1 DESIGN OF IRRIGATION WATER CONVEYANCE AND CONTROL

SYSTEMS

1.1. Introduction
Water for irrigation is conveyed from its source to the field by means of canals or channels
and pipe. A channel or lateral is needed as an integral part of an irrigation water conveyance
system. In an open channel, water flows at atmospheric pressure under the force of gravity. In
most cases, a gentle slope is provided in the open channel to facilitate this flow. The words
Canal and channel are interchangeably used in the literature. Basically, canal is artificially
constructed (man-made), and channel is a natural water passage. A hydraulic engineer is
concerned with the design, construction, operation, maintenance, and improvement of such
channels.

The conveyance efficiency in irrigation projects is poor due to seepage, percolation, cracking,
and damaging of the earth channel. Seepage loss in irrigation water conveyance system is
very significant, as it forms the major portion of the water loss in the irrigation system.
Irrigation conveyance losses controlled through lining may reduce the drainage requirement and
also enhance irrigation efficiency. As such, reliable estimates of quantities and extent of
seepage losses from canals under pre-and post lining conditions become important.

Irrigation efficiency is greatly dependent on the type and design of water conveyance and
distribution systems. Designing of economic cross-sections of various types of irrigation channels
is important to minimize cost, water loss, and land requirement.

Irrigation canals should be designed to meet the varying irrigation requirements at farm level.
The design of irrigation canals is based on the following criteria:

1. Capacity. The capacity of irrigation canals is determined by the water delivery method
which describes how irrigation requirements are delivered in time and place in the
irrigation system. Delivery methods differ from each other with the scheduling of the
water demands. The World Band (1986) classifies the water delivery schedules as:
 On demand: Water delivery reacts instantaneously to the water demand;
 Continuous: the irrigation canals supply a varying or constant continuous flow
during the whole irrigation season;

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  Fixed rotation: water delivery is scheduled with a constant flow with periods of
rotation;
 Variable rotation: Water delivery is programmed with a variable supply, with
fixed flows with variables period (rotation) or variable supply and variable
periods.
2. Command area. The command criteria are determined by the fact that most of the
area must be commanded by the water. The water level in the irrigation canals must
be above the ground surface at any point of delivery. Due to the presence of flow
structures and the need to meet the varying irrigation requirements during the whole
irrigation season, the water flow in irrigation canals should be viewed in this context of
operation of the system. The flow of water can be simulated with a high degree of
accuracy; however, the description of the sediment transport still lies on gross
simplification.
3. Sedimentation and Erosion. Irrigation canals must be designed based on the criteria
that no sedimentation and no erosion occur during a certain period. A design of stable
cross section will be the end result of this criterion.
4. Cost. The application of the presented criteria for the design of irrigation canals will
result in the determination of the canal alignment, longitudinal slope and cross section
of the canals. It should result in balanced earthwork as far as possible. So, the
irrigation canals have to give the best effect at minimum cost.

1.2. Alignment of Canals

Irrigation canals can be aligned in any of the following three ways as shown in figure 1:

 As watershed canal or ridge canal;

 As side-slope canal;
 As contour canal.

Figure 1. Canal Alignments

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A. Watershed canal or ridge canal. The dividing ridge line between the catchment areas of
two streams (drains) is known as the watershed divide or the ridge. The canal which is
aligned along any natural watershed divide is called a watershed canal, as shown in figure 1a.
Watershed canal ensures gravity irrigation on both sides of the canal. Since the drainage flows
away from the ridge, no drainage can cross a canal aligned on the ridge. Thus, a canal
aligned on the watershed saves the cost of construction of cross drainage works.
B. Contour canals. Contour canals follow a contour, except for giving the required longitudinal
slope to the canal, as shown in figure 1b. A contour canal irrigates only on one side of canal
because the area on the other side is located at higher elevation. As the drainage flow is
always at right angles to the ground contours, such a channel would definitely have to cross
natural drains and streams necessitating the construction of cross-drainage structures.
C. Side Slope Canal. A side slope canal is aligned at right angles to the contours i.e., along
the side slopes, as shown in figure 1c. Since such a canal runs parallel to the natural
drainage flow, it usually doesn’t intercept drainage channels. Thus it avoids the construction of
cross drainage structures.

1.3. Canal Networks Systems for Distribution of Irrigation Water

The entire network of irrigation canal is called canal system. In a large canal irrigation system,
the water from its sources, first of all, flows into the main canal; from the main canal, it flows
into the branch canal; from the branch canal, it flows into distributaries; from the distributaries,
it flows into the minor and then into the field channels (water courses); and finally into the
fields. A systematic layout of a canal system is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2. Layout of Canal Systems

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In case of direct irrigation scheme, a weir or barrage is constructed across the river and
water is headed upon the upstream side. The arrangement is known as diversion head works.
Water is diverted into main canal by means of a diversion weir. A head regulator is provided
at the head of the main canal, so as to regulate the flow of water into the main canal, as
shown in figure 3b.

In storage irrigation scheme, a dam is constructed across the river, thus forming a reservoir
on the upstream side of the river. The water from this reservoir is taken into the main canal
through the outlet sluices. It is, however, not at all necessary that the main canals take-off
from the reservoir, and in fact, they rarely do so. In most storage schemes, canals usually
take-off from a pick up weir or a barrage, located downstream of the reservoir. The
requirement of the construction of such a pick up head works may become necessary when
the irrigation command area is far away from the dam site.

Figure 3. Arrangement of main canal off-take from the reservoir and pick up weir

1.4. Terminology
 Gross Command Area (GCA). It is the total area, bounded within the irrigation boundary of
a project which can be economically irrigated without considering the limitation of the
quantity of available water.
 Cultivable Command Area (CCA). It is all land of CGA on which cultivation is possible.
 Non-Cultivable Command Area (NCCA). It is part of the gross command area which
includes residential areas, ponds, reserves forest, cemetery, etc.
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 Intensity of irrigation. The percentage of CCA proposed to be irrigated in a given year is
called the intensity of irrigation of that year.
 Time factor of distributary. It is the ratio of the actual operating period of a distributary to
the crop period.

1.5. Computing the Design Capacity of an Irrigation Canal

Whenever one plans for supplying irrigation water, one has to think of the likely crops that
would be sown in any one season. The peak rate of water requirement of all the crops in
each season of a year is also needed to be worked out. The capacity of the canal should be
sufficient to fulfill the maximum of the peak demand of all the crops that are required to be
irrigated at any one time amongst all the seasons. The types of crop based on their growing
season, for example, are:

1. The Rabi Crops. Crops which require water from December to April.
2. The Kharif crops. Crops which requires water from December to November.
3. Perennial crops. Crops requiring water through the year. E.g. Sugar cane and Garden
Crops.

The canal may be designed for a capacity equal to the greater of the water requirement of
Rabi and Perennial crops or Kharif crops and perennial crops. Kor-watering is water required
by the crop at its peak demand. The depth of water required during kor-period is known as
kor-depth. The most important point which must be kept in mind while fixing the channel
capacity is to take into considers the keenest demand of the crop and not the average
demand.

864𝐵𝑘𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝐷= (4.1)
∆𝑘𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑕

𝐴
𝑄= (4.2)
𝐷

Where 𝐷 = Duty of water (ha/m3/s), 𝐷 = delta of crop (cm), 𝐴 is area of crop (ha) and 𝑄 =
flow rate (m3/s). Duty of water and delta of crop is explained in detail in chapter 3.

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1.6. Design of Irrigation Canals

1.6.1 General Design Principles

Many procedures have been developed over the years for the hydraulic design of open
channel sections. The complexity of these procedures vary according to flow conditions as wells
as the level of assumption implied while developing the given equation. The Chezy’s equation
is one of the procedures that were developed by a French engineer in 1768. The development
of this equation was based on the dimensional analysis of the friction equation under the
assumption that the condition of flow is uniform. A more practical procedure was presented in
1889 by the Irish engineer Robert Manning. The manning equation has proved to be very
reliable in practice.

The need of conveying different amounts of water to meet the irrigation requirements for a
required water level is the main criterion for canal design. Furthermore, the design must be
compatible with a particular local sediment load in order to avoid silting and scouring. The
diverted discharge should meet the irrigation requirements and at the same time the least
deposition and erosion should occur in the canal system.

It was suggested that the irrigation network should be designed and operated is such a way
that:

 The needed flow passes at the designed water level;

 No erosion of the canal bottom and banks occurs;
 No deposition of sediment in the canal takes place.

During the design phase, irrigation canals are divided into three categories, as follows:

 Canals with a rigid boundary. The canal design is based on the determination of the
velocity at which any sediment entering into the canal will not settle on the boundary.
High velocities are allowed, but they should not produce damage to the lining or create
large disturbance in the water surface. A simulation of the changes of the flow
conditions during the irrigation season becomes an important to ensure that the
sediment doesn’t deposit, even due to low velocities.
 Canals with erodible boundary and carrying clean water. The canal design is based
on the sedimentation of the cross section for which the bed material does not move.
The smallest cross section with a velocity as large as possible and without scouring of
the bed should be the result of the canal design.

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  Canals with erodible boundary and carrying water with sediment. The design principles
is that the canal should transport the water as wells as the sediment. The cross
section must ensure flow conditions for which the velocity is as large as possible to
convey the sediment and at the same time not too large to prevent scouring of the
bed. For the whole irrigation season both restrictions are difficult to meet simultaneously.
Therefore, the canal design must look for a stable canal during a long period. Thus,
these irrigation canals require that the total sediment inflow during a certain time period
is equal to the total sediment outflow.

One of the important topics in the area of free surface flows is the design of channels
capable of transporting water between two locations in a safe, cost effective manner. Even
though economics, safety, and aesthetics must always be considered, in this unit thrust is
given only to the hydraulic aspects of channel design and the design of channels for uniform
flow. The two types of channels considered are:

1. Lined or non-erodible canal;

2. Unlined, earthen, or erodible channel.

There are some basic issues common to both the types and are presented in the following
paragraphs.

a. Shape of the cross section of the canal.

b. Side slope of the channel.
c. Longitudinal (bed) slope.
d. Permissible velocities.
e. Roughness coefficient.
f. Free board.
Shape of Cross Section. From the Manning’s and Chezy’s equation, it is obvious that the
conveyance of a channel increases as the hydraulic radius increases or as the wetted
perimeter decreases. Thus, there is among all channel cross sections of a specified
geometric shape and areas, an optimum set of dimensions for that shape from the view
point of hydraulics. Among all possible channel cross sections, the hydraulically efficient
section is a semi-circle. That means for a given area semi-circle has the minimum wetted
perimeter. The proportions of the hydraulically efficient section of a specified geometric
shape can be easily derived. It should be noted that, the hydraulically efficient section is

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not necessarily the most economic section. In practice the following factors are kept in
mind:
 The hydraulically efficient section minimizes the area required to convey a specified
discharge. However, the area which required to be excavated to achieve the flow area
required by the hydraulically efficient section may be much larger if one considers the
removal of the over burden.
 It may not be possible to construct a hydraulically efficient stable section in the
available natural condition. If the channel is to be lined, the cost of the lining may be
comparable with the cost of excavation.
 The cost of excavation depends on the amount of material that is to be removed. In
addition, the topography of the land access to the site also influence the cost of
disposal of the material removed.
 The slope of the channel bed must be considered also as a variable since it is not
necessarily completely defined by topographic consideration. For example, a reduced
channel slope may require a larger flow area to convey the flow; on the other hand
the cost of excavation of the overburden may be reduced.
Side slopes. The side slopes of a channel depend primarily on the engineering properties
of the material through which the channel is excavated. In many cases, side slopes are
determined by the economics of construction. In this regard the following observation are
made:
 In many unlined earthen canals, side slopes are usually 1.5H: 1V; however, side
slopes as steep as 1:1 have been used when the channel runs through cohesive
materials.
 In lined canals, the side slopes are generally steeper than an unlined canal. If
concrete is the lining material, side slopes greater than 0.75: 1.
 Side slopes through cuts in rock can be vertical if this is desirable.

Table 1. Suitable side slopes for channels built in various types of Materials

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 Longitudinal slope. The longitudinal slope of the channel is influenced by topography, the
head required to carry the design flow, and the purpose of the channel. The slopes
adopted in the irrigation channel should be minimum as possible in order to achieve the
highest command. Generally, the slopes vary from 1: 4000 to 1: 2000 in canal. However,
the longitudinal slopes in the natural river may be very steep (1/10).

Figure 4. Longitudinal Slope of Channel for Different Design Discharge

1.6.2 Channel Design Considerations

 Channel Geometry. The channel geometry design depends on site conditions and
conveyance needs. The channel cross-section may be trapezoidal, rectangular, parabolic, V-
shaped, or a combination of the geometric shapes.
 Capacity Requirements. The capacity of canals should be as follows:
 Sufficient to meet demands of all the irrigation systems served and amount of water
needed to cover the estimated conveyance losses in the canal,
 Sized to convey the available water supply in water-short areas where irrigation water is
in demand,
 Capable of conveying surface runoff that is allowed to enter the channel, and
 The flow or runoff velocity must be non-erosive.

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 Permissible Velocity (Velocity Limitations). The design of an open channel should be
consistent with the velocity limitations for the selected channel lining to satisfy the condition
of non-erosive velocity in the channel. The velocity should not be too low to cause siltation
in case of surface drainage.

Permissible non-erosive velocity of a channel is dependent upon the stability of lining materials
and channel vegetation, as follows:

Table 2. Permissible Velocity for Different Channel Materials

Material Maximum velocity (m/s)

Sandy soil 0.6
Loam to silt 1.0
Silty clay 1.2
Stiff clay 1.5
Graded loam to silt 1.5
Coarse gravel 1.5
Vegetative channel 1.2
 Freeboard. The required freeboard above the maximum design water level shall be at least
one-fourth of the design depth (0.25d) and shall not be less than 0.3m.
 Water Surface Elevations. Water surface elevations should be designed to provide enough
hydraulic head for successful operation of all ditches or other water conveyance structures
diverting from the canal.
 Side Slopes. Canal should be designed to have stable side slopes. Local information on
side-slope limits for specific soils and/ or geologic materials should be used if available. If
such information is not available, the design of side slopes for the banks of canals shall
not be steeper than those values shown below in table 3.

Table 3. The Permissible Limit of Side Slope for Different Materials

Materials Side slope (horizontal to vertical)

Sandy to loam soil 2:1
Silty clay 1.5:1
Heavy clay 1:1
Loose rock to solid rock ¼:1

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1.6.3 Calculations of Velocity of Flow in Open Channel
The irrigation or drainage channel design should be such that it provides adequate capacity for
the design discharge or flow resulting from the design storm. The velocity of flow in open
channel can be determined by using Manning’s or Chezy’s equation.

1.6.3.1. Chezy’s Equation

The easiest formula for open channel was proposed by Chezy (1775). The Chezy’s equation
can be expressed as:

𝑣 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 (4.3)

Where 𝑣 is velocity of flow, 𝑅 is the hydraulic radius of flowing section, 𝑆 is the slope of
water surface which is taken as equal to the slope of channel bed (m/m), 𝐶 is the Chezy’s
constant which varies with surface roughness and flow rates.

1.6.3.2. Manning’s Equation

Manning’s equation is commonly expressed as

1 2 1
𝑣 = 𝑅3 𝑆2 (4.4)
𝑁

Where 𝑣 is average flow velocity (m/s), 𝑁 is the Manning’s roughness coefficient, 𝑆 is the
channel slope (m/m), 𝑅 is the hydraulic radius (m), 𝐴 is the flow cross sectional area (m2).
Based this, Manning suggested the relationship between 𝐶 and 𝑁 as follow:
1
𝑅6
𝐶= (4.5)
𝑁

The Manning’s equation is best used for uniform steady-state flow. However, these assumptions
are rarely achieved in reality. Manning’s equation is still used to model most open channel
flow.

1.6.3.3. Manning’s ‚N‛ Values

Manning’s “N” value is an important variable describing material roughness in open channel
flow computations. Manning’s “N” values depend on many physical characteristics of channel
surface. Changes in this variable can significantly affect flow discharge, depth, and velocity
estimates. Therefore, care and good engineering judgment must be exercised in the selection
process of “N.”

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Table 4. Manning’s Roughness Coefficient for Different Artificial Channel

Channel lining type N value

Concrete 0.011-0.013
Stone masonry 0.03-0.042
Soil cement 0.02-0.025
Bare soil 0.02-0.023
Vegetative waterway* 0.15-0.35
*
Note. For medium, dense, and very dense grass, N should be 0.15, 0.25, and 0.35,
respectively.

1.6.4 Design of Stable Unlined (Earthen) Irrigation Channel

The success of the irrigation system depends on the design of the network of canals. The
canals may be excavated through the difference types of soils such as alluvial soil, non-alluvial
soil, etc. The design consideration naturally varies according to the type of soil. Again, the
velocity of flow in the canal should be critical. That means, the velocity should be non-silting
and non-scouring. If the velocity becomes less than the critical, then silting will takes place
and the capacity of the canal will be reduced. If the velocity becomes more than the critical
velocity, then the scouring will take place and the channel will be damaged. So, determination
of critical velocity is very important in earthen canal design.

 Alluvial soil. The soil which is formed by continuous deposition of silt is known as alluvial
soil. The river carries heavy charge of silt in rainy season. When the river overflows its
banks during the flood, the silt particle get deposited on the adjoining areas. This
deposition of silt continues year after year. This type of soil is found in delta region of a
river. This soil is permeable, soft and very fertile.
 Non-alluvial soil. The soil which is formed by the disintegration of rock formation is known
as non-alluvial soil. It is found in the mountains regions of a river. The soil is hard and
an impermeable in nature. This is non-fertile.
 Silt factor (f). In the designing of a canal in alluvial soil, the suspended silt and the
deposited silt in the canal bed should be taken into consideration with great importance.
During the investigation work in various canals in alluvial soil, Lacey’s established the effect
of silt on the determination of discharge and the canal section. So, Lacey introduced a
factor which is known as ‘silt factor’. It depends on the main particle size of silt and
expressed as:

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 𝑓 = 1.76 𝑑 (4.6)

Where 𝑑 = mean particle size of silt (mm), 𝑓 = silt factor as shown in table 5.

Table 5. Values of silt factor for different types of soil

 Mean velocity (V). The velocity distribution in a canal section usually varies from one point
to another. This is due to shear stress at the bottom and at the sides and due to the
presence of the free surface. Field observation shows that average velocity for open
channel flow to be the average velocity measured at 0.2 and 0.8 of depth of flow (y) from
the water surface.
𝑉 = 𝑉0.2𝑦 + 𝑉0.8𝑦 (4.7)

Where 𝑉0.2𝑦 = the velocity at 0.2y from the water surface, 𝑉0.8𝑦 = the velocity at 0.8y from the
surface, 𝑦 = depth of flow.

 Critical velocity (𝑽𝒐 ). When the velocity of flow is such that there is no silting and
scouring action in the canal bed, then that velocity is known as critical velocity. Generally
the critical velocity depends on the nature of the soil formation in which the water flows.
Table 4 shows the critical velocity for different soil formations.

Table 6. The Values of critical velocity for different soil formations

 Critical Velocity Ratio (m). The ratio of the mean velocity to the critical velocity is known
as critical velocity ratio.
𝑉
𝑚= (4.8)
𝑉𝑜

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When 𝑚 equals 1, there is no silting and scouring; when 𝑚 > 1, scouring will occur and
when 𝑚 < 1 silting will occur. So, the condition of the canal can be predicted whether it will
have silting or scouring by determining the value of critical velocity ratio (m).

 Regime channel. A channel in which neither silting nor scouring takes place is called
regime channel or stable channel.

Erodible channels which scour but do not silt. The behavior of flow in erodible channels is
influenced by several parameters and precise knowledge is not available on various aspects.
Unlined channels with channel bed and banks composed of earth, sand or gravel must be
designed so that they maintain a stable configuration. There are three procedures for design of
earthen channel:

1. Tractive Force Method;

2. Regime Theory Method;
3. Maximum Permissible Velocity Method.

1.6.4.1. Tractive Force Method

When water flows in a channel, a force that acts in the direction of flow on the channel bed
is developed. This force, which is nothing but the drag of water on the wetted area is known
as the tractive force. A particle on the sloping side of a channel is subjected to both a
tractive force and downslope gravitational component. The tractive force ratio (K) is a function
of both the side slope angle and the angle of response of the material composing the
channel perimeter. In the case of cohesive materials and fine non-cohesive materials, the angle
of response are small and can be assumed to be zero, i.e., for these materials of cohesion
are significantly larger than the gravitational component tending to make the particles roll
downslope.

Figure 5. Components of weight of Water parallel and normal to channel bed

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The gravity component of weight of water in the direction of flow:

𝛾𝑤 𝐴𝐿𝑆
𝐹𝑕 = 𝛾𝑤 𝐴𝐿𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = (4.9)
𝑃𝑤 𝐿

Where, 𝛾𝑤 is unit weight of water; 𝐴 is the wetted area, 𝐿 is the length of the channel
reach, and 𝑆 is the slope. Thus, the average value of the tractive force per unit wetted area
is called unit tractive force (𝝉𝒐 ).

𝐹𝑕 𝛾𝑤 𝐴𝐿𝑆
𝜏𝑜 = = = 𝛾𝑤 𝑅𝑆 (4.10)
𝐴 𝑃𝑤 𝐿

Where 𝑃𝑤 = the wetted perimeter and 𝑅 = the hydraulic radius. For wide rectangular channel,
it can be written as:

𝜏𝑜 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑦𝑆 (4.11)

In most channels, the tractive force is not uniformly distributed over the perimeter.

Figure 6. Distribution of tractive force generated in a trapezoidal channel section

 Inciption motion condition or the critical condition or the threshold point is the stage at
which the shear force exerted by the following water on the bed particles will just exceed
the force opposing their movement. Knowledge of velocity at which such a critical condition
occurs is quite helpful in designing stable non-scouring channel admitting clear water.

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1.6.4.1.1 Designing of Non-Scouring Stable Channels Having Protected Side Slopes in
Alluvial Soil
Shield was the first investigator who defined the critical tractive stress (𝜏𝑏 ) is the average
shear stress (𝜏𝑜 ) acting on the bed of the channel, at which the sediment just begins to
move.
𝜏𝐶
𝐹𝑠 = (4.12)
𝛾𝑤 𝑑 𝑆𝑐 − 1

Where 𝐹𝑠 = the shield function, which is equal to 0.056, 𝑆𝑐 is the specific gravity of particle,
𝑑 is the diameter of particle.

For designing non-scouring channels in coarse alluvial soil with 𝐹𝑠 = 0.056 and 𝑆𝑐 = 2.65;
𝜏𝐶
0.056 = → 𝜏𝑐 = 0.056 𝛾𝑤 𝑑 1.65 (4.13)
𝛾𝑤 𝑑 2.65 − 1

For the channel to be non-scouring, 𝜏0 ≤ 𝜏𝑐 and equating equation (4.10) and (4.13):

𝛾𝑤 𝑅𝑆 ≤ 0.924 𝛾𝑤 𝑑 → 𝑑 ≥ 10.82 𝑅𝑆 (4.14)

Equation (4.14) gives the minimum size of the bed material or lining stone that will remain at
rest in a channel of given 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆. The critical shear stress can be given as a function of
particle size:

0.409𝑑2
𝜏𝑐 = 0.155 + (4.15)
1 + 0.177𝑑 2
𝑁
Where 𝜏𝑐 is the critical shear stress (𝑚 2 ), 𝑑 is the diameter of particles (mm).

1.6.4.1.2 Design of Non-Scouring Channels with Unprotected Side Slopes

The tractive force is equal to the gravity force component acting on the body of water parallel
to the channel bed.

Consider a sediment particle submerged in water and resting on the side of a trapezoidal
channel.

 𝜏𝑏 be the critical shear stress on bed;

 𝜏𝑠 be the critical shear stress on side slope;
 𝜃 be the angle that the side slope make with horizontal; and
 𝜙 be the angle of response (angle of internal friction) of bank material.

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Figure 7. The free-body diagram of various forces acting on the grain lying on the side slope
𝜏𝑏
𝜏𝑏 = 𝑊𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 → 𝑊 = (4.16)
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙

Under equilibrium conditions, drag force must be equal to the resisting forces:

𝜏𝑠2 + 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
= 𝑊𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 2
(4.17)

Substituting equation (4.16) in equation (4.17)

𝜏𝑏 2 𝜏𝑏 2
𝜏𝑠2 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙

Rearranging the variables, the above equation can be rewritten as:

2 2
𝜏𝑠2 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 − = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −
𝜏𝑏2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙

𝜏𝑠 tan2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃
𝐾= = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 − ( ) = 1−( ) (4.18)
𝜏𝑏 tan2 𝜙 sin2 𝜙

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Equation (4.18) show that 𝜏𝑠 < 𝜏𝑏 , which means that the shear stress required in moving a
grain on the side slope is less than the shear stress required to move the grain on the bed.
Moreover, on the channel bed, the average value of the actual shear stress generated by the
flowing water in a channel of given R and S as:

On the bed of channel: 𝜏0 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑅𝑆 (4.19)

On the side slope: 𝜏′0 = 0.75𝛾𝑤 𝑅𝑆 (4.20)

Design Procedures of Channel Using Tractive Force

1. Estimate the roughness in the channels

2. Estimate angle of response of channel forming material (𝜙)

In figure (8) the particle size is the diameter of the particle of which 25 percent of all the
particles, measured by weight are larger.

Figure 8. Angle of response as a function of particle size and shape

3. Estimate channel sinuosity and tractive force correction factor (Cs)

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Lane (1955) recognized that sinuous (curved) canals scour more easily than canals with
straight alignments. To account for this observation in the tractive force design method, lane
developed the following definitions:

 Straight canals have straight or slightly curved alignments are typical of canals built in
flat plains, which is typical of slightly undulating topography.
 Moderately sinuous canals have a degree of curvature, which is typical of moderately
rolling topography.
 Very sinuous canals have a degree of curvature which is typical of canals in foothills
or mountainous topography. Then, correction factors can be defined as in table 8.

Table 7. Tractive force correction factor

Degree of Sinuousness (Stream length per valley length) Correction factor

Straight channels 1.0
Slightly Sinuous Channels 0.9
Moderately Sinuous Channels 0.75
Very Sinuous Channels 0.6
4. Specify side slope angles. Recommended side slopes for different types of materials are
shown in the table 1.

5. Estimate tractive force ratio (K), between the side slope and the bottom of the channel

𝜏𝑠 tan 2 𝜃 sin 2 𝜃
K = = 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 1 − ( ) = 1−( ) (4.21)
𝜏𝑏 tan 2 𝜙 sin 2 𝜙

6. Determine the maximum permissible tractive force for the channel forming material.
Bed of channel: 𝜏𝑏 = 𝐶𝑠 𝜏𝑜 (4.22)
Side slope: 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐾𝜏𝑏 (4.23)
7. Assume that the stress acting on the side slope channel limits our design and
determine the uniform flow depth of channel.
𝜏𝑜′
𝜏′0 = 0.75𝛾𝑤 𝑅𝑆 → 𝑅 = (4.24)
0.75γw 𝑆
8. Calculate channel dimension from the geometry of channel
𝑄𝑁
From Manning 𝐴= 2 1 (4.25)
𝑅3 𝑆2
From Geometry: 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 2 (4.26)

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 𝑃𝑤 = 𝐵 + 2𝑦 𝑚 2 + 1 (4.27)

Solve equation (4.26) and (4.27) simultaneously.

9. Check that the permissible tractive stress is not exceeded on the channel bed
Actual tractive force: 𝜏0 = 𝛾𝑤 𝑅𝑆 ≤ 𝜏𝑏 (4.28)
10. Check that the design velocity exceeds the minimum permitted velocity (usually 0.6 to
0.9 m/s) and check the Froude number is less than 1, i.e., subcritical flow.
𝑄
𝑉= 4.29
𝐴
𝑉
𝐹𝑟 = (4.30)
𝐷𝑔
𝐴
𝐷= (4.31)
𝑇
11. Estimate the required freeboard. The free board (measured from full supply level to the
top of channel) depends on the size of canal, velocity of flow, curvature of alignment,
wind and wave action and method of operation.

United State Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) provided recommended free board based on the
design discharge.

Table 8. The free board recommended by USRB for channel based on design discharge

1.6.4.2. Design of Alluvial Channels

If the procedure adopted for the design of channels on non-alluvial soil is applied over alluvial
channels, then the silt load carried by the irrigation water is not considered. The principle of
design of a channel on alluvial soil is totally different from that of channel on non-alluvial
soils. Channels on alluvial soil carry appreciable silt and sand load. When the channel water
has excess silt load, silting occur in the channel. On the contrary when the water is silt free,
it picks up the silt from the channel bed and sides and it results in erosion of channel
section. Manning’s and Chezy’s equation do not consider this aspect. When silting takes place
the channel section is reduced and consequently capacity of the channel is reduced. Secondly,

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the scoured material is deposited at some other place to disturb the equilibrium condition there.
Taking the problem of silt transportation into account, it was necessary to evolve some basis
for the design of a stable section with critical velocity. There are two important and most
commonly used theories. They are Kennedy’s silt theory and Lacey’s theory.

1.6.4.2.1 Kennedy’s Regime Theory

Kennedy’s established a relation between critical velocity of flow and the stage of flow (y) on
the basis of experimental work collected from 22 channels on the upper Bari-Boab canal
system in Punjab (Pakistan). For any given channel having a particular soil condition, the
critical velocity ratio which is a function of silt charge and grade and rugosity coefficient is
uniquely fixed. Kennedy had suggested a general form of equation for critical velocity:

𝑉0 = 0.546𝑚𝑦 0.64 (4.32)

Where 𝑉𝑜 is the critical velocity (m/s), 𝑚 is the critical velocity ratio, 𝑦 is the depth of flow
(m). The constant 0.546 and index 0.64 depend on the characteristic of silt and the type of
silt. Where 𝑚 is incorporated to show the role of sediment size.

When an irrigation channel is to be designed by Kennedy’s theory, it is essential to know

design discharge (𝑄), coefficient of rugosity (𝑁), critical velocity ratio (𝑚), and the longitudinal
slope (𝑆). Then using the following three equations, the channel section (dimensions) can be
designed:

𝑉0 = 0.546 𝑚 𝑦 0.64 (4.32)

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑣 (4.33)

𝑉 = 𝐶 𝑅𝑆 (4.34)

The procedures of designing alluvial channel using Kennedy’s theory

1. Assume reasonable trial value of depth of flow (y)

2. Using equation (4.29), find out the value of critical velocity (𝑉0 )
𝑉0 = 0.546 𝑚 𝑦 0.64 (4.32)
3. Find out cross sectional area using equation (4.30)
𝑄
𝐴= (4.35)
𝑉𝑜
4. Determine bed width of channel by assuming side slope
: 𝐴 = 𝐵𝑦 + 𝑚𝑦 2 (4.36)
5. Calculate hydraulic radius using determined channel dimension (B, y)

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 6. Find the value of the actual velocity using either Manning’s, Chezy’s or Kutter’s formula
7. When the assumed value of y is correct, the value of 𝑉 is step 6 will be the same
as 𝑉0 calculated in step 2. If not assume another value of y and repeat the procedure
till both values of velocity are the same.

Limitations of Kennedy’s theory

𝐵
 In the absence of 𝑦
ratio, the Kennedy’s theory do not provide a direct answer to fix
the channel dimension but by trial and error method;
 Perfect definition of silt grade and silt charge are not given;
 Complex phenomena of silt transportation is not fully accounted and only critical velocity
ratio concepts is considered sufficiently;
 There is no provision to decide longitudinal slope under the scope of the theory;

1.6.4.2.2 Lacey Regime Theory

Better and modified method for design of alluvial channel was developed by Lacey. He
postulates that dimension of channel (B, y) and slope of canal attain a state of equilibrium
with time which is called regime state. Lacey defined a regime channel as a stable channel
transporting a minimum bed load consistent with fully active bed. According to him, a channel
will be in regime if it carries a constant discharge and it flows uniformly an unlined incoherent
alluvial soil of the same character. Lacey’s also differentiated regime between the initial and
the final regime conditions of channel. The initial regime condition is attained shortly after it is
put into operation after construction and the channel begins to adjust its bed slope either by
silting or scouring although bed width is not altered. The channel then appears to have
attained stability, but it is not actually the final state of stability and hence it still represents
the initial regime condition. Eventually continuous action of water overcomes the resistance of
the banks and sets up a condition such that the channel adjusts its complete section, then
final or true regime condition is attained.

After study, Lacey’s theory gave four fundamental equations for design of irrigation channel:

𝑉0 = 0.639 𝑅𝑓 (4.37)

𝐴𝑓 2 = 141.2𝑉05 (4.38)
2 1
𝑉𝑜 = 10.8𝑅 3 𝑆 3 (4.39)

𝑓 = 1.76 𝑑 (4.40)

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Equation (4.39) is called Lacey’s regime flow equation, it may be seen that the equation
doesn’t contain the rugosity coefficient. From the above fundamental Lacey’s Equations, the
following equations have been derived:

A. Relation Between Velocity-Discharge-Silt Factor (V-Q-f)

From equation (3.38) and multiply by 𝑉0 gives:

1
𝐴𝑓 2 = 141.2𝑉05 𝑉0 → 𝑉0 = 0.4382 𝑄𝑓 2 6 (4.41)

B. Relation between Velocity- Hydraulic radius- silt factor (V-R-f)

From equation (4.37), rearranging the variables,

𝑉𝑜2
𝑉𝑜 = 0.639 𝑅𝑓 → 𝑅 = 2.46 (4.42)
𝑓

C. Relation between wetted perimeter and discharge

From equation (4.37)
4
4 𝑉𝑜4
𝑉0 = 0.639 𝑅𝑓 → 𝑓2 = (4.43)
0.1667𝑅2

Substitute equation (4.38) in equation (3.43)

141.2𝑉05 𝑉04 𝐴
= 2
→ 141.2𝑉𝑜 =
𝐴 0.1667𝑅 0.1667𝑅2
𝐴 𝐴2
141.2𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴 → 141.2𝑄 =
0.1667𝑅2 0.1667𝑅2
𝐴 𝑃2
141.2𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴 → 141.2𝑄 =
0.1667𝑅2 0.1667

𝑃 = 4.825 𝑄 (4.44)

D. Relation between S-Q-f

5
𝑓3
𝑆= 1 (4.45)
3316𝑄6

Design of Irrigation Channel by Lacey’s Regime Theory

1. Determine critical velocity using equation (4.41)

2. Calculate hydraulic radius using equation (4.42)
3. Calculate wetted perimeter using equation (4.44)
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 4. Calculate cross sectional area using equation (4.42) and (4.44)
5. Calculate channels dimensions (B, y) by assuming side slope.

1.6.4.3. Permissible Velocity Method for Design of Non-Alluvial Channel

The non-alluvial soils are stable and nearly impervious. For the design of canal in this type of
soil, the coefficient of rugosity plays an important role, but the other factor like silt factor has
no role. Here, the velocity of the flow is considered very close to critical velocity. So, the
mean velocity given by Chezy’s or Manning’s is considered for the design of canal in this type
of soil.

Design Procedures of Non-Alluvial Channels

1. Select the permissible velocity

2. Determine the area of the channel using continuity equation
3. Calculate the hydraulic radius using Chezy’s or Manning’s Equation
4. Determine wetted perimeter using cross sectional area and hydraulic radius
5. Find out channel dimensions (B, y) from 𝐴 and 𝑃

1.6.5 Design of Lined Channels

Lined channels are built for five primary purposes:

 To permit the transmission of water at high velocities through areas of deep or difficult
excavation in a cost effective manner;
 To decrease canal seepage, thus conserving water and reducing the water logging of
lands adjacent to the canal;
 To reduce the annual cost of operation and maintenance;
 To ensure the stability of the channel section.

The design of lined channel from the view point of hydraulic engineering consists of
proportioning an assumed channel cross section. A recommended procedure for proportioning a
lined section is summarized below. It is assumed that the design discharge (𝑄), the
longitudinal slope of the channel (𝑆), the type of cross section (rectangular, triangular,
trapezoidal, etc), and the lining material have all been selected prior to the initiation of the
channel design process.

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 Lined Channel Design Procedures

1. Estimate rugosity coefficient (C or N) for specified lining material and S.

2. Compute the value of section factor
2 𝑁𝑄
𝐴𝑅 3 = (4.46)
𝑆
3. Considering hydraulically efficient channels section, determine channel dimensions (B, y) with
the assumptions regarding side slopes

We always search for an efficient and economical channel section. The most economic section
is one, which can carry maximum discharge for a given cross-sectional area. i.e., the channel
which require minimum cross-sectional area (excavation) for a given discharge. For practical
purposes, discharge is fixed, and the minimum cross-sectional area is of interest.

The earthen channel of rectangular section is not used except in heavy clay or rocky soils,
where the faces of rocks can stand vertically. A concrete channel of rectangular configuration
is generally used. Thus, the hydraulically efficient section of the concrete channel is important.

 For the maximum discharge conditions, the criteria of channel configuration are as follows

i. Channel width is twice flow depth (i.e., b = 2d)

ii. Hydraulic radius is twice flow depth (i.e., 𝑅 = 𝑑2 )

Many natural and manmade channels are approximately trapezoidal. In practice, the trapezoidal
section is normally used in earthen channel. Generally, the side slope in a particular soil is
decided based on soil type. In loose soil, flatter side slopes are provided, where as in hard
one, steeper side slopes are allowed.

 For maximum discharge or maximum velocity, the two conditions are as follows:

1. The sloping side is equal to half of the top width

𝑏+2𝑧𝑑
2
= 𝑑 𝑧2 + 1
2. Hydraulic radius is half of flow depth

𝑑
𝑅=
2
1
3. Side slope: 𝐻: 1𝑉
3

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4. Check for Velocity
 Minimum permissible velocity if water carries silt and for vegetation. Check whether
the velocity is adequate to prevent sedimentation (V = 0.6 to 0.9 m/s) and whether
velocity is adequate to prevent vegetation growth (V = 0.75 m/s)
 Froude number. Check Froude number for non-reinforced concrete linings, 𝐹𝑟 ≤ 0.8.
𝑚
and for reinforced linings, 𝑉 ≤ 5.5 𝑠 .
5. Estimate the required freeboard and balance excavations costs, cost of channel lining and
assess the needs to modify hydraulically efficient section.
6. Summarize the results with dimensioned sketch.

1.6.6 Economical Channel Section

In irrigation canal water flows under the force of gravity, to flood the command area left and
right side of the canals. The full supply level (FSL) of the canal is generally kept above the
natural surface level (ground level (NSL). Naturally to hold water in the channel, it is
economical to construct channel with partly excavated below the NSL and partly above the
NSL. To be economical, the depth of excavation is arranged that the quantity of earth
excavated from the canal section is just sufficient to construct the banks. The depth of
excavation is called balancing depth.

In addition to that the conveyance of channel will be efficient when the channel section have
minimum perimeter for a given area, slope and roughness coefficient.

Figure 9. Cross Section of Irrigation Channels

Figure 9 shows the economical section of channel and aims at balancing the quantity of earth
work in excavation with that in filling. Sometimes when the natural surface level (NSL) is
above the top of the bank, the entire canal section will have to be in cutting, and it shall be
called canal in cutting. Similarly, when the NSL is lower than the bed level of the canal, the

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26
entire canal section will have to be built in filling, and it is called canal in filling, or canal in
banking.

 Side slopes. The side slopes should be such that they are stable, depending upon the
type of the soil. A comparatively a steeper slope can be provided in cutting rather than in
filling as a soil in cutting shall be more stable.
 Berms. It is the horizontal distance left at ground level between the toe of the bank and
the top edge of cutting.
 Service roads. Service rods are provided on canals for inspection purposes, and may
simultaneously serve as the means of communication in remote areas. They are provided
0.4m to 1m above FSL, depending upon the size of the channel.

Figure 10. Service road

1.6.7 Fixing the L-Section of the Canal and other Design Considerations
If a channel is designed according to Lacey’s theory, it shall have a fixed slope and a fixed
section for a given discharge and silt factor. But on the other hand, if the channel is designed
on Kennedy’s theory, it can have different sections for different slopes. However, the slope of
the channel is fixed on available slope consistent with economy. A steeper slope governed by
maximum permissible velocity, will be most economical, but it will lower the FSL causing less
irrigation. Hence, the maximum possible irrigation would be at flatter slopes governed by
minimum permissible velocity. A via media between these two limits must be adopted for
selecting a suitable bed slope for the channel.

If the chosen designed slope is found to be flatter than the natural available slope, the
difference can be adjusted by providing suitably designed canal falls. But if the designed slope

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27
is steeper than that available, then adjustments are made to change the design slope, so as
to make it as near to the available slope as possible.

After marking the ground surface level, a trial bed line, and water depths, FSL line on the L-
section of the channel is checked. FSL is governed by the following considerations:

 The FSL of the channel should be about 0.1 to 0.2m above the ground level for the
most of its length;
 The water depth of FSL governs the depth of excavation and hence, attempts should
be made to equate depth of excavation with balancing depth, so that the channel
becomes in balanced earthwork;
 For branch canal where some distributaries have take-off from it, the FSL of the
channel should be kept 15cm higher than the FSL of the off-taking channel, so as to
allow for losses in head regulator;

Note. A suitable adjustment in the bed slope, depth of flow, etc, can be made for fixing FSL
on the above considerations.

1.6.8 General Canal Design Procedures

1. First of all, the longitudinal section of the existing ground level along the proposed
canal alignment is plotted on a suitable scale.
2. A suitable channel slope is assumed from Lacey’s equation using discharge and silt
factor.
3. A trial slope line is marked for drawing FSL line, keeping in view the considerations
we discussed above. The depth and position of canal falls is decided tentatively.
4. The canal is then designed from its tail reach towards its head reach, kilometer to
kilometer.
5. The discharge required in the channel in the given reach for required irrigation potential
is calculated and losses are added to calculate the required designed discharge. The
cumulative losses at a particular km of channel is the sum total of the losses occurring
between the particular km and the next below it. For example, total losses at 3km
would be equal to losses between 3km and 4km, plus total losses below 4km. The
required discharge is increased by 10%, so as to obtain the design discharge.
6. The channel is now designed for design discharge and assumed bed slope.
7. The bed levels, water depths, etc are drawn on the L-section. The cross sections at
every km are then drawn using canal standards.

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