Project Report

A
Project Report on
AUTOMATIC WATER PUMP

CONTROLLER
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement
for the award of the diploma in
ELECTRICAL ENGG. ( IC )
By
Avanish Kumar Tripathi
Nand Kumar Verma
Shailendra Kumar
Vijay Kumar Jaisawal
Sunil Vishwakarma
Harivansh Lal
Under the supervision of

Mr. A.P. Narayan ( Lecturer )
Department of Electrical Engineering

GOVT. POLYTECHNIC GONDA, U.P.
GOVT. POLYTECHNIC GONDA
BTEUP
Department of Electrical Engineering
CERTIFICATE
It is certified that Avanish Kumar Tripathi, Nand Kumar Verma,
Shailendra Kumar, Vijay Kumar Jaiswal, Sunil Vishwakarma, Harivansh Lal
have worked under my supervision and guidance for the project entitled on
“Automatic Water Pump Controller “ for the requirements and award of the
Diploma with specialization in “ Electrical Engineering ( IC ) “ from the Board
of Technical Education Lucknow during academic year 2019 - 20. The project
embodies result of original work, and studies are carried out by the students
themselves and the contents of the project do not form the basis for the
award of any other courses to the candidate or to anybody else from this or
any other institution.
Mr. A.P. Narayan
( Guide )
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my profound gratitude and indebtedness to Lect. A.P.

Narayan and Lect. Shashank Srivastava Department of Electrical
Engineering G.P. Gonda.
Introducing the present topic and for their inspiring guidance,
constructive criticism and valuable suggestion throughout the project
work.
Last but not least, my sincere thanks to all our friends who have patiently
extended all sorts of help for accomplishing this undertaking.
Student Name
Avnish Kumar Tripathi, Nand Kumar Verma
Shailendra Kumar , Vijay Kumar Jaiswal
Sunil Vishwakarma, Harivansh Lal
Dept. of Electrical Engineering ( IC )

Govt. Polytechnic Gonda
TABLE OF CONTENTS
AUTOMATIC WATER PUMP
CONTROLLER
1. INTRODUCTION ……………………………….. 01-02
2. WORKING PRINCIPLE &
BLOCK DIAGRAM ………………………………. 03-05
3. ACCESSORIES ……………………………………... 06-09
4. CAPACITORS ……………………………………… 10-13
5. RELAY ……………………………………… 14-16
6. IC 7404 ……………………………………… 17-18
7. LED ……………………………………… 19-22
8. SENSORS ………………………………………. 23
9. POWER SWITCH ………………………………… 24-26
10. DIODE BRIDGE ………………………………… 27-30
11. RELAY DRIVER ULN2803 …………………….. 31-33
12. VOLTAGE REGULATOR ……………………. 34-36
13. WATER PUMP ………………………………… 37-39
REFERENCES
DIPLOMA PROJECT REPORT - 2020
INTRODUCTION
Water is an essential element to a person’s life. The human body is composed of 75%
water in infants and 55% water in the elderly. Not drinking enough water leads to
dehydration which can many detrimental effects on the body, both and physical and
mental. Studies show dehydration decreases cognitive function in children and
increases the risk for delirium in the elderly [13].
Water is also important in maintaining healthy functioning kidneys, gastrointestinal
function, and heart function [13]. Water is used for a variety of purposes ranging from
bathing and cleaning possessions to drinking and cooking. In the United States and
other first world countries, private water developers and private water agencies have
constructed thousands of reservoirs to store and distribute water [11]. The water is
sourced from both above ground sources such as lakes and rivers, and from
underground water supplies. It is then disinfected by water agencies and tested before
distribution. This is unless the person has their own private well. In the end, a person
is able to turn on the faucet in his/her home and has fresh water whenever needed.
However, this is not the case in many countries around the world. An estimated 884
million people in the world do not have access to safe water supplies [12]. In many
developing countries, people must spend hours every day collecting water from distant
places because they do not have a nearby water source [12]. It is estimated that by
2025, “1.8 billion people will be living in countries or regions with absolute water
scarcity, and two-thirds of the world's population could be living under water stressed
conditions [12].”
Water service constitutes a major problem in countries including Indonesia, Mexico,
Guatemala, and El Salvador. The water company limits the amount of water it
distributes to communities in these countries which makes it very difficult for the
residents to know when and how much water they have access to in the future. For
example, in El Salvador, the water company provides water to some communities for
4 hours per day or even as little as once every four days. Indonesia, Mexico, and
Guatemala, have a similar water supply problem [2]. As a result, people store water in
underground reservoirs and residential rooftop water tanks. However, the pipes used
to transport water from the city water authorities often do not have enough water
pressure to supply water to the rooftop water tanks. Personal water pumps move water
ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 1

from the ground level to the roof level, but if the water pump activates with no water
in the reservoir, the pump siphons air and stops working forcing the user to fix it.
Without a properly functioning water pump, the underground water reservoir limits
the amount of water that can accumulate.
While most people manually attend to the needs of their water system effectively,
many people such as the elderly face physical challenges to successfully maintain the
functionality of their water pump system. A control system is the solution. This device
must monitor the water levels of the reservoir supply as well as the rooftop tank water
supply and regulate the flow of water such that water is always supplied to the
consumer when available. It needs to be completely autonomous requiring no user
input beyond the initial installation. Users need an affordable system that draws little
power to ensure low running costs [9]. The system must function accurately so that
residents’ water tanks can fill as much as possible without pulling air through the
pump. Not every pump system requires the same power source, so the control system
must support various pumps as well as common voltage sources. Additionally, the
Automatic Water Pump Controller (AWPC) system likely resides in an outdoor
setting near water necessitating a high level of weather resistance. Lastly, customers
need the device small and light for ease of transportation.

BLOCK DIAGRAM & WORKING PRINCIPLE
Fig. shows the controller circuit. Let us consider two reference probes ‘A’ and ‘B’
inside the tank, where ‘A’ is the lower-limit probe and ‘B’ is the upper-limit probe.
The 12V DC power supply is given to probe C, which is the limit for minimum water
always stored in the tank.
The lower limit ‘A’ is connected to the base of transistor T1 (BC547), the collector of
which is connected to the 12V power supply and the emitter is connected to relay
RL1. Relay RL1 is connected to pin 13 of NAND gate N3.
Similarly, the upper-limit probe ‘B’ is connected to the base of transistor T2 (BC547),
the collector of which is connected to the 12V power supply and the emitter is
connected to pins 1 and 2 of NAND gate N1 and ground via resistor R3. The output
pin 4 of NAND gate N2 is connected to pin 12 of NAND gate N3. The output of N3 is
connected to input pin 6 of N2 and the base of transistor T3 via resistor R4. Relay
RL2 connected to the emitter of transistor T3 is used to drive the motor.

Circuit operation
If the tank is filled below probe A, transistors T1 and T2 do not conduct and the
output of N3 goes high. This high output energises relay RL2 to drive the motor and it
starts pumping water into the tank.
When the tank is filled above probe A but below probe B, water inside the tank
provides base voltage to drive transistor T1 and relay RL1 energises to make pin 13 of
gate N3 high. However, water inside the tank does not provide base voltage to
transistor T2, so it does not conduct and the logic built around NAND gates N1 and
N2 outputs low to pin 12 of gate N3. The net effect is that the output of N3 remains
high and the motor continues pumping water into the tank.
When the tank is filled up to probe B level, water inside the tank still provides base
voltage to transistor T1 and relay RL1 energises to make pin 13 of gate N3 high. At
the same time, water inside the tank also provides base voltage to drive transistor T2
and the logic built around NAND gates N1 and N2 outputs high to pin 12 of gate N3.
The net effect is that the output at pin 11 of N3 goes low and the motor stops pumping
water into the tank.
When water level falls below probe B but above probe A, water inside the tank still
provides base voltage to transistor T1 and relay RL1 remains energised to make pin 13
of gate N3 high. However, transistor T2 doesn’t conduct and the logic built around
NAND gates N1 and N2 outputs high to pin 12 of N3. As a result, the output of N3
remains low and motor remains stopped.

When water level falls below probe A, both transistors T1 and T2 do not conduct.
NAND gate N3 gives a high output to drive relay RL2 and the motor restarts pumping
water into the tank.
Fig. shows the indicator/monitoring circuit. It consists of five LEDs, which glow to
indicate the level of water in the overhead tank. Since 12V power supply is given to
water at the base of the tank, transistors T3 through T7 get base voltage and conduct
to light up the LEDs (LED5 down through LED1).
When water in the tank reaches the minimum at level C, transistor T7 conducts and
LED1 glows. When water level rises to one-fourth of the tank, transistor T6 conducts
and LED1 and LED2 glow. When water level rises to half of the tank, transistor T5
conducts and LED1, LED2 and LED3 glow. When water level rises to three-fourth of
the tank, transistor T4 conducts and LED1 through LED4 glow. When the tank is full,
transistor T3 conducts and all the five LEDs glow. So, from glowing of LEDs, one
can know water level in the tank (see the table). The LEDs can be mounted anywhere
for easy monitoring.

ACCESSORIES -
ADAPTERS
The adapters are the device that has inbuilt circuitry for converting the
230V AC in to desired DC like +5V adapter, +12V adapter, +9V adapter
and many more. This consists of inbuilt circuit for HIGH AC to low
voltage DC conversion.
DIP BASES
The case outlines of the plastic and ceramic Dual In-line Packages
(DIPs) are nearly identical. The lead configuration consists of two rows
of leads, both with 100 mil pitch. The plastic DIP is shown in Figure. If
the DIP base is of 18 pin then 9 lines will be in one side and 9 on other
side. The IC bases of have round cut from the left of which the pin 1 of base is
considered similar is the case with integrated chips.
Basically IC is sensitive to short circuit or voltage so in place of that we
first install the bases of the IC with same number of pins and before
placing the IC’s we check all voltage points of the IC then mount the IC
once proper configuration is assured. The DIP base depends on number of
pins of the IC and ranges from 4pin configuration to 40 pin configuration.
They are available in different pin configuration and size depending on IC need.
POWER JACK
Power Jack is basically a connector to connect the adapter output to the
board directly. It has the proper connection designed to connect with the
adapter as well as out connection to connect to the board. It has three
terminals output 1 Vcc, 2 GND and 3 No connection.
SWITCHES:
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component
that can break an electrical circuit, interrupting the current or
diverting it from one conductor to another.
The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated

electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical contacts, which are
connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states: either
"closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or
"open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non-conducting. The
mechanism actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can be
either a "toggle" (flip switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for
"on" or push-for "off") type.
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system,

such as a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a
light switch. Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of
machines, for example, to indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position
or that a machine tool is in a position to accept another work piece. Switches may be
operated by process variables such as pressure, temperature, flow, current, voltage,
and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to automatically control a system.
For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used to control a heating
process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay. Large
switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are
used to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that
can be padlocked if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during
maintenance, or to prevent electric shock.
An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits
on voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state
changes, and would change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions.
Practical switches fall short of this ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current
and voltage they can handle, finite switching time, etc. The ideal switch is often used
in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations to be solved,
however this can lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects
of non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for
example used in telephone exchanges.
There are varying types of switches:
Micro-switch: This is small switch for interconnection. It has 4 terminals with

2 in pair already connected .when you press the switch all four get connected.

Power switch: This is 6 terminal switches for bidirectional connectivity on press
Toggle switch: A toggle switch is a class of electrical switches that are

manually actuated by a mechanical lever, handle, or rocking mechanism. This
is a two state switch that is not connected, and connected. It remains in the state
till not forced again to change the state.
DPDT switch: A DPDT switch is a class of electrical switches that are manually
actuated by a mechanical rocking mechanism. This is a three state switch that is
not connected, connected to one and connected to second. It remains in the state
till forced in that particular state els4e goes to normal state.
DIP SWITCHES: These are combination of multiple small switches in
one package to put on/off multiple channels in circuitry. A DIP switch
is a manual electric switch that is packaged with others in a group in a
standard dual in-line package (DIP). The term may refer to each
individual switch, or to the unit as a whole. This type of switch is designed to be used
on a printed circuit board along with other electronic components and is commonly
used to customize the behavior of an electronic device for specific situations.DIP
switches are an alternative to jumper blocks. Their main advantages are that they are
quicker to change and there are no parts to lose. These are available in different
configuration for example 8 pin configurations, 16 pin configuration and many more.
Connectors
Connectors are wire connection and interface to
connect two different points. It has different
configuration like 2- pin connector, 3 -pin connector,
4- pin connector and many more
Berge Strip
Berge strip is also type of connector. It is of two types male or female. This is also
used for making electrical connections to mount some components. The come in
different packages and dimensions. Depending upon the need they can be purchased.
These are used for mounting certain modules, LCD etc.

Male connector: These have metallic rods for the connection
Female connector: These have holes
DC connectors
A DC connector (or DC plug, for one common type of

connector) is an electrical connector for supplying direct
current (DC) power.
Compared to domestic AC power plugs and sockets, DC

connectors have many more standard types that are not interchangeable. The
dimensions and arrangement of DC connectors can be chosen to prevent accidental
interconnection of incompatible sources and loads. Types vary from small coaxial
connectors used to power portable electronic devices from AC adapters, to connectors
used for automotive accessories and for battery packs in portable equipment.

CAPACITORS
1. Introduction
The function of capacitors is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor

also functions as filter, passing AC, and blocking DC. The capacitor is constructed
with two electrode plates separated by insulator. They are also used in timing
circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They can be used to
smooth varying DC supplies by acting as reservoir of charge.
The capacitor's function is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor
also functions as a filter, passing alternating current (AC), and blocking direct
current (DC). This symbol ( )is used to indicate a capacitor in a circuit diagram.
The capacitor is constructed with two electrode plates facing each other but
separated by an insulator.
When DC voltage is applied to the capacitor, an electric charge is stored on each
electrode. While the capacitor is charging up, current flows. The current will stop
flowing when the capacitor has fully charged.
Commercial capacitors are generally classified according to the dielectric. The
most used are mica, paper, electrolytic and ceramic capacitors. Electrolytic
capacitors use a molecular thin oxide film as the dielectric resulting in large
capacitance values. There is no required polarity, since either side can be the most
positive plate, except for electrolytic capacitors. These are marked to indicate
which side must be positive to maintain the internal electrolytic action that
produces the dielectric required to form the capacitance. It should be noted that the
polarity of the charging source determines the polarity of the changing source
determines the polarity of the capacitor voltage.
2. Actual Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor’s ability to store charge. A large capacitance
means that more charge can be stored. It is measured in farad, F. 1F is very large,
so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes are used, u (micron), n (Nano), and p (Pico).
1uf=10-6 f
1nf=10-9 f
1pf=10-12 f

Sometimes, a three-digit code is used to indicate the value of a capacitor. There are
two ways in which the capacitance can be written one uses letters and numbers, the
other uses only numbers. In either case, there are only three characters used. [10n]
and [103] denote the same value of capacitance. The method used differs
depending on the capacitor supplier. In the case that the value is displayed with the
three-digit code, the 1st and 2nd digits from the left show the 1st figure and the 2nd
figure, and the 3rd digit is a multiplier which determines how many zeros are to be
added to the capacitance. Pico farad (pF) units are written this way.
For example, when the code is [103], it indicates 10 x 103, or 10,000pF = 10 nano-
farad (nF) = 0.01 microfarad (µF).
If the code happened to be [224], it would be 22 x 104 = or 220,000pF = 220nF =
0.22µF.
Values under 100pF are displayed with 2 digits only. For example, 47 would be
47pF.
The capacitor has an insulator (the dielectric) between 2 sheets of electrodes.
Different kinds of capacitors use different materials for the dielectric.
3. Breakdown voltage
When using a capacitor, you must pay attention to the maximum voltage which can
be used. This is the "breakdown voltage." The breakdown voltage depends on the
kind of capacitor being used. You must be especially careful with electrolytic
capacitors because the breakdown voltage is comparatively low. The breakdown
voltage of electrolytic capacitors is displayed as Working Voltage.
The breakdown voltage is the voltage that when exceeded will cause the dielectric
(insulator) inside the capacitor to break down and conduct. When this happens, the
failure can be catastrophic.
Types of Capacitors
There are various types of capacitors available in the market. Some of them are as
follows:
• Mica Capacitor
• Paper Capacitor
• Ceramic Capacitor
• Variable Capacitor
• Electrolytic Capacitor

• Tantalum Capacitor
• Film Capacitor
Here we used only two types of capacitor i.e. ceramic capacitor & electrolytic
capacitor.
1. Polarized capacitors
2. Un-polarized capacitors
1. Polarized Capacitors:
These are the capacitors having polarity. Basically these are of larger values than
1uf. For example below is the diagram of capacitor of 220 microfarad and having
breakdown voltage 25V.
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be

connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will
be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when
soldering.
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached
to each end (220µF in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end
(10µF in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand
upright on the circuit board.
It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly
printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite
low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an
electrolytic capacitor. If the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a
capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage.
25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits.
2. Un-polarized Capacitors (small values, up to 1µF)
Small value capacitors are un-polarized and may be connected either way round.
They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type
(polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so.
It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are
many types of them and several different labeling systems.

Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so
you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be.
For example 0.1 means 0.1µF = 100nF.
Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point:
For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.
3. Variable Capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they
are sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small
capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF =
0.0001µF).
Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not
suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It
would be wise to check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable
capacitor.
4. Methods of Making Capacitors:
One way of making capacitors is to use the two poly-silicon layers in our process.
We create a parallel plate capacitor with poly1 and poly2 (“electrode”) forming the
two parallel sides. The silicon dioxide between the two poly layers is thin enough
to yield good capacitance values per unit area. This is called a poly-poly capacitor.
The other way would be to use the gate oxide and actually build a transistor whose
gate area (W x L) would actually give us the capacitance. These are called MOS
capacitors, and they only work properly when the transistor is strongly inverted or
depleted. Otherwise, the capacitance can vary with the voltage across it.

Relay
1. Introduction:
Relays are electromechanical switches. Relays are used
throughout the automobile. Relays which come in
assorted sizes, ratings, and applications, are used as
remote control switches that are controlled by another
switch, such as a horn switch or acomputer as in power
train control module. Relays allow a small current flow
circuit to control a higher current circuit.
2. Relay operation-1:
All relays operate using the same basic principle. The
e.g. will use a commonly used 4-pin relay. Relays have
two circuits: A control circuit (shown in GREEN) and a
load circuit (shown in RED).The control circuit has small
control coil while the load circuit has a switch. The coil
controls the operation of the switch.
1) Relay energized (ON): Current flowing through the
control circuit coil (pins1 & 3) creates a small magnetic
field which causes the switch to close, pins 2 & 4. The
switch, which is a part of the load circuit, is used to
control an electrical circuit that may connect to it.
Current now flows through pins 2 & 4 shown in Red,
when the relay in energized.
2) Relay De-energized (OFF): When current stops
flowing through the control circuit, pins 1 & 3, the relay
becomes de-energized. Without the magnetic field, the
switch opens and current is prevented from flowing
through pins 2 & 4. The relay is now off.

3. Relay operation-2
When no voltage is applied to pin1, there is no
current flow through the coil. No current means
no magnetic field is developed, and the switch is
open. When voltage is supplied to pin 1, current
flow through the coil creates the magnetic field needed to close the switch allowing
continuity between pins 2 & 4.
4. Relay design id:

Relays are either normally open or normally
closed. Notice the position of the switches in
the two relays shown below. Normally open
relays have a switch that remains open until
energized (ON) while normally closed relays
are closed until energized. Relays are always
shown in the de-energized position (no
current flowing through the control circuit -
OFF). Normally relays are the most common
in vehicles; however either can be use in
automotive applications.
Normally closed relays: The operation of
normally closed relay is the same to that of
normally open relay, except backwards. In
other words, when the relay control coil is
NOT energized, the relay switch contacts are
closed, completing the circuit through pins 2
& 4. When the control coil is energized, the
relay switch contacts opens, which breaks the circuit open and no continuity exist
between pins 2 & 4.
5. Actual relay design:

Current flows through the control coil, which is wrapped around an iron core. The
iron core intensifies the magnetic field attracts the upper arm and pulls it down,
closing the contacts and allowing power source to go to the load.

6. Relay variations:
Other relay variations include three and five
pin relays. A 3-pin relay instead of two B+
input at pin 1. Current splits inside the
relay, supplying power to both controls and
load circuits. A 5-pin relay has a single
control circuit, but two separate current
paths for switch: One the relay is de-
energized (OFF – no current through the
coil) and the other the energized (ON –
current is flowing through the coil). When
the 5-pin relay is de-energized (OFF), pins
4 & 5 have continuity. When the relay is energized (ON), pins 3& 5 have
continuity.
7. Iso standardized relays:

ISO relays were designed to try and standardize relay
connections, making it easier to test and design system.
ISO relays are currently used by almost all automotive
manufacturers today. Both 4& 5 pin designs are used in
both standard mini micro sizes. FVI: ISO is short for
international standard Organization.

7404 IC
74LS04 Pin Configuration

74LS04 is a14 PIN IC as shown in the 74LS04 pinout. This IC is available in various
packages. Choose the appropriate package depending on requirement.
74LS04 Features and Specifications
• Supply voltage range: +4.75V to +5.25V

• Maximum supply voltage: +7V
• Maximum current allowed to draw through each gate output: 8mA
• Totally lead free
• TTL outputs
• Maximum Rise Time: 15ns
• Maximum Fall Time: 15ns
• Operating temperature:0°C to 70 °C
Where to Use 74LS04 IC?

Here are few cases where 74LS04 is used.
1. The chip is basically used where a logic inverter is needed. Inverter Gates in this
chip provide output which is negated logic input. The chip has six gates which do
NOT operation.
2. When you want TTL outputs. The gates in this chip provide TTL logic outputs
which are a must in some applications.
3. 74LS04 is a low cost chip available in market and so it is used when application
cost is low.

How to use 74LS04

As mentioned earlier 74LS04 has six INVERTING GATES which can be used
individually. The internal connection of gates can be given as below.
Applications
• General purpose logic

• Servers
• Memory units
• PCs and notebooks
• Digital Electronics
• Networking
• Digital systems

LED
4. Introduction:
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor

light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in
many devices and are increasingly used for other
lighting. Appearing as practical electronic
components early LEDs emitted low-intensity red
light, but modern versions are available across the
visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with
very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased
(switched on), electrons are able to recombine with
electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of
the semiconductor. A LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2), and
integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs
present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower
energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller
size, and faster switching. LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are
relatively expensive and require more precise current and heat management
than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse
as aviation lighting, automotive lighting, advertising,
general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed
new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed,
while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications
technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many
commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic
appliances.
TYPE Passive opto-electronic device
Working principle Electroluminescence

5. FEATURES AND BENEFIT:
Efficiency: LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs.
The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and size,
unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color
filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can
lower initial costs.
Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily
attached to printed circuit boards.
On/Off time: LEDs light up very quickly. A typical red indicator LED
will achieve full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in
communications devices can have even faster response times.
Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling,
unlike fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often, or HID lamps
that requires a long time before restarting.
Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width

modulation or lowering the forward current.
Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat
in the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics.
Wasted energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
Slow failure: LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time, rather than the
abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.
Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report
estimates 35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete
failure may be longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about
10,000 to 15,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and
incandescent light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE
demonstrations have shown that reduced maintenance costs from this
extended lifetime, rather than energy savings, is the primary factor in
determining the payback period for an LED product.

Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to

damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs,
which are fragile.
Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.
Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to
collect light and direct it in a usable manner. For larger LED packages
total internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect.
However, when large quantities of light is needed many light sources are
usually deployed, which are difficult to focus or collimate towards the
same target.
6. APPLICATIONS:
In general, all the LED products can be divided into two major
parts, the public lighting and indoor lighting. LED uses fall into
four major categories:
Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to
the human eye, to convey a message or meaning.
Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give
visual response of these objects.
Measuring and interacting with processes involving no
human vision.
Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a
reverse-bias mode and respond to incident light, instead
of emitting light

7. LED specifications:
The terminal identification of the LED can be done by the

three methods:
1. Check the biasing through multi-meter. In forward

bias the Led will glow that is positive connected to
the positive

MOISTURE SENSOR
8. Introduction:
• This is a simple water sensor, can be used to detect soil moisture.
• Module Output is high level when the soil moisture deficit or output is low.
• Can be used in module plant waterier device, and the plants in your garden no
need people to manage
• Operating voltage:3.3V~5V
• Dual output mode, analog output more accurate
• With power indicator (red) and digital switching output indicator (green)
• Having LM393 comparator chip, stable
9. CONNECTION DIAGRAM:
Pin Definition VCC 5V GND GND DO Digital output interface (0 and 1) AO Analog output interface
10.Features:
This sensor is more complex than it needs to be. While some would say it may
mean increased sensitivity, for most applications sensitivity is not paramount
but reliability is. This has a nickel coating that corrodes quickly, limiting
sensitivity. Might be more suited for water level detection but does not work
well in salted soils. Actually you can use two nails but a better solution is the
readily available gold plated sensor that doesn't use a separate input board.

POWER SWITCH
Basic Description
The Power Switch is a high power relay controlled via an onboard microcontroller.
The Power Switch has 4 modes of input. The Power Switch can be controlled from a
RC receiver, TTL, serial or a combination of TTL and RC modes. The Power Switch
in serial mode can be bussed allowing several Power Switches to be controlled from
one I/O pin. The modes can be changed at any time with the control button. The mode
is saved and will be the default on power up.
Pin Name Assignment Overview
Pin Name Description
VSS Ground (GND)
VCC Regulated 5VDC input.
Control pin. Bidirectional I/O. Baud i38400.

CTRL (Pin
is fl oating)
NO Relay - Normal Open
COM Relay - Common
NC Relay - Normally Closed
Connections
The 3 pin header J1 is set up to be pin compatible with a standard servo connection.
There is a small silk screen white bar indicating the VSS (GND) pin. The 3 pin cable
is included and comes attached. You can remove this cable and use your own.
Setting Input Modes

Power Switch has 4 different control modes. This allows it to be controlled from
several different de-vices ranging from hobby RC radios to microcontrollers.

Mode 1
Serial - Relay is activated from serial commands at a baud rate of i38400. Each
Power Switch is ad-
dressable and can be bussed. Bussing the Power Switch allows one I/O pin to control
several Power
Switches at once.
Mode 2
R/C - Uses standard servo pulse to activate the relay. Commonly used when
controlling a Power
Switch from an R/C receiver. Servo pulses from 1.6ms to 2.5ms will turn the relay
on. Servo pulses
from .5ms to 1.5ms will turn the relay off.
Mode 3
TTL - Uses High / Low input from microcontroller or other device to activate the
relay. A voltage of
0.8VDC or greater will turn the relay on. There is no pull-up or pull-down on the
input pin. This is
due to the supported buss mode. It is considered a good practice to use either a pull-
up or pull-down
resistor in your circuit if using TTL mode.
Mode 4
TTL and RC - Mode 4 combines both TTL and RC modes. The same servo pulse
range from mode 2 will activate the Power Switch or a TTL high from mode 3. This
mode can be used when you are not sure what method the Power Switch will be
driven with.

The input mode is set using the control button. You can change the mode at any
time. The mode is saved and becomes the default on power up. You can use any
regulated 5VDC source for power.
To set the desired mode, power up the device. The status LED will come on, then
blink. You can count the blinks which indicate what mode the Power Switch was last
set to. 1 blink = mode 1, 2 blinks = mode 2, 3 blinks = mode 3 and 4 blinks = mode
4. After changing a modes, the status LED will blink the number of times for the
mode it is now in.

DIODE Bridge
1. Introduction:
A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in
a bridge circuit configuration that provides the same polarity of
output for either polarity of input. When used in its most common
application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input
into a direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier.
A bridge rectifier provides full-wave rectification from a two-wire
AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared to a
rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-
tapped secondary winding
The essential feature of a diode bridge is that the polarity of the
output is the same regardless of the polarity at the input. The diode bridge
circuit is also known as the Graetz circuit after its inventor, physicist Leo
Graetz.
2. Basic Operation:
According to the conventional model of current flow originally established
by Benjamin Franklin and still followed by most engineers today, current
is assumed to flow through electrical conductors from the positive to
the negative pole. In actuality, free electrons in a conductor nearly always flow
from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of applications,
however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the
discussion below the conventional model is retained.
In the diagrams below, when the input connected to the left corner of the
diamond is positive, and the input connected to the right corner is negative,
current flows from the upper supply terminal to the right along
the red (positive) path to the output, and returns to the lower supply terminal via
the blue (negative) path.

In each case, the upper right output remains positive and lower right output
negative. Since this is true whether the input is AC or DC, this circuit not only
produces a DC output from an AC input, it can also provide what is sometimes
called "reverse polarity protection".
3. Rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one
direction. The process is known as rectification.
The simple process of rectification produces a type of DC characterized by
pulsating voltages and currents (although still unidirectional
HALF_WAVE RECTIFICATION: In half wave rectification of a single-
phase supply, either the positive or negative half of the AC wave is passed,
while the other half is blocked. Because only one half of the input waveform
reaches the output, mean voltage is lower. Half-wave rectification requires a
single diode in a single-phase supply, or three in a three-phase supply.
Rectifiers yield a unidirectional but pulsating direct current; half-wave rectifiers
produce far more ripple than full-wave rectifiers, and much more filtering is
needed to eliminate harmonics of the AC frequency from the output.

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER: A full-wave rectifier converts the whole of the

input waveform to one of constant polarity (positive or negative) at its output.
Full-wave rectification converts both polarities of the input waveform to DC
(direct current), and yields a higher mean output voltage. Two diodes and
a center tapped transformer, or four diodes in a bridge configuration and any
AC source (including a transformer without center tap), are needed. Single
semiconductor diodes, double diodes with common cathode or common anode,
and four-diode bridges, are manufactured as single components.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER: A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge

arrangement to achieve full-wave rectification. This is a widely used
configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown and with single
component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

4. Current Flow in Bridge Rectifier

RELAY DRIVER ULN2803
Relay Driver ULN2803

1. Introduction
The eight NPN Darlington connected transistors in this
family of arrays are ideally suited for interfacing
between low logic level digital circuitry (such as TTL,
CMOS or PMOS/NMOS) and the higher
current/voltage requirements of lamps, relays, printer
hammers or other similar loads for a broad range of
computer, industrial, and consumer applications. All
devices feature open–collector outputs and
freewheeling clamp diodes for transient Suppression. The ULN2803 is
designed to be compatible with standard TTL families while the ULN2804 is
optimized for 6 to 15 volt high level CMOS or PMOS.
2. Need for using this IC:
The major advantage of using this IC is that it can fulfill the need for high
voltage and high current also. This is enabled through a low voltage and low
current source to give high voltage and high current output.
PIN 1-8 is the input with low voltage low current and 18-11 corresponding
output with high voltage and high current. The high voltage is configured on
pin 10 (keeping in mind maximum output voltage of this IC). The current is
also increased due to in-built Darlington Pair.
Note: This is an inverted IC means if input is high than the output is low else if
input is low the output is high.
3. Darlington pair:
Darlington pair
This is two transistors connected together so that
the current amplified by the first is amplified

further by the second transistor. The overall current gain is equal to the two
individual gain multiplied together: Darlington pair current gain, HFE = hfe1*
hfe2 (hfe1 and hfe2 are the gains of the individual transistors)
This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain, such as10000, so that
only a tiny base current is required to make the pair switch on. A Darlington
pair behaves like a single transistor with a very high current gain. It has three
leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual
transistor. To turn on there must be 0.7V across both the base-emitter junctions
who are connected in series inside the Darlington pair; therefore it requires
1.4V to turn on. Darlington pairs are available as complete packages but you
can make up your own from two transistors; TR1
can be a low power type, but normally TR2 will
need to be high power. The maximum collector
current IC (max) for the pair is the same as IC
(max) for TR2.
A Darlington pair is sufficiently sensitive to
respond to the small current passed by your skin
and it can be used to make a touch-switch as
shown in the diagram. For this circuit which just
lights an LED the two transistors can be any
general purpose low power transistors. The
100kresistor protects the transistors if the contacts are linked with a piece of
wire.

4. Maximum ratings:
5. Connection to Relay:

Voltage Regulators
11. introduction:
A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. A voltage regulator may be a simple "feed-forward"
design or may include negative feedback control loops. It may use an
electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on the
design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.
Electronic voltage regulators are found in devices such as computer power
supplies where they stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other
elements. In automobile alternators and central power station generator plants,
voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power
distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along
distribution lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of
how much power is drawn from the line.
Voltage regulator ICs are available with
fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V) or
variable output voltages. The maximum
current they can pass also rates them.
Negative voltage regulators are
available, mainly for use in dual
supplies. Most regulators include some
automatic protection from excessive
current (over load protection) and over-
heating (thermal protection). Many of fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads.
They include a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.
12.3-Terminal 1a Positive Voltage Regulators
• Output Current up to 1A
• Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
• Thermal Overload Protection
• Short Circuit Protection
• Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

13. Description:
The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are
available in the TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages,
making them useful in a wide range of applications. Each type employs internal
current limiting, thermal shut down and safe operating area protection, making
it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can
deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage
regulators, these devices can be used with external components to obtain
adjustable voltages and currents.
The 78xx (sometimes LM78xx) is a family of self-contained fixed linear
voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is commonly used in
electronic circuits requiring a regulated power supply due to their ease-of-use
and low cost. For ICs within the family, the xx is replaced with two digits,
indicating the output voltage (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while
the 7812 produces 12 volts). The 78xx line is positive voltage regulators: they
produce a voltage that is positive relative to a common ground. There is a
related line of 79xx devices which are complementary negative voltage
regulators. 78xx and 79xx ICs can be used in combination to provide positive
and negative supply voltages in the same circuit.
14. PIN Architecture:

7805, It is a voltage regulator the 78 indicates
a positive regulator the 05 indicates the
voltage output. At 1 amp if adequate heats
sink is provided. Never fear it has thermal
protection to shut it down only if the internal
heating exceeds the safety zone. It will not
destroy itself by removing or reducing the
load it will come- back alive after cooling
NOTE: Every voltage regulator has minimum voltage threshold and Maximum
voltage threshold. The minimum threshold input voltage is the should be greater
than the output voltage of the regulator like for 7805 it should be greater than
+5V. Similarly, the maximum threshold input is also defined for the regulator
till which the voltages can be regulated to give the desired output else due to
excessive heat the regulator can destroy since beside the regulated voltage the
remaining voltage goes as heat loss. So the regulators have heat sink also.
Always refer the datasheet for maximum thresholds. Try to put the input

voltage minimum as per the requirement like if you require 5 V then put the
source of 6V or 9V so that minimum heat is dissipated.
15. Internal Block Diagram:
16. Features in Detail:
• Output current in Excess of 1.0 A

• No external component required
• Internal thermal overload protection
• Internal short circuit current limiting
• Output transistor safe-area compensation
• Output voltage offered in 2% and 4% tolerance
• Available I n surface mount D2PAK and standard 3-lead transistor packages
• Previous commercial temperature range has been extended

WATER PUMP
The water pump can be defined as a pump which uses the principles like mechanical
as well as hydraulic throughout a piping system and to make sufficient force for its
future use. They have been approximately in one structure otherwise another because
of early civilization. At present these pumps are utilized within a wide range of
housing, farming, municipal, and manufacturing applications.
Water Pump Working Principle

The working principle of a water pump mainly depends upon the positive
displacement principle as well as kinetic energy to push the water. These pumps
use AC power otherwise DC power for energizing the motor of the water pump
whereas others can be energized other kinds of drivers like gasoline engines otherwise
diesel.
The water pump is a portable device and can be applied in several household
applications. These pumps are used for pumping the huge amount of water from one
place to another. The main purpose of a water pump is versatile. A quality pump
which can be selected carefully may be perfect for draining water from a low flooded
region, refilling the swimming pool, and bathtub, circulating pesticides otherwise
fertilizers.
The collection of water pumps are very large, therefore, while selecting a strong and
consistent one, one should think about the requirement.
Types of Water Pumps
Water pumps are classified into two types namely positive displacement and
centrifugal. These pumps are mainly designed for supplying water from one location
to another constantly.
Centrifugal Water Pump

Centrifugal pumps are designed with a rotating impeller which can be used for
supplying the water into the pump and force the discharge flow. These pumps come in
several types which includes trash, submersible, and standard models. By using these
pumps, all types of liquids can be pumped with low-viscosity. And also these pumps
work fine with thin fluids & gives high flow rates.

Considerations
These pumps are applicable in several applications like building as well as the water
system. These pumps are used to provide water supplies for buildings and well-
matched with pneumatic systems where the no-suction lift is necessary. The main
purpose of these water pumps is to pump water from wells in homes & to increase
water pressure in intake lines. Centrifugal pumps offer a nonstop pressure supply for
fire guard systems, and they can supply like sump pumps in horizontal otherwise
vertical configurations.
Centrifugal pumps are horizontal to numerous general problems. These may require
liquid circulation to stop overheating which is caused by low supplies. These types of
pumps must be prepared to work properly. As a head of the positive suction system is
very less while selecting the pump, it can consequence to cavitations, a situation
wherever air bubbles form close to the impeller, then leads to shock signals within the
water pump. At last, wear of the impeller of the pump can be degenerated by delayed
solids within the fluid.
Positive Displacement Water Pump

Positive displacement pumps supply a set amount of flow throughout the mechanical
contraction and development of a stretchy diaphragm. These pumps are applicable in
several industries that control high-viscosity fluids wherever responsive solids may be
there. These are suggested for the applications wherever a combination of high
pressure and low flow is required.
Considerations
Sometimes, these pumps are also called rotary pumps, and these are very competitive
because of the fact that they remove air from the lines and therefore get rid of air
leakage. These are also efficient while dealing with high-viscosity fluids. The main
disadvantage of these pumps is that they need extremely little clearance among the
revolving pump & the external edge of the unit. Consequently, the revolution must
happen at extremely slow speeds. When the water pump is functioned at high speeds,
then the fluid can ultimately decrease the efficiency of the pump.

Applications of Water Pumps

Water pumps are used for dewatering reasons decreasing the downtime from huge rain
events. The common applications of these pumps include buildings, wells, boost
application, circulation of hot water, sump pits, protection of fire systems, etc
Thus, this is all about water pumps which are frequently used in construction fields for
removing surplus water as well as dewatering. Because of heavy rains, the flow of
water can increase & water pumps let you supply the water rapidly to reduce
downtime. These pumps are appropriate for applications like electric, hydraulic, gas-
powered, and otherwise manual.
These pumps are vast addition to our life because they make possible a huge variety of
industrial, agricultural and household tasks. But, the variety of water pumps in the
marketplace is so adaptable and plentiful that selecting the correct pump appropriate
for your requirements is challenging.

REFERENCES
[1] C. Pan, C. Chuang and C. Chu, 'A Novel Transformerless Interleaved High Step-
Down Conversion Ratio DC-DC Converter With Low Switch Voltage Stress',
Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 61, no. 10, 2015.
[2] Hadipuro, 'Indonesia’s Water Supply Regulatory Framework: Between
Commercialisation and Public Service?', Water-alternatives.org, 2010. [Online].
Available: http://www.water-alternatives.org/index.php/allabs/111-a3-3-1/file.
[Accessed: 17- Oct2015].
[3] Iec.ch, 'IEC - World Plugs: List view by location', 2015. [Online]. Available:
http://www.iec.ch/worldplugs/list_bylocation.htm.
[4] Accessed: 17- Oct- 2015]. [4] M. Rashid, Power electronics handbook. Burlington,
MA: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2011.
[5] N. Sokal, K. Sum and D. Hamill, 'A capacitor-fed, voltage-step-down, single-
phase, nonisolated rectifier', APEC '98 Thirteenth Annual Applied Power Electronics
Conference and Exposition, vol. 1, 1998.
[6] R. Radzuan, M. Raop, M. Salleh, M. Hamzah and R. Zawawi, 'The designs of low
power AC-DC converter for power electronics system applications', 2012 IEEE
International Symposium on Computer Applications and Industrial Electronics
(ISCAIE), 2012. 42
[7] TEMCo, 'Float Switch Selection Guide', Temcoindustrialpower.com, 2015.
[Online]. Available:
http://www.temcoindustrialpower.com/product_selection.html?p=float_switch_selecti
on_gu ide. [Accessed: 17- Oct- 2015].
[8] TEXAS INSTRUMENTS INCORPORATED, 'DC-DC CONVERTER', 9 160
229, October 13, 2015.
[9] Weifeng Huang, Tao Zeng, Liping Ye and Zhen Li, 'A self-acting water pump
control system for residential buildings based on resonance water level sensor', 2011
International Conference on Electric Information and Control Engineering, pp. 265-
357, 2011.
[10] Y. Chen, Z. Zhong and Y. Kang, 'Design and Implementation of a
Transformerless Single-Stage Single-Switch Double-Buck Converter With Low DC-
link Voltage, High Step-Down, and Constant Input Power Factor Features', IEEE
Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 29, no. 12, pp. 6660-6671, 2014.

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A

AUTOMATIC WATER PUMP

Under the supervision of

Department of Electrical Engineering

Mr. A.P. Narayan

I wish to express my profound gratitude and indebtedness to Lect. A.P.

Introducing the present topic and for their inspiring guidance,

constructive criticism and valuable suggestion throughout the project

extended all sorts of help for accomplishing this undertaking.

Dept. of Electrical Engineering ( IC )

2. WORKING PRINCIPLE &

BLOCK DIAGRAM ………………………………. 03-05

3. ACCESSORIES ……………………………………... 06-09

4. CAPACITORS ……………………………………… 10-13

5. RELAY ……………………………………… 14-16

6. IC 7404 ……………………………………… 17-18

7. LED ……………………………………… 19-22

9. POWER SWITCH ………………………………… 24-26

10. DIODE BRIDGE ………………………………… 27-30

11. RELAY DRIVER ULN2803 …………………….. 31-33

12. VOLTAGE REGULATOR ……………………. 34-36

13. WATER PUMP ………………………………… 37-39

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 1

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 2

BLOCK DIAGRAM & WORKING PRINCIPLE

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 3

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 4

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 5

The most familiar form of switch is a manually operated

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 6

A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system,

There are varying types of switches:

Micro-switch: This is small switch for interconnection. It has 4 terminals with

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 7

Power switch: This is 6 terminal switches for bidirectional connectivity on press

Toggle switch: A toggle switch is a class of electrical switches that are

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 8

Male connector: These have metallic rods for the connection

Female connector: These have holes

A DC connector (or DC plug, for one common type of

Compared to domestic AC power plugs and sockets, DC

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 9

The function of capacitors is to store electricity, or electrical energy. The capacitor

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 10

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 11

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 12

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 13

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 14

4. Relay design id:

5. Actual relay design:

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 15

7. Iso standardized relays:

ELECTRICAL ENGG. DEPARTMENT, G.P. GONDA PAGE NO. 16

74LS04 Pin Configuration

• Supply voltage range: +4.75V to +5.25V

Where to Use 74LS04 IC?