Technology

Grade 9
Book 2

CAPS

Learner Book

Developed and funded as an ongoing project by the Sasol Inzalo

Foundation in partnership with the Ukuqonda Institute.
Published by The Ukuqonda Institute
9 Neale Street, Rietondale, 0084
Registered as a Title 21 company, registration number 2006/026363/08
Public Benefit Organisation, PBO Nr. 930035134
Website: http://www.ukuqonda.org.za

First published in 2014

© 2014. Copyright in the work is vested in the publisher.
Copyright in the text remains vested in the contributors.

ISBN: 978-1-920705-05-3

This book was developed with the participation of the Department of Basic Education of
South Africa with funding from the Sasol Inzalo Foundation.

Contributors:
Graham Barlow, Louis Botha, John de Klerk, Jacqui Greenop, Chris Human,
Piet Human, Riekie Human, Xenia Kyriacou, Morne Labuschagne, John Laurie,
Ezekiel Makwana, Rallai Maleka, Mafahle Mashegoana, Themba Mavuso,
Peter Middleton, Lebogang Modisakwena, Peter Moodie, Neil Murtough, Sarah Niss,
Humphrey Nkgogo, Phillip Radingoane, Jan Randewijk, Margot Roebert, Marlene Rousseau,
Marcus Taba, Yvonne Thiebaut, Cecile Turley, Louis van Aswegen, Karen van Niekerk,
Elene van Sandwyk, Hettie Vos, Magdaleen Snyman
Illustrations and graphics:
Astrid Blumer (Happy Artworks Studio), Ian Greenop, Chris Human, Piet Human,
Peter Middleton, Peter Moodie, Melany Pietersen (Happy Artworks Studio),
Theo Sandrock, Lisa Steyn Illustration, Heine van As (Happy Artworks Studio),
Leonora van Staden, Geoff Walton
Cover illustration: Leonora van Staden
Photographs:
Lenni de Koker, Ian Greenop, Chris Human, Tessa Oliver,
Elsa Retief (GalleryProductions)
Text design: Mike Schramm
Layout and typesetting: Lebone Publishing Services

Thanks for free sharing of ideas, and free access to photographs, to:
Cape Peninsula Fire Protection Association, National Sea Rescue Institute,
The Transitions Collective (www.ishackliving.co.za).
Thanks to people or institutions who placed photographs in the public
domain on www.commons.wikimedia.org, with no attribution required.
Thanks to Frank Murmann, 2008, whose photo appears on page 132, for sharing that photo on
www.commons.wikimedia.org under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.
Printed by [printer name and address]
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Table of contents
Term 3
Chapter 1:
Component symbols and simple circuits.............................. 1

Chapter 2:
Resistors and Ohm’s Law ....................................................... 19

Chapter 3:
Electronic components 1......................................................... 31

Chapter 4:
Electronic components 2 ........................................................ 45

Chapter 5:
Build and draw electronic circuits ......................................... 57

Chapter 6: Mini-Pat
Electronic systems and control .............................................. 69
Term 4
Chapter 7:
Preserving metals.................................................................... 93

Chapter 8:
Extending the shelf life of food ............................................. 107

Chapter 9:
Plastics ..................................................................................... 121

Chapter 10:
Recycling and manufacturing with recycled plastic ............. 131

Chapter 11: Mini-PAT

Reduce, re-use and recycle: Working with plastics............. 139
Term 3
Chapter 1
Component symbols and
simple circuits
In this chapter, you will revise the work you did on electrical systems and control in Grade 8. You will
also revise simple circuits, circuit diagrams and connecting cells, and lamps and switches in series
and parallel. You will then do action research on the effects of changing the voltage in a circuit.

1.1 Revision 1: Component symbols ....................................................................................... 2

1.2 Revision 2: Simple circuits ............................................................................................... 11
1.3 Testing voltage and current in circuits ............................................................................... 13

Figure 1: A torch

Technology grade 9 term 3 1

1.1  Revision 1: Component symbols
“Components” are the parts that we connect in an electric circuit.
Do you remember the symbols for cells, lamps and switches?
Do you remember the difference between joining components in series and in
parallel? Let’s see what you can remember.
You have already learnt that an electric circuit is a closed path in which a
current flows.

The simplest circuit has:

• a power source such as a cell,
• a conductor, and
• a load that provides resistance, such as a lamp.

Cells in series
Two or more cells can be connected in series to In series means the cells are
increase the voltage in the circuit. Figure 2 below connected end-to-end, and the
shows two cells connected in series in a circuit. The current flows through each cell
positive terminal of cell A is connected to the lamp. in turn.

The negative terminal of cell A is connected to the positive terminal of cell B, and
the negative terminal of cell B is connected to the other terminal of the lamp.
1. Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit in Figure 3 in the space to the right of it.

Figure 2: Two cells in series connected to a lamp

2 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

2. Figure 3 below shows three cells connected in series in a circuit. Draw a circuit
diagram of the circuit in the space to the right of Figure 3.

Figure 3: Three cells in series connected to a lamp

When cells are connected in series, their total

voltage is the sum of the voltages of the three cells:
1,5 V + 1,5 V + 1 ,5 V = 4,5 V

CHAPTER 1: component symbols 3

and simple circuits
Cells in parallel
Two or more cells can also be connected “in parallel”. A parallel circuit has two or
more different paths for the current to travel along.
Figure 4 below shows two cells connected in parallel in a circuit. The positive
terminals of both cells are connected to each other and to the lamp. The negative
terminals of both cells are connected to each other and to the other terminal of
the lamp.
3. Draw a circuit diagram of the circuit in Figure 4 in the space to the right of it.

Figure 4: Three cells in parallel connected to a lamp

When cells are connected in parallel, the total

voltage of the cells is the same as that of a single
cell (1,5 volts).

4 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Lamps in series
Two or more lamps can also be connected in series.
The pictures below show circuit diagrams of two and three lamps connected in
series with the battery. The positive terminal of the battery (+B) is connected to
lamp 1, the other side of lamp 1 is connected to lamp 2, the other side of lamp 2 is
connected to the negative terminal (B–) of the battery, and so forth.

Figure 5: Two lamps in series

Figure 6: Three lamps in series

4. How does increasing the number of lamps in series change the current and
voltage in the circuit?

If all the lamps have the same resistance, the

voltage drop across each lamp will be equal to 1,5 V.
When the voltage drops of all the lamps are added,
the total battery voltage of 4,5 V is obtained.
The current is the same through each lamp.

CHAPTER 1: component symbols 5

and simple circuits
Lamps in parallel
Two or more lamps can also be connected to the battery in parallel, as shown in
the pictures below. The positive terminal of the battery is directly connected to one
side of each lamp and the negative terminal to the other side of each lamp.

Figure 7: Circuit diagram of two lamps in parallel

Figure 8: Circuit diagram of three lamps in parallel

The applied voltage is the same across each lamp.

The current is divided across each lamp, and the
total current is the sum of the current through each
lamp:
It = I1 + I2 + I3

6 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

5. Look at the circuit diagram below and answer the following questions:

Figure 9

(a) What is the voltage drop across lamps 1 and 2?

(b) The total current in the circuit is 10 A. If lamp 1 has a current of 4 A flowing
through it, what will the current be through lamp 2?

Switches in series and parallel

In a circuit with one switch, the switch controls whether the current flows through
the circuit or not. If the switch is open, no current flows, as the circuit is not
completed. The closed switch allows the current to flow.

Figure 10: Symbols for an open switch and a closed switch

We can use two or more switches to control components in a circuit in more

complex ways.

In a logic circuit, an open switch is regarded as

having a value of 0, and a closed switch as having a
value of 1.
The switches are the inputs that control the final
state of the circuit.
If the circuit is not completed, the output is in the
OFF state and has a value of 0.
If the circuit is completed, the output is in the ON
state and has a value of 1.

CHAPTER 1: component symbols 7

and simple circuits
Switches in series
In the circuit below, there are two switches in series. This gives us four different
switch combinations. They are:
• Switch A and B both open,
• Switch A open and B closed,
• Switch A closed and B open, and
• both switches closed.

Figure 11: Circuit with two switches in series

Do you see that the current cannot flow through the circuit if either switch A or
switch B is open? Both of them must be closed for the lamp to glow.

6. In the table below, “0” means off or open, and “1” means on or closed. Complete
the table to show all the different combinations possible in the circuit in Figure
11. To help you, the first two rows of the table have already been completed.
Make sure you understand those two rows before you complete the rest of the
table

Input A Input B Output

0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0
1 1

The table showing these combinations is called a truth table.

Both switch A and switch B must be closed for the

circuit to be completed (an output of 1).
So we can see that switches connected in series
give us an AND function.

8 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Switches in parallel
In the circuit below, there are two switches in parallel. This also gives us four
different switch combinations.

Figure 12: Circuit with two switches in parallel

Do you see that the current can go through the closed switch, even if the other
switch is open?

7. Complete the truth table below for the circuit in Figure 12.

Input A Input B Output

The truth table shows that when switch A or switch B

is closed, the output will be 1 (the lamp will be on).
We call switches in parallel an OR function.

Questions for homework

1. Would the lamp light up in each of these circuits? Explain your answer.
(a)

Figure 13

CHAPTER 1: component symbols 9

and simple circuits
 (b)

Figure 14

(c)

Figure 15

2. A kettle must be switched on at the wall plug first and then at the kettle itself.
(a) Fill in the truth table to show all the possible combinations.

Wall plug switch Kettle switch Output

(b) Is this an AND function or an OR function? Explain your answer.

10 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

1.2  Revision 2: Simple circuits
In this lesson, you will set up simple circuits, revising what you learnt about
setting up circuits in Grade 8.
You will need the following for this activity:
• two AA cells in cell holders,
• connecting wires,
• a switch, and
• two lamps.
Note that you can use a homemade switch and a cell holder made of insulation
tape for this activity.
1. Look at the circuit below.

Figure 16

Set up this circuit and check that it works by closing the switch.
(a) Does the lamp light up?

When you have the circuit working correctly, move on to question 2. If you need
to, you can troubleshoot your circuit by looking at the following:
• If the lamp doesn’t light up, but the wires get hot, you may have a short circuit.
This means that the lamp is not connected correctly in the circuit, or that it is
faulty. Check that the lamp is connected correctly in the circuit.
• If the lamp still doesn’t light up, check each component and connecting wire by
replacing them, one by one. You can identify which one is faulty this way.

CHAPTER 1: component symbols 11

and simple circuits
2. Add another lamp to the circuit in series with the first one.
(a) Draw a circuit diagram for this circuit.

(b) What do you notice about the brightness of the lamps?

3. Set up the same circuit, but add another bulb in series with the first bulb.
(a) Draw a circuit diagram for this new circuit.

(b) Write what you notice about the lamps in this circuit.

4. Write down your conclusions about changing the number of cells and the
number of lamps in the circuit.

12 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

1.3  Testing voltage and current in circuits
In this lesson, you will investigate the relationship
V: volts (potential)
between the value of the voltage and the current in a
A: amps (current)
circuit. You will need to use a multi-meter that can be
Ω: ohms (resistance)
set to measure the voltage, resistance or the current in
a circuit.
Begin by reading the text below on how to use a multi-meter correctly.

Measuring resistance
Identify the section labelled “Ω” on the multi-meter in the picture below.
• Connect the red test lead to the “V ΩmA” terminal, and the black test lead to the
“COM” terminal.
• Adjust the function selector switch to “Ω”.
• Connect the ends of the test leads across the unknown resistor as shown.
Ensure that the resistor is isolated from any other component or power supply.
• Read the value of the resistor from the display, and if necessary adjust the dial
to ohm, Ω, to obtain a good reading. Do this in whole numbers rather than in
decimals.

Figure 17: Multi-meter set and connected to measure resistance

CHAPTER 1: component symbols 13

and simple circuits
Measuring voltage
Identify the section labelled “DCV” on the multi-meter in the picture below.
• Connect the red test lead to the “VΩ mA” terminal, and the black test lead to the
“COM” terminal.
• Adjust the range selector to the “DCV”.
• Set the meter on the highest range.
• Connect the other ends of the test leads parallel across the part of the circuit
where the voltage is to be measured: red test lead to positive (+), and black test
lead to negative (–).
• Read the voltage from the display. You may need to adjust the voltage selector until
a good reading is displayed. Do this in whole numbers rather than in decimals.

Figure 18: Multi-meter set and connected to measure current

Measuring current
Identify the section, labelled “DCA” on the multi-meter in Figure 18.
• Connect the red test lead to the “V mA” terminal and the black test lead to the
“COM” terminal. If the current to be measured is between 200 mA and 10 A,
connect the red test lead to the “10 A” terminal.
• Adjust the range selector to the “A” (ampere) region. If you are measuring an
unknown current, start from the highest range, then adjust to a proper lower
range for the best accuracy.
• Connect the other ends of the test leads in series with the part of the circuit
where the current is to be measured. (Disconnect the circuit and place the
meter in series.)
• Read the current value from the display.

14 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Action research

You will need the following for this activity:

• three penlight cells (AA) in holders,
• a 500 ohm resistor, with the colour bands exactly
as in Figure 19, and
• two multi-meters, or an ammeter and a voltmeter. Figure 19: A 500 ohm resistor

Set up the circuit as shown in Figure 20 below, using In the next chapter, you will
a cell, resistor and ammeter. If you use a multi-meter learn how the colour bands
instead of an ammeter, set it on the amps scale. on a resistor tell you the
resistance (ohms).

An ammeter is always
connected in series with the
part of the circuit for which
you measure the current, so
that it measures the full current
through that part of the circuit.
It has a very small resistance
so that it does not change the
Figure 20: Circuit with one cell, resistor and ammeter current in the circuit.
Now connect a voltmeter across the resistor, as
shown in Figure 21. If you use a multi-meter instead of
a voltmeter, set it on the volts scale.

A voltmeter is always
connected in parallel with the
part of the circuit for which
it measures the potential
difference between two points.
Very little current flows through
a voltmeter since it has a very
high resistance.

Figure 21: Circuit with one cell, resistor, ammeter and voltmeter across resistor

1. Record the reading:

CHAPTER 1: component symbols 15

and simple circuits
 Now connect a second cell in series as shown in the circuit diagram below:

Figure 22: Circuit with two cells in series, resistor, ammeter and voltmeter across resistor

2. Record the reading:

Now connect a third cell in series as shown in Figure 23.

Figure 23

3. Record the reading:

4. Fill in your readings on the table below:

With one cell With two cells With three cells

Voltage
Current

16 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

5. Plot the readings on the graph paper below.

Figure 24: Graph of the relationship between potential difference and current

6. Describe the relationship between voltage and current for a

500 W resistor.

• Did you notice that as the voltage is increased the current increases?
• Is your graph in a straight line?

There is a directly proportional relationship

between voltage and current. As the voltage is
doubled, the current will double; and as the voltage
is tripled the current will triple.

CHAPTER 1: component symbols 17

and simple circuits
Next week

Next week, you will look at different kinds of resistors used in circuits. You will
also practise doing calculations using the formulas in Ohm’s Law.

18 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Chapter 2
Resistors and Ohm’s Law

In this chapter, you will learn how to use resistors in electric circuits to control a current. You will
discover that there are different kinds of resistors for different purposes, and you will learn how to
read the amount of resistance on a resistor. You will also learn about Ohm’s Law, which relates the
quantities of voltage, current and resistance, and you will use formulae to do calculations to find the
values of voltage, current and resistance.

2.1 Resistors and their identification codes ............................................................................. 21

2.2 Ohm’s Law ...................................................................................................................... 24
2.3 Calculations using Ohm’s Law ........................................................................................... 26

Figure 1: You can change the brightness of the light on some torches. The brighter the light you choose,
the faster the battery will run out.

Technology grade 9 term 3 19

 Figure 2: How to read the colour bands on a resistor to find out what its resistance is. (You will only
work with resistors with four-colour bands, such as the one at the top.)

20 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

2.1 Resistors and their identification codes
What is resistance?

Electricity flows far more easily through copper wire To resist something means to
than through plastic wire, string or grass. Copper wire try to prevent it. If you sit in a
has a low resistance to electricity flow, whereas plastic tree and the wind blows hard,
wire has a high resistance. Because electricity flows you can resist falling down by
easily through copper wire, copper is a good conductor clinging to the branches.
of electricity. To conduct means to allow
something to pass through.
The resistance that an object, for example a piece of
wire, offers to the flow of electricity can be measured.

Resistance is measured in ohms. We use the

symbol Ω.

When electricity flows through a conductor, heat is

When something emits light,
generated. Some metals, such as nickel and chrome,
it is a source of light. A light
resist the flow of electricity quite strongly, and heat bulb is a source of light, but a
up when electricity is forced to flow through it. The mirror is not a source of light
heating elements of stoves and kettles are normally as it only reflects light.
made of a mixture of nickel and chrome. When some
metals get extremely hot, they emit light.
If the resistance in a circuit is very low, for example when the terminals of a cell
are connected with a piece of thick copper wire, the current will flow very strongly.
This is called a “short circuit”. It can result in so much heat being generated that
damage is caused to the cell and other parts of the circuit, the conducting wires
can melt and a fire can start.
By adding more resistance to a circuit, you can control how great the current is
that flows through the circuit. In this way, you can protect the components in a
circuit from too much current flowing through them. Increasing the resistance also
means the cell or battery powering the circuit will last longer. You can add precise
amounts of resistance by using resistors with the required resistance value.

CHAPTER 2: Resistors and Ohm’s Law 21

What is a resistor?

A resistor is a specially designed component that is normally used in a circuit

to limit the current. Resistors are made of materials with a high resistance to
electricity flow, and come in the form of thin wires or films. Resistors also have
precise resistance values that don’t change much in different environmental
conditions.
The most commonly used resistors look like tubes, with two wires to connect
it to the circuit. The symbol to show a resistor in a circuit diagram is an open
rectangle or a zigzag line.

Figure 3: A typical resistor Figure 4: Circuit symbols for resistors

Low-value resistors often have their resistance

The fourth band on a resistor
value printed on them in numbers, while high-value
shows the accuracy rating as a
resistors are coded, using coloured bands. The first percentage. This is also called
three bands give the value of the resistor in ohms. The the “tolerance”. The band is
colour-code chart on the second page of this chapter gold or silver, depending on
will help you to work out the resistance value in ohms. the tolerance. For the circuits
Resistors are the most commonly used components you will be building, this is not
in electronics, as they are useful to control current. important.
You will see how they are used in the following weeks.
Kilo means multiply by a
thousand, for example
Units of measurement: ohms, kilo-ohms and mega-ohms
1 km = 1 000 × 1 m.
• 1 kΩ = 1 000 Ω = 10 Ω
3

Mega means multiply by a

• 1 MΩ = 1 000 kΩ = 1 000 000 Ω = 106 Ω
million.

22 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

1. Work out and write down the resistance of each of these resistors:
(a) (b)

Figure 5 Figure 6

(c) (d)

Figure 7 Figure 8

2. Fill in the colour codes on these blank resistors to show the given resistance,
or write the colour of each band above it if you don’t have coloured pencils or
pens.
(a) 200 kΩ (b)  300 Ω

Figure 9 Figure 10

3. Describe the function of a resistor as a component in an electrical circuit.

CHAPTER 2: Resistors and Ohm’s Law 23

2.2 Ohm’s Law
There is a special relationship between the voltage, A variable is a quantity that
current, and resistance in any circuit. You can control can have different values,
any one of these three variables by changing the other for example the amount of
two variables. water in a tank. A constant
Ohm’s Law states that as voltage increases, the is a quantity that always has
the same value, for example
current increases if the resistance is constant.
gravitational acceleration.
In the formula for Ohm’s Law: Sometimes we call a quantity a
• V is the potential or voltage difference measured constant because we decide to
in volts, keep it constant.

• I is current measured in amps, and

• R is resistance measured in ohms.
Figure 11 shows this relationship in a formula
triangle.
When the voltage and current are known, the
resistance can be calculated with:
V
R= .
I
When the resistance and current are known, the
voltage can be calculated with:
V = I × R.
When the resistance and voltage are known, the Figure 11
current can be calculated with:
V
I= .
R

Questions
Consider the following circuit:

Figure 12

24 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

1. What does Ohm’s Law say will change in a circuit when the resistance is kept
constant but the number of cells in series is increased?

2. How will the current change if the voltage supplied by the battery of cells is
kept constant but the resistor is replaced by another resistor with a lower
resistance?

3. How would you describe the relationship between the current and the voltage
in a circuit?

4. How would you describe the relationship between the current and the
resistance in a circuit?

5. Which of these changes will cause the current through an electrical circuit to
decrease? Write down all the letters of the statements that are correct.
(a) a decrease in the voltage
(b) a decrease in the resistance
(c) an increase in the voltage
(d) an increase in the resistance

6. An electrical circuit has three 1,5 V cells in series that is connected to a lamp
and a resistor in series. Which of the following things would cause the lamp to
shine less brightly? Write down all the letters of the statements that are correct.
(a) an increase in the voltage of the battery (add another cell)
(b) a decrease in the voltage of the battery (remove a cell)
(c) a decrease in the resistance of the resistor
(d) an increase in the resistance of the resistor

CHAPTER 2: Resistors and Ohm’s Law 25

2.3  Calculations using Ohm’s Law
Last week, you learnt how Ohm’s Law can be used to predict what will happen
when you change one or two of the following variables: current, voltage or
resistance. You will now use the formulas of Ohm’s Law to make predictions.
Remember to use the correct units in the formula!

Example 1
Calculate the value of the resistance in the diagram below if the voltage across
the resistor is 12 V and the current through the resistor is 2 A.
V
R =
I
12 V
=
2A
=6Ω

Figure 13

Example 2
Calculate the value of the voltage supply in the circuit below if the resistor has a
value of 4 Ω and the current through the resistor is 2,5 A.
V = I × R
= 2,5 A × 4 Ω

= 10 V

Figure 14

26 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Example 3
Calculate the value of the current in the circuit below if the resistor has a value
of 3 Ω and the voltage across the resistor is 12 V.
V
I =
R
12 V
=
3Ω
=4A

Figure 15

Questions

1. What will the potential difference be if the current in a circuit is 10 A and the
total resistance is 1 000 Ω?

2. Given V = 10 V and R = 1 kΩ, what will the value of the current be in a circuit?

3. Given V = 20 V and R = 5 kΩ, solve for the current.

4. A tumble dryer in a laundry service uses a 220 V power source. The coils of
the heater provide an average resistance of 12 Ω. What is the current flowing
through the heating coils?

5. A 9 V battery maintains a current of 3 A through a radio. What is the resistance

in the circuit?

6. If the voltage across a circuit is increased four times, what would you expect to
happen to the current through the circuit?

CHAPTER 2: Resistors and Ohm’s Law 27

7. (a) In the circuit below, calculate the value of the resistor.

Figure 16

(b) If two more cells are added to the circuit, will the current increase or
decrease? Check your prediction using the formula.

Figure 17

8. Calculate the battery voltage for the circuit below:

Figure 18

28 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

9. Look at the circuit below:

Figure 19

(a) Calculate the current through R2.

(b) What will the current be through R1?

(c) What will the voltage across R1 be?

(d) What will the resistance value of R1 be?

CHAPTER 2: Resistors and Ohm’s Law 29

Next week

In the next chapter, you will learn about components commonly used in electronic
systems and their special functions.

30 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Chapter 3
Electronic components 1

In this chapter, you will learn about electronic systems and about components in electronic circuits.
You will also learn about the following control devices: switches, diodes and transistors. Finally, you
will make a simple transistor circuit. An electric circuit consists of an energy source and conductors.
Conductors connect components such as input, output and process devices to create a path for the
electrons to flow to and from the source of energy. Insulators are used to keep the components from
short-circuiting.

3.1 Switches ......................................................................................................................... 32

3.2 Diodes ............................................................................................................................ 38
3.3 Transistors .................................................................................................................... 41

Figure 1: A few examples of electronic components that we will deal with in this chapter

CHAPTER 3:
Technology
Electronic components
grade 9 term 13 31
3.1 Switches
A switch controls the electric current by closing or opening the circuit. There are
various types of switches that control the circuit in different ways. In this lesson,
you will learn about manual switches that a user can turn on or off.
1. Think about different switches that you use daily and list them here:

Push button switch

Push button switches are often
used for doorbell circuits, as in
Figure 2. This simple doorbell
circuit consists of cells in series,
a push button and a buzzer, all
connected by conducting wire.
A person visiting the house
presses the button for a short
time and then releases it.

Figure 2: A simple doorbell circuit

2. Draw the circuit diagram of the doorbell

circuit in the photograph. Use the
correct circuit diagram symbols. Note
that the cells are in series.

32 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

3. Explain in your own words how this circuit works.

Single-pole, single-throw switch (SPST)

Switches are named using the words “pole” and “throw”. Pole refers to the number
of circuits the switch controls, and throw refers to how many contacts the switch
can make.
Single-pole, single-throw switches (SPST) control one input circuit and make one
contact with the output circuit.

Figure 3: The symbol for an SPST switch

An example of an SPST is a light switch. Below is a typical lighting circuit.

When the switch is closed, the current will flow from the positive terminal (+)
of the battery through the switch, through the lamp and back to the negative (–)
terminal of the battery.

Figure 4: A typical light circuit with an

energy source, switch and lamp

CHAPTER 3: Electronic components 1 33

Single-pole, double-throw switches (SPDT)

Single-pole, double-throw switches control one circuit,

but they make two contacts so that they can control
two devices. They turn on device 1 in one position and
device 2 in the other position. There is no “off” position
for this switch.
Figure 5: The symbol for
An example of an SPDT is a switch that turns on an SPDT switch
a red lamp in one position and a green lamp in the
other position.
The circuit diagram below shows a two-way lighting circuit.

Figure 6: A circuit with a battery, two lamps and an SPDT switch controlling two outputs

4. Explain in your own words how this circuit works.

5. Think about how you can use an SPDT switch. You can make up an example, as
long as it makes sense.

34 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

6. Look at Figure 6 again. An SPDT switch controls two possible outputs. They
cannot both be ON, nor can they both be OFF. Is this an example of OR logic or
AND logic? Explain your answer.

7. Look at the circuit diagram below. It shows how one light can be controlled by
two different switches.

Figure 7: A circuit with two SPDT switches is often used to control a lamp with one switch at each end of a
long passage. It is also used to control a lamp with one switch at the bottom of a staircase, and the other
switch at the top of the staircase.

(a) Will the lamp turn on if A connects to C and D connects to F?

(b) Will the lamp turn on if A connects to C and D connects to E?
(c) Will the lamp turn on if AB and ED are closed?
(d) Will the lamp turn on if DF and AB are closed?
(e) Explain why the type of circuit in Figure 7 is useful for controlling the lamp
in a long passage.

CHAPTER 3: Electronic components 1 35

Double-pole, double-throw switches (DPDT)
A double-pole, double-throw switch (DPDT) is like two SPDT switches with their
switch levers attached to each other. There are two input circuits, and for each
input circuit, there are two possible output circuits.
In the symbol below, the dotted line shows that the switches operate together.

Figure 8

Consider an automatic car gate powered by an electric motor. To open the gate,
the motor should turn in one direction. To close the gate, the motor should turn in
the opposite direction. How can the direction in which the motor turns be changed?
The way to do this is to change the direction of the current through the electric
motor. Double-pole, double-throw switches can be used to reverse the direction
of current through a circuit, so they are useful in applications such as automatic
car gates. The circuit diagram below shows how a DPDT switch can change the
direction of current through an electric motor.

DPDT switch
ON/OFF switch 3
1 M1
5 M motor
4,5 V M2
battery
4
2
6
DPDT switch
Figure 9: A circuit where a DPDT switch controls the direction in which an electric motor turns

The motor shaft will rotate in one direction when the current passes through it
from terminal M1 to M2, but the motor shaft will rotate in the opposite direction
when the current passes through it from terminal M2 to M1.
When the ON/OFF switch is switched ON, with the DPDT switch in the position
indicated in the diagram above, the current will flow from the positive of the
battery, through the ON/OFF switch to 1, to 3, through the motor from M1, to M2, to
4, to 2 and back to the negative of the battery.

36 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

 When the DPDT switch is moved to the other position than in Figure 9, the
current will flow through the circuit in the following order:
• from the positive terminal of the battery,
• through the ON/OFF switch to 1,
• through the top part of the DPDT switch from 1 to 5,
• through the motor from M2 to M1,
• to 6,
• through the bottom part of the DPDT switch from 6 to 2, and
• to the negative terminal of the battery.

8. Explain in your own words how this circuit works.

9. Explain the difference between an SPDT and a DPDT switch.

CHAPTER 3: Electronic components 1 37

3.2 Diodes
A diode is a component with two terminals that can be connected in a circuit. The
function of a diode in a circuit is to allow an electric current to flow in the forward
direction and to block current in the opposite direction.
If the anode is connected to a higher voltage than the cathode, the current will
flow from the anode to the cathode. This is called “forward bias”.
If the diode is put in the circuit back to front, so that the voltage at the cathode is
higher than the voltage at the anode, the diode will not conduct electricity. This is
called “reverse bias”.
Diodes are normally used to prevent damage to other components in circuits.
For example, some components have positive and negative terminals and will
be damaged if a current goes through them in the wrong direction. A diode can
protect against a current flowing the wrong way if a battery was put in incorrectly
to power the components. If you put batteries into a radio incorrectly, a diode will
prevent damage to the radio.

Figure 10: A diode

Diodes vary considerably in size, current-carrying

capacity, and reverse blocking voltage. They range
from small diodes that can only handle 20 mA with
a reverse blockage of 30 V, to large industrial diodes
that can carry hundreds of amps and block up to
thousands of volts. You can use a multimeter or a Figure 11: Circuit symbol
of a diode. The current
simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check in
flow in a diode is in the
which direction a diode conducts.
direction of the arrow head.

38 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Light-emitting diodes (LED)
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a special kind of
diode that glows when electricity passes through it.
LEDs produce light of specific colours, based on the
materials they are made from. For example, they can
produce red, amber, yellow, green, blue, violet and
white. The most common colour is red.
LEDs are often used to show if a circuit is working.
Think about the small red light glowing on the front
of a TV set that can sometimes change from red to
amber.
LEDs are used as indicators in many devices,
including calculator screens and digital clocks.
Figure 12: An LED.
The LED will only allow current to pass in one
The longer of the two
direction. The cathode is normally indicated by a flat
wires coming out of
side on the casing and the anode is normally indicated
the LED should be
by a slightly longer leg. The current required to power connected to the
an LED is usually around 20 mA. positive terminal, and
The arrow symbol for an LED tells you in which the shorter wire to the
direction the current flows. negative terminal.
Nowadays, LEDs are used in many cases where
normal light bulbs were used. For example, household
lighting is being replaced by LEDs. They are replacing
light bulbs because they are more efficient and use
much less electric energy. They also last for a long
time.
To protect an LED from too much current, a resistor Figure 13: The circuit
has to be added to the circuit, as in the diagram below. symbol for an LED.

Figure 14: LED circuit with a current-limiting resistor.

CHAPTER 3: Electronic components 1 39

Questions

1. Describe the function of a diode in your own words.

2. List at least four places where LEDs are used. Don’t use the examples already
given.

3. How can you make sure that a diode is put in a circuit in the right direction?

4. Draw the circuit symbols for a diode and for an LED here:

40 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

3.3 Transistors
Transistors are very important building blocks of
modern electronic devices. They enable us to design
smaller and cheaper electronic devices.
A transistor is a semiconductor device that consists
of three layers. Each layer has its own connection
point with a specific name: collector, base and emitter.

Figure 15: One type of transistor

Figure 16: The circuit symbol for an npn transistor

A transistor works as a type of switch to turn current on and off. It can also
amplify a current.
An npn transistor acts as if there is a switch There are other types of
between the collector and the emitter. With a positive transistors, for example
potential on the base of the transistor, the switch is pnp transistors that work
closed. So it is an electrically controlled switch. a bit differently from npn
Transistor is short for “trans-resistor” and this transistors. But you will only
explains how it works. With a relatively small base work with npn transistors in
current, the resistance between the collector and the this term.
emitter is changed. As the base current increases, the
collector emitter resistance decreases.
In Chapter 5, you will learn about the applications of transistors.

CHAPTER 3: Electronic components 1 41

A transistor circuit

Suppose you want to make a switch that is ON or

closed when you touch its two terminals with your
finger, and OFF or open when you don’t touch it.
Look at the circuit diagram in Figure 17 for a touch-
switch such as the one described. The purpose of
this circuit is to light up the LED when you touch
the touch-switch with your finger.
Unfortunately, this circuit won’t work well, since
your finger is a very weak conductor. In other
words it has a very high resistance. So the current
Figure 17: A simple touch-switch
will be very small when you touch the switch.
circuit that will not work well
Therefore the LED will only emit a dim light.
By using a transistor, you can build a circuit that
A transistor uses a small
uses the very small current from your finger to switch
current circuit to switch on
on a larger current that passes through the LED, which a larger current circuit. This
will then emit a bright light. is why transistors are also
Figure 18 shows a circuit that uses a transistor for used in music equipment to
this purpose. In this circuit, the touch switch is an “amplify” the sound.
“input device,” the npn transistor is a “control device,”
and the LED is the “output device”.

Figure 18: Circuit using a transistor as an electronic switch

42 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

1. The photograph below shows a circuit built according to the circuit diagram in
Figure 18. Look at the photograph and identify each component in the circuit.
Write labels for the different components and draw arrows pointing from the
labels to the components.

Figure 19: The construction of a touch-switch circuit with a transistor and an LED.

2. Explain how the different parts of the transistor are connected in this circuit.

3. Explain what you expect to see when the touch switch is activated.

4. Touch the two terminals of the touch switch with one finger. Describe what
happens.

CHAPTER 3: Electronic components 1 43

Next week

Next week, you will learn more about electronic systems and components in
electronic circuits. You will also learn about various kinds of input devices: sensors
and capacitors.

44 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Chapter 4
Electronic components 2

In this chapter, you will learn more about electronic systems and components in electronic circuits.
You will also learn about various kinds of input devices: sensors and capacitors. A touch switch is
a sensor that works with the moisture on your skin. This is a very sensitive device that produces a
small current. A transistor is required to make the current big enough to have an effect. This week,
you will learn about other kinds of sensors and how they are used in devices.

4.1 Light-dependent resistors (LDR) ........................................................................................ 47

4.2 Thermistors (temperature-sensitive resistors)..................................................................... 50
4.3 Capacitors ...................................................................................................................... 53

Figure 1: Components connected on a printed circuit board

Technology grade 9 term 3 45

 Figure 2: Measuring the resistance of a
thermistor at room temperature.

Figure 3: Measuring the resistance of

a thermistor while heating it with a hot
object. You can heat a metal thumb tack by
pressing it into an eraser, and then rubbing
it hard against a piece of wood or plastic for
one minute.
Safety warning: The thumb tack can get
very hot and burn your skin, which can
cause a wound.

46 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

4.1  Light-dependent resistors (LDR)
A light-dependent resistor, also called an LDR, is a resistor of which the resistance
decreases when it is exposed to light of a higher intensity. It can therefore be
used to detect light and trigger warning devices in cases where light may cause
problems.
• When an LDR is in the dark, its resistance value will be very high, around 1 MΩ.
• When an LDR is exposed to a light of high intensity, the resistance value will
decrease. It could drop from 1 MΩ to 2 kΩ.
An LDR has two terminals that can be connected to a circuit in either direction.

Figure 4: A light-dependent resistor Figure 5: The circuit symbol for a light-dependent

resistor

CHAPTER 4: electronic components 2 47

Circuit of a day/night switch
Day/night switches are often used to turn on street and outside lights once it
gets dark. It has an advantage above time switches, since the time settings can
go wrong, and the amount of daylight does not remain constant during different
weather conditions.
In this example, a light-dependent resistor (LDR) is the input device, an npn
transistor is the control device, and an LED is the output device.

Figure 6: Circuit diagram of a day/night switch

1. Write four examples of when it would be useful to have a device that detects
the amount of light, and does something in response to it.

48 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

2. What is the role of the LDR in the circuit?

3. Describe how the transistor is connected to the circuit.

4. What is the role of the transistor in this circuit?

CHAPTER 4: electronic components 2 49

4.2  Thermistors (temperature-sensitive resistors)
The resistance value of this resistor depends on the temperature it is exposed to.
There are two types of thermistors:
• A “negative-temperature coefficient” type thermistor, where the resistance
value decreases with an increase in temperature.
This is also called an “NTC” or “–T” thermistor.
• A “positive-temperature coefficient” type thermistor, where the resistance value
increases with an increase in temperature.
This is also called a “PTC” or “+T” thermistor.

Figure 7: A thermistor Figure 8: The circuit symbol for a thermistor

1. Write four examples of situations in which electronic devices that use a

thermistor of either type would be useful.

50 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Measuring the resistance of a thermistor
The photographs on the second page of this chapter show the resistance of a
thermistor measured at room temperature, and when heated by placing it on a
hot object. At room temperature, the resistance is 1 413 Ω. When the thermistor is
heated with a hot object, the resistance decreases to 888 Ω.

2. Was the thermistor a PTC or an NTC?

3. Give reasons for your answer.

Heat-activated switch
A thermistor can be used in a heat-controlled switch for a fire alarm. When the
thermistor is heated up, its resistance is decreased and the transistor starts
conducting a current, switching on the LED.

Figure 9: Diagram of a simple fire alarm with an NTC thermistor

CHAPTER 4: electronic components 2 51

4. What is the role of the thermistor in the circuit?

5. Describe how the transistor is connected to the circuit to amplify the current.

6. Draw a simplified circuit diagram for an indicator light to show when a heater
has dropped below a certain temperature and starts heating up again.

52 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

4.3 Capacitors
The main function of a capacitor is to store electric charge. A capacitor consists
of two metal plates separated by an insulator called a dielectric. The ability of a
capacitor to store electric charge is called its capacitance.
Capacitance is measured in farad. The symbol “C” is used for capacitance.
Because the farad is such a large unit, practical values usually have the prefixes m
(milli-), µ (micro-), n (nano-) or p (pico-).

Figure 10: Different types of capacitors Figure 11: The circuit symbol for a capacitor

When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total area of the metal plates on
each side is increased, so the total capacitance is increased.
When capacitors are connected in series, the distance between the opposite
plates is increased. And because capacitance is inversely proportional to the
distance between the plates, the total capacitance is reduced to less than that of
the smallest capacitor.

CHAPTER 4: electronic components 2 53

Charge and discharge of a capacitor
The charging and discharging of a capacitor can be observed by building the circuit
in the diagram below. When the switch is switched to position A, the current will
flow from the + of the battery, through LED1, through the switch to one plate of
the capacitor. The negative of the battery is connected to the other plate of the
capacitor through the resistor R1. While the capacitor is charging, LED1 will be ON.

Figure 12: Capacitor charging and discharging circuit

After the capacitor has been charged and the switch is switched to position B,
a current will now flow from the + plate of the capacitor through LED2, and will
discharge through the resistor R1. While the capacitor is discharging, LED2 will be
ON.
Capacitors are often used in electronic devices that need a carefully controlled
time delay, such as timers and traffic lights. The exact kind of capacitor can be
chosen to get the exact time delay that is needed. Increasing the value of the
capacitor increases the length of the time delay.

54 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Questions

1. Name the component in the picture and draw the correct circuit symbol next to
the component. Write a brief description of the main uses of the component.
Name of Picture Symbol Use
component

CHAPTER 4: electronic components 2 55

Name of Picture Symbol Use
component

Next week

Next week, you will draw circuit diagrams and build simple circuits.

56 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Chapter 5
Build and draw electronic
circuits
In this chapter, you will draw circuit diagrams and assemble four electronic circuits, using the
components you have learnt about in Chapters 3 and 4.

5.1 Simple electronic circuits ................................................................................................. 59

5.2 A control circuit and a time-delay circuit ............................................................................ 61
5.3 Build a fire-alarm circuit..................................................................................................... 64

Figure 1: A part of the circuit for a radio

Technology grade 9 term 3 57

 Figure 2: All of these appliances contain electric circuits.

58 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

5.1  Simple electronic circuits
A circuit with an led

In this lesson, you need to assemble a simple LED circuit. You will draw the circuit
diagram on your own and then work in pairs to assemble it.
You will need:
• an LED,
• a 470 Ω resistor,
• a switch,
• four 1,5 V cells in series, or a 9 V battery, and
• electric conducting wire with crocodile clips for connections.
The photograph below shows the circuit you need to build.
1. Draw a circuit diagram for Figure 3 in the space on the right.

Figure 3: A circuit with an LED, a battery, a switch and a resistor

CHAPTER 5: build and draw electronic circuits 59

A circuit with an LDR

Now you will build a circuit where an LDR regulates the current.
You will need:
• an LDR,
• four 1,5 V cells in a
cell holder, and
• a buzzer.

The photograph on the right

shows a circuit where an LDR
regulates the current through
the circuit.

1. Work individually to draw

a circuit diagram of Figure 4
in the space below it.
2. Work in pairs to build the
circuit.
3. Predict what will happen
when: Figure 4: A circuit where the current is regulated by a light-
(a) The LDR is covered. dependent resistor

(b) The LDR is in bright sunlight.

4. Is the buzzer affected by different

sources of light, such as light from
an electric lamp, light from a cell phone screen or light from a torch? Do a
practical investigation and write down your findings:

60 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

5.2 A control circuit and a time-delay circuit
A fire alarm: A circuit with a sensor and a transistor
In the next lesson, you will build the electronic circuit for a fire alarm. In the next
chapter, you will use the same circuit but for a different purpose, as part of an
automatic kettle switch. It is very important that you complete the circuit and that
it works, as you will use it in the Mini-PAT in the weeks that follow.
The type of circuit you will build is used very often to switch an output device on
and off without using a switch. Instead of a switch controlled by hand, this type of
circuit uses an input sensor in combination with a transistor to switch the output
device on or off automatically, depending on the measurement of something by the
input sensor.
This type of circuit is
called a control circuit since
one circuit controls another
circuit. In the case where
a transistor is used with
a sensor such as an LDR,
the base-emitter current
controls the larger collector-
emitter current.
Note that resistor 2 and
the input sensor may have
to change places depending
on what relationship
between the resistance of
Figure 5: The circuit diagram for the control circuit
the input sensor and the
output device you want.
• If a decrease in resistance of the input sensor should switch on the output
device, then resistor 2 and the input sensor should be arranged as in Figure 5.
Look back at the circuit for a day/night switch using a light-dependent resistor
(LDR) on page 48.
• If an increase in resistance of the input sensor should switch on the output
device, then resistor 2 and the input sensor should be arranged in the opposite
way of Figure 5. Look back at the circuit for a heat-activated switch using a
negative-temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor on page 51.

It is easier to understand the circuit if you think about a systems diagram. Look
at Figure 6. The yellow part is the output side of the diagram.

CHAPTER 5: build and draw electronic circuits 61

Figure 6: A systems diagram of a control circuit

Figure 7 shows how

the circuit in Figure 5 is
the same as the systems
diagram.

Figure 7

Identify the different components and draw the circuit

The circuit for the fire alarm contains the following components:
• a battery consisting of 6 cells in series,
• an input sensor to measure the temperature,
• a variable resistor to set the temperature at which the alarm should go off,
• an output device to make noise when it gets too hot, and
• a transistor to switch the output device on when it gets too hot.

1. What type of electronic component will you use as the input sensor?

2. What type of device will you use as the output device?

3. What voltage does the battery supply to the circuit?

62 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

4. Draw a circuit diagram for a fire alarm:
(a) Show the correct symbols for the components you will use as the input and
the output sensors.
(b) Show the voltage of the battery.
(c) Show the emitter (“e”), base (“b”) and collector (“c”) of the transistor. Look
back on what you learnt about transistors in Chapter 3.

Figure 8: A circuit diagram showing the different components in a fire alarm

The purpose of the variable resistor R1 has already been explained. The purpose
of the other two resistors is difficult to explain. It has to do with the minimum
current to the base of the transistor that is needed to allow current through
from the emitter to the collector of the transistor. If you choose to study more
electronics in FET or at university, you will learn about the purpose of these
resistors, and how to calculate their resistances.
Someone has already done the calculations of the resistances of different
components that should be used for the fire alarm to work. These are called the
specifications for the resistances of components.
• R1 = 700 to 1400 kΩ (variable resistor)
• R2 = 820 Ω
• R3 = 1 kΩ
• input sensor: 10 kΩ
5. Show the specified resistances of the components on your circuit diagram.

CHAPTER 5: build and draw electronic circuits 63

5.3  Build a fire-alarm circuit
Work in pairs to build the circuit.
You need the following materials to build the circuit:
• a 9 V battery and a connection clip with red (+) and black (–) wires,
• conduction wires with crocodile clips,
• a 10 kΩ NTC thermistor,
• a 700 to 1 400 kΩ variable resistor;
• a 820 Ω and a 1 kΩ resistor,
• an npn transistor, and
• a buzzer.

1. Now build the circuit. Set the variable resistor to its lowest resistance.
2. Once your circuit is complete, check that all your connections are good.
3. Then connect the battery to the circuit.
4. To test the fire alarm, warm up a thumb tack by pressing it into an eraser, and
rubbing it hard against a piece of wood or plastic for a minute. Then press it
against the thermistor.
Troubleshooting
If the fire alarm does not work, then:
• test whether the battery is flat or not,
• test all your connections again,
• follow the flow of the current on your board with your finger, to check whether
you connected the components the right way, and
• check that you connected the transistor the right way round.

64 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

If you have time: Build a time-delay circuit

Capacitors are often used in time-delay circuits.

You will need:
• four 1,5 V cells in series, or a 9 V battery,
• two LEDs,
• a 470 Ω resistor,
• a 1 000 μF capacitor, and
• an SPDT switch.

Figure 9: A time-delay circuit

1. Build the circuit. Put the switch to A and observe the LEDs.
Describe what happens and explain it in detail.

CHAPTER 5: build and draw electronic circuits 65

Further reading: Boards on which more complicated circuits are built
If you try to build a more complicated circuit by Figure 10 below shows a simple LED circuit,
connecting components using conducting wire such as the one you built in section 5.1, but
and crocodile clips, many wires will cross one here it is built on a strip board. Notice that
another and the circuit will be messy, looking there are no connecting wires used to build
like a tangled bunch of ropes. this circuit! This is because at the bottom of
To make a complicated circuit in a neater and the strip board there are parallel copper strips
smaller way, most circuits are built on boards connecting the holes in each column. This
such as “bread boards”, “strip boards”, or makes it possible to construct a circuit without
“printed circuit boards” (PCBs). using wire.

Figure 10: A simple LED circuit built on a strip Figure 11: One possible layout of the simple LED
board circuit on a strip board

Figure 11 shows one possible plan of how to of the strip board. This is to ensure that they
arrange the simple LED circuit on a strip board. make proper electrical contact with the copper
The copper strips are at the bottom of a strip strips.
board, and not visible from the top. Therefore Soldering is done with lead, because lead is
the copper strips on the drawing of the layout a good electrical conductor and has a low
were drawn with hatching, to show that you melting point, so it is easy and quick to melt it
cannot really see them from the top. with a soldering iron.
The arrows on Figure 11 are drawn to help Bread boards and printed circuit boards
you understand how current flows through the are other types of boards used to build
copper strips at the back of the strip board. complicated circuits. They also have copper
The current flows in the direction of the arrows. connections at the back, but these connections
The connectors of the components are are arranged in a different way than on a strip
soldered to the copper strips at the bottom board.

66 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Figure 12: Soldering components onto the back of a strip board

Figure 13: The front and back of a bread board

With a breadboard it is not necessary to solder Almost all manufactured electronic devices
connections, since each hole in the breadboard use printed circuit boards, where the copper
has a spring that grips the wire tightly to make connections at the back can be made in
proper electrical contact. any pattern. This makes it possible to make
complicated circuits that are very small.

Figure 14: The front and back of a printed circuit board

CHAPTER 5: build and draw electronic circuits 67

Next week

The next chapter is your Mini-Pat for this term. You will learn how an electronic
circuit can be used to control another circuit with a much bigger current. You will
build a device using both circuits and then test it.

68 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Chapter 6: mini-pat
Electronic systems and
control
In this Mini-PAT you will first study where electronic circuits, using very small currents, are used to
control electric circuits with much bigger currents. You will then design and build your own electric
circuit that will be controlled by an electronic circuit.

Week 1 .................................................................................................................................. 72
Investigate: Situations where electronic control circuits are needed
Investigate: A circuit with an input sensor, control knob, transistor and output device
Design brief and initial sketches

Week 2 .................................................................................................................................. 80
Evaluate: Team meeting to choose best combination of design ideas
Design: Improve your design as a team
Plan to make: Orthographic and 3D drawings of the input device

Week 3 .................................................................................................................................. 85
Make the switch
Connect the switch to the electronic circuit and test it

Week 4 .................................................................................................................................. 89
Communicate: Prepare a team presentation
Communicate: Give team presentation, and listen to other teams’ presentations

Assessment
Situations where electronic systems control electric circuits (individual work) [5]
Design brief and sketches (individual work) [12]
Evaluate and improve the design (team work) [8]
Final drawings of the design (individual work) [15]
Make the switch (individual work) [25]
Presentation (team work) [5]
. [Total marks: 70]

Technology grade 9 term 3 69

 Figure 1: Many everyday devices use electronic control circuits.

70 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems and control 71
Week 1
Situations where electronic circuits control electric
circuits (30 minutes)
There are many household appliances that use An electronic circuit is
electronic circuits to control electric circuits with different from an electric circuit
bigger currents. because it only uses a very
The following two devices are used inside the small current, and because it
electric switchboard (or distribution board) of every uses electronic control devices
building that is connected with electricity in a safe such as thermistors, LDRs,
way. diodes and transistors.

• Ordinary circuit breakers:

Shuts off a circuit (for example the circuit supplying all the lights in a house)
when the current becomes too big (if the current is too big for the thickness of
wire used, the wire will overheat).

• Residual-current circuit breakers:

Switches off the main power supply if it detects a leakage of power, such as
when a person accidentally touches a “live” electrical wire or contact and the
electricity is then conducted through his or her body. This device has to cut
the current very quickly; otherwise the person can die due to electric shock.
Therefore it switches off the power even when it detects only a small amount of
leakage of electrical current.

Figure 2: An electrical distribution board with circuit breakers

72 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

The following household appliances use electronic circuits to control them:
• ovens: to control the temperature,
• radios and other music appliances: to control the volume of the speakers,
• some energy-saving lights: to switch off automatically when there is enough
natural light, and
• kettles: to switch off when the water boils.

1. Give two examples of situations or applications where electrical circuits are

used.  (1)

2. Give two examples of situations or applications where electronic circuits are

used.(1)

3. Give three examples of situations or applications where electronic circuits

and electric circuits are used together. (3)

Total [5]

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 73

            and control
Investigate: A circuit with an input sensor, control knob,
transistor and output device (15 minutes)
A sensor is a control device that can have a variable
effect. A switch can only be open (infinitely large
resistance) or closed (zero resistance), so a switch is
not a sensor. Devices such as thermistors and LDRs
can have different resistances, depending on the
temperature or amount of light. They can therefore
be used as sensors. A device that can generate a
voltage, such as a photovoltaic cell, can also be used
as a sensor. A sensor “senses” something such as
temperature, or light, just as your body’s senses do.
A variable resistor is also a control device, but it is
not a sensor, because it is a device for which the
user can set the resistance.
The circuit for the fire alarm that you built in
Chapter 5 can be used for different applications
where a small input current from an input sensor
has to switch on a circuit with a larger current for
an output device. There is also a variable resistor so
that the user can determine at what level of light or
temperature (for example) the output device should
be switched on or off. Figure 3: The control knob of a
stove plate is connected to a
variable resistor. This controls
the current through the heating
element. The bigger the current,
the hotter the plate will be.

Figure 4: The control circuit that you built in Chapter 5 for a fire alarm

74 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

1. Name three input components that you know of.

2. Name three output devices that you know of.

3. Name a device that uses a control knob to set the level of something.

Design brief and initial sketches (75 minutes)

The scenario for the Mini-PAT

A kettle uses electricity at a rate 30 times
higher than a normal light bulb. A lot of
electricity can be saved if a kettle is used more
effectively.
If a kettle keeps boiling without being
switched off, it uses electricity unnecessarily.
This leads to a waste of electricity.
If you drink your tea or coffee without cold
milk, you do not want boiling hot water
(100 °C), since it will burn you. So it is a waste
of electricity and time to bring the water to
boiling point (100 °C). Most of the time, a kettle
only needs to heat water to a temperature of
about 75 °C. If the kettle keeps heating the
water to a temperature of 100 °C, it is a waste of
electricity.
You will design and make an “energy-
saving switch” for a kettle. The switch will be
controlled by an electronic circuit so that the
kettle will automatically switch off when the
water reaches the required temperature. The
electronic circuit will have a variable resistor
so that the temperature at which the kettle will Figure 5
automatically switch off can be set by the user.

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 75

            and control
 The drawings below show how an electric door lock works. This may give you
useful ideas for your design of an energy-saving kettle switch.

Figure 6: An electric door lock

Look at the brown part on the right-hand side of the lock mechanism above. This
is the part that moves in or out to open or lock the door. This part is called a “latch”.

Figure 7: A 3D assembly drawing of the parts inside an electric door lock

Design brief
1. What is the purpose of the switch you will be designing?
Hint: Think about how easy it is for people to do things, the impact on the
environment, and costs involved. (½)

76 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Specifications
2. What parts should the device have where the user must press or turn
something by hand? (½)

3. Are there part(s) of the device that would sometimes be moved by the user,
and other times be moved automatically? (1)

4. How should the moving parts of your switch work? For example, what should
cause it to move one way, and what should cause it to move the other way?
Use names for the different moving parts, as well as for the other parts that
will make the moving parts move or stop them from moving. (2)

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 77

            and control
5. What type of electrical component can generate the automatic movement that
your device has to perform? This component will be the output device in the
control circuit on page 74. (½)

6. Does your device need a container or supporting structure to keep all the parts
together? What type of container or structure do you think will work well? (½)

Constraints
7. Make a list of all the materials you will need. (1)

8. Make a list of all the tools you will need. (½)

9. Make a time schedule showing how much time you have to design and make
the product. (½)

78 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Design sketches
10. Make at least two rough sketches of your design. Use labels and notes to
explain your design. If your second sketch is an improvement on your first
sketch, keep the first sketch, but simply label the second sketch as “improved
design”.(5)

Total [12]

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 79

            and control
Week 2
Evaluate as a team: Learn from one another ’s designs to make
a better design together (60 minutes)
1. Each team member should explain his or her design
There is no such thing as a
to the rest of the team, and the others should ask perfect design! For example,
questions if they don’t understand something. you can make a complicated
2. After everyone has explained their designs, you design that will work very well,
should make a list of the advantages and but that will be expensive and
disadvantages of all the designs. difficult to build. Or you can
make a simple and cheap
design that works, but is not
strong enough.

Learn from the different designs that different people made

Don’t throw an idea away too quickly even if there is a problem with it. First
sketch and explain it to the others. This idea can lead to another better idea. If
everyone throws their ideas away too quickly, there will be no ideas on the table to
work with. Design teams work well when they separate the work into two stages:

• First generate ideas, sketch and explain them,

If someone makes a negative
without anyone saying anything negative about remark at this stage, you
the ideas. should say “Red flag! No
• Once you have several ideas on the table, start negative remarks at this
thinking about how and whether the different stage.”
ideas will work or not. Don’t talk about “Mary’s
design” or “Sipho’s design”. Rather talk about
Saying “Mary’s made a bad
“Design C” or “Design B”. Once someone has put design” or “Sipho’s is much
a design on the table, you talk about the design. better”, for example, will hurt
You do not talk about the person. You evaluate someone’s feelings or make
the designs. You do not evaluate yourself or others feel proud or arrogant.
someone else. If someone says “Mary’s
design ...”, you should say
“Red flag! We call that
Design C.”

80 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

3. Now combine different ideas from different designs into one better design. Your
team will only succeed at this if you talk and sketch together “creatively”. Being
creative means “playing with ideas”.
To communicate well and to be creative, you have to make many rough
sketches. Do that in the space provided below. Include labels and notes to help
explain the sketches.  (4)

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 81

            and control
4. Now each person should make their own sketches of the improved design
that the team made together. Once again, show labels and notes to explain the
sketches.
Make at least two sketches, so that both the whole design and hidden detail
can be seen. You might want to draw the design from different view points, or
draw a few parts on their own. (4)

Total [8]

82 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Make individually: 2D Working drawing and 3D drawings of
your design (60 minutes)
1. Make a 2D working drawing of your design in first angle orthographic
projection. It should be drawn to scale and show as much detail as possible.
Show dimensions and the scale. Show all hidden details. (8)

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 83

            and control
2. Make an isometric drawing of your design to scale. Do not show the container
or structural support for the inner parts of your design. Only show the inner
parts. Do not show any hidden details, but choose your view point so that
as much detail as possible is shown. Show the scale, but do not show the
dimensions.(7)

Total [15]

84 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Homework: Planning to make and gathering materials

Make lists of the materials and tools you will need to build a model of your
automatic kettle switch next week. You need to include the materials you will
need to build the output device for the control circuit that you will later connect to
your model of the switch. (Look back at your answer to question 5 on page 78.)
If there are any materials on your list that are not available at school, gather
waste materials that you can use instead and bring it to school next week. If you do
not do this, you won’t be able to build a model of your design.

Week 3
Make and test your prototype of the switch (120 minutes)

1. Work alone to build a model of your design for Designers and engineers
the switch. A model of a new design is called usually make many prototypes
a prototype. before the design is good
2. Work alone to build the output device for the enough to start manufacturing
control circuit that you will later connect to and selling it. Each prototype
your switch. is an attempt to improve on
the previous one.
3. Test your model with a simple circuit consisting
of a battery and the electric output device that
you made.
4. Test your model by connecting it to the control circuit that you made in
Chapter 5.
(a) Before you connect the control circuit to any model, your team should
test the control circuit as you did before, see page 64, because some of the
connections may have come loose.
(b) To test your automatic kettle switch, you can use a thumb tack pressed
into an eraser that you heat by rubbing it on a piece of wood or plastic for a
minute.
(c) If you were not able to build a control circuit successfully in Chapter 5, you
can use the simple circuit discussed in question 3 above to test your model
of the switch.

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 85

            and control
5. You will probably find that your model does not work the first time you test it.
This is normal! Most new things that people design don’t work the first time
they test it. Try to find out what’s wrong, and then go back and fix it before you
test it again.
Your teacher will give you marks for the following:
• You brought all the materials needed to make a model of your design. (2)
• You accurately made the model according to your design drawings. (8)
• You successfully built the electric output device. (2)
• You connected your model to the simple circuit with the output device,
and used a good method to test it. (1)
• After you tested your model for the first time, you made a list of all the
possible reasons that your model is not working or why it is not
working well. (2)
• You used the list to fix or improve your model. (2)
• You tested your model again, writing down the problems, and going back
and fixing or improving your model until it worked, at least one more time. (4)
• Your model worked, or you wrote a good explanation and made sketches of
what you still need to change on your model to make it work. (4)

Total [25]

You need to keep a record of all your testing and improvements on your model,
otherwise you will not get marks for that work. Use the next two pages to keep
that record, and show your sketches where necessary.

86 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Record-keeping of your testing of and improvements to your prototype

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 87

            and control
88 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3
Week 4
Present your design process and final prototypes
Your team will give a presentation of your project later this week. The presentation
should be between three and five minutes long. Each member of your team
should do a part of the presentation. The other learners in the class may ask you
questions after your presentation.
Your presentation should be mostly about the design process that you followed
to design, make and improve your prototypes.

Team meeting: Prepare your presentations (30 minutes)

1. Decide which part of the presentation each of you will do. Write it down
below.(1)

2. Decide in what order you will give the different parts of the presentation. Who
will talk first, and who will talk next?
Write the parts of the presentation in the order that you will do them below,
and write who will do which part. (1)

3. For homework, you should practise your part of the presentation.

Total [2]

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 89

            and control
Giving the presentationsons (90 minutes)

Your teacher will look at the following to give you marks for your part of your
team’s presentation:
• You were well prepared for your presentation. (2)
• You explained how you made progress during the design process. (2)
• You looked at your audience and spoke clearly. (1)

Total [5]

90 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

An alternative to the kettle swicth project: Designing and building a circuit continuity
tester
Your teacher may decide to let you do the
following project instead of designing and
building an automatic kettle switch.
Often when people have to connect wires
in electric circuits, there are so many
wires that it is difficult to know which
two wire ends are of the same wire.
It would help to have a device that
shows whether two wire ends are
connected or not. This is what
a “circuit continuity tester” does.

Figure 8

A circuit continuity tester is actually an open circuit.

Safety warning:
The circuit can only be closed by the two wire ends that
you are testing. Use the two test leads of the circuit First switch off the power
supply before you do a test
continuity tester to touch the two wire ends that you
such as this one.
want to test. If there is a path for current to be
conducted between the two wire ends, this will
complete the circuit and a light or a buzzer on the
circuit continuity tester will be activated.

Note that a circuit continuity tester cannot If you design and build a circuit continuity tester
tell you whether the two wire ends are of the as your project, think about the following:
same wire. It can only tell you whether there • I t should be easy to let the test leads of
is a path for current to be conducted between the circuit continuity tester make proper
the two wire ends, in other words whether the electrical contact with the wire ends.
two wire ends are electrically connected. But if
• The tester should be small.
you know that there are no splitting or joining
• T
he tester should be protected from
of wires in between the two wire ends, then the
shocks, for example if it gets dropped.
wire ends can only be electrically connected if
they are of the same wire. • T
he tester should be protected from water,
since water can cause a short circuit.

CHAPTER 6: mini-pat: electronic systems 91

            and control
A few ideas for building a circuit continuity tester are shown in the photos below.

Figure 9

Figure 10

92 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 3

Term 4
Chapter 7
Preserving metals

In Grades 7 and 8, you learnt how to classify metals into ferrous Ferrous refers to the
and non-ferrous metals. In this chapter, you will revise this skill of presence of the element iron
classifying metals. in a metal such as steel. This
You will learn how to preserve metals by painting, galvanising and generally makes the metal
electroplating. If we recycle materials and equipment, it will help more prone to react with
to reduce the need for mining, which has a negative impact on the oxygen (oxidisation).
environment. You will also learn how to electroplate an object. Non-ferrous metals don’t
contain iron molecules, such
7.1 Painting metals............................................................ 96 as aluminium, copper, zinc and
7.2 Galvanising ............................................................... 100 gold. They are generally more
expensive than ferrous metals.
7.3 Electroplating ............................................................ 103

Technology grade 9 term 4 93

 Figure 1: Examples of metal corrosion or rust

94 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

CHAPTER 7: preserving metals 95
7.1 Painting metals

Figure 2: A lady painting a door frame

Although metals, as we usually perceive them, are generally very tough, they do
break down over time. Rust is one of the most common ways that metals can
deteriorate. Plants and animals die, become compost and return to the earth.
When metals rust, they break down into smaller particles and also return to the
earth. As you know by now, metals come from the earth originally and humans
extract metals by mining.
But what causes metals to rust? Sometimes a chemical reaction occurs between
a metal and oxygen. This is called oxidisation, which results in rust. Another word
for rust is corrosion. Ferrous metals are not resistant to corrosion. This reaction
happens much faster when there is salt or certain acids in the air as well. For
example, metals close to the sea tend to rust a lot quicker than metals inland.
Figure 3 shows an example of this.
However, there are ways of protecting metals against oxidisation. The cheapest
way of preserving ferrous metals is by painting the exposed surface.

96 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Figure 3: A rusted car by the coast

How do you paint metal? That depends on whether it is a brand new piece of
metal or a piece of metal that has already rusted.

Figure 4: Wire brush Figure 5: Sandpaper

If it is a brand-new, smooth piece of metal that has never been painted before,
it is best to first roughen the surface a bit. It is difficult for paint to stick to a very
smooth surface. To roughen the surface, you can use wire brush such as the one
shown in Figure 4 or sandpaper as shown in Figure 5. Make sure that there is no
dust on the surface. You can wipe it with a clean cloth to get rid of dust. Then you
must apply one, or preferably two, coats of primer. Primer protects the metal and
makes it easier for the top coat of paint to stick to the metal’s surface. Finally, you
can apply the top coat of paint.

CHAPTER 7: preserving metals 97

 Painting a rusted piece of metal is a bit more
Important things to keep
difficult. First, you need to get rid of as much rust as in mind when you paint:
possible. If there is old, flaky paint, you must remove
1. Always wait till the paint
that as well. A wire brush and sandpaper work well for you’ve applied is completely
this. It is hard to get rid of all the rust, therefore you dry before you apply
need to apply a special primer to stop the oxidisation. another coat.
If you don’t use a special primer, the metal will keep 2. Always make sure that the
rusting underneath the paint, which will make the surface is clean before
paint come off after a while. you paint it. There must be
Certain types of primers meant to stop rusting still no dust or oil on it. Dust
require another primer to be painted on top of it, and oil prevent paint from
before you can apply the final coat of paint. sticking to the surface.
You have to read the instructions for the specific
product carefully before buying or using it. When you’ve applied all the relevant
primers, you can apply your top coat of paint. Now you know how to fix rusted
things and make them beautiful again, instead of just throwing them away!

Preserve metals by painting

Answer the questions below:

1. List the materials you need to use when painting metals.

2. Write a brief outline explaining why it is important to use a primer coat when
painting metals.

3. In your own words, briefly explain why boats and ships have to be painted on a
regular basis.

98 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

4. Study the table below. Column A describes the process of painting metals. The
steps in the process are not in order. Write the number of the correct answer in
Column B.

A B
1. Double coat with primer. When metals are exposed to oxygen and
they lose hydrogen, it results in rust or oxidisation. Primer helps the
top coat of paint to stick to the surface. It also makes the metal less
vulnerable to the effects of time, especially rust.
2. Sand down your metal. Scrape or sand the surface of your metal to
ensure an even longer lasting and more durable coat of paint. The
rougher your metal, the more it will stick to the surface.
3. Apply a zinc-chromate primer if you are working with rusted
metal. Scrape all the loose rust and residual dust off first, then coat
it with this special primer.
4. Clean off all loose paint, dirt, grease and grime from the surface
of your metal. If you miss this step, you will end up with a coat of
paint that won’t stick to the metal and peels off easily. Even oils
on the surface that may not be visible will affect your paint job, so
give your metal a thorough rub down even if you don’t think it is
necessary.
5. Paint. Acrylic latex paint is usually the best paint to use for metal.
A cheap metal paint or a spray paint will probably rub off. This will
result in the metal requiring a new coat of paint a lot sooner. Work
carefully and apply your paint evenly on the surface.
6. Read the labels. Make sure your primer and your coat of paint are
compatible. If they are not, your paint will not stick to the primer.
Check the drying time to ensure that you don’t put more primer
on than you can paint the next day. Planning ahead is always
important when painting.

CHAPTER 7: preserving metals 99

7.2  Galvanising

Figure 6

Apart from painting, we can also protect ferrous

The word galvanisation
metals from corrosion by applying a thin coat of
comes from Luigi Galvani’s
zinc. This process is called galvanisation. name. He was an Italian
Zinc also oxidises or rusts, but then the zinc doctor and scientist who did
rust reacts with the oxygen, water and carbon experiments with electric
dioxide in the air and turns into “zinc carbonate”. currents in the eighteenth
Zinc carbonate is quite tough and consequently century.
it protects the metal underneath it. If the zinc
carbonate layer gets damaged, more zinc carbonate
forms. This can repeat until there is no zinc left on
the metal. Then the metal will start to rust.
This means that galvanisation only slows down the
corrosion of a metal. It doesn’t prevent corrosion
completely. If you need to protect metal properly for
a very long time, it is best to galvanise and paint the
metal, which is what people do with cars today.
There are two ways of galvanising metal. The one process is called “hot-dip
galvanisation”. The other process is called “electro-galvanisation”.
Hot-dip galvanisation means that the ferrous
metal gets dipped into a bath of molten zinc at Molten: a metal or rock that
a temperature of 460°C. Water boils more or less is in liquid form as a result of
great heat.
at 100°C, so you can imagine how hot that zinc
is! Obviously, you need to do this with the right
equipment and safety measures.
Hot-dip galvanisation has two definite advantages: it is relatively inexpensive

100 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

and it is also very tough, because the zinc layer resulting from this process is thick.
This makes it suitable for outdoor use, even over extended periods of time, such as
20 to 50 years. But there are drawbacks too. Firstly, the metal needs to go through
a complex preparation process before it can be dipped into the molten zinc. Figure
7 shows these processes. It also makes the metal look dull and the zinc coating is
not the same thickness throughout.
Electro-galvanisation means that the ferrous metal gets coated with zinc
through a process called electroplating. You will learn more about electroplating
in the next part of this chapter. For now, you only need to know that the zinc layer
through electro-galvanisation is thinner than the hot-dip zinc layer and not as
tough, but it is the same thickness throughout. The zinc coating is also generally
shinier and even small objects can easily be electro-galvanised. This means that
electro-galvanised metals are more commonly used indoors. For outdoor use, it
will definitely have to be painted to make it last longer.

caustic rinsing pickling rinsing flux zinc bath inspection

cleaning solution cooling

Figure 7: The processes that are followed when hot-dip galvanising metal

What have you learnt?

Galvanising is a process that prevents corrosion. When galvanising metal, the
objects are coated with zinc. This is relatively inexpensive and does not react
with air and moisture, as iron does. The zinc layer separates the iron from the
oxygen and moisture. Objects that have been galvanised are not completely
protected from rust. They only take longer to rust. To protect a metal
completely, it is best to galvanise and paint it.
Answer the questions below:
1. Briefly discuss the function and purpose of galvanising.

2. What metal is used to coat an object when galvanising it?

CHAPTER 7: preserving metals 101

3. What are the benefits of hot-dip galvanisation?

4. What are the drawbacks of hot-dip galvanisation?

5. Name two examples of galvanised products.

102 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

7.3 Electroplating

Figure 8

Electroplating is a process whereby one metal is An electrolyte is a mixture

coated with a thin layer of another metal by using of salt and water that has the
electricity and salty water (or an electrolyte). ability to conduct electricity.
People do electroplating for a number of reasons.
One reason could be to protect the metal from
corrosion, such as galvanisation. Another reason
could be to make an inexpensive metal look better.
For example, copper or silver jewellery is often gold
plated to make it look more expensive.

Look at Figure 8 and 9. In practice, electroplating works Table salt is one example of a
like this: salt. Not all salts are edible,
but all salts contain a metal
The object that you want coated gets connected
as one of their elements. For
to the negative side of an electric cell with a wire.
example, table salt consists of
The metal that you want to coat the object with gets
sodium, which is a metal, and
connected to the positive side of the cell with a wire. chlorine. You can’t use table
Put the object and the metal, with the wires attached, salt for electroplating.
into a container with the water and salt mixture. Copper sulphate is also a salt.
What happens next is that electricity and metal It contains copper, which is a
molecules travel from the positive side to the negative metal, and sulphur. However,
side. This means that after a while, a thin layer of copper sulphate is VERY
metal starts to form on the object. The longer you let POISONOUS. You can use it
this process continue, the thicker the metal layer will for electroplating, but definitely
be. not for food.

CHAPTER 7: preserving metals 103

Figure 9: How an electroplating system is assembled

Figure 10: Coins are an example of a less expensive metal that has been electroplated with a
more expensive metal for protection and to make it look better.

104 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Work in a group to investigate corrosion

In this experiment, you will observe the effect of salt and water on galvanised
and ungalvanised steel. Once you have everything together, it will only take a few
minutes to prepare this experiment. But then you have to put your experiment in a
safe place where you can observe it for a week or more.
You need the following things for this activity:
• a plastic or glass container that is not made of metal,
• enough water to fill this container,
• a packet of table salt,
• two galvanised metal items, such as a galvanised Tin cans are made by
nail, a tin can or a piece of corrugated iron electroplating tin onto steel.
(hint: look at your last answer on page 102), and
• something rough or sharp that you can use to scratch off the galvanised layer
from one of the items, such as a nail or sandpaper or another piece of metal.
How to do this experiment:
• Heat the water and dissolve the packet of table salt in the water.
• When it has cooled down, pour the water and salt solution into the glass or
plastic container.
• Take your two galvanised metal items and put one directly into the water and
salt solution.
• Use the rough or sharp object to scratch off the galvanised layer from the other
galvanised object.
• Put the second object into the water as well.
• Keep both items in the water and salt solution for at least a week.
• Take them both out every day to see what has happened.
Answer the questions below:
1. Which item starts to corrode or rust first?

2. How long does it take for the metal to start corroding?

CHAPTER 7: preserving metals 105

3. Is there a difference in the level of corrosion by the end of the week compared
to the beginning of the week?

4. Why doesn’t the other piece of metal corrode?

What have you learnt?

You have learnt three methods of protecting ferrous metals against corrosion:
painting, galvanisation and electroplating. Protecting metals against corrosion
makes the metals last longer, which could reduce the need for mining. You can
also easily reuse a rusted piece of metal if you clean the rust off and paint it.
Reducing, reusing and recycling materials will have a positive impact on the
environment.

Next week

In the next chapter, you will learn more about processing materials by extending
the lifespan of food.

106 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Chapter 8
Extending the shelf
life of food
In the last chapter, you learnt about preserving metals by painting, galvanising and electroplating
them. In this chapter, you will learn about different ways of preserving food, namely storing grain,
pickling, drying and salting.

8.1 Storing grain ................................................................................................................. 110

8.2 Pickling ........................................................................................................................ 114
8.3 Drying and salting ......................................................................................................... 117

Figure 1

Technology grade 9 term 4 107

Figure 2

108 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Figure 3

CHAPTER 8: Extending the shelf life of food 109

8.1  Storing grain
Food begins to spoil the moment it is harvested. Food preservation has been part
of all cultures throughout history. Food preservation enabled ancient humans to
live in one place and form a community, unlike the Bushmen who had to move
from one place to another. The discovery of food-preservation methods meant
that ancient humans no longer had to consume hunted animals or harvested food
immediately. They could preserve some of their food to eat at a later time.
It is interesting that different cultures preserved their local food sources using
the same basic methods of food preservation, for example heating, freezing,
pickling, canning, salting, fermenting, drying and refrigerating.
Food preservation is one of the oldest technologies. People ate what they grew
on the land and what they hunted. They had to take good care of their food to
prevent it from going off and making them ill. They also had to find ways of
preserving food so that they would be able to eat even when there were no crops
to harvest or when they could not hunt.

Food preservation is about the treatment, handling

and storage of food to ensure that it does not lose
its nutritional value or quality. An important part
of food preservation is to create conditions that
prevent dangerous bacteria from growing.

Grain is a staple food for most of the world. A staple food is a food that is
Different grains are eaten in different parts of the eaten most often by a group
world, for example in China and Japan, rice is the of people and forms the main
staple grain that is eaten. part of the diet.
In South Africa, wheat and maize are the main
grains that are grown and eaten. Maize is also used
to make a fermented drink, a type of beer that some
people drink on special occasions.

110 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Structures for storing grain

People have always had some method of storing their grain produce.
Improvements in storage methods have also been observed over time and people
used the right methods for their situation or need, for example storing grain in
sacks. Grains produced by farmers who farm as a business and on a large scale are
stored in “silos”. These are huge cement or metal structures that hold the grain
from many farms in one place until it can be used or exported. The silos keep the
grain cool and free from moisture, insects and rodents.

A good storage container

should:
• keep grain cool and dry,
• protect grain from insects,
and
• protect grain from rats and
mice.

Figure 4: A traditional Zulu grain silo

Figure 5: Modern industrial grain silos

CHAPTER 8: extending the shelf life of food 111

The process of storing grain

Firstly, grains need to be

harvested. Small-scale or
subsistence farmers do this
by hand. Figure 6 shows
harvesting on a much
bigger, industrial scale with
a combine harvester and a
tractor.
Secondly, the seed, which
is the edible part of the grain,
needs to be loosened from the
plant’s casing that protects the
seeds. The casing is inedible
and it is called “chaff”. This Figure 6: Harvesting on an industrial scale with a combine
process is called threshing. harvester and a tractor
Figure 7 shows the seeds still in
their casing.
The third step is called “winnowing”. Winnowing is
the process whereby the loosened seed is separated
from the chaff. Figure 8 shows the separated, edible
seeds, and the inedible chaff in the bucket.
There are various traditional winnowing techniques.
Nowadays, people use combine harvesters to harvest,
thresh and winnow.

Figure 7: Wheat before harvesting,

threshing and winnowing

Figure 8: Grain separated from the chaff

112 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

 Fourthly, the grain is dried
to prevent fungus and bacteria
from growing on the seeds.
The ideal moisture content for
wheat is about 14%.
Nowadays, people use grain-
drying machines, but in the old
days, people dried grain with
the help of the sun. Figure 9
shows a modern grain-drying
machine.
Finally, the dried grain is
stored. The humidity and
temperature of the air are the Figure 9: A modern grain-drying machine
two most important factors
here.
Warm, moist air will encourage bacteria and mould to live on and destroy the
grain, even if the grain has been dried beforehand. Cool, dry air will help to keep
the grain intact for longer.

Figure 10: Schematic cross section of the air movement in a grain silo

CHAPTER 8: extending the shelf life of food 113

 There are all kinds of insects that damage grains, Larvae: the stage of an
such as weevils and mites. Mites are very small insects insect’s life after it’s hatched
that eat grains. Weevils are small insects that lay their from the egg, but before it has
eggs inside the grain. When the larvae hatch, they eat changed into a mature insect.
the seeds.
Rodents, such as rats and mice, can also cause great damage to grains. They eat
large amounts of grain if they’re not controlled. Besides that, they carry deadly
diseases that can contaminate the grain and spread to humans if consumed.
Now you can imagine that storing very large amounts of grain, for instance in
a big, modern silo, is a complicated job, because air flow and temperature, insects
and rodents, bacteria and fungi need to be controlled. But luckily, storing small
amounts of grain is relatively easy. You need to put the grain into a clean, dry,
airtight container and keep it in a cool place that is dry, with no direct sunlight or
rodents.

8.2 Pickling
Most food products deteriorate as a result of the presence of micro-organisms,
such as bacteria, yeast or mould. Remember that not all bacteria is harmful. We
need good bacteria to perform certain functions in our bodies and to make certain
food products, such as yoghurt and cheese.
In the past, people had to store fresh food so that it was safe to eat long after it
was harvested. There were no fridges or freezers to stop food from going off. Fruit
and vegetables were dried, salted, pickled or made into jam so that they could be
eaten long after they were picked. Dried, pickled, salted foods and jams meant that
people had a bigger variety of food and nutrients in their diet for a longer time.

Pickling possibly originated when food was placed Brine is a watery mix of
in wine or beer to preserve it. Both wine and beer vinegar and salt. Tomato sauce
have a low pH level. People then found many uses was an oriental fish brine.
for the brine that was left over from the pickling
process.

114 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

 South Africa has a few favourite pickles. Achaar is What we know today as tomato
a traditional pickle that was brought to our country sauce was originally an oriental
by the Malay people more than a century ago. It can pickle sauce for fish. It spread
be eaten as a side dish or with curry, and is widely to Europe by the spice route,
enjoyed, especially in the Western Cape. Achaar is and eventually to America
made from vegetables such as cauliflower, carrots, where someone added sugar
cabbage and beans, that have been finely cut and are to it. Spices were added to
mixed together with mustard, turmeric, coriander, these pickling sauces to make
vinegar and sugar. tasty recipes.
Chutney is another favourite South African pickled
product, normally made with fruit.
For pickling, we can use salt and water or salt, water
and an acid, usually vinegar.
Vegetables and fish are the two most common food types that are pickled.
Pickling preserves the food because the brine creates an environment where
oxygen is not present. Thus the micro-organisms contained in and around the
food cannot grow and multiply and, in turn, cause the food to go bad.
The food to be
pickled is placed in a
clean glass jar. A hot
brine mix is poured
over the food and
covers it completely.
The brine is poured
until the jar is full. A
clean, tight-fitting lid
seals the jar. Pickles
last for many months,
depending on the type
of food.
Pickles have become
very popular. There are
many pickling recipes
available, and people
often experiment with
different combinations
of vegetables, herbs
and spices.
Figure 11: Examples of pickled foods

CHAPTER 8: extending the shelf life of food 115

Make your own pickles

You will need the following ingredients for this activity:

• 6 pickling cucumbers, sliced in half lengthwise,
• 1 red bell pepper sliced,
• 1 cup water, A few rules for pickling:
• 1 cup white vinegar, • Use clean jars and lids.
• 1 cup white sugar, • White vinegar is better to
use as it does not discolour
• 2 ½ tablespoons pickling salt,
the vegetables the way
• 2 cloves garlic, peeled, brown vinegar would.
• 12 black peppercorns, • Use ingredients that are as
• ¼ teaspoon dried dill, and fresh as possible.
• 1 pinch crushed red pepper flakes.

1. Using the ingredients listed above, prepare an instruction sheet for another
group of learners to use in preparing their pickles. Write your instructions in
point form. Show the flow of activities from start to finish.

2. Name and briefly discuss three advantages and three disadvantages of this
method of food preservation.

116 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

8.3 Drying and salting
South African biltong is a rich inheritance from The word biltong is from the
innovative Dutch settlers from the seventeenth Dutch “bil” (rump) and “tong”
century. They brought recipes for dried meat from (strip or tongue).
Europe. They used the sun to dry meat during their
trek across southern Africa.
The basic meat spices were
readily available in the Cape Colony.
The spices for making biltong
include a dramatic blend of vinegar,
salt, sugar, coriander and other
available spices.
Drying is one of the oldest
methods of food preservation.
Drying preserves food by removing
enough moisture from the food to Figure 12: Biltong
prevent decay and spoilage.
The water content of properly dried food varies from 5% to 25%, depending on
the type of food.

Successful preservation of food depends on

inhibiting the growth of micro-organisms such as
bacteria, and preventing access to insects.

Answer the following questions:

1. Explain what you understand the purpose of food preservation to be.

2. In South Africa, there are many cultures and methods of food preservation.
Name one culture and food type they preserve. Briefly explain the process this
culture follows in preserving this food type.

CHAPTER 8: extending the shelf life of food 117

3. Explain the process of drying food for preservation purposes.

4. Briefly discuss why salt is so important in the drying method of preserving

food.

Dry your own food

Tip:
When drying food, the key is to remove moisture Before you touch any food,
as quickly as possible at a temperature that does not wash your hands thoroughly to
greatly affect the flavour, texture or colour of the food. remove dirt and bacteria.

Figure 13

118 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

You will need the following things for this activity:
• spinach,
• cold water,
• a knife,
• a large bowl, and
• paper towels.

Follow these steps:

• Find fresh spinach sold loose or in a bunch. Pick spinach that is crisp and green.
• Fill a large bowl with cool water and add the spinach.
• Rinse the spinach in the water to remove any dust or dirt particles.
• Remove the water from the bowl and refill it with fresh, cool water. Continue to
rinse out the spinach in fresh water until all of the gritty particles are gone.
• Lift the spinach from the water and place it on a paper towel.
• Roll spinach into sausage shapes, cover it with another paper towel and gently
press on it to remove the moisture.
• Replace the paper towel and gently press on the rolled spinach with a dry towel
until all the water is removed.
• Place the prepared spinach rolls, covered with paper towel, on a sieve and leave
them in the sun to dry for a few days.
• Place the dried spinach in a plastic container for storage until you need to cook it.

Record your observations during this practical activity:

1. Describe what the fresh spinach looked like.

2. List all the steps you took and explain why you did them.

CHAPTER 8: extending the shelf life of food 119

3. What was the effect of the weather conditions on your drying process?

4. Indicate whether the results of this experiment were a success or not. Motivate
your answer.

What have you learnt?

You have learnt how indigenous people long ago thought innovatively to develop
ways of preserving food to extend its lifespan.
You have learnt how the principles of grain storage, pickling and drying of food
assist in increasing the lifespan of food.

Next week

Next week, you will learn more about reducing, re-using and recycling plastic to
reduce its negative impact on the environment.

120 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Chapter 9
Plastics

In this chapter, you will learn about the various types of plastic. You will also learn that plastic can be
recycled, and why this is important.

9.1 What are plastics, and what properties do they have? ....................................................... 122
9.2 Types of plastic, recycling, and identification codes ......................................................... 125
9.3 What have you learnt? .................................................................................................... 128

Note to the teacher:

Learners should bring plastic products and containers to school for this week’s activities. Figure 1
below suggests a few types of plastic products they can bring.
It is important that learners bring a wide variety of plastic products. They have to bring plastic
products with recycling codes at the bottom to identify which type of plastic it was made of.
The selection should include clear, translucent and opaque types of plastic, and hard and soft types
of plastic. A few examples of what they can bring are cool drink bottles, milk bottles, peanut butter
jars, shampoo bottles, polystyrene cups, margarine tubs, plastic plates, plastic eating utensils,
freezer bags, flip-flops (plastic sandals), combs, lunch boxes, and/or geometry triangles.

Figure 1: Bring plastic items such as these to school for this week’s lessons.

Technology grade 9 term 4 121

9.1 What are plastics, and what properties do they have?
Up to about 100 years ago, most clothes as well as
When you look at a piece of
many tools and appliances were made of plant or
cloth closely you will see that
animal materials, such as cotton, wool, wood, animal
it is woven from many thin
skin, and bird feathers. But then chemistry scientists threads, like very thin pieces of
invented ways to make synthetic materials with rope. If you use a microscope
similar properties to natural materials, and sometimes to look even closer, you will
with useful properties that no natural materials have. see that each thread is made
Most of these synthetic materials are made from of different long, thin pieces
mineral oil, and most of them are called plastics. that hook or twist into one
Synthetic materials are usually cheaper and lighter another. These long and very
than natural materials with the same properties, thin pieces are called fibres.
and factories can mould the synthetic materials into In the close-up photo below
unique shapes. you can see the plant fibres
from which a specific fabric is
Rulers were once made from wood, but are now
made.
made from plastic. Buckets were first made from
wood, then from galvanised steel, but now they are
made from plastic as well. Milk came in heavy glass
bottles or steel cans, but now comes in plastic bottles.
Ropes were twisted from sisal plant fibres, but most
ropes are now made from plastic fibres. Cars were
made mostly from steel, wood and leather, but now
many parts are made from plastics.
All around you, there are objects made of different
types of plastic. Look at your shoe soles, your pen and Figure 2: Close-up photo of plant
ruler. In winter you may wear a fleecy jacket that feels fibres that were spun and woven
like wool. That woolly substance is actually made to make a fabric
of plastic fibres. Many clothes and most carpets are
made from plastic fibres.
There are also disadvantages to synthetic materials.
You learnt in Grade 8, Term 3, Chapter 8 that most
plastics do no bio-degrade as natural materials do.
This means plastic waste lasts a very long time.

Figure 3: A “fleece” blanket is

made from fibres of a type of
plastic called polyester.

122 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

 Plastics are examples of polymers. A polymer is The word plastic was
a material that is made from molecules that have originally used to describe
carbon atoms, hydrogen atoms and other atoms a property that materials
joined in long chains. Cotton, wool, leather, hair, such as rubber have, namely
starch, wood and rubber are examples of natural that they can be given a
polymers. The molecule chains join together in new shape. Most synthetic
different ways, so that there are many different kinds polymers have this property,
of polymers with different properties. and therefore they were given
Plastics are man-made (synthetic) polymers. They the name “plastics”.
are most often made from mineral oil, because the Molecules are made of
molecules in this oil are chains of carbon atoms, but atoms that join together. You
know from Natural Sciences
shorter chains than in plastics.
that molecules are much too
small to see, even with a
microscope.
Different properties of plastics
Depending on the type of plastic and the form in which it is made, it may have a
few of the following properties:
• Transparent means you can see clearly through the plastic.
• Translucent means light can shine through the plastic even though you can’t
see through it.
• Tough means the plastic will not break or shatter if you hit it or drop it.
• Elastic means you can stretch the plastic far and it will still return to its original
shape.
• Flexible means the plastic can bend without breaking.
• Rigid means the plastic will resist bending and stretching, but if you apply a big
enough force to bend or stretch it, it will break or even shatter.
• Heat-resistant means the plastic will not melt easily.
• Fire-resistant means the plastic will not burn easily.
• Waterproof means water will not pass through the plastic.
• Foamed means the plastic has been processed to fill it with small air bubbles.
• Electrically insulated means the plastic does not allow electricity to conduct
through it.
• Thermally insulated means the plastic does not allow heat to be conducted
through it easily.

In many of these cases, you cannot simply say the plastic has a specific property
or does not have a specific property. For example, you cannot simply say a type
of plastic is flexible. You need to say how flexible it is, for example very flexible or
only slightly flexible.

CHAPTER 9: plastics 123

Investigate properties of plastic objects

Work in teams of three or four.

For this activity, your teacher asked you to bring different plastic objects to
school.
Each team should take two of the objects and describe their properties. Write the
name of the object and then write its properties next to it.

1. Object 1:

2. Object 2

Now swop your two plastic objects with the those of another team that have
different objects. Then write down the names and properties of the other team’s
objects.

3. Object 3:

4. Object 4:

124 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

9.2  Types of plastic, recycling, and identification codes
Thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics
Some plastics are soft or similar to liquid, until you heat them in a specific way, or
mix another chemical with them. Then they “set” or become hard and rigid. After
they set, you cannot make them soft again by heating them. So you cannot shape
them into new products. They will burn, but not turn soft again. Plastic such as
this is called thermosetting plastic.
Examples are epoxy-resin glue, shoe soles, car Safety warning:
tyres, electrical plugs, pot handles, electronic circuit
Wear protective heat-resistant
boards, and kitchen worktops. Thermosetting plastics gloves, protective glasses and
cannot be recycled by simply reheating them. They fire-resistant clothing if you try
can, however, be turned back into oil through a high- to melt plastic, since molten
temperature chemical process called “pyrolysis”. plastic can splatter and cause
Other plastics melt when they are heated, and serious burn injuries.
can then be shaped into new products. These are Never try to melt plastic by
called thermoplastic plastic. Cool drink bottles and using a flame, since the plastic
detergent bottles are thermoplastic. If you pour boiling can start to burn, and it can
water into it you can change the shapes. release poisonous gases.

Why we have to recycle plastic

Waste plastic in the environment is a big problem. Most types of plastic will not
bio-degrade, but will last for hundreds of years.
Landfills are usually near cities so that garbage trucks don’t have to travel too far
to dump the waste. But that means people can never build houses on that land or
grow crops on it.
Any materials that go into a landfill
will never be used again. Instead,
people will need to extract more raw
materials such as oil, coal, steel, wood
or glass from the earth. Then they will
burn more coal to generate electricity
in order to process the raw materials.
Not all plastics go into landfills,
though. A lot of plastic just remains
where someone has tossed it, or is
dumped into rivers and then goes
into the ocean.
Figure 4: Plastic waste on a sea shore. This photo
was taken in Hawaii, which is why there is black
volcanic rock on the seashore.

CHAPTER 9: plastics 125

 In some parts of the ocean, wind causes the water to flow round and round in
one place. These areas are much bigger than South Africa. They are called “ocean
gyres”. Here, millions of floating plastic bottles, bags and little plastic flakes about
the size of this block gather.
Turtles mistake the plastic bags for jelly-fish and To recycle means to process
swallow them, which kills them. Large and small fish waste materials to make new
swallow the small plastic flakes. Sea-birds eat these products from it.
fish and the plastic in the fish kills the sea-birds.
So plastic being dumped in the environment is a big problem. But many types of
plastic can be recycled.
1. Write down two reasons why we should recycle plastic items.

Different types of plastic need different processes to recycle it

Waste of different types of plastic need to be sorted so that each type of plastic can
be recycled separately. Manufacturers have agreed on a set of codes to show which
type of plastic a product is made of.

Codes and Examples of Properties Recycled products

names products
cool drink bottles clear; tough; fibres to make fabrics
good barrier for for clothes, bags and
liquids and gases; carpets; food and
heat-resistant drink containers
polyester
bottles for milk, somewhat rigid; bottles; pipes;
juice, water and tough; resistant to buckets; crates;
laundry products chemicals; good flower pots; bins;
barrier for liquids plastic planks; floor
high density and gases tiles
polyethylene

126 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

 pipes; coating resistant to gutters; floor tiles
(sheaves) of chemicals; and mats; electrical
electrical wires electrically boxes; garden hoses
insulating; tough;
polyvinyl can be rigid or
chloride flexible
thin plastic films, flexible; tough; good garbage bags; floor
for example to for sealing; barrier tiles; bins
cover food or to moisture
books; flexible
low density lids and bottles
polyethylene
large moulded resistant to car battery cases;
parts, for chemicals; tough; brooms and brushes;
example car parts heat-resistant; bins; trays
barrier to moisture
polypropylene
protective can be rigid or plates for light
packaging; foamed; low switches; rulers;
disposable melting point; in thermal insulation;
cups; bottles; foamed form it is foam packaging
polystyrene trays; thermal an excellent heat
insulation insulator
(especially in
roofs)
acrylic or perspex depends on the type plastic planks
sheets (can of plastic; “ABS” has
be used as a very good shock-
replacement for absorbing properties
other type glass windows);
of plastic, or “ABS” for making
more than car bumpers
one type of
plastic used
in the same
product

CHAPTER 9: plastics 127

9.3 What have you learnt?
Identify the types of plastic on the table

Look at the four plastic products your team looked at in the activity in section 9.1
again. Turn them upside down and try to find a symbol for the recycling code.
1. Complete the table below:

Code and name of Properties What products could

the type of plastic be made from this
recycled material?
Object 1

Object 2

Object 3

Object 4

128 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

2. Why do manufacturers often choose to make their products from plastic?

3. Why do manufacturers put recycling codes on the bottom of containers?

4. Why do they not use the same type of plastic for everything that can be
manufactured?

5. Think of three objects that could not be made of plastic.

CHAPTER 9: plastics 129

Next week

In the next chapter, you will learn how plastics are recycled to make new products.

130 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Chapter 10
Recycling and
manufacturing with
recycled plastic
In this chapter, you will learn how plastic waste is recycled to make new products.

10.1 Moulding recycled plastic pellets into products ................................................................ 132

10.2 Recycling plastic to make new products .......................................................................... 135
10.3 What have you learnt? .................................................................................................... 138

Technology
CHAPTER 10: RECYCLING grade 9 term 4
AND MANUFACTURING 131
             WITH RECYCLED PLASTIC
10.1  Moulding recycled plastic pellets into products
There are two steps to making plastic bottles, injection moulding and blow
moulding.

Step 1: Injection moulding to make preforms from pellets

Injection moulding is used to make

plastic “preforms” of bottles. Preforms
are like small bottles with very thick
walls that already have the neck and
screw-thread of the final bottle. Figure 1
shows the preform for a plastic bottle.
Figure 2 shows the injection-
moulding machine at different times
of the injection-moulding process. In
this picture, the plastic is the coloured
substance. The raw material going into
Figure 1: A preform of a plastic bottle
the machine is small, almost round
pieces of plastic called pellets.
They are initially hard since they have not been heated yet, and are shown in
blue. The plastic must be soft and hot for the injection process to work.
The pellets are pushed forward by a screw that is turned by a motor. At the same
time, the pellets are heated until they melt. The turning force of the screw creates
pressure that pushes or injects the molten plastic into the mould. Once the mould
has been filled, the opening of the mould where the molten plastic came in is
closed, and the mould is left to cool.
The plastic in the mould solidifies as it cools down. Once it has cooled down
sufficiently, the two halves of the mould open so that the preform that was made
can be taken out.
Answer the following question in connection with Figure 2.
1. Find the mould and label it.
2. Where will you put a heater on the machine to melt the plastic pellets? Draw
an extra part or parts for the machine to show where the heater should be, and
label it.
3. Look carefully at a plastic bottle. You will find a very thin ridge where the two
parts of the mould joined. If you cannot see it, feel around the neck of the bottle
with your finger.
Why is the mould line on both sides of the neck?

132 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Figure 2: The injection-moulding process

CHAPTER 10: RECYCLING AND MANUFACTURING 133

             WITH RECYCLED PLASTIC
Step 2:  Blow moulding to shape preforms into bottles

Next, the preform goes to a blow-moulding machine. This machine blows hot air
under high pressure into the preform. This heats the lower part of the preform
so that it becomes soft and can change its shape. The high air pressure forces the
walls of the preform to expand into the mould, similar to blowing up a balloon.

Figure 3: Blow-moulding of a preform to make a plastic bottle

The same type of preform can be made into different shapes of bottles, since it
can be blown into different moulds. But all the bottles will have the same screw-on
cap.

1. Why will all the different-shaped bottles fit the same cap?

134 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

10.2  Recycling plastic to make new products
In Chapter 9, you learnt why we should recycle plastic containers and other
products. In this chapter, you will learn how PET plastic can be recycled and made
into a new raw material.

Case study: The cyclical process of recycling plastic

1. Why should plastics be separated into different types before it can be recycled?

2. How do the recycling codes on the plastic containers help to sort them?

3. The containers are not only plastic. If you look carefully at a container, what
other materials can you find? You can look at some of the containers your
classmates brought to class.

4. Are all the plastic containers in the bin clean? Is this important?

5. Plastic bottles and other containers take up a lot of space. Why is this a problem?

6. Name four things that need to be done to plastic waste before it will be suitable
to turn into new products.

CHAPTER 10: RECYCLING AND MANUFACTURING 135

             WITH RECYCLED PLASTIC
 The illustration on the next page shows the plastic recycling process.
Each type of plastic waste is pressed into bales that can easily be transported.
At the recycling factory, the plastic waste is shredded into small pieces, to make it
easier to handle and wash.
7. Complete the systems diagram below by giving descriptions of the different
steps of the recycling process. Hint: When something is recycled, it means that
the output is also the input, since the process is a cycle or circular.

Figure 4: Systems diagram of the plastic bottle recycling process

136 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Figure 5: The steps to turn waste plastic into new plastic products

CHAPTER 10: RECYCLING AND MANUFACTURING 137

             WITH RECYCLED PLASTIC
10.3 What have you learnt?
1. What is the raw material for the bottles in this process?

2. How can consumers and house-owners make it easier for recyclers to process
plastic products to make new bottles?

3. A manufacturer can buy one type of preform and then make different-shaped
bottles. How can this be done?

4. Which type of moulding do you think is used to make plastic chairs?

5. What is the difference between injection moulding and blow moulding?

Next week

Over the next three weeks, you will do your Mini-PAT for this term. You will reuse
old plastic bottles for a new purpose. But the bottles will have to be changed, so
you will need to design and make new products from the old plastic bottles.

138 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Chapter 11: mini-pat
Reduce, re-use and recycle :
Working with plastics
In this Mini-PAT you will design and make a useful new product from old plastic bottles. But first you
will look at how plastic is used in everyday life.
You will only do individual work in this Mini-PAT.

Week 1 ............................................................................................................................... 142

Investigate: Plastics in the classroom and at home
Different scenarios: Reusing plastic bottles
Design brief for the scenario that you chose

Week 2 ................................................................................................................................ 150

Design: Initial rough design sketches
Make: Final orthographic drawing
Skills development: Practice to mark out, cut and make holes in plastic

Week 3 ................................................................................................................................ 154

Make the plastic product you designed
What have you learnt during this term?

Assessment
Investigate: Different scenarios reusing plastic bottles [4]
Design brief for the scenario that you chose [4]
Design: Initial rough sketches [10]
Make: Final orthographic drawing [15]
Make the plastic product you designed [25]
Communicate: What have you learnt during this term? [12]
. [Total marks: 70]

Technology grade 9 term 4 139

 Figure 1: Improving your environment by picking up and sorting waste

140 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Reduce, re-use, recycle
In Grade 8 Term 4, you learnt that the environment is damaged when more and more things are
made and thrown away. You learnt that waste is formed in order to make new products, and
that the products themselves become waste when they are thrown away. You can reduce the
negative impact of this practice on the environment in different ways.
Firstly, you can buy fewer things, which is called reducing your consumption.
Secondly, you can use some things over
and over, so that you don’t have to buy new
things. This is called re-using things. You
can also re-use something for a different
purpose than it was originally made for. For
example, many people use old hot-water
tanks (geysers) to make “braai-skottels” in
which they can make fire and barbeque
food outside.
But what if something you own gets
broken or you don’t have any use for
it anymore? Then you have to throw it Figure 2: A “braai-skottel” made from an oil tank
away. Fortunately, there is a clever way of cut through the middle
throwing things away, by separating the
different types of waste.
For example, if you and your family collect all your plastic You learnt in the previous
waste separately, then someone can take that plastic to a chapter how plastic pellets are
recycling factory where new plastic is made from the old moulded into new shapes.
plastic. At a recycling factory, the old plastic is washed and
shredded into very small pieces.
It is then melted and “moulded” in the shape of “pellets”. The pellets can then be used as the
raw material to make new plastic products.

CHAPTER 11 Mini-pat: REDUCE, RE-USE AND RECYCLE: WORKING WITH PLASTICS 141
Week 1
Plastics are easy to form into complicated shapes, do not corrode, have high
electrical resistance, are tough and can be made in many colours.

Plastics in the classroom and at home (60 minutes)

1. Look around you on your desk, at your clothes and in your school bag. Make
a list of all the things you can see that are made of plastic. Also write down
whether it is made of hard or soft plastic and thick or thin plastic.

Plastic item Hard or soft Thick, thin, or woven

2. The table below lists different things that you can see in a house. Write “yes” or
“no” next to each item to show whether it is made of plastic or not.

floor tiles
roof plates
cushions
windows
window frames
paint
chair backs
lights
bottles for washing soap
sponges
the outside of a TV or radio

142 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

3. Look at the illustrations of household appliances below. The arrows point to
different parts of the appliances, and labels are given to describe the different
parts of the appliances. Write a “P” below each label for a part that is made from
plastic.

Figure 3: Different parts of typical household appliances

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4. A long time ago, cars were heavy because most of their parts were made of
steel, cast iron and even wood. Nowadays, cars are much lighter, and therefore
they use less petrol to travel each kilometre. One way that was used to make
cars lighter is to use more plastic when building them, instead of using metal.
Look at the illustrations of the inside and outside of a car below. The arrows
point to different parts, and labels are given to describe these different parts.
Write a “P” below each label for a part that is made from plastic.

Figure 4: Different parts of a motor car

5. How can you test whether a material is plastic or metal?

Hints: Think about hardness, strength, magnetism, sound, heat and fire.

Safety warning:
Burning plastic can start a fire
and release poisonous gases.
Molten plastic can cause
serious burn wounds.

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Different scenarios for reusing plastic bottles  (30 minutes)

On the following pages, you are shown photos of four scenarios in which new
products were made from old plastic bottles.
Each of the products solves a certain problem. In other words, it satisfies or
addresses a certain need. Answer the questions for each scenario about the
problem or need. Then choose one of these scenarios for the product that you will
design and make.

Scenario A

Figure 5
1. What is the purpose of the product? (½)

2. How does this reduce the amount of work that somebody has to do? (½)

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Scenario B

Figure 6

3. What is the purpose of the product? (½)

4. Can this product save you money? How? (½)

146 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Scenario C

Figure 7

5. What is the purpose of the product? (½)

6. Can this product save you money or time? How? (½)

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Scenario D

Figure 8

7. What is the purpose of these products? (½)

8. Can this product save you money or time? How? (½)

Total [4]

148 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Design brief for the scenario that you chose  (30 minutes)

Answer the following questions to identify the specifications and constraints for
the scenario that you chose.
1. Give a description of the product you are going to make. (1)

2. Answer the following questions to identify the specifications for your design:
(a) What is the purpose of your product? (½)

(b) Should your product keep some things inside (contain it) and keep other
thing out? What should it keep in and what should it keep out? (½)

(c) Should your product be supported in some way to stay upright? How? (½)

3. Answer the following questions to identify the constraints of your design:

(a) Make a list of all the materials you will need. (½)

(b) Make a list of all the tools that you will need. (½)

(c) Make a time schedule showing how much time you have to design and make
the product. (½)

Total [4]

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Week 2
Initial rough design sketches  (30 minutes)

Make rough sketches of your design ideas for the

The word innovative comes
product that you want to make. You can make sketches
from the word “new”. An
for different ideas and later decide which one you are
innovative solution to a
going to make. problem is a solution that
Try to design and make a product that is slightly nobody else thought of before.
different from the photos of the products on the
previous pages, to address the need. In other words,
try to make an innovative design.
Show notes and labels on your sketches to help to explain your ideas. [10]

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Final orthographic drawing  (30 minutes)

Choose your final design from your rough sketches. Then draw your product to
scale using first angle orthographic projection. Show dimensions. [15]

152 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Practice to mark out, cut and make holes in plastic (60 minutes)

You need the following materials for this activity:

• two or more old plastic bottles that have been cleaned,
• a marker pen or “koki” pen,
• nails of different sizes to make holes in the plastic,
• a strong pair of scissors to cut the plastic,
• sandpaper, and
• sticky tape to join different plastic parts together.

First make sure that the plastic bottles are clean and that all the labels and glue
have been removed.
This is how to cut a plastic bottle:
First make a small hole with a thin nail where you want to start cutting. Hint:
It will be easier to make the hole if you keep the cap of the bottle on and tightly
secured, because then the bottle will not collapse as you press the nail in.
Then make the hole bigger by moving a thick nail around in the hole to make
it bigger, as shown in the photo below. You can also use a cutting knife to make a
short cut where you can then put the blade of the scissors in.

Safety warnings
A pair of scissors should not be used like a
knife. If you do that, it can slip and you can
cut yourself.
Do not try to cut the thick, hard parts of the
bottle. If you do that, the scissors can slip
and you can cut yourself.

Figure 9: Making a hole in the bottle

Once the hole is big enough to insert one

blade of the pair of scissors, start cutting
with the scissors, as shown the photo on
the right.
Use sandpaper to make the sharp edges
of the hole in the bottle smooth so that it
can’t cut you. Figure 10: Cutting the bottle

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Week 3
Make the product you designed  (90 minutes)

You can make more sketches if you realise that you need to change some things
about your design.  [25]

154 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

What have you learnt during this term?  (30 minutes)

1. What metal is used on the surface of a sheet of corrugated iron to protect it

from corrosion?  (1)

2. Give some examples of steel products that have been galvanised. (1)

3. Painting and galvanising are both methods to stop steel from corroding;
each method coats the steel with another substance. Complete the following
sentence: The difference between the two methods is that …  (4)

4. How would you protect a steel bridge from rusting? Which of the three
processes that you have learnt about in this unit do you think would be most
appropriate for this task and why?  (2)

5. Give two examples of food that is preserved by the process of drying.  (1)

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6. Why do manufacturers print a symbol like
this on the bottom of plastic products? (1)

7. Why do designers prefer to use plastics Figure 11

instead of steel for certain parts of cars?
Give four reasons. (2)

Total [12]

Make a record of the term’s work

Go through all your work of this term, and make sure that the following is in your
workbook so that your teacher can evaluate it.
You should have the following things in the file, ready to show your teacher. You
should be able to show your teacher the place in this workbook where you have:
• answers to the questions about painting, galvanising and electroplating,
• your notes about what you observed when you electroplated a metal object,
• answers to the questions about storing grain, pickling food and drying food to
preserve it,
• your notes about how you dried some food to preserve it,
• your records of the kinds of plastic that the class collected and sorted by the
codes on the containers,
• a systems diagram for recycling plastic and producing pellets for
re-manufacture,
• the investigation of plastics in a car – notes you made,
• the investigation of plastics in a house – notes you made,
• a sample of the material you made from fused plastic bags,
• your sketches and notes of ideas for a product to be made from fused plastic,
• your orthographic drawing of the product, and
• the product that you designed and made by reusing old plastic bottles.

156 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4

Notes

NOTES 157
Notes

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Notes

NOTES 159
Notes

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Notes

NOTES 161
Notes

162 TECHNOLOGY GRADE 9 TERM 4