Chapter 6: Air Sea Interaction
Chapter 6: Air Sea Interaction
Chapter 6: Air Sea Interaction
Air‐Sea
Interaction
Atmosphere and Oceans
• Solar energy heats Earth, generates winds.
• Radiant energy is responsible for motion in the atmosphere and the ocean.
• Variations in solar radiation create pressure and density differences that stir
currents and waves in both the atmosphere and the ocean.
• Winds drive ocean currents.
• Extreme weather events may be related to ocean.
• Global warming affects oceans.
• The atmosphere is experiencing unprecedented warming as a result of human‐
caused emissions of carbon dioxide and other gases that absorb and trap heat in
the atmosphere.
• The atmospheric heat is transferred to the oceans and has the potential to cause
widespread marine ecosystem changes.
Earth’s Orbit
• Earth’s orbit is
slightly elliptical.
• Not the cause for
seasons
Earth’s Seasons
• Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted
23.5 degrees with respect to
plane of the ecliptic.
• Plane of the ecliptic—plane
traced by Earth’s orbit
around the Sun
• Sun’s declination varies between
23.5 degrees north and 23.5
degrees south latitudes.
• Declination—angular
distance of Sun from
equatorial plane
• Region between these latitudes
called the tropics
Animation: “Earth–Sun Relations”
• Vernal (spring) equinox
• About March 21
• The sun is directly overhead along
the equator. All places on Earth
experience equal lengths of night
and day.
• Autumnal equinox
• About September 23
• The Sun is directly over the
equator again.
• Summer solstice
• About June 21
• Sun directly overhead at Tropic of
Cancer—23.5 degrees north
latitude
• Winter solstice
• About December 21
• Sun directly overhead at Tropic of
Capricorn—23.5 degrees south
Earth’s Seasons latitude
Daily heating of Earth influences climate in
most locations. There are exceptions to this!
Arctic Circle
Earth’s • North of 66.5 degrees north latitude
Seasons • No direct solar radiation during Northern Hemisphere
winter
Antarctic Circle
• South of 66.5 degrees south latitude
Distribution of Solar
Energy
• Concentrated solar radiation
at low latitudes
• High angle of incidence
(solar radiation is
concentrated over a
small area)
• Solar radiation more diffuse
at high latitudes
• Low angle of incidence
Distribution of Solar Energy
• The atmosphere absorbs some radiation, so less radiation reaches Earth’s surface at
high latitudes, compared to low latitudes because sunlight must pass through more
atmosphere at high latitudes.
• Albedo—0–100%
• Reflectivity of a surface
• Average for Earth is 30%
• Angle of sun on sea surface plays a role in how much sunlight is absorbed and how
much is reflected. If the Sun shines down on a smooth sea from directly overhead, only
2% of the radiation is reflected. But if the Sun is only 5 degrees above the horizons,
40% is reflected back into the atmosphere.
• Thus, the ocean reflects more radiation at high latitudes than at low latitudes.
Sun Elevation and Solar Absorption
Elevation of the Sun
above the horizon 90° 60° 30° 15° 5°
Reflected radiation (%) 2 3 6 20 40
Absorbed radiation (%) 98 97 94 80 60
Table 6.1 Reflection and absorption of solar energy relative to the angle of
incidence on a flat sea
Oceanic Heat Flow
• High latitudes—more heat lost than
gained
• Ice has high albedo
• Low solar ray incidence
• Low latitudes—more heat gained
than lost
Physical Properties of the Atmosphere
• Composition –
Mostly nitrogen
(N2) and oxygen (O2)
• Other gases significant for heat‐
trapping properties –
Carbon Dioxide,
Argon, Others
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3CerJbZ‐dm0
Temperature Variation
in the Atmosphere
• Troposphere—lowest layer of
atmosphere
• Where all weather occurs
• Temperature decreases with
altitude (the highest
altitudes are below freezing)
• Extends from surface to
about 12 kilometers (7
miles) up
Density Variations in
the Atmosphere
• Temperature has a dramatic
effect on the density of air.
• Convection cell—rising and
sinking air
• Warm air rises
• Less dense
• Cool air sinks
• More dense
• Moist air rises
• Less dense
• Dry air sinks
• More dense
Atmospheric Water
Vapor Content
• Partly dependent upon air
temperature
• Warm air typically moist
• Cool air typically dry
• Influences density of air
Atmospheric Pressure
• Tall column of air at sea level
• High surface pressure equal
to 1 atmosphere (14.7
pounds per square inch)
• Short column of air means lower
surface pressure
• Cool, dense air sinks
• Higher surface pressure
• Warm, moist air rises
• Lower surface pressure
Movement of the Atmosphere
• Air always flows
from high to low
pressure.
• Wind—moving air
Movements in the Air
Hypothetical non‐spinning Earth:
• Air rises at equator (low
pressure)
• Air sinks at poles (high pressure)
• Air flows from high to low
pressure
• One convection cell or
circulation cell
The Coriolis Effect
• Deflects path of moving object
from viewer’s perspective
• To right in Northern
Hemisphere
• To left in Southern
Hemisphere
• Due to Earth’s rotation
The Coriolis Effect
• Zero at equator
• Greatest at poles
• Change in Earth’s rotating velocity
with latitude
• 0 kilometer/hour at poles
• More than 1600
kilometers/hour (1000
miles/hour) at equator
• Greatest effect on objects that
move long distances across
latitudes
Global Atmospheric
Circulation
Circulation cells—one of each in
Northern and Southern Hemisphere
Hadley Cell: Ferrel Cell: Polar Cell: 60–
0–30 degrees 30–60 degrees 90 degrees
latitude latitude latitude
Rising and descending air from cells
generate high and low pressure
zones.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PFxpJkMXhwg
Global Atmospheric
Circulation
• High pressure zones—descending air
• Subtropical highs—30 degrees
latitude
• Polar highs—90 degrees latitude
• Clear skies
• Low pressure zones—rising air
• Equatorial low—equator
• Subpolar lows—60 degrees
latitude
• Overcast skies with abundant
precipitation
Global Wind Belts
• Portion of global circulation cells closest to
surface generate winds
• Trade winds—From subtropical highs to equator
• Northeast trade winds in Northern
Hemisphere
• Southeast trade winds in Southern
Hemisphere
• Prevailing westerly wind belts—from 30–60
degrees latitude
• Polar easterly wind belts—60–90 degrees
latitude
• Boundaries between wind belts
• Doldrums or Intertropical Convergence
Zone (I T C Z) – at equator
• Horse latitudes—30 degrees
• Polar fronts—60 degrees latitude
Winds
• Cyclonic flow
• Counterclockwise around a
low in Northern Hemisphere
• Clockwise around a low in
Southern Hemisphere
• Anticyclonic flow
• Clockwise around a low in
Northern Hemisphere
• Counterclockwise around a
low in Southern Hemisphere
Winds
Weather maps show pattern of
wind flow relative to high and low
pressure regions.
Characteristics of Wind Belts and Boundaries
Region (north or
south latitude) Name of wind belt or boundary Atmospheric pressure Characteristics
Equatorial (0–5 degrees) Doldrums (boundary) Low Light, variable winds. Abundant cloudiness and much precipitation.
Breeding ground for hurricanes.
SmartTable 6.2 Characteristics of wind belts and boundaries
Weather—conditions of
atmosphere at particular time and
place
Weather Climate—long‐term average of
versus Climate weather
Ocean influences Earth’s weather
and climate patterns.
Sea and Land Breezes
• Differential solar heating is due to different heat
capacities of land
and water.
• Sea breeze
• From ocean to land
• Land breeze
• From land to ocean
Storms and Air Masses
• Storms—disturbances with strong
winds and precipitation
• Air masses—large volumes of air
with distinct properties
• Land air masses dry
• Marine air masses moist
Fronts
• Fronts—boundaries between air
masses
• Warm front
• Contact where warm air
mass moves to colder area
• Cold front
• Contact where cold air mass
moves to warmer area
Animation: “Cold Fronts and Warm Front”
Fronts
• Storms typically develop at fronts.
• Jet Stream—narrow, fast‐moving,
easterly air flow
• At middle latitudes just
below top of troposphere
• May cause unusual weather
by steering air masses
Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes)
• Large rotating masses of low pressure
• Strong winds, torrential rain
• Classified by maximum sustained wind speed
• Typhoons—alternate name in North Pacific
• Cyclones—name in Indian Ocean
Origin:
• Low pressure cell
• Winds feed water vapor
• Latent heat of condensation
• Air rises, low pressure deepens
• Storm develops
• Tropical Depression
Hurricane • Winds less than 61 kilometers/hour (38
miles/hour)
Development • Tropical Storm
• Winds 61–120 kilometers/hour (38–74
miles/hour)
• Hurricane or tropical cyclone
• Winds above 120 kilometers/hour (74
miles/hour)
Saffir‐Simpson Scale of Hurricane Intensity
Typical storm Typical storm surge
surge (sea (sea
level height above level height above
Blank Wind speed Wind speed normal) normal) Blank
Category k m /h r
ilo eter ou mi /h r
les ou meters feet Damage
1 120–153 74–95 1.2–1.5 4–5 Minimal: Minor damage to buildings
2 154–177 96–110 1.8–2.4 6–8 Moderate: Some roofing material, door, and window damage; some
trees blown down
3 178–209 111–130 2.7–3.7 9–12 Extensive: Some structural damage and wall failures; foliage blown off
trees and large trees blown down
4 210–249 131–155 4.0–5.5 13–18 Extreme: More extensive structural damage and wall failures; most
shrubs, trees, and signs blown down
5 >250 >155 >5.8 >19 Catastrophic: Complete roof failures and entire building failures
common; all shrubs, trees, and signs blown down; flooding of lower
floors of coastal structures
SmartTable 6.3 The Saffir‐Simpson scale of hurricane intensity
Hurricanes
• About 100 worldwide per year
• Require:
• Ocean water warmer than
25°Celsius (77°Fahrenheit)
• Warm, moist air
• The Coriolis effect
• Hurricane season is June 1–
November 30
Hurricane Anatomy
• Diameter typically less than 200
kilometers (124 miles)
• Larger hurricanes can be
800 kilometers (500 miles)
• Eye of the hurricane
• Low pressure center
• Spiral rain bands with intense
rainfall and thunderstorms
Hurricane Movement
Hurricane Destruction
• High winds
• Intense rainfall
• Storm surge—increase in
shoreline sea level
Storm Destruction
• Historically destructive storms
• Galveston, T X, 1900
• Andrew, 1992
• Mitch, 1998
• Katrina, 2005
• Ike, 2008
• Irene, 2011
• Sandy, 2012
• Harvey, 2017
• Maria, 2017
Hurricane Sandy, 2012
• Category 1
• Largest Atlantic hurricane on record
• Storm surge coincided with peak high tides in heavily populated New York and New
Jersey.
• Severe coastal erosion
• Extreme flooding
• 233 deaths, more than $68 billion in damages
• Second costliest hurricane after Katrina
Damage in New Jersey from Hurricane Sandy, 2012
Most active season on record
2005 Atlantic • 27 named storms
• 15 became hurricanes
Hurricane
Season extended into January 2006
Season
Five category 4 or 5 storms
• Dennis, Emily, Katrina, Rita, and Wilma
Hurricane Katrina
• Costliest and one of the
deadliest U.S. hurricanes
• Category 3 at landfall in
Louisiana
• Largest hurricane of its
strength to make
landfall in U.S. history
• Flooded New Orleans
• 17 named storms
• 10 of season’s hurricanes occurred in a row
• Costliest season on record
2017 Hurricane • Damages of $281.14 billion
Season • Majority of damage caused by three hurricanes
• Harvey
• Irma
• Maria
• Most hurricanes in North Pacific
Historic • Bangladesh regularly experiences hurricanes
Hurricane • 1970—massive destruction from storm
• Southeast Asia affected often
Destructions • Hawaii
• Dot in 1959
• Iwa in 1982
Future Hurricane Threats
• Loss of life decreasing due to better forecasts and evacuation
• More property loss because of increased coastal habitation
Ocean’s Climate Patterns
• Open ocean’s climate regions
are parallel to latitude lines.
• These regions may be modified
by surface ocean currents.
Ocean’s Climate • Equatorial
• Rising air
Zones • Weak winds
• Doldrums
• Tropical
• North and south of equatorial zone
• Extend to Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn
• Strong winds, little precipitation, rough seas
• Subtropical
• High pressure, descending air
• Weak winds, sluggish currents
• Temperate
Ocean’s Climate • Strong westerly winds
Zones • Severe storms common
• Subpolar
• Extensive precipitation
• Winter sea ice
• Polar
• High pressure
• Sea ice most of the year
Wind Power
• Uneven solar heating of Earth generates winds.
• Turbines harness wind energy.
• Offshore wind farms generate electricity.
Global Ocean Wind Energy