Automatic Traffic Controller: Electrical Engg

A
Project Report on
AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC CONTROLLER

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the award of the diploma in
ELECTRICAL ENGG. ( IC )
By
Hareesh Kumar
Manish Kumar
Rakesh Kumar
Monika
Satendra Kumar Singh
Under the supervision of

Mr. Ajai Prakash Narayan ( Lecturer )
Department of Electrical Engineering

GOVT. POLYTECHNIC GONDA, U.P.
GOVT. POLYTECHNIC GONDA
BTEUP
Department of Electrical Engineering
CERTIFICATE
It is certified that Hareesh Kumar, Manish Kumar, Rakesh Kumar,
Monika, Satendra Kumar Singh have worked under my supervision and
guidance for the project entitled on “Automatic Traffic Controller “ for the
requirements and award of the Diploma with specialization in “ Electrical
Engineering ( IC ) “ from the Board of Technical Education Lucknow during
academic year 2019 - 20. The project embodies result of original work, and
studies are carried out by the students themselves and the contents of the
project do not form the basis for the award of any other courses to the
candidate or to anybody else from this or any other institution.
Mr. A.P. Narayan
( Guide )
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my profound gratitude and indebtedness to Lect. A.P.

Narayan and Lect. Shashank Srivastava Department of Electrical
Engineering G.P. Gonda.
Introducing the present topic and for their inspiring guidance,
constructive criticism and valuable suggestion throughout the project
work.
Last but not least, my sincere thanks to all our friends who have patiently
extended all sorts of help for accomplishing this undertaking.
Student Name
Hareesh Kumar, Manish Kumar
Rakesh Kumar, Monika
Satendra Kumar Singh
Dept. of Electrical Engineering

Govt. Polytechnic Gonda
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC CONTROLLER
1. ABSTRACT……………………………………………. 01
2. INTRODUCTION………………………………….. 02-03
3. THE DEVELOPMENT HISTORY AND DEFICIENCY
OF EXISTING TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM…… 04-08
4. RESEARCH ON TAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM………. 08-11
5. DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF URBAN TRAFFIC SIGNAL
CONTROL METHOD…………………………………….. 11-16
6. THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF TRAFFIC CONTROL
SYSTEM …………………………………………………… 16-22
7. KEY COMPONENTS …………………………………….. 22-41
7.1 RELAY……………………………………………….. 22-25
7.2 RESISTANCE ………………………………………. 25-28
7.3 TRANSISTOR ………………………………………. 28-33
7.4 LDR …………………………………………………... 33-37
7.5 LED …………………………………………………… 37-41
8. CONCLUSION ……………………………………………… 41-42

REFERENCES
DIPLOMA PROJECT REPORT - 2020
1. Abstract
The self-adaptive traffic signal control system serves as an effective measure for
relieving urban traffic congestion. The system is capable of adjusting the signal timing
parameters in real time according to the seasonal changes and short-term fluctuation
of traffic demand, resulting in improvement of the efficiency of traffic operation on
urban road networks. The development of information technologies on computing
science, autonomous driving, vehicle-to-vehicle, and mobile Internet has created a
sufficient abundance of acquisition means for traffic data. Great improvements for
data acquisition include the increase of available amount of holographic data,
available data types, and accuracy. The article investigates the development of
commonly used self-adaptive signal control systems in the world, their technical
characteristics, the current research status of self-adaptive control methods, and the
signal control methods for heterogeneous traffic flow composed of connected vehicles
and autonomous vehicles. Finally, the article concluded that signal control based on
multiagent reinforcement learning is a kind of closed-loop feedback adaptive control
method, which outperforms many counterparts in terms of real-time characteristic,
accuracy, and self-learning and therefore will be an important research focus of
control method in future due to the property of “model-free” and “self-learning” that
well accommodates the abundance of traffic information data. Besides, it will also
provide an entry point and technical support for the development of Vehicle-to-X
systems, Internet of vehicles, and autonomous driving industries. Therefore, the
related achievements of the adaptive control system for the future traffic environment
have extremely broad application prospects.
ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 1

2. Introduction
The amount of motor vehicles and correspondent travel demand are continuously
increasing with economic and social development. The frequent occurrence of traffic
congestion in urban road network has negative impacts on economy and environment.
Due to the limited land resources of large cities and restrictions to transportation
infrastructure construction from socioeconomic factors, to apply traffic management
and control measures in a reasonable and effective way, improve the efficiency of
existing transportation facilities, and accommodate the growing traffic demand in big
cities have become significant research contents for counteracting urban traffic
congestion.
Traffic control is one of the most important technical means to regulate traffic flow,
improve the congestion, and even reduce emissions. Its progress and development has
always been accompanied by the development of information technology, computer
technology, and system science. The self-adaptive control system can adjust the signal
timing parameters in real time according to the control target of the manager (such as
the minimum delay of the intersection) and the arrival characteristics of the traffic
flow at the intersection. Compared with timing control and actuated control, the self-
adaptive control system can make better use of the overall traffic capacity of the road
network and effectively improve the efficiency of road network traffic.
The traffic data collected by the current traffic control system using induction loop
detector and other existing sensors is limited. With the advancement of the wireless
communication technologies and the development of the vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) and
vehicle to infrastructure (V2I) systems, called Connected Vehicle or V2X, there is an
opportunity to optimize the operation of urban traffic network by cooperation between
traffic signal control and driving behaviors. This dissertation proposed a series of
cooperative optimization methods for urban streets traffic control and driving assistant
under the V2X concept. In addition to the existing induction loop detector technology,
the video, infrared, radar, floating cars, and other acquisition technologies and

equipment provide urban traffic control system with a network of dynamic acquisition
traffic flow status data and controller state data, which greatly enriched the
information environment and provides more possibilities for the informationalized and
intelligent application research. Urban traffic control is entering the data-rich period of
multisource holographic network traffic data from the period with only data of cross-
section traffic flow.
Recent advances in traffic control methods have led to flexible control strategies for
use in an adaptive traffic control system [1]. Metropolitan road traffic digitized and
informationalized infrastructure and related system construction has been developed
rapidly in the past decade. At the same time, the emergence of intelligent connected
vehicles and automated vehicle jointly build a future traffic travel environment, whose
abilities of individual information access and perception as well as the performance of
response time and interactive behavior are significantly different from conventional
artificial driving vehicles. However, the current self-adaptive traffic signal control
system cannot effectively utilize these abundant real-time traffic data, and its theory,
methods, and techniques have clearly lagged far behind the progress of its key basic
technologies [2]. Therefore, the research of data-driven feedback self-adaptive
coordination control in data-rich environment is proposed and actively explored by
researchers [3].
Moreover, with the continuous improvement of the theory and technology of

intelligent control and nonmodel control, the concept of traffic control is changing
under the new traffic data environment shown as Figure 1. The researchers hope that
the model of the control system is based on the data model identification rather than
the existing mechanism model [4]. Besides, they hope that the system is based on real-
time monitoring data rather than the traffic forecast data [5] and the control system
can automatically adjust the control strategy instead of the manual intervention.

3. The Development History and Deficiency of the Existing Traffic

Self-Adaptive Control System
3.1 The Development History of the Existing Traffic Self-Adaptive Control

System
According to NCHRP, more than 20 self-adaptive traffic control systems have been
developed by transportation research institutes and enterprises worldwide, but less
than half systems have been put into use [7]. According to the system’s ability to
adapt to the environment and the level of intelligent decision-making, Gartner et al.
proposed the evolution of urban transport control system development level in 1995
[8], as shown in Figure 2.
The first-generation self-adaptive control system adopts the multi-time timing control
of fine division of period, or completely isolated self-adaptive control, to realize the

simple regulation of traffic flow. Take the multi-period timing control system as an
example, which divides the traffic flow arriving within a day into multiple periods
(such as peak, nonpeak), taking into account changes in daily traffic demand to
optimize the signal timing scheme in different periods of time each day, using the
comprehensive performance index method or green wave band timing method to
optimize and generate a signal timing scheme library [10]. According to the number of
weeks and control period, traffic controller can directly select the appropriate offline
scheme from the scheme library.
The second-generation traffic signal control system dynamically adjusts the

parameters of the signal timing scheme (signal period, green signal ratio, and phase
difference). Compared with the timing and induction coordination control system, the
second-generation system greatly improved the flexibility and adaptive adjustment
ability of the control system. Typical second-generation control systems include
SCATS [11] and SCOOT [12].
The third-generation control system uses the similar idea as the second generation to
dynamically adjust the signal timing parameter in response to the fluctuation of the
time-varying traffic flow at the intersection. Typical third-generation control systems
include OPAC [13] and RHODES [14]. Kosmatopoulos et al. chose three traffic
networks with quite different traffic and control infrastructure characteristics: Chania,
Greece (23 junctions); Southampton, UK (53 junctions); and Munich, Germany (25
junctions), where it has been compared to the respective resident real-time signal
control strategies TASS, SCOOT, and BALANCE. The main conclusion drawn from
this high-effort inter-European undertaking is that traffic-responsive urban control is
an easy-to-implement, interoperable, low-cost real-time signal control strategy whose
performance, after very limited fine-tuning, proved to be better or, at least, similar to
the ones achieved by long-standing strategies that were in most cases very well fine-
tuned over the years in the specific networks [15].

The fourth-generation self-adaptive traffic signal control system is an integrated traffic

management and control system, which can realize the integrated management of
network traffic and maximize the technical and performance advantages of multiple
subsystems [16]. It integrates self-adaptive traffic signal control system and other ITS
traffic management systems with system hardware and software integration
technology, like dynamic process models of combined traffic assignment and control
with different signal updating strategies [17]. It is committed to building an efficient
urban traffic control integrated management system to achieve the integration of
mobile network management so that it can provide better decision support for local
government decision-making [18].
The fifth-generation self-adaptive traffic signal control system is based on the abilities
of self-learning and high efficiency calculation in automated vehicles and regular
vehicles environment [19]. Based on the empirical information and real-time traffic
condition, the fifth-generation adaptive traffic signal control system learns the traffic
control knowledge independently and reduces the computational burden of decision
optimization intelligently. As of June 2014, InSync system has been applied in 1350
intersections in more than 100 cities across the United States and has become the
fastest growing self-adaptive traffic control in the United States, which is also
recommended by the FWHA currently [20]. Manolis et al. have developed and
evaluated, both by means of theoretical analysis and extensive simulation
experiments, a new methodology which fully automatically takes over the manual
tuning and calibration procedure. Most importantly, this new methodology, called
adaptive fine-tuning (AFT), achieved to improve the performance of the system and
compensate the effect of the continuous changes of its behavior that may be due to
either internal or external factors. The results from AFT real-life application
demonstrated that it was capable of significantly improving the performance of the
system in a safe and robust manner. Moreover, the real-life results exhibited the
capability of AFT to efficiently adapt and compensated in cases of changes in the
system behavior, even if these changes were significant [21].

3.2 The Deficiency and Expectation of the Existing Traffic Self-Adaptive Control
System
Each generation system not only inherited the excellent characteristics of the previous
generation traffic system, but also moves forward continuously to promote the
evolution of traffic control technology under the support of the key basic technology
and the guide of the new traffic control strategy. However, there are some
shortcomings of the existing self-adaptive traffic control theory, method, and
technology with fixed period, as follows:(1)The existing model of static traffic
prediction and timing scheme does not have learning ability. Therefore, the relevant
departments will recalibrate the model parameters only when the network traffic
patterns have significantly changed.(2)With the expansion of the traffic network,
large-scale regional road network using centralized control is difficult to guarantee the
quality of data transmission.(3)The existing system is only suitable for regional traffic
with significant corridor effect (due to fixed phase sequence, it can only achieve one-
way green wave), and the control capacity of the typical network traffic flow in the
vast majority of cities is limited.(4)Regional road network lacks timely response of the
actual traffic fluctuation so that it is difficult to achieve real-time control.(5)The
existing traffic control methods mostly simplify the control constraints to establish the
precise mathematical model, but these methods are different from the actual traffic
flow conditions and the control effect is poor.(6)The system requires a lot of human
intervention, and the professional and technical personnel are needed to optimize and
maintain the system due to the problem of localized migration process.
Many of the existing self-adaptive traffic control systems use the traffic model to
predict the evolution of the network traffic flow under the condition of limited traffic
flow data and then use the comprehensive index method to optimize the signal timing
parameters. Therefore, volume prediction is an essential part. Associated with the
prediction are two aspects: resolution and accuracy. It is imperative to study the
relationship and tradeoff between the control strategy, prediction resolution, and its
associated error, which are crucial to the development of self-adaptive traffic control

systems. In a word, it is the inevitable option to study the theory and method of urban
road traffic adaptive control in the future traffic data-rich environment.
4. Research on Traffic Signal Control System Based on Future Traffic

Environment
4.1. The Overview of Future Traffic Environment Composition and Development
The composition of the regular vehicle (RV) traffic flow is also changed by the
emergence and mixing of the Connected Vehicle (CV) and the autonomous vehicle
(AV). It is foreseeable that the car traffic flow will consist of conventional vehicle,
CV, and AV in the next few decades. In the “China-made 2025” national strategic
plan, it is clearly put forward that China should master the overall driving technology
and the key technologies to basically complete the transformation and upgrading of
the automobile industry in 2025. The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration
(NHTSA) in 2014 enforces that new US vehicles must have networking capabilities
[22]. Nowadays, connected vehicles with highly self-driving functions (such as
Google’s driverless vehicles, Tesla autopilot) and networked communications
functions (such as the generic Cadillac CTS 2016) have completed several different
driving conditions experiment or have been put into the market, and a variety of
domestic and foreign auto companies and institutions have also entered the field of
research. The United States establishes seven test sites to promote the intelligent
connected vehicles testing and large-scale demonstration. Now, Nevada, Michigan,
and so forth have allowed driverless vehicles to enter public road for testing.
The concept of intelligent connected vehicle was formed in the 1990s, known as
cooperative infrastructure vehicle in the beginning. The United States began
organizing the Intelligent Vehicle (IVI) Program, the Cooperative Automatic Highway
System (CVHAS), and the Vehicle Infrastructure Integration (VII) [23] in 1998. In
2007, the US Department of Transportation renamed VII to IntelliDrive. Michigan,
California, and other states gradually established connected vehicle test platform from

2012. In 2004 to 2010, Europe has developed PreVENT, SAFESPOT, CVIS

(Cooperative Vehicle Infrastructure Systems) [24], COOPERS, and other projects to
develop key technologies of connected vehicle system. Japan began to build VICS in
1991 and developed Smartway [25] project from 2004 so far. These systems and
projects have entered the stage of large-scale system applications and related
technology policy development. In recent years, under the support of the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) and the National High Technology
Development Program (863 Project), Tongji University, Tsinghua University,
Beihang University, and National University of Defense Technology and other
academic and industrial institutions have developed several connected vehicle
prototypes and test systems based on short-range communication [26]. With the
continuous development of related fields such as mobile Internet and Internet of
Things, cooperative infrastructure vehicle system and its application have become the
new trend of the intelligent transportation system. Besides, the necessity of carrying
out research on relevant theories, technologies, standards, policies, and regulations has
become a broad consensus. Vehicle-road/vehicle-vehicle communication and traffic
safety technology based on cooperative infrastructure vehicle system has become a
research focus at this stage.
The earliest research on autonomous vehicles began in the 1980s, represented by the
Navlab Self-Driving Vehicle [27] of Carnegie Mellon University and the ALV
(Autonomous Land Vehicle) project of the US Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DAPRA) [28]. In 1995, Carnegie Mellon University developed the
autonomous vehicle Navlab-5, completing a self-driving experiment of nearly 5,000
kilometers across the US, of which 98.2% was completed by the automatic driving
system [29]. In 2008, Stanford University developed the driverless vehicle Junior,
which can independently plan the path and realize its precise positioning, perceive
other social vehicles and interact, and can achieve driving behaviors such as lane
changing, U-turn, and parking [30]. In 2010, the ARGO autonomous vehicle, which
was developed by Professor Alberto Broggi of the University of Parma, Italy,

equipped with laser radar, camera, global positioning equipment, and so on, was
exhibited at the Shanghai World Expo after more than 80 days’ travel from the Italian
Palma to Shanghai [31]. The red flag HQ3 autonomous vehicle, which is developed
by National Defense University of Science and Technology, completed the 286 km
self-driving experiment from Changsha to Wuhan, with less than 1% manual
intervention mileage of the total mileage [32]. Besides, Google, Nissan, Tesla, GM,
Ford, and other companies are also involved in the study of autonomous vehicle, but
the technical details of the study are usually not disclosed [33]. In the theoretical
study, Levinson et al. [34] optimized the existing automatic driving system, which
enabled the vehicle adapted to a variety of lighting, weather, and traffic conditions, to
a certain extent, overcoming the challenges of narrow roads, crosswalks, and signal
intersections.
4.2. Research Status of Traffic Signal Control System Based on Future Traffic
Environment
Following the methods of earliest fixed signal timing and offline delay calculation
proposed by Webster [35], the traffic signal control system has evolved from offline to
online control, from point to network control, from fixed-time to self-adaptive control.
With the development of intelligent transportation system, the research of a new
generation of traffic control technology based on multisource heterogeneous data has
been gradually started [36]. In recent years, the research on signal control based on
cooperative infrastructure vehicle system has become the frontier field of domestic
and foreign traffic control theory and application [37]. Professor Yang’s team at
Tongji University launched the project “Research on the Next Generation of Traffic
Control Technology at Intersection Based on CVIS” in 2010 to 2012 under the
support of the National Natural Science Foundation, which analyzed multitarget
control mechanism, vehicle-road/vehicle-vehicle communication method, and the
prototype of signal control integrated platform with a single intersection as the object.
The research of intelligent connected vehicle was mainly focused on the optimization

methods of traffic safety, such as collision warning [38] and lane changing assistance
[39]. With the concept of active safety and traffic signal control problems being put
forward, driving optimization strategy for efficiency and emission reduction, such as
the speed guidance strategy considering the signal light state [40], eco driving strategy
[41], and so on, has been widely studied. Besides, to meet the special needs like
emergency rescue vehicles and bus priority, the multimode signal priority control
system considering the real-time status of special vehicles has also been put forward
and achieved initial implementation [42]. Automatic driving research mainly focuses
on the data collection and forecasting problem of mixed traffic flow [43] and the local
optimization method based on the rolling optimization strategy [44]. Most of the
optimization targets adopt efficiency-related indicators such as the least delay, the
least number of stops, or the shortest across time [45]. About the control effect
evaluation, most of the research output optimization control effect based on the
secondary developed traditional simulation software [46]. Researches show that the
traffic control which considers the mixed traffic flow of the connected vehicle and
autonomous vehicle can effectively improve the traffic efficiency of the intersection,
compared to the conventional traffic flow control
5. Development Status of Urban Traffic Signal Self-Adaptive Control

Method
Traffic congestion in urban road and freeway networks leads to a strong degradation
of the network infrastructure and accordingly reduced throughput, which can be
countered via suitable control measures and strategies. The traffic signal control
method is evolved along with the combination of modern control theory, artificial
intelligence theory, traffic information technology, and traffic engineering technology.
Because the modern control theory is based on the basic assumption that the
mathematical or nominal model of the controlled object is precisely known, the
method is collectively referred to as Model Based Control (MBC) theory and method
[47]. In the last 20 years, Artificial Intelligence (AI) theory and methods, which were

represented by agents, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and group intelligence, were
gradually mature. Diakaki et al. presented the design approach, the objectives, the
development, the advantages, and some application results of the traffic-responsive
urban control (TUC) strategy. Based on a store-and-forward modeling of the urban
network traffic and using the linear-quadratic regulator theory, the design of TUC led
to a multivariable regulator for traffic-responsive coordinated network-wide signal
control that is particularly suitable also for saturated traffic conditions
5.1. Traffic Self-Adaptive Control Method Based on Mathematical

Model
According to the status and function of the traffic forecasting module in the traffic
control model, the typical traffic signal MBC control method includes Travel‐Time
Responsive (CTR) traffic signal control algorithm [49], Predictive Model Control
[50], Arrival–Discharge Process, and Storage-Forward Response Control. Arrival–
Discharge Process signal control algorithm is based on dynamic programming and the
optimization of signal policy is performed using a certain performance measure
involving delays, queue lengths, and queue storage ratios [51]. Storage-Forward
Response Control using a real-time monitoring data of arrival and leaving traffic flow
to simulate the movement of the vehicle platoon and realize the predictive control
[52].
According to the different control targets, the traffic signal MBC control method can
be divided into a coordinated control method based on comprehensive performance
index and a coordinated control method based on green wave band. The
comprehensive index method, represented by TRANSYT [53], considers the delay,
the number of stops, and the length of queues to obtain the best overall efficiency of
the network. The green wave band method is designed to maximize the number of
nonstop platoons of the main line, and the typical arterial coordinated control method
based on green wave band includes the maximum green wave band method

MAXBAND and the multi-green wave band with variable band width method
MULTIBAND [54].
5.2. Traffic Self-Adaptive Control Method Based on Intelligent Computing
Some researchers think that optimization of traffic lights in a congested network is

formulated as a linear programming problem [55]. However, considering the
complexity of the internal structure of the urban regional traffic system and the
external operation environment, it is impossible to establish the precise mathematical
model. There are many challenges in effectively integrating signal timing tools with
dynamic traffic assignment software systems, such as data availability, exchange
format, and system coupling [56]. However, little effort has been put in developing
control frameworks that are aimed not only at improving the average performance of
the system, but also at improving the system robustness and reliability. In the past 10
years, artificial intelligence computing technology simulates human reasoning and
learning process and controls the optimal control strategy in the process of interaction
between traffic controller and road environment. Fuzzy logic, group intelligence
algorithms, and neural network control dominate the many traffic control methods
based on intelligent computing.
5.2.1. Fuzzy Logic
The fuzzy control of urban traffic signal is one of the effective connotative solutions
to solve the urban traffic problem. Pham et al. proposed a fuzzy logic control for the
integrated signal operation of a diamond interchange and its ramp meter, to improve
traffic flows on surface streets and motorway. This fuzzy logic diamond interchange
(FLDI) comprises three modules: fuzzy phase timing (FPT) module that controls the
green time extension of the current phase, phase logic selection (PLS) module that
decides the next phase based on the predefined phase sequence or phase logic, and
fuzzy ramp-metering (FRM) module that determines the cycle time of the ramp meter

based on current traffic volumes and conditions of the surface streets and the
motorways [57]. To improve the level of fuzzy controller’s skill of problem-solving,
the multilevel fuzzy and other structural models have been proposed and developed
from the single-point control to regional traffic control [58, 59].
5.2.2. Group Intelligence
Genetic algorithm (Genetic Algorithms, GA) and Ant colony optimization (ACO)
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) are the most widely used strategies for simulating
the social behavior of biology. Zhao et al. developed a mathematical model for a
traffic equilibrium network, in which optimization of lane reorganization and traffic
control strategies were integrated in a unified framework. A genetic algorithm (GA)
based heuristic is used to yield meta-optimal solutions to the model. Results from
extensive numerical analyses reveal the promising property of the proposed model in
enhancing network capacity and reducing congestion [16]. Li and Schonfeld presented
a hybrid algorithm based on simulated annealing (SA) and a genetic algorithm (GA)
for arterial signal timing optimization. A decoding scheme was proposed that exploits
our prior expectations about efficient solutions, namely, that the optimal green time
distribution should reflect the proportion of the critical lane volumes of each phase.
The numerical results indicated that the SA-GA algorithm outperforms both SA and
GA in terms of solution quality and convergence rate [60].
5.2.3. Neural Network
The neural network controller creates the optimal timing based on the real-time
detection of traffic system information and weather conditions. Spall and Chin
proposed a system-level self-adaptive signal control (S-TRAC) method based on
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) [61]. Hoogendoorn et al. proposed a new control
framework based on the notion of controlled Markov processes, which explicitly take
into account the uncertainty in predicted traffic conditions and system performance

[62]. In contrast to traditional optimal control approaches, the objective function can
include general statistic of the random system performance, such as the mean,
standard deviation, or 95-percentile. Srinivasan et al. developed a multiagent
unsupervised flow response signal control model based on a hybrid neural network
approach, which used a multilevel online learning process to update and adjust its
knowledge base and decision-making mechanism. The results showed that the new
model significantly improves the traffic situation when the complexity of the scene
increases, and the average delay was reduced by 78% and the average stopping time
was reduced by 85% compared with the existing credit control algorithm [63].
Kosmatopoulos et al. studied the approximation and learning properties of one class of
recurrent networks, known as high-order neural networks, and applied these
architectures to the identification of dynamical systems. It was clear that if enough
high-order connections were allowed, then this network was capable of approximating
arbitrary dynamical systems [64].
5.3. The Review of Current Traffic Self-Adaptive Control Methods
Since the revolutionary development of traffic information technology provides the

urban traffic control system with rich data which implied information such as system
state changes and process control, the researchers began to think about data-driven
traffic control methods, such as how to effectively use these data in the condition of
lacking accurate model of a controlled system to achieve the optimal control of the
system and the production process and thus overcome the defects of traditional MBC
method. The group intelligence algorithm needs to design the efficient heuristic rule
according to the background of the practical application problem, and the group
intelligence optimization has the deficiencies of long computing time and local
optimum [65]. The most critical problem is that the intelligent computing method has
no autonomous learning ability, which needs the neural network and the fuzzy logic to
increase the phase optimization module so that it can greatly increase the
computational complexity of the agent.

Under the condition that the information of the traffic system cannot be completely
obtained, the internal mechanism of the system cannot be fully understood, and the
precise dynamic model of the controlled object cannot be established, the traffic
control method based on the data-driven has the characteristics of modeless, self-
learning, simple structure, small computation, and so on. It can solve the deficiencies
of the MBC method, such as the need of the precise mathematical model and lack of
self-learning ability. It is an inevitable choice for the development and application of
self-adaptive feedback control theory of urban regional traffic feedback in rich data
environment.
6. The Future Development Trend of Traffic Self-Adaptive Signal

Control System
Regional traffic control is an important unit in urban traffic control. At present,

regional traffic control problem not only has a long-time congestion phenomenon at
peak time, but also has obvious ability of grooming in peak time. The traditional
traffic signal control method not only lacks the adaptability for the variable traffic
flow, but also relies heavily on the traffic model. The existing adaptive/neural/fuzzy
control methodologies cannot be used towards the development of a systematic,
automated fine-tuning procedure for general large-scale nonlinear control systems due
to the strict assumptions they impose on the controlled system dynamics [66].
6.1. Reinforcement Learning Control Based on Data-Driven Method
The large-scale application of emerging technologies such as video information, probe

vehicle, connected vehicle, and autonomous vehicle in the transportation industry has
broken through the existing traffic data collecting mode. Reinforcement Learning, as a
typical “model-free, self-learning” iterative data-driven method, is applicable of
regional traffic control based on multiagent reinforcement learning [67]. The
controller adopting this method has the ability to perceive the environmental state and

select the optimal action according to the target. Different from other machine
learning methods, in the control process, reinforcement learning only judges and
evaluates the advantages and disadvantages of the changes of environmental states
after selecting the action through reinforcement signals obtained by perceiving the
environment, rather than intervening with the specific generation procedure.
Reinforcement learning algorithm can acquire knowledge in the process of decision-
making and evaluation and balance the knowledge exploration and utilization to
achieve optimal strategy. Reinforcement learning algorithm has been used in many
applications and successfully applied to the traffic signal control of single-point,
artery, and regional transportation [68].
At present, -learning algorithm is one of the most frequently used methods in the
fields of reinforcement learning, proposed by Watkins in 1989 [69]. -learning
algorithm is widely used in the fields of control, depending on the update mode of its
special value function.
In -learning, the solution formula of the mainstream value function is as follows:
According to the formula, at the moment of , the state of -learning is . If the taken
action is , the corresponding value function will be . The update of the value function
is determined by three factors. The first is the current value of the action state value
function, , that needs to be updated. The second is to control the corresponding
maximum value of all -values of actions in the postexecution state of , and the third is
the immediate return, , after the action. Besides, there are also two model parameters,
learning rate and discount factor . The former is used to balance the relationship
between the learning and utilization of the algorithm. When , the controller tends to
explore new knowledge; otherwise it will use the existing knowledge. The latter is
used to coordinate the present relationship with the future. When , the controller tends
to consider the future return, and when , the controller mainly considers immediate
return.

El-Tantawy et al. proposed a multiagent coordinated RL-TSC control system called

MARLIN-ATSC. This is a model-free system based on the -Learning algorithm [70].
Kosmatopoulos and Kouvelas introduced and analyzed, both by means of
mathematical arguments and simulation experiments, a new learning/adaptive
algorithm that can provide convergent, efficient, and safe fine-tuning of general large-
scale nonlinear control systems [66]. Abdulhai et al. studied the single-point two-
phase intersection control model based on -Learning algorithm and a signal control
method which performs better than fixed timing scheme when flow rate changes
significantly was found [71].
6.2. Research on Traffic Control Based on Adaptive Performance Optimization
The objectives, approach, advantages, and some application results of recent

extensions of the traffic-responsive urban control (TUC) strategy were presented by
Diakaki et al. Based on well-known methods of the automatic control theory, TUC
allows for traffic-responsive coordinated signal control of large-scale urban networks
that is particularly efficient under saturated traffic conditions [72]. Adaptive
optimization (AO) schemes based on stochastic approximation principles such as the
Random Directions Kiefer–Wolfowitz (RDKW), the Simultaneous Perturbation
Stochastic Approximation (SPSA), and the adaptive fine-tuning (AFT) algorithms
possess the serious disadvantage of not guaranteeing satisfactory transient behavior
due to their requirement for using random or random-like perturbations of the
parameter vector. Kosmatopoulos introduced and analyzed a new algorithm for
alleviating this problem. Application of the proposed scheme to the adaptive
optimization of a large-scale, complex control system demonstrates the efficiency of
the proposed scheme [73].
Aboudolas et al. presented a methodology that the traffic flow process was modeled
by use of the store-and-forward modeling paradigm, and the problem of network-wide
signal control (including all constraints) was formulated as a quadratic-programming

problem that aims at minimizing and balancing the link queues so as to minimize the
risk of queue spillback [74]. Kouvelas et al. investigated the adaptive fine-tuning
algorithm for determining the set of design parameters of two distinct mutually
interacting modules of the traffic-responsive urban control (TUC) strategy, i.e., split
and cycle, for the large-scale urban road network of the city of Chania, Greece.
Simulation results are presented, demonstrating that the network performance in terms
of the daily mean speed, which is attained by the proposed adaptive optimization
methodology, is significantly better than the original TUC system in the case in which
the aforementioned design parameters are manually fine-tuned to virtual perfection by
the system operators [75].
6.3. Research on Traffic Control Based on Connected Vehicles and Automated

Vehicles Environment
Multimodal vehicles consisting of RVs (regular vehicles), CVs (connected vehicles),

and AVs (automated vehicles) develop a persistent multimodal traffic streams shown
in Figure 3, which changes the traffic composition of urban road network. Information
network of connected vehicles and automated vehicles affected the driving behavior
and the demand of traffic stream controlling; it is urgent to do research on the control
theory of multimodal traffic streams. The adaptive traffic control strategy aims to
respond to real-time traffic demand through current and predicted future traffic flow
data modeling. Compared with the traffic flow and occupancy information provided
by the fixed coil detector in the traditional traffic environment, the adaptive traffic
control system in the V2X environment can collect more detailed data such as vehicle
position, speed, queuing length, and stopping time so that it received the attention of
many scholars. In the adaptive control strategy under V2X environment, the concept
of “rolling horizon” is widely used. Goodall et al. proposed a prediction algorithm
based on micro-simulation to implement a distributed adaptive control strategy. This
strategy is based on real-time vehicle data and determines 15 seconds as the optimal
solution within the rolling optimization time window through simulation. The test

results showed that, compared with the induction coordination control, this strategy
has obvious advantages in the case of traffic accidents and sudden changes in traffic
demand [76].
In the real world, due to the large-scale installation of vehicle-road cooperative

communication equipment in existing vehicles, the applicability of various traffic
signal control optimization strategies will be directly affected by the penetration rate
of vehicle-mounted communication equipment. Therefore, many studies have
considered the penetration rate of vehicle-mounted communication equipment into the
optimization model. Feng et al. proposed an Estimation of Location and Speed
(ELVS) algorithm based on the prevalence rate of different vehicle-mounted
communication devices and used it for real-time optimization of traffic signal.
Simulation test results showed that the application of this algorithm can reduce the
total vehicle delay of 16.33% in the highest penetration rate of vehicle-mounted
communication equipment [77]. Guler et al. proposed a traffic control optimization
algorithm for unidirectional traffic intersections where some vehicles have
communication conditions [78]. Lee et al. integrated vehicle-based real-time
communication data and traditional traffic detection data to propose a cumulative
travel-time responsive (CTR) real-time traffic control method [79]. Ma et al. evaluated
the safety effectiveness of adaptive traffic signal control using the empirical Bayes
method. This analysis examined 47 urban or suburban intersections where adaptive
traffic signal control was deployed in Virginia using 235 site-years of before data and
66 site-years of after data. It was concluded that adaptive traffic signal control
installation can potentially reduce total crashes at highway intersections and that
public agencies should consider safety and mobility benefits when justifying adaptive
traffic signal control projects [80]. Mandava et al. proposed a vehicle speed planning
method based on signal control status of intersections. By proposing speed

recommendations to the driver, the probability of not stopping passing the intersection
can be increased [81].
6.4. A Review of the Development of Traffic Signal Self-Adaptive Control System

Based on Oriented Future Traffic Environment
Above all, many scholars and research institutes have done a lot of research on
implementation technology, traffic status analysis, and experimental methods of V2X
and automated vehicles. A preliminary study of the traffic control methods for isolated
intersections and other special needs under the condition of V2X has been conducted.
But the research mainly focused on the construction of physical systems, adaptive
analysis, preliminary theoretical research, and single or hybrid (CVs mixed with RVs
or AVs mixed with RVs) vehicle traffic flow study. The theory and experimental
methods of multimode vehicle traffic flow cooperative control have not been formed
yet. Therefore, the study on the traffic control and coordination problems of
multimode intersections under urban traffic conditions is still in its infancy. The
acquisition technology and means of network traffic control data are developing in the
direction of “full spatio-temporal, high-precision, diversified, and high-quality,” and it
is possible to acquire a large amount of data generated during the interaction between
the road traffic control system and the environment. Therefore, the vehicle terminals
of connected vehicles and autonomous vehicles can respond to signal control schemes,
surrounding vehicles, and road network conditions, resulting in significant changes in
the operational mechanism of multimode vehicle traffic flow.
The traffic control system learns independently throughout the whole control process,
which is a kind of closed-loop feedback self-adaptive control based on the control
effect. As for traffic control scope, the multiagent reinforcement learning algorithm
can realize the precise reasoning of the optimal joint action of the intersection with the
benefit of the networked dynamic traffic data acquisition and interaction technology.
The reinforcement learning algorithm itself only needs the input and output data rather

than the forms of data collection. The system has good compatibility with existing and
emerging traffic control systems and technologies. At the same time, under the
condition of multimode vehicle traffic flow, it can more abundantly and accurately
collect information such as the position and speed of the vehicle and can directly
guide the connected vehicles and control the autonomous vehicles. Therefore, four
control modes, including traffic signal control, connected vehicles guidance,
automated vehicles control, and indirect control of conventional vehicles through
connected vehicles and automated vehicles, can be formed. The collaborative control
mechanism is in urgent need of research. The related research can not only creatively
establish a multimode vehicle traffic flow theory, but also provide a key support for
the development of a new generation of traffic control system for solving multimode
vehicle traffic flow control problems. It is of great strategic significance and practical
value for occupying a commanding height in this field.
7. KEY COMPONENTS
7.1 RELAY
1. Introduction:
Relays are electromechanical switches. Relays are used

throughout the automobile. Relays which come in
assorted sizes, ratings, and applications, are used as
remote control switches that are controlled by another
switch, such as a horn switch or acomputer as in power
train control module. Relays allow a small current flow
circuit to control a higher current circuit.
2. Relay operation-1:
All relays operate using the same basic principle. The

e.g. will use a commonly used 4-pin relay. Relays have

two circuits: A control circuit (shown in GREEN) and a load circuit (shown in
RED).The control circuit has small control coil while the load circuit has a switch.
The coil controls the operation of the switch.
1) Relay energized (ON): Current flowing through the control circuit coil (pins1
& 3) creates a small magnetic field which causes the switch to close, pins 2 & 4.
The switch, which is a part of the load circuit, is used to control an electrical circuit
that may connect to it. Current now flows through pins 2 & 4 shown in Red, when
the relay in energized.
2) Relay De-energized (OFF): When current stops flowing through the control
circuit, pins 1 & 3, the relay becomes de-energized. Without the magnetic field, the
switch opens and current is prevented from flowing through pins 2 & 4. The relay
is now off.
3. Relay operation-2
When no voltage is applied to pin1, there is no

current flow through the coil. No current means
no magnetic field is developed, and the switch is
open. When voltage is supplied to pin 1, current flow through the coil creates the
magnetic field needed to close the switch allowing continuity between pins 2 & 4.
4. Relay design id:
Relays are either normally open or normally

closed. Notice the position of the switches in
the two relays shown below. Normally open
relays have a switch that remains open until
energized (ON) while normally closed relays
are closed until energized. Relays are always

shown in the de-energized position (no current flowing through the control circuit -
OFF). Normally relays are the most common in vehicles; however either can be
use in automotive applications.
Normally closed relays: The operation of normally closed relay is the same to that
of normally open relay, except backwards. In other words, when the relay control
coil is NOT energized, the relay switch contacts are closed, completing the circuit
through pins 2 & 4. When the control coil is energized, the relay switch contacts
opens, which breaks the circuit open and no continuity exist between pins 2 & 4.
5. Actual relay design:
Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core. The
iron core intensifies the magnetic field attracts the upper arm and pulls it down,
closing the contacts and allowing power

source to go to the load.
6. Relay variations:
Other relay variations include three and five

pin relays. A 3-pin relay instead of two B+
input at pin 1. Current splits inside the
relay, supplying power to both controls and

load circuits. A 5-pin relay has a single control circuit, but two separate current
paths for switch: One the relay is de-energized (OFF – no current through the coil)
and the other the energized (ON – current is flowing through the coil). When the 5-
pin relay is de-energized (OFF), pins 4 & 5 have continuity. When the relay is
energized (ON), pins 3& 5 have continuity.
7. Iso standardized relays:
ISO relays were designed to try and standardize relay

connections, making it easier to test and design system.
ISO relays are currently used by almost all automotive
manufacturers today. Both 4& 5 pin designs are used in
both standard mini micro sizes. FVI: ISO is short for
international standard Organization.
7.2 RESISTANCE
1. Introduction:
There is always some resistance in every circuit.

• A circuit is always made up of some wire, so there will be some resistance
there.
• Even the battery has parts that offer resistance to the flow ofelectrons.
• The only circuits that come near to zero resistance aresuperconductors.
• This resistance that is from the parts of the circuit itself (especiallythe battery)
is called internal resistance.
• This internal resistance is usually drawn into a circuitdiagram (schematic) as
shown in Figure 1.

• Notice the squiggly line just before the positive terminal ofthe battery? That’s
to show the internal resistance of the
circuit.
• That symbol, drawn any other place
in the circuit, represents an actual
resistor placed in the circuit.
2. actual Resistors:
The Example 1: What is the resistance of this resistor?

Notice that the colors on this resistor are (in order) Red, Green, Orange, and
Silver.
1. The first line is the first digit → Red = 2
2. The second line is the second digit → Green = 5
3. The third line is the multiplier → Orange = 103
4. The last line (if any) is the tolerance → Silver = } 10%
So the final answer would be 25 x 103Ω ± 10%
Yes, I know
it's not proper
scientific
notation this
way. You can
also write it
as 25000 Ω
(notice there

are three zeros), or even 2.5 x 102Ω.
3. Variable Resistors
Adjustable resistors
A resistor may have one or more fixed tapping points so that the resistance can
be changed by moving the connecting wires to different terminals. Some wire
wound power resistors have a tapping point that can slide along the resistance
element, allowing a larger or smaller part of the resistance to be used.
Where continuous adjustment of the resistance value during operation of
equipment is required, the sliding resistance tap can be connected to a knob
accessible to an operator. Such a device is called a rheostat and has two
terminals.
Potentiometers
A common element in electronic devices is a three-terminal resistor with a

continuously adjustable tapping point controlled by rotation of a shaft or knob.
These variable resistors are known as potentiometers when all three terminals
are present, since they act as a continuously adjustable voltage divider. A
common example is a volume control for a radio receiver.
4. Methods of Making Resistors:
There are two main methods that are used to make resistors.The most common
is to just have a bunch of wire wound up inside that little cylinder. Known as
wire-wound resistors, they depend on the fact that a certain length of a certain
piece of wire will have a certain resistance. These resistors tend to be very
reliable (with low tolerances), but cost more because of the price of metals used
in them and the
machinery needed to
carefully cut and wind

the wire.The other type of resistor is made of a piece of CarbonKnown as a

composition resistor, they depend on the size of the piece of carbon, and the
fact that carbon is a metalloid (has some metal-like properties) that does
conduct electricity.Because they are made from cheapCarbon, composition
resistors can cost much less than similar wire-wound resistors. The drawback is
that the carbon can be cracked while making them, or become cracked in use.
They have higher tolerances because of the uncertainty in cutting the carbon.
In some cases it is necessary to have a circuit with resistors that you can
adjust.These resistors are known as potentiometers or variable resistors.Often
they are just a modified version of a wire-wound resistor, although newer
versions use advanced electronics instead.You’ve used one if you’ve ever used
a dimmer switch for lights in a room, or played with an electric race car
set.Most variable resistors are designed so that by turning a dial or sliding a
switch, you change the amount of conducting material the current has to go
through.The more conducting material the current has to go through, the higher
the resistance… less material and the resistance is less.
7.3 TRANSISTOR
Introduction:
A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) has three

terminals connected to three doped
semiconductor regions. In an NPN transistor, a
thin and lightly doped P-type material is
sandwiched between two thicker N-type
materials; while in a PNP transistor, a thin and
lightly doped N-type material is sandwiched
between two thicker P-type materials. In the
following we will only consider NPN BJTs. In

many schematics of transistor circuits (especially when there exist a large

number of transistors in the circuit), the circle in the symbol of a transistor is
omitted.
All previously considered components (resistor, capacitor, inductor, and diode)

have two terminals (leads) and can therefore be characterized by the single
relationship between the current going through and the voltage across the two
leads. Differently, a transistor is a three-terminal component, which could be
considered as a two-port network with
an input-port and an output-port, each
formed by two of the three terminals,
and characterized by the relationships
of both input and output currents and
voltages.
Depending on which of the three

terminals is used as common terminal, there can be three possible
configurations for the two-port network formed by a transistor: common emitter
(CE), common base (CB), and common collector (CC). Here we only consider
CE and CB, as CC is not widely used.
8. Physical structure
Both electrons and holes participate in the conduction process for bipolar
devices.
BJT consists of two PNP junctions constructed in a special way and connected
in series, back to back.
The transistor is a three-terminal device with emitter, base and collector

terminals.

From the physical structure, BJTs can be divided into two groups: NPN and
PNP transistors.
9. BJT operAtion modes
The BJT operation mode depends on the

voltages at EBJ and BCJ
The I-V
V characteristics are strongly nonlinear
Simplified models and classifications are

needed to speed up the hand-calculation
hand
analysis
Bipolar transistors have five distinct regions of operation, defined by BJT

B
junction biases.
The modes of operation can be described in terms of the applied voltages (this
description applies to NPN transistors; polarities are reversed for PNP
transistors):
Forward-active: base higher than emitter, collector higher than base (in
(i this
mode the collector current is proportional to base current by ).
Saturation: base higher than emitter, but collector is not higher than base.

Cut-Off: base lower than emitter, but collector is higher than base. It means the
transistor is not letting conventional current to go through collector to emitter.
Reverse-active: base lower than emitter, collector lower than base: reverse
conventional current goes through transistor.
In terms of junction biasing: ('reverse biased base–collector junction' means

Vbc < 0 for NPN, opposite for PNP)
Forward-active (or simply, active): The base–emitter junction is forward

biased and the base–collector
junction is reverse biased. Most
bipolar transistors are designed to
afford the greatest common-emitter
current gain, βF, in forward-active
mode. If this is the case, the collector–emitter current is approximately
proportional to the base current, but many times larger, for small base current
variations.
Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing

conditions of the forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-
active mode. In this mode, the emitter and collector regions switch roles.
Because most BJTs are designed to maximize current gain in forward-active
mode, the βF in inverted mode is several (2–3 for the ordinary germanium
transistor) times smaller. This transistor mode is seldom used, usually being
considered only for failsafe conditions and some types of bipolar logic. The
reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an order of magnitude lower
in this region.
Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode

and facilitates high current conduction from the emitter to the collector (or the
other direction in the case of NPN, with negatively charged carriers flowing

from emitter to collector). This mode corresponds to a logical "on", or a closed

switch.
Cutoff: In cutoff, biasing conditions opposite of saturation (both junctions

reverse biased) are present. There is very little current, which corresponds to a
logical "off", or an open switch.
Avalanche breakdown region
Although these regions are well defined for sufficiently large applied voltage,
they overlap somewhat for small (less than a few hundred milli-volts) biases.
For example, in the typical grounded-emitter configuration of an NPN BJT used
as a pull-down switch in digital logic, the "off" state never involves a reverse-
biased junction because the base voltage never goes below ground; nevertheless
the forward bias is close enough to zero that essentially no current flows, so this
end of the forward active region can be regarded as the cutoff region.
10.Applications:
The BJT remains a device that excels in some applications, such as discrete
circuit design, due to the very wide selection of BJT types available, and
because of its high trans-conductance and output resistance compared to
MOSFETs. The BJT is also the choice for demanding analog circuits, especially
for very-high-frequency applications, such as radio-frequency circuits for
wireless systems. Bipolar transistors can be combined with MOSFETs in an
integrated circuit by using a Bi-CMOS process of wafer fabrication to create
circuits that take advantage of the application strengths of both types of
transistor.
Temperature sensors
Because of the known temperature and current dependence of the forward-

biased base–emitter junction voltage, the BJT can be used to measure

temperature by subtracting two voltages at two different bias currents in a

known ratio.
Logarithmic converters
Because base–emitter
emitter voltage varies as the log of the base–emitter
base and
collector–emitter
emitter currents, a BJT can also be used to compute logarithms and
anti-logarithms.
logarithms. A diode can also perform these nonlinear functions, but the
transistor provides more circuit flexibility.
Switching Element:
Because a transistor's collector current is

proportionally limited by its base current, it
can be used as a sort of current-controlled
current
switch. A relatively small flow of electrons
sent through the base of the transistor has
the ability to exert control over a much larger flow
of electrons through the
t collector.
(a) Mechanical switch, (b) NPN transistor switch, (c) PNP

transistor switch
7.4 LDR
11. Introduction:
The light dependant resistor is an electronic component whose resistance
decreases with increasing light intensity. It is also called as “Photo Resistor” or
“Photo conductor”
The light dependant resistor uses high resistance semiconductor material.
(Cadmium Sulphide).
lphide).

When light falls on such a semiconductor the bound electrons [i.e. Valence
electrons] get the light energy from the incident photos.
Due to this additional energy, these electrons become free and jump in to the
conduction band. The electron –hole pairs are generated. Due to these charge
carriers, the conductivity of the device increases, decreasing its resistivity.
Generation of charge carriers due to light Symbol of the

LDR
As we define R= p*l/A
Where p= resistivity of the material, l= length of the medium and A= area of
cross section of the medium.
Now resistivity depends upon the nature of the material. Now, Cadmium
sulphide is such a material which changes it resistivity on different illumination
of the light. As the resistivity changes the resistance of the LDR also changes.
Now, according to OHM’s law for a fixed value of current if the resistance
changes the voltage drop across that also changes. So for varying illuminance of
light on the LDR surface the voltage drop across it will also vary that we will
have an analog variation of voltage.
conduction band
valence
gap

Cadmium
BAND GAP
Sulphide track
CONDUCTION BAND
Resistance as a function of illumination
VALENCE BAND
12.Measuring the Resistance Variation:
Put the multi-meter knob on the proper resistance range and put the cathode and
anode terminal on the terminal of the LDR. Put the light on the LDR and check
the resistance and then put off the light and check the resistance. Also vary the
light intensity and check the resistance.
Measure the resistance of the LDR in the dark and in full light conditions,
figure 3.14.
LDR
Resistance of LDR in the R1

dark
Resistance of LDR in bright R2

light
Always R1> R2
13.Measuring the VolTage Variations
We apply a +5 V power supply across the LDR. So if

the resistance changes the voltage drop across it must
also change. But if the only load is the LDR than
according to Kirchhoff’s second law the whole voltage
will drop across the LDR whether its resistance is less or more. So to monitor
the voltage variation we implant a series resistance with the LDR as shown in
figure. The resistance value in series should comparatively higher than that of
the LDR (>10K).
Put the knob on proper voltage range. Connect the cathode of multi-meter at the
ground of power source and anode at the interface point of LDR and the
resistor. Check the voltage in light condition and without light condition else
you can justify it with following circuit, where the intensity of LED varies with
varying light conditions.
R1 Intensity of led glow varies
k
LED
LDR
+
I
9V

14.Applications:
Some typical LDR operated circuits:
1. LDR operated relay circuit
2. LDR based interrupt counter
3. Automatic street light
4. Light interrupt detector.
7.5 LED
15.Introduction:
A light-emitting
emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor
light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in
many devices and are increasingly used for other
lighting. Appearing as practica
practical electronic
components early LEDs emitted low-intensity
low red
light, but modern versions are available across the
visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting
emitting diode is forward-biased
forward
(switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
electron holes within the device,
d releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of
the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. A LED is
often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may
be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs present many advantages over
incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer lifetime,
improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching.
sw LEDs
powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more

precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse

as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising,
general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed
new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.
Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial
products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances.
TYPE Passive opto-electronic device
Working principle Electroluminescence
16.FEATURES AND BENEFIT:
Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs.
The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size,
unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color
filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can
lower initial costs.
Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily
attached to printed circuit boards.
On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED
will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in
communications devices can have even faster response times.

Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling,
unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps
that requires a long time before restarting.
Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width

modulation or lowering the forward current.
Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat
in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics.
Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the
abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.
Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report
estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete
failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about
10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and
incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE
demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this
extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in
determining the payback period for an LED product.
Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to

damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs,
which are fragile.
Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.
Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to
collect light and direct it in a usable manner. For larger LED packages
total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect.
However, when large quantities of light is needed many light sources are

usually deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the

same target
17.APPLICATIONS:
In general, all the LED products can be divided into two major
parts, the public lighting and indoor lighting. LED uses fall into
four major categories:
Visual signals where light goes more or less directly

from the source to the human eye, to convey a message
or meaning.
Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give
visual response of these objects.
Measuring and interacting with processes involving no
human vision.
Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode
and respond to incident light, instead of emitting light
18.LED specifications:

The terminal identification of the LED can be done by the

three methods:
1. Check the biasing through multi-meter. In forward

bias the Led will glow that is positive connected to
the positive
8. Conclusion
The multimode traffic flow consisting of conventional vehicles, intelligent connected
vehicles, and automated vehicles is gradually becoming the norm throughout the
world. Therefore, it is imperative to build a new generation of traffic control systems
to meet its development and application needs. Most of the existing traffic control
systems adopt “prior” feedforward control method or delay-based limited information
control method. The control effect depends on the accuracy of the model describing
the actual traffic environment, and it cannot learn and adjust the control knowledge
online based on the feedback of the control effect. Obviously, the large-scale
development and application of new technologies such as floating vehicles, vehicle-
to-vehicle communication (V2V), Internet of vehicles (V2I), V2X, and automatic
driving will greatly promote the development of the technical route of urban traffic
control systems from the data-poor era to the data-rich era. The real-time detection of
the spatiotemporal data based on urban road network traffic status can provide rich
and high-quality basic data and fine-grained assessment of control effects for traffic
control. In the face of the main defects encountered in the existing self-adaptive traffic
control system, relying on abundant traffic control data and using the data-driven
approach to delve a closed-loop feedback self-adaptive control system with better
uncertainty response capability and higher intelligent decision-making level are
inevitable result of the objective needs of the development and application of traffic

control and advanced infrastructure technologies. Also, it can provide support for the
interaction between the traffic control system and the multimode traffic flow.
Therefore, facing the limitations and major shortcomings of existing traffic signal
control systems, relying on a wealth of traffic control interaction conditions and
data, and developing a collaborative control system with a high degree of
refinement, precision, and better responsiveness and intelligence are the objective
need and development direction of traffic control technology. Although the outcome
of this paper is multi-intersection coordination control theory under the oriented
future traffic environment, it can provide scientific support for the development of
future road network traffic control systems and can be widely used in new
generation traffic control systems. Also, it can improve road network efficiency to a
greater extent, reduce traffic operation costs, prevent and mitigate traffic congestion
at intersections, and reduce energy consumption and emissions. Traffic signal
control based on reinforcement learning is a true sense of closed-loop feedback self-
adaptive control and the instantaneity, accuracy, and self-learning can be guaranteed,
which will be one of the future research trends. Besides, it will also provide an entry
point and technical support for the development of V2X systems, Internet of
vehicles, and autonomous driving industries. Therefore, the related achievements of
the adaptive control system for the future traffic environment have extremely broad
application prospects.

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A

AUTOMATIC TRAFFIC CONTROLLER

Under the supervision of

Department of Electrical Engineering

Mr. A.P. Narayan

I wish to express my profound gratitude and indebtedness to Lect. A.P.

Introducing the present topic and for their inspiring guidance,

constructive criticism and valuable suggestion throughout the project

extended all sorts of help for accomplishing this undertaking.

Dept. of Electrical Engineering

3. THE DEVELOPMENT HISTORY AND DEFICIENCY

OF EXISTING TRAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM…… 04-08

4. RESEARCH ON TAFFIC CONTROL SYSTEM………. 08-11

5. DEVELOPMENT STATUS OF URBAN TRAFFIC SIGNAL

CONTROL METHOD…………………………………….. 11-16

6. THE FUTURE DEVELOPMENT OF TRAFFIC CONTROL

SYSTEM …………………………………………………… 16-22

7. KEY COMPONENTS …………………………………….. 22-41

7.1 RELAY……………………………………………….. 22-25

7.2 RESISTANCE ………………………………………. 25-28

7.3 TRANSISTOR ………………………………………. 28-33

7.4 LDR …………………………………………………... 33-37

7.5 LED …………………………………………………… 37-41

8. CONCLUSION ……………………………………………… 41-42

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 1

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 2

Moreover, with the continuous improvement of the theory and technology of

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 3

3. The Development History and Deficiency of the Existing Traffic

3.1 The Development History of the Existing Traffic Self-Adaptive Control

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 4

The second-generation traffic signal control system dynamically adjusts the

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 5

The fourth-generation self-adaptive traffic signal control system is an integrated traffic

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 6

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 7

4. Research on Traffic Signal Control System Based on Future Traffic

4.1. The Overview of Future Traffic Environment Composition and Development

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 8

2012. In 2004 to 2010, Europe has developed PreVENT, SAFESPOT, CVIS

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 9

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 10

5. Development Status of Urban Traffic Signal Self-Adaptive Control

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 11

5.1. Traffic Self-Adaptive Control Method Based on Mathematical

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 12

5.2. Traffic Self-Adaptive Control Method Based on Intelligent Computing

Some researchers think that optimization of traffic lights in a congested network is

5.2.1. Fuzzy Logic

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 13

5.2.2. Group Intelligence

5.2.3. Neural Network

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 14

5.3. The Review of Current Traffic Self-Adaptive Control Methods

Since the revolutionary development of traffic information technology provides the

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 15

6. The Future Development Trend of Traffic Self-Adaptive Signal

Regional traffic control is an important unit in urban traffic control. At present,