective unless ambient
illumination assures that the markings are adequately
visible.
 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
 They provide control by showing green indications
only to those movements that can travel through the
intersection together at the same time.
 A time separation, indicated by the yellow and red
displays, is provided between each set of these
compatible movements.
 Advantages of Traffic Control Signals
Traffic control signals that are properly designed,
located, operated, and maintained will have one or more
of the following advantages:
 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
 Advantages of Traffic Control Signals
 They provide for the orderly movement of traffic.
 They increase the traffic-handling capacity of the
intersection.
 They reduce the frequency and severity of certain
types of crashes, especially right-angle collisions.
 They are coordinated to provide for continuous or
nearly continuous movement of traffic at a definite
speed along a given route under favorable conditions.
 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
 Disadvantages of Traffic Control Signals
Traffic control signals, even when justified by traffic and
roadway conditions, can be ill-designed, ineffectively
placed, improperly operated, or poorly maintained.
Improper or unjustified traffic control signals can result in
one or more of the following disadvantages.
 Excessive delay
 Excessive disobedience of the signal indications
 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
 Disadvantages of Traffic Control Signals
 Increased use of less adequate routes as users
attempt to avoid the traffic control signal.
 Significant increases in the frequency of
collisions(especially rear-end collisions).
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONPONENTS
Vehicular Traffic Signal Head
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONPONENTS
Pedestrian Traffic Signal Head
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONPONENTS
Traffic Signal Controller
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONPONENTS
 Signal Cabinet
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL CONPONENTS
 Signal Arm Post
 UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
 An un-signalized intersection is defined as an at-
grade crossing of two or more roadways that are not
controlled by traffic signal. For analysis, the roadways
entering the intersection are segmented into
approaches, which are defined by lane groups(groups of
one or more lanes).
 These lane groups are usually based on the allowed
movements(left, through, right) within each lane and the
sequencing of allowed movements by the traffic signal
UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
 UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
Three types of conflicts at un-signalized intersection
 Diverging
 Merging
 Crossing
 UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
Conflicts at 4-Leg Un-signalized Intersection
 UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
The individual un-signalized intersections that make up a
system of urban streets are commonly controlled by
traffic signs :
 Yield Sign
 Stop Sign
• Two Way Stop Sign
• All Way Stop Sign
 UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
 Yield Sign: When traffic volumes are low, such as in
a residential area, yield control is often sufficient. Yield
signs require drivers to reduce their speed and
determine that no other conflicting vehicles or
pedestrians are present before they can safely proceed
through the intersection.
 UN-SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
 Stop Sign: This type of control requires drivers to
come to a complete stop before entering the
intersection. All-way stop-control requires drivers on all
intersection approaches to stop, while two-way stop-
control requires only drivers on the stop-controlled
approaches to stop.
 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
 A signalized intersection is defined as an at-grade
crossing of two or more roadways controlled by traffic
signals. As mentioned previously, the roadways entering
the intersection are segmented into approaches, which
are defined by lane groups(groups of one or more lanes).
 These lane groups are usually based on the allowed
movements(left, through, right) within each lane and the
sequencing of allowed movements by the traffic signal.
 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
 To illustrate these concepts, note that approach 1 of
the intersection depicted in the following Figure(get
familiar with this figure) consists of a lane for the
exclusive use of left turns, a lane for the exclusive use of
right turns, and two lanes for the exclusive use of
through movements.
 Approach 3 is similar to approach 1 but does not
include an exclusive right turn lane; instead, the right
turns share the outside lane with the through
movements.
SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
 Queuing analysis can be used to determine the length
of bay necessary to prevent queued turning vehicles
from overflowing the bay and blocking the through
lanes known as spillover and/or the length necessary
to prevent queued through vehicles from blocking the
entrance of the turn bay known as spillback.
 TRAFFIC WARRANTS
 Traffic signals are the highest form of intersection
control that transportation engineer work with on a
regular basis.
 They are typically the last resort to control an
intersection for safety and efficiency.
 Since signals interrupt the flow of traffic for extended
periods, thereby possibly reducing the efficiency of the
intersection, the transportation professional must
conduct an engineering study to determine if a signal is
warranted.
 TRAFFIC WARRANTS
The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices(MUTCD)
standard requires a transportation professional to perform an
engineering study to access whether the traffic conditions,
pedestrian characteristics, or physical characteristics at an
intersection warrant a traffic signal.
 Once the transportation engineer has gather the appropriate
data, they can conduct a warrant analysis to determine
whether a signal is warranted at the intersection.
If one is warranted, the engineer should then use engineering
judgment to determine whether the signal is the best option.
 TRAFFIC WARRANTS
 The MUTCD defines engineering judgment as follows:
“…the evaluation of available pertinent information, and the
application of appropriate principles, provisions, and
practices… for the purpose of deciding upon the applicability,
design, operation , or installation of a traffic control device”
 The nine warrants included in the MUTCD are as follows:
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
The following terminology is commonly used in the
design of traffic signal controls:
 Indication: The illumination of one or more signal
lenses (green, yellow/Amber,red) indicating an allowed
or prohibited traffic movement.
 Cycle: One complete sequence(for all approaches) of
signal indications(greens, yellows/Amber, reds)
 Cycle Length : The total time for the signal to
complete one cycle.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
 Green Time: The amount of time within a cycle for which a
movement or combination of movements receives a green
indication.
 Yellow/Amber Time: The amount of time within a cycle for
which a movement or combination of movements receives a
yellow indication. Drivers must prepare to stop during this
indication.
 Red Time : The amount of time within a cycle for which a
movement or combination of movements receives a red
indication. Drivers must stop during this indication.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
 All-Red Time : The time within a cycle in which all
approaches have a red indication. This time is referred to as the
clearance interval , because it allows vehicles that might have
entered at the end of the yellow interval to clear the
intersection before the green phase starts for the next
conflicting movement(s).
 Phase: The sum of the displayed green ,yellow, and red
times for a movement or combination of movements that
receive the right of way simultaneously during the cycle. The
sum of the phase lengths(in seconds) is the cycle length.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
 Phase:
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
 Phase:
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
 Protected Movement: A movement that has the right-of-
way and does not need to yield to conflicting movement, such
as opposing vehicle traffic or pedestrians. Through movements,
which are always protected, are given a green full circle
indication.
 Permitted Movement: A movement that must yield to
opposing traffic flow or a conflicting pedestrian movement.
This movement is made during gaps (time headways) in
opposing traffic and conflicting pedestrian movements. Left-
turning vehicles in this situation must wait for gaps in the
opposing through and right-turning traffic before making their
turns.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
Saturation Flow Rate:
The saturation flow rate is the maximum hourly volume that can
pass through an intersection, from a given lane or group of
lanes, if than lane(or lanes) were allocated constant green over
the course of an hour. Saturation flow rate is given by
𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
𝒔=
𝒉
Where
𝑠 = saturation flow rate in veh/h,
ℎ = saturation headway in s/veh, and
3600 = number of seconds per hour.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
Saturation Flow Rate:
Research has found that a typical maximum saturation
flow rate of 1900 passenger cars per hour per
lane(pc/h/ln) is possible at signalized intersections, and
this is referred to as the base saturation flow rate. This
corresponds to a saturation headway of about 1.9 second.
Lost Time :
Due to the traffic signal`s function of continuously
alternating the right-of-way between conflicting
movements, traffic streams are continuously started and
stopped.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
Lost Time :
 Every time this happens, a portion of the cycle length is not being
completely utilized, which translates to lost time( time that is not
effectively serving any movement of traffic).
 Total lost time is a combination of start-up lost time and clearance
lost time. Start-up lost times occur because when a signal indication
turns from red to green, drivers in the queue do not instantly star
moving at the saturation flow rate; there is an initial lag due to drivers
reacting to the change of signal indication.
 This start-up delay results in a portion of the green time for that
movement not being completely utilized. Also, when the signal
indication turns from green to yellow, the latter portion of time during
the yellow interval is generally not utilized by traffic. This start-up lost
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL TERMINOLOGY
Lost Time :
Additionally, if there is an all-red interval, this time period is generally
not utilized by traffic . These periods of time during the change and
clearance intervals that are not effectively used by traffic are referred to
as clearance lost time. Typically, the last second of the yellow interval
and the entire all-red interval are included in the estimate of clearance
lost time. The start-up and clearance lost times are summed to arrive at
a total lost time for the phase, given as
𝒕𝑳 = 𝒕𝒔𝒍 + 𝒕𝒄𝒍
Where,
𝒕𝑳 = total lost time for a movement during a cycle in second,
𝒕𝒔𝒍 = start-up lost time in seconds,
𝒕𝒄𝒍 = clearance lost time in seconds.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL OPERATION MODE
Traffic signals are designed to operate in one or more of
the following modes:
 Pretimed/Fixed Operation.
 Semi-Actuated Operation.
 Fully Actuated Operation.
 Adaptive control Operation.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL OPERATION MODE
 Pretimed/Fixed Operation
 A signal whose timing(cycle length, green time, etc) is fixed
over specified time periods and does not change in
response to changes in traffic flow at the intersection.
 No vehicle detection is necessary with this mode of
operation.
 Pretimed signal operation does not require the expense of
vehicle detection hardware, it results in a signal timing that
is not responsive to real-time traffic demands.
 The fixed-time values of the pretimed signal are based on
expected traffic demands during the time period of interest.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL OPERATION MODE
 Pretimed/Fixed Operation
 However, traffic arrivals can vary significantly from
cycle to the next. Thus, with fixed timing, a phase may
provide excessive green time one cycle(which results
in extra delay for the vehicles that move in other
phases) and not enough time in another cycle.
 Pre-timed control is ideally suited for closely spaced
intersections. where traffic volumes and patterns are
consistent on a daily or day-of-week basis.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL OPERATION MODE
 Semi-Actuated :
 A signal whose timing( cycle length, green time, etc) is affected
when vehicles are detected( by video, pavement-embedded
inductance loop detectors, etc) on some, but not all approaches.
 This mode of operation is usually found where a low-volume road
intersects a high volume road, often referred to as the minor and
major streets, respectively.
 In such cases, green time is allocated to the major street until
vehicles are detected on the minor street; then the green indication
is briefly allocated to the minor street and then returned to the
major street.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL OPERATION MODE
 Fully-Actuated :
 A signal whose timing(cycle length, green time, etc) is
completely influenced by the traffic volumes, when
detected, on all of the approaches.
 Fully actuated signals are most commonly used at
intersections of two major streets and where
substantial variations exist in all approach traffic
volumes over the course of a day.
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL OPERATION MODE
 Fully-Actuated :
 TRAFFIC SIGNAL OPERATION MODE
 Adaptive traffic control system (ATCS) :
 This is a traffic management strategy in which traffic
signal timing changes, or adapts, based on actual
traffic demand.
 This is accomplished using an adaptive traffic control
system consisting of both hardware and software.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=04HlKOJ5CNw
 SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION
Traffic Signal Operation Mode
 How Do Traffic Signals Work??

•https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DP62ogEZgkI&
feature=youtu.be
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
 Assuming the decision to install a traffic signal at an
intersection has been made, an appropriate phasing and
timing plan must be designed.
 The development of a traffic signal phasing and
timing plan can be complex, particularly if the
intersection has multiple-lane approaches and requires
protected turning movements( a turn arrow).
 However, the timing plan analysis can be simplified by
dealing with each approach separately.
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
The basic steps and fundamentals needed to a phasing and timing plan
for an isolated, fixed-time(pretimed) traffic signal are as follows:
 Step 1: Select Signal Phasing
 Step 2: Establish Analysis Lane Groups
 Step 3: Calculate Analysis Flow Rates and Adjusted Saturation Flow
Rates
 Step 4: Determine Critical Lane Groups and Total Cycle Lost Time
 Step 5: Calculate Cycle Length
 Step 6: Allocate Green Times
 Step 7: Calculate Change and Clearance Intervals
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 1: Select Signal Phasing:
 Recall that a cycle is the sum of indivual phases. The most
basic traffic signal cycle is made up of two phase as shown in
previous figure.
 In this case, Phase 1 accommodates the movement of the
northbound and Southbound vehicles, and Phase 2
accommodates the movement of the eastbound and
westbound vehicles.
 These phases will alternate during the continuous
operation of the signal. This phasing scheme, however, could
prove to be inefficient if one or more of the approaches
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 1: Select Signal Phasing:
 Because of opposing vehicle traffic, left-turn movements typically
require a protected-turn phase much more than right turns.
 One of the more common guidelines is the use of the cross
product of left-turn volume and opposing through and right-turn
volumes.
 The Highway Capacity Manual(HCM) offers the following criteria
for this guideline. The use of a protected left-turn phase should be
considered when the product of left-turning vehicles and opposing
traffic exceeds 50,000 during the peak hour for one opposing lane,
90,000 for two opposing lanes, or 110, 000 for three or more opposing
lanes.
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
In general, decisions on whether to provide a protected left-turn
phase are based on one or more of the following factors:
 Volume (just left turn or combination of left turn and
opposing volume)
 Delay
 Queuing(Spillover)
 Traffic Progression
 Opposing Traffic Speed
 Geometry(number of left-turn lanes, crossing distance,
sight distance)
 Crash experience
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 2: Establish Analysis Lane Groups: Each intersection
approach is initially treated separately, and the results are later
aggregated. Thus ,each approach must be subdivided into logical
groupings of traffic movements for analysis purposes. Based on the
lane and traffic movement distribution on an approach, lane groups
can be readily determined The following general guidelines are offered
for establishing lane groups:
 If an exclusive lane (or lanes) is present, it should be treated as a
separate lane group.
 Each shared lane on an approach should be treated as a separate
lane group.
 Any remaining lanes, which would be exclusive through lanes,
should be treated as a separate lane group.
 DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 3: Calculate Analysis Flow Rates and Adjusted Saturation
Flow Rates: The hourly traffic volume arriving on each intersection
approach must be converted to an analysis flow rate that accounts for
the peak 15-minute flow within that hour (typically the peak hour). This
is accomplished by calculating the peak-hour factor (PHF) and dividing
this into the hourly volume, which yields the analysis flow rate.
Step 4: Determine Critical Groups and Total Cycle Lost Time:
For any combination of lane group movements during a particular
phase, one of these lane groups will control the necessary green time
for that phase. This lane group is referred to the critical lane group.
When the traffic movements of each lane group occur during only one
phase of the signal cycle, the determination of the critical lane group for
each phase is straightforward.
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 4: Determine Critical Groups and Total Cycle
Lost Time:
 In this case, the critical lane group for each phase is
simply the lane group with the highest ratio of vehicle
arrival rate to vehicle departure rate. This quantity is
referred to as the flow and is designated 𝑣 𝑠 (arrival flow
rate divided by the saturation flow rate).
 If the allocation of green time for each phase is based
on the flow ratio of the critical lane group, then the
noncritical lane group movements will be
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 4: Determine Critical Groups and Total Cycle
Lost Time:
The sum of the flow ratios for the critical lanes groups are used
to calculate a suitable cycle length. This is given by
𝒏
𝒗
𝒀𝒄 =
𝒔 𝒄𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
Where
𝒀𝒄 = sum of flow ratios for critical lane groups,
𝒗
= flow ratio for critical lane group 𝑖
𝒔 𝒄𝒊
𝒏 = number of critical lane groups
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 4: Determine Critical Groups and Total Cycle Lost
Time:
The total lost time for the cycle will also be used in the calculation of
cycle length. In determining the total lost time for the cycle, the general
rule is to apply the lost time for a critical lane group when its
movements are initiated(the start of its green interval)
𝒏

𝑳= 𝒕𝑳 𝒄𝒊
𝒊=𝟏
Where
𝐿 = total lost time for cycle in seconds,
𝑡𝐿 𝑐𝑖 = total lost time for critical lane group 𝑖 in seconds
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 5: Calculate Cycle Length:
The cycle length is simply the summation of the individual
phase lengths. In practice, cycle lengths are generally kept
as short as possible, typically between 60 and 75 seconds.
However, complex intersections with five or more phases
can have cycle lengths of 120 seconds or more. The
minimum cycle length necessary for the lane group
volumes and phasing plan of an intersection is given by
𝐋 × 𝐗𝐜
𝐂𝐦𝐢𝐧 =
𝐧 𝐯
𝐗𝐜 − 𝐢
𝐬 𝐜𝐢
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 5: Calculate Cycle Length:
𝑪𝒎𝒊𝒏 = minimum necessary cycle length in
seconds(typically rounded up to the nearest 5-
second increment in practice),
𝑳 = total lost time for cycle in seconds,
𝑿𝒄 = critical v/c ratio for the intersection,
𝒗
= flow ratio for critical lane group 𝑖
𝒔 𝒄𝒊
𝒏 = number of critical lane groups.
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 5: Calculate Cycle Length:
A practical equation for the calculation of the cycle
length that seeks to minimize vehicle delay was
developed by Webster(1958). Webster`s optimum cycle
length formula is given as follows:
𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝑳 + 𝟓
𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒕 =
𝒏 𝒗
𝟏. 𝟎 − 𝒊
𝒔 𝒄𝒊
Where
𝑪𝒐𝒑𝒕 = cycle length to minimize delay in seconds,
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 6: Allocate Green Time:
 After a cycle length has been calculated, the
next step in the traffic signal timing process is to
determine how much green time should be
allocated to each phase.
 The cycle length is the sum of all effective green
times plus the lost time. Thus, after subtracting the
total lost time from the cycle length, the remaining
time can be distributed as green time among the
phases of the cycle.
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 6: Allocate Green Time:
𝒗 𝑪
𝒈𝒊 =
𝒔 𝒄𝒊 𝑿𝒊
Where
𝒈𝒊 = effective green time for phase 𝑖
𝐯
= flow ratio for critical lane group 𝑖
𝐬 𝒄𝒊
C= cycle length in seconds
𝑿𝒊 = v/c ratio for lane group 𝑖
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 6: Calculate Change and Clearance Intervals
Recall that the change interval corresponds to the yellow
time and the clearance interval corresponds to the all-red
time. The yellow and all red interval is calculated as
follows:
𝑽
Y=𝒕𝒓 +
𝟐𝒂+𝟐𝒈𝑮
Y= yellow time(usually rounded up to the nearest 0.5
second)
𝒕𝒓 = driver perception/reaction time, usually taken as
1.0 second
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS

Step 6: Calculate Change and Clearance Intervals

V= speed of approaching traffic in m/s

a=deceleration rate for the vehicle, usually taken as
3.05 m/s 2

g=acceleration due to gravity (9.807 m/s )2

G= percent grade divided by 100.

DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 6: Calculate Change and Clearance Intervals

𝑤+𝑙
AR=
𝑉
Where
AR =all-red(usually rounded up to the nearest 0.5
second)
𝒘= width of cross street in m.
𝒍= length of the vehicle, usually taken as 6 m
𝑽= speed of approaching traffic in m/s
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS

Example 3 : Design a traffic signal phasing and

timing plan for the intersection shown in the figure
below. Calculate the minimum and optimal cycle
lengths for the intersection. Assuming 2 seconds of
start-up lost time and 2 seconds of clearance lost
time (1 second of yellow time plus 1 second of all-
red time). Assume a volume-to-capacity(v/c) of 0.9.
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Example 3 :
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Example 3 :
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Solution:
Step 1: Determine Left-Turn Phasing
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Solution:
Step 1: Determine Left-Turn Phasing
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 2:: Determine Lane Groups
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 3: Calculate Sum of Flow Ratios and Total Lost Time
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 3: Calculate Sum of Flow Ratios and Total Lost Time
 Assuming 2 seconds of start-up lost time and 2
seconds of clearance lost time (1 second of yellow time
plus 1 second of all-red time), for each critical lane group
, gives a lost time of 4 s/phase.
 The total lost time for the cycle is then 12 seconds(3 ×
4 s/phase)
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 4: Calculate Minimum and Optimal Cycle Lengths

12×0.9
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = 62.1 → 65 𝑠 (rounding up to nearest 5
0.9−0.726
seconds)

1.5 ×12+5
𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑡 = = 83.9 → 85 𝑠 (rounding up to nearest 5
01.0−0.726
seconds)
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 5: Allocate Green Time
Determine the green-time allocations for the 65-second
cycle found using the method of v/c equalization.
Because the calculated cycle length was rounded up a few
seconds, the critical intersection v/c ratio for this rounded
cycle length will be calculated for use in the green-time
allocation calculations by rearranging the equation for
minimum cycle length as follows
𝒏 𝒗
𝒊=𝟏 𝒔 × 𝑪
𝒊
𝑿𝒄 =
𝑪−𝑳
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 5: Allocate Green Time
Using this
𝒗
= 0.726
𝒔 𝒄𝒊
C= 65 s
L= 12 s
0.726×65
Gives 𝑋𝑐 = =0.890
65−12
Therefore, the cycle length of 65 seconds and 𝑋𝑐 of 0.890
are used to calculate the effective green times for the
three phases , as follows:
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 5: Allocate Green Time
𝑣 𝐶
EB and WB left-turn movements: 𝑔1 =
𝑠 𝑐1 𝑋1
65
=0.171 × = 12.5 s
0.890
𝑣 𝐶
EB and WB through and right movements: 𝑔2 = 𝑠 𝑐2 𝑋2
65
=0.338 ×0.890= 24.7 s
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 5: Allocate Green Time
 NB and SB left-through, and right-turn movements
𝑣 𝐶
 : 𝑔3 =
𝑠 𝑐3 𝑋3
65
 =0.217 × = 15.8 s
0.890
 The cycle length is checked by summing these
effective green times and the lost time, giving
𝑪 = 𝒈𝟏 +𝒈𝟐 +𝒈𝟑 +L
 = 12.5+24.7+15.8+12= 65 s
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 6:Calculate Change and Clearance Intervals
Recall that the change interval corresponds to the yellow
time and the clearance interval corresponds to the all-red
time.
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
(𝟓𝟓×𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎)
For the Vine Street phasing: Y= 1 + = 3.51 ⇨
𝟐(𝟑.𝟎𝟓)
4.0s(rounding to the nearest 0.5s)
𝟏𝟖.𝟑+𝟔
AR = = 1.59 ⇨ 2.0s(rounding to the nearest
𝟓𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
0.5s)
DESIGN OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL PHASING AND TIMING PLANS
Step 6:Calculate Change and Clearance Intervals
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
(𝟔𝟓×𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎)
For the Maple Street phasing: Y= 1 + = 3.96s ⇨
𝟐(𝟑.𝟎𝟓)
4.0(rounding to the nearest 0.5s)
𝟏𝟏+𝟔
AR= = 0.94s ⇨ 1.0s(rounding to the
𝟔𝟓×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎/𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎
nearest 0.5s)