Vibration Basics

Vibration is the behavior of a machine’s mechanical components as they react to

internal or external forces.
Since most rotating machinery problems show themselves as excessive vibration, we
use vibration signals as an indication of a machine’s condition. Also, each mechanical
problem or defect generates vibration in its own way. We therefore check the “type”
of vibration to identify its cause and take action.
It is essential that problems are found early enough to plan repair actions and to
reduce machine downtime.
Once detected, a cause and effect approach is used to take further steps . Only then
will you keep the problem from becoming a repeat problem
There is a big difference between detecting a problem and finding its Cause
Removing a bearing that is vibrating heavily may or may not solve your problem.
Usually, some other problem is causing the bearing to wear prematurely. To solve
the bearing problem you must solve the cause of the bearing problem (i.e.
misalignment, looseness, imbalance).
If not, you are not running a condition monitoring program, you’re running a bearing
change program
When analyzing vibration we look at two components of the vibration signal, its
amplitude and its frequency.
• Frequency is the number of times an event occurs in a given time period The
frequency at which the vibration occurs indicates the type of fault. That is, certain
types of faults “typically” occur at certain frequencies. By establishing the frequency
at which the vibration occurs, we get a clearer picture of what could be causing it.
• Amplitude is the size of the vibration signal. The amplitude of the vibration signal
determines the severity of the fault. The higher the amplitude, the higher the
vibration, the bigger the problem.
Amplitude depends on the type of machine and is always relative to the vibration
level of a “good”; “new” machine!

Measuring Vibration
Vibration is considered the best operating parameter to judge conditions such as
imbalance, misalignment, mechanical looseness, structural resonance, soft
foundation, shaft bow, excessive bearing wear, or lost rotor vanes.
In Metric units, vibration is measured as Displacement (microns) , Velocity
(mms/sec) or Acceleration (m/sec2 or in G )
Vibration can also be measured in US or Imperial units in terms of Mils, inch /sec ,or
G s Some meters can measure in inches etc and so check instrument is set in Metric
Mode.
Thus, vibration has three measurable characteristics: displacement, velocity, and
acceleration. Although these three are related , they are three different things, not
three names for the same quantity
Normally Velocity is preferred for vibration measurement. Velocity is a measure of
both frequency as well as amplitude . It is the most common machine vibration
measurement.
Displacement is the change in distance or position of an object relative to a
reference. The magnitude of the displacement is measured as amplitude.
• Velocity is the change in displacement as a function of time, it is speed at which
the distance is traveled .
• Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. For example, if it takes 1 second for
2
the velocity to increase from 0 to 1 m/sec, then the acceleration is 1 m/sec .
ACCELEROMETERS
Vibration in terms of acceleration is measured with accelerometers. An accelerometer
usually contains piezoelectric crystal element.
When the piezoelectric crystal is stressed it produces an electrical output
proportional to acceleration. The crystal is stressed when it is vibrated by the
component to which it is attached.
Accelerometers are rugged devices that operate in a very wide frequency range from
almost zero to well above 400 kHz. This ability to examine a wide frequency range is
the accelerometer’s major strength. However, since velocity is the most common
measurement for monitoring vibration, acceleration measurements are usually
integrated (either in the accelerometer itself or by the meter) to get velocity.
NOTE :In most cases Velocity is used for vibration measurement At times
acceleration or Displacement can also used . For very high frequency range
Acceleration is preferred as it shows up well in FFT spectrum . For very low speeds
Displacement is a better measure..
FREQUENCY RANGE
The frequency range for which the overall vibration reading is performed is normally
as per ISO definition , that is from 10 to 1000 Hertz ( 600 to 60,000 RPM)
There is still a debate on which frequency range is best to measure overall vibration.
SCALE FACTORS
When comparing overall values, the scale factors must be consistent. Scale factors
used in overall vibration measurements are Peak, Peak- to-Peak, Average, and RMS.
These scale factors have direct relationships to each other when working with
sinusoidal waveforms. The relationship for a sinusoidal waveform. is shown below

Scale Factors (for sine waves)

Peak = 1.0
RMS = 0.707 × Peak
Average = 0 × Peak
Peak-to-Peak = 2 × Peak
The Peak value represents the distance to the top of the waveform measured from a
zero reference. For discussion purposes we’ll assign a Peak value of 1.0.
The Peak-to-Peak value is the amplitude measured from the top most part of the
waveform to the bottom most part of the waveform.
The Average value is the average amplitude value for the waveform. The average of
a pure sine waveform is zero (it is as much positive as it is negative).
Visualizing how the RMS value is derived is a bit more difficult. Technically, it’s the
root mean squared (RMS).
Generally speaking, the RMS value is a mathematical conversion that relates DC
energy to AC energy. Electrical meters measure RMS Value. Volt & Ampere readings
in the electrical panel are RMS values
“OVERALL” VIBRATION
Overall vibration is the total vibration energy measured within a frequency range.
Measuring the “overall” vibration, and comparing the value to its normal value
(norm) indicates the current health of the machine. A higher than normal reading
indicates that “something” is causing the machine to vibrate more.
Overall vibration is measured RMS Velocity (mms/sec) between 10 – 1000 Hertz.
Overall vibration is measured in three directions.
NOTE: For comparison purposes, location must also be identical.
SENSOR POSITION

Select the best measurement point on the machine i.e. Bearing

Avoid unloaded bearing zones, housing splits, and structural gaps.
When measuring vibration with a hand-held sensor, ensure consistent readings,
paying close attention to the sensor’s position on the machinery, the sensor’s angle
to the machinery, and the contact pressure with which the sensor is held on the
machinery.
Sensor with magnetic mounts should be used where ever possible to get consistent
readings.
Direction - When possible, vibration should be measured in three directions:
• the axial direction (A)
• the horizontal direction (H), and
• the vertical direction (V).
• Horizontal measurements typically show the highest vibration as machine is
more flexible in the horizontal plane. Also, imbalance is one of the most common
machinery problems and imbalance produces a radial vibration, that is, part vertical
and part horizontal. Because the machine is usually more flexible in the horizontal
plane, excessive horizontal vibration is a good indicator of imbalance.
• Vertical measurements typically show less vibration than horizontal because of
stiffness (Foundation weight plus self weight).
• Under ideal conditions, axial measurements should show very little vibration as
most forces are generated perpendicular to the shaft. However, misalignment and
bent shaft problems do create vibration in the axial plane.
Since we generally know how various machinery problems create vibration in each
plane, vibration readings taken in these three positions can provide insight as to
what may be causing any excessive vibration. Note that measurements should be
taken as close to the bearing as possible.
Avoid taking readings on the case as the case could be vibrating due to resonance or
looseness.
If possible, choose a flat surface to press the sensor tip against. Measurements
should be taken at the same precise location for comparison (moving the probe only
a few inches can produce drastically different vibration readings). To ensure
measurements are taken at the exact same spot, mark the measurement point with
permanent ink or machine a shallow spot .
Magnetic mounts are better for consistency and permanently mounted sensors are
the best for consistency.
• Angle – Always perpendicular to the surface (90° ± 10°).
• Pressure – Even, consistent hand pressure must be used (firm, but not so firm as
to dampen the vibration signal).
OPTIMUM MEASUREMENT CONDITIONS
Perform measurements with the machine operating under normal conditions. For
example, when the rotor, housing, and main bearings have reached their normal
steady operating temperatures and with the machine running under its normal rated
condition (for example, at rated voltage, flow, pressure and load). On machines with
varying speeds or loads, perform measurements at all extreme rating conditions in
addition to selected conditions within these limits.
Trending Overall Readings
The reliable method of checking vibration is to compare the most recent overall
reading against previous readings for the same measurement, allowing you to see
how the vibration values are changing, “trending” over time. This trend comparison
between present and past readings is easier to analyze when the values are plotted
in a “trend plot”.
A trend plot is a line graph that displays current and past overall values plotted over
time. Past values should include a base-line (known good) reading. The base-line
value may be acquired after an overhaul or when other indicators show that the
machine is running well. Subsequent measurements are compared to the base-line
to determine machinery changes.
Comparing a machine to itself over time is the correct method for detection of
machinery problems as each machine is unique in its operation.
For example, some components have a certain amount of vibration that would be
considered a problem for most machines, but is normal for them. The current
reading by itself might lead you to believe that a problem exists, whereas the trend
plot and base-line reading would clearly show that a certain amount of vibration is
normal for this machine.
ISO Standards are good for a start (until you develop a machine history). However,
ISO charts define “good” or “not good” conditions for various wide-ranged machinery
classifications.
Every machine is:
• Manufactured differently
• Installed differently (foundation)
• Operated under different conditions (load, speed, materials, environment)
• Maintained differently
It is unrealistic to judge a machine’s condition by comparing its current
measurement value against a wide classification ISO Standard or other general rule
or levels. By comparing current values to historical values, you are able to easily see
how a specific machine’s condition is changing over time. You’re comparing apples to
apples.

• Collect Useful Information

Correct information is needed before attempting to diagnose.

• Identify All Components Of The Machine That Could Cause Vibration.

Before a machine can be analyzed, the components that cause vibration within the
machine must be known. In other words, what are the possibilities?

• If Possible, Obtain Any Historical Machinery Data

Are previously recorded values overall trend plots available?
•Was a base-line recorded?

Step 2 – Analyze
Once the above information is known, you can proceed to analyze the problem .
Analysis usually follows a process of elimination.

Determine The Severity Of The Fault

• One way to determine the fault’s severity is to compare its amplitude with past
readings taken under consistent conditions.
• Another way is to compare the amplitude to other readings obtained by similar
machines running under the same conditions. A higher than normal reading indicates
a problem.
Basic Rule
Know what you know and don’t pretend to know what you don’t know!
Often, a situation arises where the answer is not obvious. At this point “I don’t know”
is the best answer. A wrong diagnosis can be costly.
 MISALIGNMENT

Misalignment is created when shafts, couplings, and bearings are not properly
aligned along their centerlines. The two types of misalignment are angular and
parallel, or a combination of both.
Angular misalignment occurs when two shafts are joined at a coupling in such a way
as to induce a bending force on the shaft.
Parallel misalignment occurs when the shaft centerlines are parallel but displaced
from one another.
CAUSES
Possible causes of misalignment are:
• Thermal expansion due to a process working with heat (as with a turbine). Most
machines are aligned cold, then as they operate and heat up, thermal growth causes
them to grow misaligned.
• Machine directly coupled not properly aligned.
• Forces transmitted to the machine by piping and support members.
• Foundation uneven, shifting, or settling.
EFFECTS
Misalignment usually causes the bearing to carry a higher load than its design
specification, which in turn causes bearing failure due to fatigue. Fatigue is the result
of stresses applied
Angular misalignment causes axial vibration at the running speed frequency (1x).
Parallel misalignment produces vibration at twice the running speed frequency (2x).

Since most misalignment is a combination of angular and offset, both the radial and
axial measurements’ 1x and 2x frequencies are analyzed.

Normally flexible couplings, bearings, mechanical seals should last in years and not
in months. If these components are wearing out in months , alignment should be
checked.
NOTE:
2x amplitude is not always present.
With misalignment, a higher than normal 1x/2x amplitude may occur. A high 2x
amplitude can vary from 30% of the 1x amplitude to 100% - 200% of the 1x
amplitude.
• Couplings with 2x amplitudes below 50% of 1x are usually acceptable and often
operate for a long period of time.
• When the vibration amplitude at 2x is 50% to 150% that of 1x, it is probable that
coupling damage will occur.
• A machine whose vibration at 2x running speed is above 150% of the 1x has
severe misalignment, the problem should be fixed as soon as possible.

NOTE:
• With severe misalignment, the spectrum may contain multiple harmonics from 3x
to 10x.
• If vibration amplitude in the horizontal plane is increased 2 or 3 times, then
misalignment is again indicated.
Identify misalignment by measuring the overall vibration values from axial and radial
positions on the machine.
• A typical misalignment shows an abnormally higher (or comparable) vibration
amplitude in the axial direction compared to the radial direction.
• Imbalance forces are the same in the horizontal and vertical positions.
Misalignment forces are seldom the same in both positions. Because of gravity or
mounting, imbalance usually produces higher forces in the horizontal plane. If higher
than normal forces are present in the vertical plane, misalignment is indicated.

SUMMARY
If there is an abnormally high 2x/1x amplitude, and there is a coupling or belt, then
there may be misalignment.
If the radial 2x amplitude is abnormally high, and there is a coupling or belt, then
there may be misalignment.
If the axial 1x amplitude is abnormally high, and there is a coupling or belt, then
there may be misalignment.

IMBALANCE
Imbalance occurs when the shaft’s mass centerline does not coincide with its
geometric centerline. There are three types of imbalance; static imbalance, couple
imbalance, and dynamic imbalance (a combination of the first two).

STATIC IMBALANCE
With static imbalance only one force is involved. To observe this force, place the
rotor on a frictionless surface. The rotor turns until the heavy spot is located at 6
o’clock. The term “static” implies that this type of imbalance can be observed at rest.
COUPLE IMBALANCE
Unlike static imbalance, couple imbalance cannot be measured at rest. With couple
imbalance, two equal forces (weights) are 180° from each other, causing the rotor to
appear balanced at rest. However, when the rotor rotates, these forces move the
rotor in opposite directions at their respective ends of the shaft. This causes the
rotor to wobble, which produces a 180° out-of- phase reading from opposite ends of
the shaft.
DYNAMIC IMBALANCE
In reality, almost all imbalance is dynamic imbalance. Dynamic imbalance is the
combination of static and couple imbalance. On simple machines, there is usually
more static imbalance than couple imbalance. On more complex machinery, with
more than one coupling or several spots on the rotor were imbalance can occur,
couple imbalance is usually the bigger factor.
When balancing a machine, always balance out the static imbalance first, then take
care of the coupling imbalance. When balancing for coupling imbalance, the user is
forced to balance in multiple planes.
CAUSE
Imbalance can be caused by a number of factors, including improper manufacture,
an uneven build up of debris on the rotors/vanes/blades, or the addition of shaft
fittings without an appropriate counter balancing procedure. With pumps, uneven
wear on impellers is indicated as imbalance.

Key characteristics of vibration caused by imbalance are:

• It is a single frequency vibration whose amplitude is the same in all radial
directions.
• It is sinusoidal, occurring at a frequency of once per revolution (1x).
• The spectrum generally does not contain harmonics of 1x running speed, unless
severe.
• Amplitude increases with speed up to the first critical speed of the machine.
EFFECTS
Imbalance usually causes the bearing to carry a higher dynamic load than its design
specification, which in turn causes the bearing to fail due to fatigue. Fatigue is the
result of stresses applied immediately below the load carrying surfaces and is
observed as spalling away of surface metal.

Identify imbalance by measuring the overall vibration values from axial and radial
(horizontal and vertical) positions.
• Typical imbalance shows an abnormally high vibration amplitude in the radial
direction compared to the axial direction.
• Imbalance forces are the same in the horizontal and vertical positions. However,
because of gravity and mounting, imbalance usually produces higher forces in the
horizontal plane.
• With pure imbalance, the radial measurements’ FFT spectra display a higher than
normal 1x amplitude with little or no harmonics.
SUMMARY
• If the radial measurement’s 1x amplitude is high, and harmonics (except vane
passing) are less than 15% of the 1x, then there may be imbalance.
• If there is a non-synchronous peak corresponding to the 1x running speed of a
coupled machine, then there may be imbalance on the other machine.
• If the primary vibration plane is both axial and radial, and the machine has an
overhung mass, and the axial phase measurements across the machine are in phase,
then there may be imbalance.

NOTE:
It is important to note increasing imbalance forces place increasing loads on nearby
bearings. If the bearing’s specified load is exceeded, damage can occur and the
bearing’s life will be drastically reduced.
LOOSENESS

OVERVIEW
Mechanical looseness, or the improper fit between component parts, is generally
characterized by a long string of rotating frequency harmonics or 1/2 rotating
frequency harmonics at abnormally high amplitudes.
NOTE:
These harmonics may be sporadic. For example, looseness may display peaks at 2x,
3x, 4x, 5x, 6x, etc. or at 3x, 3.5x, 4x, 5.5x, 6x, etc.
CAUSES
Possible causes of wear/looseness are:
• The machine has come loose from its mounting.
• A machine component has come loose.
• The bearing has developed a fault which has worn down the bearing elements, or
the bearing seat.
EFFECTS
• If the looseness is bearing related, the effects are the same as imbalance, only
more severe.
• If looseness is generated from a component (for example, a fan blade), there is a
possibility the part will become detached, causing secondary damage.
Typically, looseness is identified by an abnormally high running speed amplitude
followed by multiples or 1/2 multiples. Harmonic peaks may decrease in amplitude
as they increase in frequency (except at 2x, which, when measured in the vertical
position, can be higher in amplitude).
Summary
If there are a series of three or more synchronous or 1/2 synchronous multiples of
running speed (range 2x to 10x), and their magnitudes are greater than 20% of the
1x, then there may be mechanical looseness.
If the machine is rigidly connected (no coupling or belt), and the radial 2x is high,
then there may be mechanical looseness.
 VIBRATION LIMITS AS PER ISO 2372 STANDARDS
(Velocity in mm/sec-RMS)

Below mentioned are standard vibration levels for class I machines.

Standard Vibration Level Machine Condition

Up to 1.8 mm/sec. Normal
1.8 to 4.5 mm/sec. Marginal
Above 4.5 mm/sec. Critical

Below mentioned are standard vibration levels for class II machines.

Standard Vibration Level Machine Condition

Up to 2.8 mm/sec. Normal
2.8 to 7.1 mm/sec. Marginal
Above 7.1 mm/sec. Critical

Below mentioned are standard vibration levels for class III machines.

Standard Vibration Level Machine Condition

Up to 4.5 mm/sec. Normal
4.5to 11.2 mm/sec. Marginal
Above 11.2 mm/sec. Critical

Below mentioned are standard vibration levels for class IV machines.

Standard Vibration Level Machine Condition

Up to 7.1 mm/sec. Normal
7.1 to 18.0 mm/sec. Marginal
Above 18.0 mm/sec. Critical

Below mentioned are standard vibration levels for class V machines.

Standard Vibration Level Machine Condition

Up to 11.1 mm/sec. Normal
11.1to 28.0mm/sec. Marginal
Above 28.0 mm/sec. Critical
 CLASSIFICATION OF MACHINES ACCORDING TO ISO STANDARDS

CLASS I:

Individual parts of Engines and Machines, integrally connected with the

complete machine in its normal operating condition.(Production electrical motors of
up to 15 kW are typical examples of machines in this category.

CLASS II:

Medium sized machines, (typically electrical motors with 15 to 75 kW out put)

without special foundations, rigidly mounted engines or machines (up to 300 KW) on
special foundations.

CLASS III:

Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating masses on rigid
and heavy foundations which are relatively stiff in the direction of vibration
measurement.

CLASS IV:
Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating masses on
foundations which are relatively soft in the direction of vibration measurement (for
example turbo generator sets, especially those with light-weight substructures).

CLASS V:

Machines and mechanical drive systems with unbalance able inertia effects
(due to reciprocating parts), mounted on foundations which are relatively stiff in the
direction of vibration measurement.

CLASS VI:

Machines and mechanical drive system with unbalance able inertia effects
(due to reciprocating parts), mounted on foundations which are relatively soft in the
direction of vibration measurements; machines with rotating slack coupled masses
such as beater shafts in grinding mills; machines, like centrifugal machines, with
varying unbalances capable of operating as self contained units without connecting
components; vibrating screens, dynamic fatigue-testing machines and vibration
exciters used in processing plants.