Chapter 7 Membrane Structure and Function

Lecture Outline

Overview: Life at the Edge

 The plasma membrane separates the living cell from its
nonliving surroundings.
 This thin barrier, 8 nm thick, controls traffic into and out
of the cell.
 Like all biological membranes, the plasma membrane is
selectively permeable, allowing some substances to cross more
easily than others.

Concept 7.1 Cellular membranes are fluid mosaics of lipids and

proteins
 The main macromolecules in membranes are lipids and
proteins, but carbohydrates are also important.
 The most abundant lipids are phospholipids.
 Phospholipids and most other membrane constituents are
amphipathic molecules.
 Amphipathic molecules have both hydrophobic regions and
hydrophilic regions.
 The arrangement of phospholipids and proteins in biological
membranes is described by the fluid mosaic model.
Membrane models have evolved to fit new data.
 Models of membranes were developed long before
membranes were first seen with electron microscopes in the
1950s.
 In 1915, membranes isolated from red blood cells were
chemically analyzed and found to be composed of lipids and
proteins.
 In 1925, E. Gorter and F. Grendel reasoned that cell
membranes must be a phospholipid bilayer two molecules
thick.
 The molecules in the bilayer are arranged such that the
hydrophobic fatty acid tails are sheltered from water while
the hydrophilic phosphate groups interact with water.
 Actual membranes adhere more strongly to water than do
artificial membranes composed only of phospholipids.
 One suggestion was that proteins on the surface of the
membrane increased adhesion.
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  In 1935, H. Davson and J. Danielli proposed a sandwich
model in which the phospholipid bilayer lies between two
layers of globular proteins.
 Early images from electron microscopes seemed to support
the Davson-Danielli model, and until the 1960s, it was widely
accepted as the structure of the plasma membrane and
internal membranes.
 Further investigation revealed two problems.
 First, not all membranes were alike. Membranes differ in
thickness, appearance when stained, and percentage of
proteins.
 Membranes with different functions differ in
chemical composition and structure.
 Second, measurements showed that membrane proteins
are not very soluble in water.
 Membrane proteins are amphipathic, with hydrophobic
and hydrophilic regions.
 If membrane proteins were at the membrane surface,
their hydrophobic regions would be in contact with water.
 In 1972, S. J. Singer and G. Nicolson presented a revised
model that proposed that the membrane proteins are
dispersed and individually inserted into the phospholipid
bilayer.
 In this fluid mosaic model, the hydrophilic regions of
proteins and phospholipids are in maximum contact with
water, and the hydrophobic regions are in a nonaqueous
environment within the membrane.
 A specialized preparation technique, freeze-fracture, splits
a membrane along the middle of the phospholipid bilayer.
 When a freeze-fracture preparation is viewed with an
electron microscope, protein particles are interspersed in a
smooth matrix, supporting the fluid mosaic model.
Membranes are fluid.
 Membrane molecules are held in place by relatively weak
hydrophobic interactions.
 Most of the lipids and some proteins drift laterally in the
plane of the membrane, but rarely flip-flop from one
phospholipid layer to the other.
 The lateral movements of phospholipids are rapid, about 2
microns per second. A phospholipid can travel the length of a
typical bacterial cell in 1 second.
 Many larger membrane proteins drift within the
phospholipid bilayer, although they move more slowly than the
phospholipids.
 Some proteins move in a very directed manner, perhaps
guided or driven by motor proteins attached to the
cytoskeleton.
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  Other proteins never move and are anchored to the
cytoskeleton.
 Membrane fluidity is influenced by temperature. As
temperatures cool, membranes switch from a fluid state to a
solid state as the phospholipids pack more closely.
 Membrane fluidity is also influenced by its components.
Membranes rich in unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid that
those dominated by saturated fatty acids because the kinks in
the unsaturated fatty acid tails at the locations of the double
bonds prevent tight packing.
 The steroid cholesterol is wedged between phospholipid
molecules in the plasma membrane of animal cells.
 At warm temperatures (such as 37°C), cholesterol restrains
the movement of phospholipids and reduces fluidity.
 At cool temperatures, it maintains fluidity by preventing
tight packing.
 Thus, cholesterol acts as a “temperature buffer” for the
membrane, resisting changes in membrane fluidity as
temperature changes.
 To work properly with active enzymes and appropriate
permeability, membranes must be about as fluid as salad oil.
 Cells can alter the lipid composition of membranes to
compensate for changes in fluidity caused by changing
temperatures.
 For example, cold-adapted organisms such as winter wheat
increase the percentage of unsaturated phospholipids in
their membranes in the autumn.
 This prevents membranes from solidifying during winter.
Membranes are mosaics of structure and function.
 A membrane is a collage of different proteins embedded in
the fluid matrix of the lipid bilayer.
 Proteins determine most of the membrane’s specific
functions.
 The plasma membrane and the membranes of the various
organelles each have unique collections of proteins.
 There are two major populations of membrane proteins.
 Peripheral proteins are not embedded in the lipid bilayer at
all.
 Instead, they are loosely bound to the surface of the
protein, often connected to integral proteins.
 Integral proteins penetrate the hydrophobic core of the
lipid bilayer, often completely spanning the membrane (as
transmembrane proteins).

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  The hydrophobic regions embedded in the membrane’s
core consist of stretches of nonpolar amino acids, often
coiled into alpha helices.
 Where integral proteins are in contact with the aqueous
environment, they have hydrophilic regions of amino
acids.
 On the cytoplasmic side of the membrane, some membrane
proteins connect to the cytoskeleton.
 On the exterior side of the membrane, some membrane
proteins attach to the fibers of the extracellular matrix.
 The proteins of the plasma membrane have six major
functions:
1. Transport of specific solutes into or out of cells.
2. Enzymatic activity, sometimes catalyzing one of a number of
steps of a metabolic pathway.
3. Signal transduction, relaying hormonal messages to the cell.
4. Cell-cell recognition, allowing other proteins to attach two
adjacent cells together.
5. Intercellular joining of adjacent cells with gap or tight
junctions.
6. Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix,
maintaining cell shape and stabilizing the location of certain
membrane proteins.
Membrane carbohydrates are important for cell-cell
recognition.
 The plasma membrane plays the key role in cell-cell
recognition.
 Cell-cell recognition, the ability of a cell to distinguish one
type of neighboring cell from another, is crucial to the
functioning of an organism.
 This attribute is important in the sorting and organization
of cells into tissues and organs during development.
 It is also the basis for rejection of foreign cells by the
immune system.
 Cells recognize other cells by binding to surface molecules,
often carbohydrates, on the plasma membrane.
 Membrane carbohydrates are usually branched
oligosaccharides with fewer than 15 sugar units.
 They may be covalently bonded to lipids, forming glycolipids,
or more commonly to proteins, forming glycoproteins.
 The oligosaccharides on the external side of the plasma
membrane vary from species to species, from individual to
individual, and even from cell type to cell type within the same
individual.
 This variation distinguishes each cell type.

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  The four human blood groups (A, B, AB, and O) differ in the
external carbohydrates on red blood cells.
Membranes have distinctive inside and outside faces.
 Membranes have distinct inside and outside faces. The two
layers may differ in lipid composition. Each protein in the
membrane has a directional orientation in the membrane.
 The asymmetrical orientation of proteins, lipids and
associated carbohydrates begins during the synthesis of
membrane in the ER and Golgi apparatus.
 Membrane lipids and proteins are synthesized in the
endoplasmic reticulum. Carbohydrates are added to proteins in
the ER, and the resulting glycoproteins are further modified in
the Golgi apparatus. Glycolipids are also produced in the Golgi
apparatus.
 When a vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane, the
outside layer of the vesicle becomes continuous with the inside
layer of the plasma membrane. In that way, molecules that
originate on the inside face of the ER end up on the outside
face of the plasma membrane.

Concept 7.2 Membrane structure results in selective

permeability
 A steady traffic of small molecules and ions moves across
the plasma membrane in both directions.
 For example, sugars, amino acids, and other nutrients enter
a muscle cell, and metabolic waste products leave.
 The cell absorbs oxygen and expels carbon dioxide.
 It +also+ regulates concentrations of inorganic ions, such as
Na , K , Ca2+, and Cl−, by shuttling them across the
membrane.
 However, substances do not move across the barrier
indiscriminately; membranes are selectively permeable.
 The plasma membrane allows the cell to take up many
varieties of small molecules and ions and exclude others.
Substances that move through the membrane do so at
different rates.
 Movement of a molecule through a membrane depends on
the interaction of the molecule with the hydrophobic core of
the membrane.
 Hydrophobic molecules, such as hydrocarbons, CO 2, and O2,
can dissolve in the lipid bilayer and cross easily.
 The hydrophobic core of the membrane impedes the direct
passage of ions and polar molecules, which cross the
membrane with difficulty.
 This includes small molecules, such as water, and larger
molecules, such as glucose and other sugars.
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  An ion, whether a charged atom or molecule, and its
surrounding shell of water also has difficulty penetrating
the hydrophobic core.
 Proteins assist and regulate the transport of ions and polar
molecules.
 Specific ions and polar molecules can cross the lipid bilayer
by passing through transport proteins that span the
membrane.
 Some transport proteins, called channel proteins, have a
hydrophilic channel that certain molecules or ions can use as
a tunnel through the membrane.
 For example, the passage of water through the membrane
can be greatly facilitated by channel proteins known as
aquaporins.
 Other transport proteins, called carrier proteins, bind to
molecules and change shape to shuttle them across the
membrane.
 Each transport protein is specific as to the substances that
it will translocate.
 For example, the glucose transport protein in the liver will
carry glucose into the cell but will not transport fructose,
its structural isomer.

Concept 7.3 Passive transport is diffusion of a substance

across a membrane with no energy investment
 Diffusion is the tendency of molecules of any substance to
spread out in the available space.
 Diffusion is driven by the intrinsic kinetic energy (thermal
motion or heat) of molecules.
 Movements of individual molecules are random.
 However, movement of a population of molecules may be
directional.
 Imagine a permeable membrane separating a solution with
dye molecules from pure water. If the membrane has
microscopic pores that are large enough, dye molecules will
cross the barrier randomly.
 The net movement of dye molecules across the membrane
will continue until both sides have equal concentrations of the
dye.
 At this dynamic equilibrium, as many molecules cross one
way as cross in the other direction.
 In the absence of other forces, a substance will diffuse
from where it is more concentrated to where it is less
concentrated, down its concentration gradient.

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  No work must be done to move substances down the
concentration gradient.
 Diffusion is a spontaneous process that decreases free
energy and increases entropy by creating a randomized
mixture.
 Each substance diffuses down its own concentration
gradient, independent of the concentration gradients of other
substances.
 The diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane is
passive transport because it requires no energy from the cell
to make it happen.
 The concentration gradient itself represents potential
energy and drives diffusion.
 Because membranes are selectively permeable, the
interactions of the molecules with the membrane play a role in
the diffusion rate.
 Diffusion of molecules of limited permeability through the
lipid bilayer may be assisted by transport proteins.
Osmosis is the passive transport of water.
 Differences in the relative concentration of dissolved
materials in two solutions can lead to the movement of ions
from one to the other.
 The solution with the higher concentration of solutes is
hypertonic relative to the other solution.
 The solution with the lower concentration of solutes is
hypotonic relative to the other solution.
 These are comparative terms.
 Tap water is hypertonic compared to distilled water but
hypotonic compared to seawater.
 Solutions with equal solute concentrations are isotonic.
 Imagine that two sugar solutions differing in concentration
are separated by a membrane that will allow water through,
but not sugar.
 The hypertonic solution has a lower water concentration
than the hypotonic solution.
 More of the water molecules in the hypertonic solution are
bound up in hydration shells around the sugar molecules,
leaving fewer unbound water molecules.
 Unbound water molecules will move from the hypotonic
solution, where they are abundant, to the hypertonic solution,
where they are rarer. Net movement of water continues until
the solutions are isotonic.
 The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable
membrane is called osmosis.

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  The direction of osmosis is determined only by a difference
in total solute concentration.
 The kinds of solutes in the solutions do not matter.
 This makes sense because the total solute concentration is
an indicator of the abundance of bound water molecules
(and, therefore, of free water molecules).
 When two solutions are isotonic, water molecules move at
equal rates from one to the other, with no net osmosis.
 The movement of water by osmosis is crucial to living
organisms.
Cell survival depends on balancing water uptake and loss.
 An animal cell (or other cell without a cell wall) immersed in
an isotonic environment experiences no net movement of water
across its plasma membrane.
 Water molecules move across the membrane but at the
same rate in both directions.
 The volume of the cell is stable.
 The same cell in a hypertonic environment will lose water,
shrivel, and probably die.
 A cell in a hypotonic solution will gain water, swell, and
burst.
 For organisms living in an isotonic environment (for example,
many marine invertebrates), osmosis is not a problem.
 The cells of most land animals are bathed in extracellular
fluid that is isotonic to the cells.
 Organisms without rigid walls have osmotic problems in
either a hypertonic or hypotonic environment and must have
adaptations for osmoregulation, the control of water balance,
to maintain their internal environment.
 For example, Paramecium, a protist, is hypertonic to the
pond water in which it lives.
 In spite of a cell membrane that is less permeable to water
than other cells, water still continually enters the
Paramecium cell.
 To solve this problem, Paramecium cells have a specialized
organelle, the contractile vacuole, which functions as a bilge
pump to force water out of the cell.
 The cells of plants, prokaryotes, fungi, and some protists
have walls that contribute to the cell’s water balance.
 A plant cell in a hypotonic solution will swell until the elastic
cell wall opposes further uptake.
 At this point the cell is turgid (very firm), a healthy state
for most plant cells.
 Turgid cells contribute to the mechanical support of the
plant.
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  If a plant cell and its surroundings are isotonic, there is no
movement of water into the cell. The cell becomes flaccid
(limp), and the plant may wilt.
 The cell wall provides no advantages when a plant cell is
immersed in a hypertonic solution. As the plant cell loses
water, its volume shrinks. Eventually, the plasma membrane
pulls away from the wall. This plasmolysis is usually lethal.
Specific proteins facilitate passive transport of water and
selected solutes.
 Many polar molecules and ions that are normally impeded by
the lipid bilayer of the membrane diffuse passively with the
help of transport proteins that span the membrane.
 The passive movement of molecules down their
concentration gradient via transport proteins is called
facilitated diffusion.
 Two types of transport proteins facilitate the movement of
molecules or ions across membranes: channel proteins and
carrier proteins.
 Some channel proteins simply provide hydrophilic corridors
for the passage of specific molecules or ions.
 For example, water channel proteins, aquaporins, greatly
facilitate the diffusion of water.
 Many ion channels function as gated channels. These
channels open or close depending on the presence or absence
of a chemical or physical stimulus.
 If chemical, the stimulus is a substance other than the one
to be transported.
 For example, stimulation of a receiving neuron by specific
neurotransmitters opens gated channels to allow sodium
ions into the cell.
 When the neurotransmitters are not present, the
channels are closed.
 Some transport proteins do not provide channels but appear
to actually translocate the solute-binding site and solute
across the membrane as the transport protein changes shape.
 These shape changes may be triggered by the binding and
release of the transported molecule.
 In certain inherited diseases, specific transport systems
may be defective or absent.
 Cystinuria is a human disease characterized by the absence
of a protein that transports cysteine and other amino acids
across the membranes of kidney cells.
 An individual with cystinuria develops painful kidney stones
as amino acids accumulate and crystallize in the kidneys.

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Concept 7.4 Active transport uses energy to move solutes
against their gradients
 Some transport proteins can move solutes across
membranes against their concentration gradient, from the side
where they are less concentrated to the side where they are
more concentrated.
 This active transport requires the cell to expend metabolic
energy.
 Active transport enables a cell to maintain its internal
concentrations of small molecules that would otherwise diffuse
across the membrane.
 Active transport is performed by specific proteins
embedded in the membranes.
 ATP supplies the energy for most active transport.
 ATP can power active transport by transferring a phosphate
group from ATP (forming ADP) to the transport protein.
 This may induce a conformational change in the transport
protein, translocating the solute across the membrane.
 The sodium-potassium pump actively maintains the gradient
of sodium ions (Na+) and potassium ions (K+) across the plasma
membrane of animal cells.
 Typically, K concentration is+ low outside an animal cell and
+

high inside the cell, while Na concentration is high outside

an animal cell and low inside the cell.
 The sodium-potassium pump maintains these concentration
gradients, using the energy of one ATP to pump three Na+
out and two K in.
+

Some ion pumps generate voltage across membranes.

 All cells maintain a voltage across their plasma membranes.
 Voltage is electrical potential energy due to the separation
of opposite charges.
 The cytoplasm of a cell is negative in charge compared to
the extracellular fluid because of an unequal distribution of
cations and anions on opposite sides of the membrane.
 The voltage across a membrane is called a membrane
potential, and ranges from −50 to −200 millivolts (mV). The
inside of the cell is negative compared to the outside.
 The membrane potential acts like a battery.
 The membrane potential favors the passive transport of
cations into the cell and anions out of the cell.
 Two combined forces, collectively called the
electrochemical gradient, drive the diffusion of ions across a
membrane.
 One is a chemical force based on an ion’s concentration
gradient.
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  The other is an electrical force based on the effect of the
membrane potential on the ion’s movement.
 An ion does not simply diffuse down its concentration
gradient but diffuses down its electrochemical gradient.
 For example, there is a higher concentration of Na outside
+

a resting nerve cell than inside.

 When the neuron is stimulated, a gated channel opens and
Na+ diffuse into the cell down+ their electrochemical
gradient. The diffusion of Na is driven by their
concentration gradient and by the attraction of cations to
the negative side of the membrane.
 Special transport proteins, electrogenic pumps, generate
the voltage gradient across a membrane.
 The sodium-potassium pump in animals restores the
electrochemical gradient not only by the active transport of
Na+ and K+, setting up a concentration gradient, but because
it pumps two K+ inside for every three Na+ that it moves out,
setting up a voltage across the membrane.
 The sodium-potassium pump is the major electrogenic pump
of animal cells.
 In plants, bacteria, and fungi, a proton pump is the major
electrogenic pump, actively transporting H+ out of the cell.
 Proton pumps in the cristae of mitochondria and the
thylakoids of chloroplasts concentrate H+ behind membranes.
 These electrogenic pumps store energy that can be
accessed for cellular work.
In cotransport, a membrane protein couples the transport of
two solutes.
 A single ATP-powered pump that transports one solute can
indirectly drive the active transport of several other solutes in
a mechanism called cotransport.
 As the solute that has been actively transported diffuses
back passively through a transport protein, its movement can
be coupled with the active transport of another substance
against its concentration gradient.
 Plants commonly use the gradient of hydrogen ions
generated by proton pumps to drive the active transport of
amino acids, sugars, and other nutrients into the cell.
 One specific transport protein couples the diffusion of
protons out of the cell and the transport of sucrose into the
cell. Plants use the mechanism of sucrose-proton cotransport
to load sucrose into specialized cells in the veins of leaves for
distribution to nonphotosynthetic organs such as roots.

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Concept 7.5 Bulk transport across the plasma membrane
occurs by exocytosis and endocytosis
 Small molecules and water enter or leave the cell through
the lipid bilayer or by transport proteins.
 Large molecules, such as polysaccharides and proteins, cross
the membrane via vesicles.
 During exocytosis, a transport vesicle budded from the
Golgi apparatus is moved by the cytoskeleton to the plasma
membrane.
 When the two membranes come in contact, the bilayers fuse
and spill the contents to the outside.
 Many secretory cells use exocytosis to export their
products.
 During endocytosis, a cell brings in macromolecules and
particulate matter by forming new vesicles from the plasma
membrane.
 Endocytosis is a reversal of exocytosis, although different
proteins are involved in the two processes.
 A small area of the plasma membrane sinks inward to form a
pocket.
 As the pocket deepens, it pinches in to form a vesicle
containing the material that had been outside the cell.
 There are three types of endocytosis: phagocytosis
(“cellular eating”), pinocytosis (“cellular drinking”), and
receptor-mediated endocytosis.
 In phagocytosis, the cell engulfs a particle by extending
pseudopodia around it and packaging it in a large vacuole.
 The contents of the vacuole are digested when the vacuole
fuses with a lysosome.
 In pinocytosis, a cell creates a vesicle around a droplet of
extracellular fluid. All included solutes are taken into the cell
in this nonspecific process.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis allows greater specificity,
transporting only certain substances.
 This process is triggered when extracellular substances, or
ligands, bind to special receptors on the membrane surface.
The receptor proteins are clustered in regions of the
membrane called coated pits, which are lined on their
cytoplasmic side by a layer of coat proteins.
 Binding of ligands to receptors triggers the formation of a
vesicle by the coated pit, bringing the bound substances into
the cell.
 Receptor-mediated endocytosis enables a cell to acquire
bulk quantities of specific materials that may be in low
concentrations in the environment.
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  Human cells use this process to take in cholesterol for use
in the synthesis of membranes and as a precursor for the
synthesis of steroids.
 Cholesterol travels in the blood in low-density lipoproteins
(LDL), complexes of protein and lipid.
 These lipoproteins act as ligands to bind to LDL receptors
and enter the cell by endocytosis.
 In an inherited disease called familial hypercholesterolemia,
the LDL receptors are defective, leading to an accumulation
of LDL and cholesterol in the blood.
 This contributes to early atherosclerosis.

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