Unit 1: Introduction: Pre-Chapter Questions

Unit 1: Introduction
Pre-Chapter Questions
These questions are designed to stimulate your thinking and introduce you to the Unit
material. Do not submit answers as they are not part of your assessment. The thinking
process will get you ready for the following:
1. How do you think children learn language? Do you think we are born with something that
helps us learn language?
2. With what grammar-based approaches to second or foreign language teaching are you
already familiar?
3. What do you think an effective communicative approach might be? How might it be
different from the other approaches with which you are familiar?
4. Grammar has traditionally been the focus of second and foreign language teaching for
hundreds of years, so it is no surprise that today many language teachers still believe that
grammar should take centre stage in language programs. What do you think?
Grammar Based Approaches

Many language teachers have felt that language teaching is most successful through
stressing grammar as the content and by exposing the student to language that
concentrates on one aspect of the grammar system at a time – present tense before past
tense, comparatives before superlatives, first-person singular before third-person singular,
and so on. Let’s have a look at several of these approaches.
1. Grammar-Translation
Grammar-translation was the most popular method until several decades ago and versions
of it still exist in some countries around the world. Its goal was to produce students who
could read and write in the target language by teaching them rules and applications.
A typical grammar-translation lesson began with a reading to be translated into the first
language followed by the rule it illustrated. New words would be presented in a list along
with definitions in the first language. These new words would be included in the reading,
which was usually far above the level of the students’ proficiency. Topics for readings may
have included a trip to the library, an historical sketch of an area, a shopping expedition, a
trip by train, a vacation, and the like. Lessons were grammatically sequenced and students
were expected to produce errorless translations from the beginning. Little attempt was
made to communicate orally in the target language. Directions and explanations were
always given in the first language.
2. The Audio-Lingual Method
The Audio-Lingual Method, or ALM was a new approach to oral communication that came
of behaviourist B.F. Skinner’s work in the late 1950s and early 1960s. It follows the theory
that language is acquired a) through the process of forming habits and b) the
stimulus/response model. Learning a second language, according to ALM, is throwing away
the habits of the first language and learning a new set of habits for the second.
Audiolingualism was developed to replace grammar-translation. Through the use of this

method, structures of the target language were ordered and dialogues were repeated in an
attempt to develop correct habits of speaking. Mimic and Memorise is a common tool used
with ALM. Students listen and repeat until they memorise. Drills were usually only related
through a common grammar point or syntax and had little to do with anything actually
happening; in other words, they had little direct meaning to the student. Sometimes the
situational scenarios that students had to memorise were useful in that they contained
idioms and expressions and greetings. Rules were presented with this method but not
formally explained to the student, and minimal pairs were often used (sit – seat; yellow –
Jell-o) to overcome habits of pronunciation from the first language. Listening and speaking
skills took precedence over reading and writing with the audio-lingual method; however, in
most classrooms there was little use of creative language and a great deal of attention was
paid to correct pronunciation. Language labs were a big part of this method.
The Direct Method

The Direct Method is more commonly known today as “Berlitz” and was derived from an
earlier method called the “Natural Method”. The Direct Method was natural in the sense that
it made an effort to “immerse” the students in the target language. Teacher monologues,
formal questions and answers, and direct repetition were frequent teaching tools. This
approach is still used in Berlitz schools today. Although there have been slight
modifications, the topic of discussion in classrooms is still the grammar itself; students are
thought to inductively discover the rules of the language. Texts used for the Berlitz method
often move students so quickly through their new language structures that their
internalisation becomes difficult, if not impossible.
Although these methods vary from one another, they all generally adhered to the same
principle: Grammar is the foundation upon which language should be taught.
An effective communicative approach, however, involves more of a relationship between the

learners themselves, between learners and the teachers, and learners and the language. This
approach requires a greater flexibility on the part of teachers and students to allow the
syllabus and its content to develop in ways that make acquiring the target language more
Module 2.0: Introduction
1. Think about learning in general. Is learning a process that people do best by themselves?
To what extent do people need other people and/or books or media to help them learn?
2. Do you think learning a language is different from learning other things? In what ways
might it be different? In what ways might it be the same?
3. How do you think errors should be treated during the language learning process? Do you
remember any of your own experiences with receiving error correction? Do you think the
treatment of errors should be different for first and second language learners? If so, in what
ways?
4. What about formal instruction in grammar? How important do you think rule learning is
to becoming fluent in a second language?
successful and meaningful.
Module 2.1
This Unit deals with the relationship between learning and development, an area that has
specific implications for second-language teaching in children.
One approach to explain this relationship follows Jean Piaget's theory that sees learning and
mental development as independent from one another. Learning uses development but
does not shape its course. Educators who adhere to this belief emphasise a child’s
“readiness”. According to Piaget, a student must be exposed primarily to language that can
be handled without difficulty. In other words, the language must be at the student’s actual
level of development.
Vygotsky differed from Piaget in that he believed that learning came before development.
In his theory of second language learning, it is through interaction that the child progresses
from an actual to a potential development level. The difference between these two theorists
is that Piaget relied heavily on biology and genetic background, while Vygotsky stressed
society and culture in influencing language development. In addition, Vygotsky placed a
great deal of emphasis on play, which he saw as a necessary component to learning. He was
convinced that learning is a dynamic social process through which the teacher can focus on
emerging skills and abilities in a dialogue with a student.
Paolo Freire further distinguishes the process of learning and education into two categories:
banking and libertarian.
Banking education says that:
o Education is an act of depositing. The student is an empty depository and the

teacher is the depositor.
o The students receive, memorise, and repeat.
o There is no real communication.
o The role of the student is a passive one.
Libertarian education involves:
o A partnership between teacher and student

o Inherent meaning in the communication
o A dialectical process, a reciprocal process, a cooperative relationship
The difference here as we see it is basically the active involvement of the student in the
learning process. Through interaction, the teacher is attuned to each child's emerging skills
and abilities. Otherwise, meaningful communication could not take place. Meaningful
interaction is the key. The inherent social nature of what is learnt when one learns a
language is taken into account, as is the essentially social way in which the acquisition of
knowledge of language must occur.
Module 2.2
The key to understanding young learners in an ESL classroom is to realise that they are
simultaneously learning LI (the first language) and L2 (the second language), a Herculean
task at the very least. How we treat young L2 learners is critical to their long-term language
acquisition.
Children learn their mother tongue by first determining, independent of language, the
meaning that a speaker means to convey to them and then working out the relationship
between the meaning and the expression they heard.
Many language researchers stress this concern with content over form and emphasise that
when a small child learns to speak, it is indeed the meaning that takes precedence for both
the child and the receiver. Beginning speech consists of very simple forms with an intense
desire on the receiver’s side to be understood by the child. Simplification is accomplished
through choice of topic, the range of speech functions, the length of the piece of language,
as well as repetition and rephrasing of the message. Normally, when a child first begins to
speak the L1, there is little correction of ungrammatical forms in the speech of the child. The
receiver, usually the parent or a caregiver, seems to be more interested in the truth-value of
the utterance. Parents and teachers alike are usually thrilled by any effort at all that a small
child makes in forming new language. For example, when the child says, “Dog big!” for the
first time, no one labels this a mistake or calls it substandard language. Instead the child is
praised and rewarded. The utterance is considered evidence that the child is acquiring the
target language.
Module 2.3
What if the language teacher in the young learners ESL classroom treated 'errors', such as
we just saw, as being evidence that the language was being acquired and that the child was
forming generalisations? How would that facilitate the acquisition of the language? It is
probable that the young learner would be more willing to take the risk of being wrong and
would be freer and more uninhibited in developing the new language, English.
What happens in the classroom where the teacher is concerned both with the accuracy and
fluency of the second language, as most of us are? Many language researchers feel that
both these goals cannot realistically be achieved in the early stages of learning. Fortunately,
they do not need to be achieved simultaneously in order to ultimately produce effective
speakers. It is also well-documented among second language researchers that learners in
classrooms in which accuracy is the priority tend to develop very little proficiency in the
second language. In such classrooms, teachers tend to see themselves as guardians of the
language and feel that the main reason for being there is to ensure correctness. They often
feel that if students are allowed to make mistakes at the beginning level, they are doomed
to a lifetime of linguistic errors.
Again, considerable research in the area of error correction seems to support the idea that
increased direct correction does not lead to greater accuracy in the target language,
although there are an equal amount of studies suggesting the opposite is true. Furthermore,
error correction techniques need to be studied within a context of the “whole student” and
factors such as motivation, attitude, anxiety levels, age, and many others, need to be taken
into account.
Modelling or repeating what the child has said, but in correct form, is one way to correct
indirectly. The child learning both a first and second language acquires language best
through meaningful input directly addressed to her or him.
Module 2.4
What kind of speech in the classroom is most conducive for young learners then? We call it
“teacher talk” and it includes:
o exaggeration of pronunciation and facial expression;

o decreased speed and increased volume;
o frequent use of pause, gestures, graphic illustrations, questions, and
dramatisation;
o sentence rephrasing and simplification;
o prompting; and
o completing utterances made by the student.
At the beginning levels of speech development in the target language, there is much
targeted negotiation in order to increase accuracy and communication. The following
sample dialogue illustrates the negotiation of meaning in a one-to-one communication
situation. The "stretching" of language to higher levels is also obvious as is the assistance
from the native speaker, in this case, the teacher.
Student: I throw it – box. (Points to a box on the floor)

Teacher: You threw the box.
Student: No, I threw in the box.
Teacher: What did you throw in the box?
Student: My . . . I paint . . .
Teacher: Your painting?
Student: Painting?
Teacher: You know . . . painting. (The teacher makes painting movements on an imaginary
paper).
Student: Yes, painting.
Teacher: You threw your painting in the box.
Student: Yes, I threw my painting in box.
o The teacher is speaking near to the child’s ability and specific context and is
providing scaffolds upon which the student can build.
o The conversation is about the immediate environment.
o The vocabulary is simple.
o Repetition is frequent.
o Acting out is used . . . All in response to the feedback.
The focus for the teacher is on the meaning not on the form. The child is acquiring correct
forms not by the process of direct correction but through the content and the process of
indirect correction or modelling. Notice that "throw" becomes "threw", the preposition "in"
is incorporated into the prepositional phrase, and the article "the" is picked up before box.
Here the grammar is being acquired through the natural process of communication; a
conscious sequencing of grammar does not seem to be necessary in this instance. For most
second language theorists and educators, the key to effective learning and teaching seems
to be a balance of structured language and free, responsive communication.
Module 2.5: When Instructed Grammar Helps

While a heavy emphasis on instructed grammar is not thought to be the most important
factor to language proficiency, nor is the sequence of learning greatly affected to any
considerable extent by instructed grammar, there is some evidence that a healthy amount
of it may be helpful in the following ways:
o By knowing certain rules, students may be more likely to notice the gap
between their oral speech and that of the teacher
o Students may benefit from simple rules such as the plural 's' and the third
person singular 's'
o In general, learnt rules will be recalled and used when planning what to say or
while taking tests
o Knowledge of grammar draws the learner’s attention to the formal properties
of the target language
By noticing the gap between how the teacher speaks and how they speak, between what
they hear and what they say, and also how things are said, students can consciously plan
what they say. There is much research to support the judicious use of instructed grammar in
that learners who have had instruction attained higher levels of second language
acquisition. Like other language students, though, many factors exist that influence a
learner's speed and accuracy in acquiring the English language.
Cultural expectations are often mentioned as well in discussions about instructed grammar.
Students may demand some grammar because of cultural expectations regarding what
constitutes language instruction. Even though students may not benefit language-wise from
such instruction, because their cultural expectations have been satisfied to some extent,
they may be more accepting of other kinds of activities in their language instruction.
It is worth remembering, however, that for most overseas language teaching where students
are only exposed to English for short periods of time each day or several days a week, too
much instructed grammar and too little interactional opportunity may be
counterproductive, considering that class time is very limited. On the other hand, if the
instruction in grammar is well-timed and based on small group needs, it may further inter-
language and communicative competence rather than hinder it.
One well-known language theorist developed what is called the Learnability/Teachability

Hypothesis. This hypothesis states that instructed grammar might help the learner progress
but only if the learner is developmentally ready to incorporate the new grammatical
structures taught. This approach says that learners do not ‘squirrel away’ rules only to pull
them out and apply them when needed.
For ESL teachers, then, deciding when the time is right for instruction concerning a specific
form or rule seems to be the big question. Although curricula are well researched and
specifically and carefully sequenced, not all students in a class may be prepared to receive a
new grammatical form. Individual students struggle (and avoid) particular forms and are
ready to accept others. What this means, of course, is that we as teachers cannot always rely
on a single grammatical syllabus for everyone, but rather need an individual grammatical
syllabus for each student that must change as the student changes. Some may not need
extra grammatical instruction at all; others may benefit from extra work with rule
applications. It is important, however, that students spend enough of their time in
interactive activities within a rich environment in order to practise and develop their
conversational skills to begin with.
It is important also to remember that most of language cannot be reduced to teachable

rules. Consider the uses of prepositions, which appear to be very simple concepts in English:
"in" and "on". We say 'in the car'. When we say 'on the car', we mean 'on top of the car'. But
we say 'on the boat', which means 'in the boat', if it has a roof. Although there are rules
governing these differences, they are for the most part, subconscious. When we as teachers
try to verbalise them, we get into trouble. The rules governing much of the English
language, then, can only be internalised through a complex interactional process.
It is obvious that there is still controversy as to the benefits and long-term effects of
instructed grammar on language learners. What we do know is that a moderate dose to
supplement the communicative activities, individually geared to a student’s immediate
linguistic needs, seems to be the most accepted approach.
Module 2.6: Learning Strategies
Learning strategies are also critical to the language acquisition process. They are usually
applied spontaneously and they often come to students as the situation demands. There are
times, however, when such strategies are applied methodically after being taught from
somewhere else (the teacher, books, peers, trial and error). Strategies that children use to
learn will generally be consistent with their personality, their individual learning styles, and
their cultural backgrounds. For example, students who are outgoing and high-risk takers
and for whom being assertive is acceptable culturally will be more willing to use overt
learning strategies such as seeking out people with whom they can speak, asking questions,
and so forth.
For example, the Teach International Teacher Training Program encourages its teachers to
become high-risk takers even before their arrival in their country of destination. Taking
deliberate steps to expose oneself to the language one will need overseas is the first
approach. Once there, finding a living situation in which you will have constant interaction
with the target language; memorising short chunks of dialogue and practising them at every
opportunity (greetings, directions, requests, money, food, clothing); seeking the input of
shop owners, business and community people; and working with a tutor to review your daily
conversations are all ways that you can start to immerse yourself and acquire the target
language at a rapid rate.
While many people may be reticent to pursue language goals in this way, they might feel
comfortable and recognise the value in some of the learning strategies: making friends with
native speakers, seeking a tutor or language helper, debriefing after conversations, and
keeping progress notes.
Students can choose and use strategies, maintain them over time, and transfer them to new
situations when needed. Teachers should model as many as they can and students who are
not doing as well as they should be in the language learning process should be assured that
their apparent failure is probably not due to a deficiency in intelligence but rather a lack of
appropriate strategies.
The following is a sample from the Oxford strategy inventory for students learning English
that identifies a few areas that may need focus. The students are to tell how true specific
statements about strategies are for them:
o I actively seek out opportunities to speak with native English speakers.

o I ask for help from English speakers.
o I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English.
o I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English.
o I try not to translate word for word.
o I say or write new English words several times, etc.
Just the survey itself may be enough to make older children aware of the many strategies
they can incorporate into their language learning practices.
Here are a few strategies that teachers may want to share with their older students, aged 11
to the oldest child’s class that they have. They are categorised by skill area. The teacher may
want to translate them into the students’ first language so they can benefit from them by
using many of them right from the start.
1. Listening
o Focus attention as completely as possible on what is being said.

o Relax and let the language flow into your mind.
o Don’t be upset if you don’t understand everything.
o Relate what you hear to what you already know.
o Listen for key words and ideas.
o Look for overall meaning.
o Try not to be afraid to ask relevant questions about meaning when it is
appropriate.
o Make guesses about what is being said.
o In conversation, check out your guesses by conversation checks (is this what
you said?).
o Whenever possible, pay attention to the forms fluent speakers of English are
using.
o Keep a notebook to write down what you have learnt, new words, meanings,
conversations, concepts, structures, idioms etc.
2. Speaking
o Think about what you are going to say.

o Think about the structures you are using but do not let them interfere with
what you want to say.
o Do not be afraid to make mistakes (they are normal as you are learning a
language).
o When you are not understood, use repetition, gestures, synonyms, definitions,
examples, acting out, whatever comes naturally as you begin to feel more
proficient in the language; occasionally record the interactions you have with
native English speakers and analyse them; ask someone to help you with this.
3. Pronunciation
o Seek interactional opportunities with fluent speakers.
o Pay attention to the rhythm, intonation, and stress of fluent speakers.
o Realise that you will not always be understood (keep trying).
o Ask for modelling when appropriate.
o Rehearse – have fun with the language.
o Learn to self-monitor.
4. Reading
o See what the reading material is about (look the text over; think about the
title, subtitles; notice the pictures).
o Try to imagine what you might learn from the text.
o While you read, relax and feel the words and sentences flow together.
o Question yourself as you read (what is the author trying to say here? How
does it relate to what you already know? What does it have to do with what
the author has just said? What might come next?)
o Do not stop reading each time you find an unfamiliar word or phrase.
o If a word seems critical but the meaning is not coming clear to you as you
read, look in a dictionary.
o You may want to talk about a new concept or phrase with a peer or teacher.
o Make a note of any parts you do not understand; you can return later and re-
read for better understanding.
o Think about what you learnt from the text; discuss it; write about it.
5. Vocabulary Development
o Make your own word bank or dictionary, using only those items that you
think will be useful to you and your peers.
o Group new words and phrases into logical categories.
o Try to focus on the chunks of meaning rather than only on individual words.
o Use various dictionaries including bilingual ones.
o Use the new words or phrases in your own contexts.
6. Writing
o Find out as much as you can about your topic.

o Brainstorm for ideas (discuss with peers, the teacher, family members, and
others in the school or in your community).
o Make a plan; map out your ideas.
o Think about the structures you are using but do not let them interfere with
what you want to say.
o Begin writing (do not worry about making mistakes); let your ideas flow.
o Rewrite making whatever changes seem necessary.
o Think of writing as a process through which the product develops gradually.
o Consult with peers.
o Rewrite and consult as many times as necessary.
o Share your writing with others.
It is important to remember that most strategies are too complex to be reduced to lists. All
the teacher has to do is listen to students' conversations about what they are doing to find
that they indeed are aware. It is also important that a focus on strategies not be so extensive
or intrusive as to interfere with learning. Sometimes too much emphasis on strategies
causes students to lose the meaning of what they are learning as they become focused on
how they are learning. Furthermore, strategies that may be inappropriate culturally or that
students may not be ready for or do not need, could be a waste of time. On the other hand,
instruction in strategies that is well-timed and suited to the needs of the students can make
a noticeable difference in the way they approach learning a second language.
1. Think about your own experiences with learning to read and write in your first language.
What do you remember about them? Were your experiences mainly positive? Do you have
any negative recollections about them?
2. Now think about experiences you may have had in the classroom developing skills in a
language other than your mother tongue. Were they mainly positive? Why or why not?
Module 3.1
Developing reading, writing, and speaking skills in a second language should involve
students in very positive, authentic, and highly motivating experiences. It is when learning a
language is equated with the mastery of separate skills that students often run into
difficulties. For example, learning to read in a second language is not a matter of stringing
phonemes into words and words into phrases and sentences and so on, yet there is a
comfort and orderliness for many teachers in sequential skill hierarchies. This kind of
approach to teaching lends itself to very formal and ordered classrooms. But the emptiness
of such teaching and irrelevance to contextual learning is observable in skill-oriented
classrooms. Many learners fail in this environment if they cannot see their way through the
abstraction of the language structures and grammar points to the meaning and context of
the language.
In opposition to hyper-structure in the ESL classroom, the “whole language” approach has
gained in popularity in recent years. Learning to read with this approach focuses on the
learner’s wanting to make sense of the text, combined with her/his motivation and desire to
learn.
Learners need to be reminded that they do not need to understand every word and that
trying to do so may interfere with their learning process. In fact, a well-known linguist, K.
Goodman reminds us that “ . . . it is also necessary to understand that you cannot chop
language up into little bits and pieces and think that you can spoon-feed it as you would
feed pellets to pigeons or a rat . . . Language doesn’t work that way . . . We have learnt a lot
of things. One of those things is that language is learnt from whole to part . . . It is when you
take the language away from its use, when you chop it up and break it into pieces, that it
becomes abstract and hard to learn (1982, p. 238).
Module 3.2
Goodman also contrasts what makes language learning easy with what makes it difficult.
It’s easy when: It’s hard when:

it’s real and natural it’s artificial
it’s whole it’s broken into bits and pieces
it’s sensible it’s nonsense
it’s interesting it’s dull and uninteresting
it’s relevant it’s irrelevant to the learner
it belongs to the learner it belongs to somebody else
it’s part of a real event it’s out of context
it has social utility it has no real social value
it has purpose for the learner it has no discernible purpose
the learner chooses to use it it’s imposed by someone else
it’s accessible to the learner it’s inaccessible
the learner has power to use the learner is powerless
The right-hand column is associated with bottom-up approaches to language learning

which adhere to the idea that acquiring language competency begins at the most abstract
level: sound and letter recognition, syllables, words, and phrases. Students are expected to
first master and then use these building blocks to move gradually to what is more concrete
and meaningful. Such approaches can be devastating to children who are not yet ready to
think in such abstract linguistic terms. This approach can also be frustrating for older
children, who although they understand cognitively, have not had other means (i.e. books or
materials of interest) for accessing more relevant and interesting written language.
The left-hand column is associated with top-down approaches to language learning. Here
the students are introduced to meaningful language right from the beginning, rather than
abstract grammatical forms that have no context or use for the learner. Engaging the
learners with wordless picture books or short messages addressed directly to them is almost
irresistible. Through top-down approaches, substantial “chunks” of language are internalised
as the learner is exposed to and personally engaged in the reading, writing, and speaking
process. Language is learnt, as it is needed.
The integration of both bottom-up and top-down approaches allows for a good balance of
whole language in a meaningful context combined with phonics, spelling, punctuation, and
grammatical skills.
Module 3.3: Integrating the Four Skills - Listening,

Speaking, Reading and Writing
Within a whole language, communicative framework, integrating the four skills of listening,
speaking, reading, and writing is not difficult. It should come as naturally for the teacher as
it does for the student: when one is listening, opportunities for writing occur; when one is
reading, the opportunities for speaking evolve. Often these opportunities arise
spontaneously in the classroom or develop out of need. It may be that for a middle-school
child, a response to a letter from a pen pal will stimulate writing skills; and with support and
structure, teachers will often find children performing far above expected levels for which
they are supposed to be ready.
Integration of skills can take place right from the beginning, without taxing the student’s
mental abilities. Even during the silent period, language is being acquired through listening
and observing – listening to fellow students, teachers in conversation and storytelling, and
observing through labels and signs such as classroom objects, washroom doors, and class
schedules. If the teacher is able to take advantage of natural curiosity, s/he can guide the
learner in reading, writing, and speaking far beyond what might have been considered
possible in the traditional teacher-oriented, inflexibly-structured classroom.
Before students begin to speak at all or speak with confidence, they have already begun
their transition into English literacy through their exposure to written language such as
labels and signs. A strategy for encouraging acquisition during the silent period is
commonly referred to as the “language-experience approach”. This begins with a planned
experience that all the students have in common – a song, a story, a trip to the mall or
market. After the experience, the teacher begins by writing key words on the board with
students contributing by adding words of their own or by referring visually to the object for
which they want the vocabulary. The teacher then develops a paragraph/story using all the
contributed words. Students can then read aloud what has been written and copy it into
their notebooks. Over a period of time, this process becomes familiar to the learners and
they are finally able to write their own short texts somewhat independently as they move
through their acquisition process.
Those who are non-literate in their first language need special attention in the second
language classroom in the early stages. If possible, they should develop literacy in their
primary language first (if their language has a written tradition) and then apply this
knowledge to the English language classroom. The more similar the first language and
culture are to English and “western” culture, the more likely that the transfer of skills will be
made easily. For example, if the first language, or L1, is one of the European languages
using the Roman alphabet, there will be many similarities in sound combinations, the
written symbols, punctuation, the movement of the eyes from left to right horizontally, and
so forth. At the level of meaning, there will be transfers of cognates, or root words, shared
cultural knowledge, etc.
On the other hand, when the first language and culture are very different, the transfer of
skills tends to be more general. For example, if the L1 is an Asian language using an
ideographic or character-based writing system, the transfer of skills includes prediction,
inference, coming to conclusions, etc.
Module 3.4: Reading as an Interactive Process

In the ESL classroom, reading is definitely an interactive process that incorporates
characteristics of both the top-down and bottom-up approaches to language acquisition.
The reader through interaction with the text/story creates meaning with other students in
the class, with the extended family, and with the community. The student’s age, values,
relationships, experiences, prior knowledge, and culture will largely determine her/his
interaction with the text. The learner/reader relates to the text/story/play/poem/song lyrics
and so on. Out of each relationship comes an interpretation or a “created meaning”. This
interpretation will be bantered about with other students, the teacher, and even other family
members and will either be accepted or rejected. If there is too much discrepancy, the
student may return to the text to re-read and re-create a new meaning. All the while, skills
are being tested, expectations are being adjusted, preconceived ideas are being
reevaluated, and the student is reaching higher levels of language acquisition. This concept
of interactive skill acquisition through reading is basically a socio-linguistic model in that the
major influence comes from a community of learners.
Facilitating the Reading Experience
In reading in ESL classrooms with young learners, the teacher can provide motivation by
having students make predictions about what they are going to read and by asking
questions that relate what they are reading to their own lives and to prior knowledge and
experiences.
For older students whose cognitive skills are more developed, the teacher can ask questions
that call for reflection and inference, such as the ones below:
1. Predicting content and outcome:
o What do you think the story/essay/poem/song will be about? Refer the

students to the title, pictures, subheadings or other clues.
o In what dilemmas do you think the characters might find themselves?
o What will happen?
2. Relating the text to prior knowledge:
o What does the author claim are the reasons for the plot?
o Can you think of other examples in which similar incidents occurred?
o What caused them to take place?
3. Making inferences and supporting conclusions:
o What is the author attempting to tell us here? (Refer to a specific line,

paragraph, and event)
o How do you think the main character feels?
o Why is the character angry, happy, relieved etc.?
o How do you know?
4. Relating to one's self and one's culture:
o What would you have done in a similar situation?

o Are these kinds of situations common in your culture?
o Does this fact make you glad, angry, sad? Explain.
Paired or small group discussions of readings, songs, poems, etc. can allow the students to
share ideas within their own classroom as well as test their individual growth in the
language. Thoughtful discussion integrates language and meaning; that is, students are not
only practising the structure and target language, but are doing so in an introspective and
individual manner. Even a six-year-old holds strong opinions, which they are usually more
than eager to share in response to a story told.
Module 3.5: Writing as an Interactive Process

Although reading and writing are bound together, for the purposes of our discussion, we
will separate them. Like reading, writing is also an interactive process.
The student-writer brings the same characteristics and qualities to the table, as does the
student-reader. But in the case of the writer we have to add a quality – anticipation of the
audience. Like the reader, the writer may expose the written piece of work to other readers
and writers for comment and/or suggestions. The product is a communal effort then,
between the language student, those who have seen and commented on the writing, the
teacher, and ultimately, the student’s colleagues to whom the writing will be presented.
Facilitating the Writing Process
When second language learners are writing, motivation can come from numerous sources
such as music, role-play, drama, and affective activities. Students need to begin with a
certain amount of confidence, which comes from their exposure to these areas of language
in their communicative ESL classroom.
The writing itself can be very subjective (letters to pen-pals in other ESL classes, journal
entries) or more objective (lists, charts, labels, maps) sources. The kinds of writing will
depend upon the students’ ages, needs, and language levels.
In all writing, the students need to concentrate on the process. The writing itself involves
brainstorming, focusing on the topic of interest, gathering information, norming, putting the
words down on paper, consulting with the teacher and group members, and revising.
L2 learners frequently have to pause, go back, re-read, re-think, consult, re-write, and write
some more before a finished product is produced. S/he must be able to concentrate on the
task without interference from the teacher or others who are tempted to help. Help may be
needed before the actual writing begins in order to stimulate thinking, and again later once
the student has had a chance to write out at least a portion of the piece alone. At this point
the student can confer with the teacher as needed. Students then have a chance to reshape
the writing if it is not conveying what was intended. Discussing individual pieces of writing
in small groups stimulates conversation among the students, generates more ideas, and
motivates further thought and feeling for writing, all of which contribute to lively and
productive language classrooms.
Second language writers need to be reminded that errors are perfectly normal during the
writing process. An inductive approach to errors is usually the most effective way to deal
with them. The teacher may lightly circle the word or phrase in which a problem appears
and ask the student to identify it. Teachers can also guide by asking pertinent questions. For
example, in responding to a verb tense error, the teacher may say “When did this happen?”
Often the students will recognise the errors themselves without any lengthy explanation.
Errors should be treated in a matter-of-fact way so that the students don’t associate them
with the quality of the ideas themselves. In addition, it is best not to focus on too many
errors at once. Error correction may sometimes be handled orally as well with echo
correction: the student reads out loud their writing and the teacher echoes back but with
the correct form. The teacher’s sentence and pronunciation therefore serve as a verbal
model. For example, if the student writes/speaks “On Tuesday my baby brother sick,” the
teacher might respond with “I’m sorry your baby brother was sick.”
Having the students observe and participate in the writing process generated by the teacher
is also very instructional. The students decide as a group on an idea that they want the
teacher to write about and the teacher then follows the process on the board, with the
students’ participation, from beginning to end, from brainstorming, recording key words,
developing ideas, beginning a first draft, erasing, modifying, consulting, and rewriting, etc.
1. Think about your own experiences while studying another language. To what extent did
the following help or hinder your success?
o anxiety
o motivation
o attitude
2. What did you and/or your teacher do to lessen your anxiety, increase your motivation,
and improve your attitude? How effective were these strategies?
3. What can you do as a second language teacher to lessen anxiety, increase motivation,
and improve attitudes in your classroom?
Module 4.1
The affective domain includes variables that can either help or hinder the second language
acquisition process, depending upon whether they are positive or negative, the degree to
which they exist, and the combination in which they are present. Because these variables are
difficult to isolate, it seems impossible to study them apart from other characteristics that
students bring to the classroom. As educators, we do know that factors having to do with
attitudes, motivation, and level of anxiety are central to what we refer to as the affective
domain.
Attitudes
Attitudes develop as a result of experience, both direct and indirect, or vicarious. They are
greatly influenced by people in the student’s immediate environment: parents, teachers, and
peers. Attitudes towards self, towards the English language and the people who speak it, in
particular the teacher, and the classroom environment, all seem to have an influence on
acquisition of the language.
Attitude toward Self

In general, the rule of thumb is that high self-esteem in a learner leads to self-confidence.
Both will increase as the student performs well in a variety of language situations in the
classroom. The relationship between how a child feels about her/him self and how they do
in the classroom is very circular: the student may perform well because their attitude toward
self is positive; they may have a positive attitude towards self because they do well. For
older students, age 8 and older, who are more aware of themselves as participating,
thinking, and feeling human beings, the importance of being secure in ‘who one is’ also
affects the learning of a second language. Those with more self-confidence are better able
to engage in the often humbling and embarrassing process of learning a second language.
Attitudes toward the Teacher and the Classroom Environment

In classrooms where teachers and students hold different values and come from differing
cultural backgrounds, communication can often break down, resulting in conflict and
disappointment. Students who work together and cooperate on a project may be thought
to be “cheating” or students who fail to guess on a true or false question are thought to be
“not caring”. In the first instance, the students may not value individual achievement and
competition as the teacher thinks they should; rather they value group cooperation in
completing a task. In the second case, the students may not feel comfortable guessing when
not knowing the answer; their motive may be not to get the highest possible score but
simply to acknowledge to the teacher what it is that they do know.
It is incumbent upon the teacher arriving in her/his new country of residence to anticipate
that there will be differences in learning style, attitudes, and values that will influence
relationships in the classroom. Doing some solid research on educational styles and
expectations in particular cultural milieu is an essential part of preparation for teaching
overseas. Speaking to others who have taught similar age and cultural groups is often a
benefit as well, as these teachers can provide first-hand experience and problem-solving
techniques that they themselves found successful.
The second part of the affective equation is being self-reflective. Ask yourself what
expectations you as a foreign teacher are bringing into the classroom? What hidden
stereotypes may be influencing your attitudes and expectations of your students? Be
prepared to unpack and closely examine the cultural baggage that you bring with you. Be
prepared to throw away preconceived expectations for a newer, more realistic set of goals
for both you and your students. Most of all, prepare to learn from your students. The
smallest child will unabashedly illustrate a cultural behaviour to you when you least expect
it!
As we have seen, affective factors such as self-esteem, self-confidence, motivation, and

attitude will influence communication in the language classroom as much as acquisition of
vocabulary and grammar. Emphasise commonalities between you and the children; teach all
students how communication styles can be misinterpreted.
Module 4.2: Motivation

For younger students, motivation levels do not normally factor into the success of the
language process as they do for older students, as younger students are in language class
“just because”. Older students, however, may have a sense over and above what their
parents’ desire, of what it means to be in an English class. In general psychological terms,
there are two classes of motivation: integrative and instrumental motivation.
Integrative refers to a desire to be like the target group – older children and teens will
describe this category of motivation in schema referring to their favourite athlete, pop
singer, actor, or another significant figure in their lives. In response to the question, “Why
are you learning English?” They may reply, “I want to sing just like Britney Spears, Michael
Jackson, etc.; I want to watch American movies, etc.”
Instrumental motivation is a desire to use the target language, here English, to obtain

practical goals such as studying or getting a job.
Time to Talk and a Reason to Talk

There are two essentials for increasing second language speaking – time to talk and a
reason to talk. Time to talk means giving children more than time to travel down the
language highway. It also means providing them time and plenty of opportunities to talk in
the classroom. Round tables in the classroom for example, make it easier for students to
work together, to speak together. The communicative method favours collaborative pair
and group work over teacher-driven, teacher-centred learning, and encourages classes
wherein children talk as much and as often as the teacher. More talk and more listening
means more time to acquire the building blocks of the language – sounds, words tied to
meaning, and structures.
A reason to talk means choosing and facilitating activities in ways that make talk
meaningful, where students cannot help but talk. This requires thoughtful curriculum,
content that engages children and reflects their personal interests. Meaningful talk means
less “compliance” talk, which is the students responding to a series of prompts from the
teacher.
Module 4.3: Level of Anxiety

Anxiety can appear in two forms – one that is beneficial and one that deters or has a
negative impact on the child’s learning. Whether it is an aid or a hindrance often depends
upon how much anxiety the child is feeling. For example, no anxiety at all may cause the
student to be lazy, whereas a small amount might cause the student to pay closer attention
and be alert in class. A wise teacher will recognise the signs of anxiety in her/his students
and provide a balance of support and independence in order that the child is able to reduce
the level of anxiety. A sensitive teacher will also reflect on her/his teaching strategies and
approaches to individual students to ensure that they are not contributing to the anxiety
level of the child. Providing a silent period, letting a student pass on an answer, providing
support in small group settings, and generally creating a supportive, open and fair
classroom culture will all contribute to a low anxiety classroom environment.
Personality
According to many language theorists, certain personality characteristics such as willingness
to take risks and a relative lack of inhibition can lead to higher success rates in second
language learning. Empathy is important to a greater degree in older children who can
relate to and be open to their new language and the cultures it represents.
Some children, for example, tend to be very hard on themselves, and are constantly self-
editing, in the context of the second language classroom. There are students who over edit
themselves, who are disappointed the minute they speak or write an incorrect phoneme,
who are so focused on language form, and who are so worried about making errors that
they speak as little as possible. These children need to be convinced that we need to use
and risk with language in order to grow with it. But for these students, not speaking has its
advantages: they stay on emotionally safe ground, they make fewer mistakes, and they
remain untargeted in the classroom.
Module 4.4: Creating an Optimal School and Community
Environment
Although the teacher may successfully establish a positive and supportive classroom culture
that is conducive to language acquisition, what the students face outside the classroom may
have an even greater impact on their learning. ESL students are often the target of ridicule
and discrimination based on class distinction, envy, or misunderstanding. This attitude can
come from native-speaking peers, other teachers and administrators, and from the
community itself.
In the majority of cases, unless extensive training and workshops on inter-cultural awareness
are conducted, one ESL teacher will have little impact on a community. Inside the classroom,
however, much teaching can be done towards encouraging and cultivating an attitude of
tolerance and respect.
Because the concepts related to the affective domain are so intangible, they are difficult to
define and measure. We still, however, cannot give up on their role in language learning.
Central to the affective domain are attitudes, motivation, and level of anxiety. These
characteristics are strongly influenced by personality.
Attitudes that the children we teach experience, come from the people with whom they
identify – peers, parents, teachers – and influence the way they see the world and each
other in it. Motivation is also a strong force in determining how proficient the students will
become in learning English. In addition, level of anxiety has its effect. If the students are
given the chance to try out the language in a non-threatening and supportive environment
where stress is kept at a minimum they have a much higher chance at success.
1. Think of some examples of how children are involved physically in learning their first
language. To what extent do you think learning a first language depends upon such
involvement?
2. How do you think it may be possible for older children, teenagers, and/or adults to
become physically involved with learning another language? What do you think the effects
might be?
3. Remember a time when you were studying another language. To what extent were you
involved physically in learning the language? Do you wish you had become involved to a
greater or lesser extent with such activities? Why?
Module 5.1
If children's language teaching is composed solely of repetitious dialogues that emphasise
error-free production and correct form, the risk is that most children will give up even
before reaching the end of the beginner curriculum. Make your classroom fun! Young
learners need to engage with the language they are learning and keep their bodies in
motion.
Total Physical Response is a successful approach to second language teaching that

incorporates the target language with structured and supervised movement. It involves
giving commands to which the students react. For example, the teacher might say,
“Everyone run to the yellow sun!” Good. O.K. Now, everyone run to the blue moon!” Great!
Now. Listen, Everyone run to the silver stars!” The imperative commands are meant to bring
the target language alive by making it comprehensible and, at the same time, fun. The
students are asked to act with their bodies as well as with their brains – in other words, with
their total beings. The cognitive process of language acquisition is therefore synchronised
with and partially facilitated by the movements of the body.
James Asher, the founder of the TPR approach to second language teaching, bases his
approach of TPR as the same way in which children learn their first language. Parents direct
the child’s attention to look at a particular object, to recognise it, and often, to pick it up.
Language production is delayed until the child’s listening comprehension has been
developed and the child is ready to speak. The child gradually becomes aware of the
language and what it means in relation to her/his environment; so, too, with second
language learners.
It is recommended that rank beginner students be allowed to just listen and comprehend
until they are ready to speak. The first few classes with small children can prove, in some
instances, to be very intimidating for a new TESOL teacher. To have an entire class of small
children just staring at you wide-eyed can be unnerving. Not to worry. Just carry on and
eventually through a lot of smiles and encouragement the first child will venture to speak! It
is not uncommon for young children and beginner learners to jump, run, sing, mime, or do
whatever is necessary to show the teacher that they understand the instructions. They learn
the target language very quickly, however, and are soon integrating the movement with the
vocabulary. After a few weeks of English instruction, a typical class might consist of 70%
listening comprehension and 30% speaking for the students.
Module 5.2
The commands are normally given to the class as a whole at the beginning to reduce
anxiety in any one student. The teacher demonstrates the action first, while simultaneously
speaking the target vocabulary and making the actions very clear. No organising language
is needed – only the targeted language is spoken. Then the students are expected to carry
out the request. If the class does not respond at first, the teacher may have to repeat her/his
demonstration combined with the target language rather than demand that the students
comply with only a repetition of the words alone.
Gradually the requests and movements become more complex as the students gain
proficiency. When students are ready they can volunteer to give instructions themselves
while the teacher and the other students carry them out. Remember that students should be
allowed to make mistakes when they first engage in TPR activities as they are coordinating
both movement and language. It is expected that with repetition the children’s speech will
gradually take the shape of the teacher's as they gain confidence and proficiency.
Although James Asher recommended a specific sequencing of language based on

grammatical acquisition, lessons using TPR are not focused on the grammatical point;
instead they are focused on meaning, especially at the beginning level. The students
internalise grammar as they repeat and learn. TPR techniques produce better results than,
for example, the audio-lingual method, because they utilise implicit learning.
Below is a list of a few typical commands to use in a beginner class of children:
Stand up.
Sit down.
Laugh.
Stretch.
Make a face.
Wave to the teacher, each other etc.
Clap your hands.

Touch – your nose, ears, eyes, head, knees, toes, bum etc.
Blow a kiss.
Shout your name - the teacher’s name, each other’s names etc.
Sing.
Hum.
Module 5.3
The following are examples of TPR exercises for younger children:
1. Listen to the Teacher (to the tune of Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star)
Students, students, look this way (claps to get attention of students)

Listen to what I will say (holds hand on ear to indicate listening)
Fold your hands and sit up straight (teacher folds her hands on her lap as she sits up
straight on a chair in front of the circle of students)
Please be quiet as you wait (indicates silence with a pointed finger on lips)
Students, students, look this way (softly claps again)
Listen to what I will say (cupped hand over ear to again indicate listening).
2. What’s the Weather? (to the tune of Oh My Darling Clementine)
What’s the weather, what’s the weather (teacher shrugs her shoulders while holding a
hand over her forehead and looking out the window)?
What’s the weather like today?
Is it rainy? (moves outstretched hands and makes tinkling motions with fingers to indicate
rain)
Is it windy? (makes sweeping movements with hands and arms)
Are there clouds (make encompassing gesture to indicate clouds)?
Or is there sun? (makes an outline over head with hands to indicate sun).
3. The Walking Song (to the tune of “Are You Sleeping”)

Walking, walking (teacher walks around, gesturing for students to follow her/him).
Walking, walking.
Hop, hop, hop (teacher hops and indicates to the students to hop).
Hop, hop, hop.
Running, running, running (teacher runs and indicates to the students to run behind
her/him)
Running, running, running.
Now we stop. Now we stop (everyone stops).
A variation on this song: Sing the song as presented until the children have mastered it and
then start to call “Stop” in different parts of the song.
A second variation: Sing the song and interject with the command “Stop” but make it
specific to: Girls only! Boys only! Etc.
4. If You are Wearing . . . (to the tune of “If You’re Happy and You Know It”)
If you are wearing red, shake your head,

If you are wearing red, shake your head,
If you are wearing red,
Then please shake your head,
If you are wearing red, shake your head.
If you are wearing blue, touch your shoe . . .
If you are wearing green, bow to the queen . . .
If you are wearing yellow, shake like Jell-o . . .
If you are wearing black, pat your back . . .
If you are wearing brown, turn around . . .
With the introduction of each verse, the teacher models the actions while singing each
verse, line by line, slowly. The second time around, she invites the children to join in, again
repeating each line slowly to ensure integration of vocabulary and actions. Each successive
time the verse is sung, the level of proficiency rises until the student has successfully
integrated the language and accompanying actions.
The teacher compliments the students with key words at various points and lots of smiles.
Then s/he continues by giving the commands minus the gestures and physical clues to see
if the students indeed comprehend the words. Gradually other commands are added
following similar procedures.
Using TPR as one of several teaching strategies has proven to be very successful in the
communicative classroom. If the method is used in small doses, perhaps for fifteen minutes
or so, it is very effective. If over-used, the technique becomes too tiring for both students
and teacher alike and students may come away with the impression that the main function
of the target language, English, is to give commands. For these reasons, it makes sense to
combine it with other classroom strategies that reinforce what is being taught. Activities
such as cutting and pasting, drawing, free play, and storytelling can all be effective teaching
strategies as well.
Module 5.4
The following are some TPR-based Activities that can readily be adapted to most children’s
classrooms:
1. Bouncing the Ball

The language of numbers, colours, days of the week, months of the year can be acquired by
simply having the students bounce a ball. For example, each student could be assigned a
month of the year. The teacher begins by forming a circle with the students, saying a month,
and then the student who is that month has to catch the ball that is thrown into the middle
of the circle. Conscious attention is centred on the act of catching the ball and staying alert,
listening for ‘your’ month while the language itself is being internalised at a more or less
peripheral level of consciousness.
2. Identification Game
After the class has acquired simple key words in specific vocabulary categories, pictures can
be placed across the front of the room of people clearly demonstrating, for example,
emotions. Students can be asked to come to the front of the room and choose the correct
picture in response to a specific command; for example, “Nicholas, please find a picture of
someone laughing.” Thank you. Class – do you agree? Is this a picture of someone
laughing?” Class responds, “Yes/No this is/is not a picture of someone laughing.”
Other categories include professions, clothing, community buildings and locations, food
items, modes of transportation, sports, and so on.
3. Information Gaps
Information Gap activities are those in which one student has information that another does
not have but needs. One student may give a set of directions or commands to another
student, who will then carry them out to meet a goal. For example, one student has an
illustration on a card in her/his hand. The second student faces the blackboard and tries to
draw the same illustration by following the directions that the first student gives her/him.
Summary: James Asher’s Total Physical Response involves giving a series of
commands/instructions to which the students respond physically. The teacher demonstrates
the instruction with the simultaneous use of gesture and illustration. The students remain
silent until they are ready for oral speech. Once the language is mastered, students have the
option of giving the instructions themselves. The main disadvantage to the TPR method is
that the commands do not adhere to a logical sequence based on experience.
1. What do you think a “natural” approach to acquiring another language in a classroom

might entail?
2. To what extent was any experience you may have had with another language “natural”?
3. What do you think the role of grammar might be in a natural language classroom?
Module 6.1
There is nothing terribly sophisticated about this approach to language teaching and
learning that other approaches could not claim if they incorporated real communication
into their classrooms. It is based on research done by linguist Tracy Terrell, who reminded us
that students must acquire the second language in much the same way that people acquire
language in natural situations. Some theorists argue that what was being recommended is
not really a method at all, but rather an approach. There are four basic principles to
remember with the natural approach to second language learning and teaching:
1. Comprehension precedes production. What does this mean? Simply that the teacher of
beginner language students must respect and understand the sometimes overwhelming
nature of learning a language. Students will, for various reasons, not respond orally in the
beginning. Periods of silence are not uncommon. Do not be alarmed as the teacher, simply
respect the children and continue on with your lesson. Target the language you want learnt,
focus on communicative situations, and provide accessible and comprehensible input that is
equivalent to the students’ proficiency level.
2. Production must be allowed to emerge in stages. Responses from students will
generally begin with non-verbal communication – a nod of the head, a smile of recognition,
or a shake of the head to indicate no; then move to single words – “yes”, “no”; then to two
and three word combinations such as “this is red”; next to phrases and sentences, and finally
to discourse, or multiple and sequenced conversation. Students speak when they are ready
and speech errors are generally not corrected every time a student utters a phrase in
English. A successful teacher will simply mime back the correct word order/pronunciation to
ensure that the student hears it correctly.
3. The course syllabus should be based on communicative goals. Syllabi heavily focused

on grammatical sequencing are shunned in favour of topical and/or situational organising.
Children especially, learn in categories and by schemata, or patterning. Discussions in
children’s classrooms therefore are centred on items in the classroom, clothing, body parts,
food, animals, family and community members, transportation, and so on. Grammar is
acquired through relevant communication at this stage and age of language learning.
4. The activities must be planned so that they lower the affective filter. A student who
is engrossed in engaging and interesting ideas and activities will be less apt to be anxious
than one who is focused mainly on form and structure. In addition, the atmosphere must be
friendly and accepting if the children are to have the best possible chance for acquiring the
new language.
Module 6.2
The natural approach or as we refer to it, the communicative approach, principles are used
in conjunction with many other methods and activities which are compatible (TPR, jazz
chants, music, games, role play, drama, storytelling, affective activities) and which produce
rich environments where language is learnt and reinforced in a variety of ways. The
communicative approach and all the methods with which it is used should blend to form a
highly integrated program for the students who participate in it.
Because the focus of the communicative approach is on real communication, many

demands are made upon the time and energy of the teacher. S/he must present a great
deal of understandable material about concrete, relevant materials, especially at the
beginning levels. It is not unusual to see the communicative teacher trudging to school with
huge bags full of clothing, dishes, food, and additional “realia” to demonstrate the language
being taught that day. The communicative teacher can no longer just ask students to open
their curriculum books to a certain page, say “repeat after me” or assign the students
vocabulary exercises and verb conjugations. The teacher’s chief responsibility during class
time is to communicate with the students about things that are of interest and relevance to
them.
Even though age and interests will vary, the following outline is useful in planning units
for beginning to low-intermediate children, ages 8-16. It should be adapted according to
age and interests of the students.
Module 6.3
A. Preliminary Unit: Learning to Understand
Topics
1. Names of Students
2. Descriptions of People
3. Family Members
4. Numbers
5. Clothing
6. Colours
7. Objects in the Classroom
8. Parts of the Body
Situations
1. Greetings
2. Classroom commands
B. Students in the Classroom
Topics
1. Personal identification (name, address, telephone number, age, sex,
nationality, date of birth, marital status).
2. Description of school environment (identification, description, location of
people and objects in the classroom, description and location of buildings)
3. Classes
4. Telling time
Situations
1. Filling out forms
2. Getting around the school
C. Recreation and Leisure Activities
Topics
1. Favourite Activities
2. Sports and games
3. Climate and seasons
4. Weather
5. Seasonal activities
6. Holiday activities
7. Parties
8. Abilities
9. Cultural and artistic interests
Situations
1. Playing games, sports
2. Being a spectator
3. Chitchatting
D. Friends and Daily Activities
Topics
1. Family and relatives
2. Physical states
3. Emotional states
4. Daily activities
5. Holiday and vacation activities
6. Pets
Situations
1. Introductions, meeting people
2. Visiting relatives
3. Conversing on the phone
E. Plans, Obligations, and Careers
Topics
1. Future plans
2. General future activities
3. Obligations
4. Hopes and desires
5. Careers and professions
6. Place of work
7. Work Activities
8. Salary and money
Situations
1. Job interviewing
2. Talking on the job
F. Residence
Topics
1. Place of residence
2. Rooms of a house
3. Furniture
4. Activities at home
5. Household items
Situations
1. Looking for a place to live
2. Moving
G. Narrating Past Experience
Topics
1. Immediate past events
2. Yesterday’s activities
3. Weekend events
4. Holidays and parties
5. Trips and vacations
6. Other experiences
Situations
1. Friends recounting experiences
2. Making plans.
H. Health, Illnesses, and Emergencies
Topics
1. Body Parts
2. Physical states
3. Mental states and moods
4. Health maintenance
5. Health professions
6. Medicine and diseases
Situations
1. Visiting the doctor
2. Hospitals
3. Health interviews
4. Buying medicine
5. Emergencies (accidents)
I. Eating
Topics
1. Foods
2. Beverages
Situations
1. Ordering a meal in a restaurant
2. Shopping in a supermarket
3. Preparing food from recipes
J. Travel and Transportation
Topics
1. Geography
2. Modes of transportation
3. Vacations
4. Experiences on trips
5. Languages
6. Making reservations
Situations
1. Buying gasoline
2. Exchanging money
3. Clearing customs
4. Obtaining lodging
5. Buying tickets
K. Shopping and Buying
Topics
1. Money and prices
2. Fashions
3. Gifts
4. Products
Situations
1. Selling and buying
2. Shopping
3. Bargaining
L. Youth
Topics
1. Childhood experiences
2. Primary school experiences
3. Current/teen experiences
Situations
1. Reminiscing with friends
2. Sharing photo albums
M. Giving Directions and Instructions
Topics
1. Spatial concepts (north, south, east, west; up, down, right, left, centre;
parallel, perpendicular, etc.)
2. Time relationships (after, before, during, etc.)
Situations
1. Giving instructions
2. Following instructions
3. Reading maps
4. Finding locations
5. Following game instructions
6. Giving an invitation
7. Making appointments
N. Values
Topics
1. Family
2. Friendship
3. Love
4. Sex roles and stereotypes
5. Goals
6. Religious beliefs
Situations
1. Making a variety of decisions based on one’s values
2. Sharing and comparing values in a non-threatening environment
3. Clarifying values
O. Issues and Current Events
Topics
1. Environmental problems
2. Economic issues
3. Education
4. Employment and careers
5. Ethical issues
6. Politics
7. Crime
8. Sports
9. Social events
10. Cultural events
11. Minority groups
12. Science and health
Situations
1. Discussing last night’s news broadcast
2. Discussing a recent movie, etc.
The students move through three overlapping stages in the communicative approach: (1)
comprehension, (2) early speech production, and (3) speech emergence. Beyond emergence
is a fourth stage often referred to as "intermediate fluency".
According to linguists who support the communicative approach, the length of time spent
in any one stage varies greatly depending upon the individual, upon the amount of
comprehensible language received, and upon the degree to which the affective filter has
been removed (or how comfortable and confident the student feels).
Module 6.4
Some students begin speaking after a couple of hours and others take several weeks. In the
beginning the teacher does most of the talking to provide the needed language, however as
the students become more proficient, they take over and the teacher’s role becomes
predominantly that of an organiser and facilitator.
The Comprehension Stage
During this first stage of language learning, the children are allowed to just “be”, and to
listen to the teacher if they so choose. They receive comprehensible and accessible
language from the teacher in consistent and diverse activities. Often TPR, or Total Physical
Response, is used at this stage of learning, so that the children are up and moving, following
simple instructions or responding to an action-based song. Audio-lingual methodology is
also used at this stage as scripted call and response dialogue is taught and learnt.
Although the students’ main goal is to develop listening and recognition skills, many of the
students are eager to speak and they will respond when they think appropriate, not
necessarily when the teacher has asked them to! Simple responses may be made by
gesturing, nodding, using “yes” or “no” in their first language, answering “yes” or “no” in
English, giving one word answers to questions such as “Who is wearing red shoes?”
“Joshua”. A lot of visuals, demonstrations, and repetition are used at this stage of language
learning. The teacher’s speech is slowed down considerably and key words are given extra
emphasis and stress in their intonation. At this beginning stage, students are not usually
called upon individually to answer; instead, the teacher implements choral drills that include
the group in its entirety. The target structure; i.e. key words and vocabulary, can be written
on the board the second or third time they are introduced into the lesson. Exposing young
learners to both oral and written forms too soon causes cognitive overload and may
interfere with the child’s successful acquisition.
Total Physical Response (TPR) activities are recommended to expose the children to new
vocabulary. For example, young children can learn the name of classroom objects while
practising the names of their classmates (“Give the book to Sarah”), while learning
descriptions ("Take the pencil to someone who has short hair"), while practising colours
(“Please bring me a blue book”), and many other categories of vocabulary. It is difficult to
avoid TPR at this stage of both physical development and language proficiency of the
children. It is, quite simply, an extremely effective way for the children to hone their gross
and fine motor skills while incorporating accessible and meaningful second language
vocabulary into everyday speech.
Module 6.5
It is important not to get carried away and introduce too much too soon. Frequent checks
for understanding are necessary, as enthusiasm on the children’s part to please the teacher
may disguise their lack of understanding. Using humour is always an effective way to check
for understanding, as outlined in the following dialogue. Also, take note of the sequential
ordering of the language that the teacher offers the children:
Teacher: (holding up a book or a picture of a book) It is a book. (repeats) It is a book.

(The teacher then points to a student’s book). It is a book. Is it a book? The teacher nods
her/his head, yes, while saying, with the prompts of the teacher, Yes, it is a book. (S/he then
holds up or points to other books and repeats in answer/question/answer format) What is
it? What is it?
Students: (in unison) It is a book.
Teacher: (pointing to a blue book). It is a blue book. It is a blue book.
Teacher: (the teacher points to a red book). Is it a blue book?
Students: No it is not a blue book. It is a red book.
Teacher: (Holding up the blue book). What is it?
Students: It is a blue book.
It is imperative that from day one, the teacher insists on full sentences, even if it makes the
language appear unnatural. This is one of the biggest favours a teacher can do for his/her
students, and will help the students progress at a much quicker rate.
And so the teacher continues –
o adding an activity after the introduction and drill work after introducing a new
object and/or colour.
o after the introduction of each object/colour, the teacher checks for
understanding of those already introduced.
o after working through four objects/colours, the teacher brings the group back
together for a group activity:
Activity: each student has a coloured object.
Teacher says: (while standing up with a red book visible in her hand): "Everyone with a red
book, stand up!".
Teacher: repeats the requests, going through each colour so all children have a chance to
participate.
Note: The students may not understand all of the teacher's words at first, but chances are
they will remember the key words that were just taught to them, and more than likely the
function words as well, as the teacher demonstrated them. Gradually they will begin to
understand and then use the vocabulary in other meaningful contexts. It is important not to
introduce too much language at once. In addition, it is important to immediately reinforce
the target language. (Even though children learn faster than adults, their long-term memory
is not as well-developed, and they forget just as quickly).
Follow-up reinforcing activities:
A: The teacher provides magazines with many illustrations and asks the students to choose
and cut out pictures that have the just-taught colours and paste them on a sheet of paper
of the matching colour.
B: The teacher may ask the children to draw and colour various objects in different colours.
A day or so later the teacher may bring in items of clothing of the same colours that s/he
has taught, to see if they are remembered. At that point, the colour vocabulary can be
added to the new clothing vocabulary.
Once the students have mastered a few categories of nouns and corresponding simple
verbs, the teacher can reinforce these while adding some new ones by streaming them into
comprehensible phrases.
For example, "Look at Maria's feet. She is wearing shoes. Look at Jorge's feet. He is
wearing shoes, too. Maria's shoes are white. Jorge's shoes are white, too. Who else
has white shoes? Who has brown shoes? Who has red shoes? Who has a red school
bag?"
And so on.
Module 6.6: Further Activities
Where Does It Belong?
On a chalkboard or a large piece of paper, sketch and label the rooms of a house. Briefly
talk about the house and the rooms. “Look at the house. It is big. It has five rooms. Here
is the kitchen. We keep food in the kitchen. People eat in the kitchen. Here is the
bedroom. There is a bed in the bedroom. This is where we sleep. This is the bathroom.
There is a sink and a shower in the bathroom. This is where we bathe and brush our
teeth”. And so on. A few typical household items can roughly be drawn in to help the
students identify them. Other household items can be cut out of magazines to be placed on
the house layout by the students. The teacher then leads the students in furnishing the
house. “Who has the stove?” Jorge. “Please put the stove in the kitchen, Jorge.” “Who
has the towel?” Soledad. “Please put the towel in the bathroom, Soledad.”And so on,
until all the students have placed their cut out pictures onto the appropriate location in the
house. Remember to have the students repeat what item is going where by using choral
drills. For example, “The stove goes in the kitchen.” Good! “Everyone, the bed goes in
the bedroom.”
This activity can be incorporated into other locales as well – community buildings like the
hospital, library, market, zoos, farms etc.
Put it On
Bring in a variety of oversized and out of season clothing. Talk about the clothes. “These are
pants. They are blue. Here is the pocket.” Have the students dress up with the clothing
according to your directions. This activity is hilarious, with children hamming it up and
giggling about their own, the teacher’s and each other’s appearance.
A follow-up activity to reinforce clothing vocabulary is to provide the children with clothing
catalogues, scissors (depending on age and ability), glue and blank sheets of construction
paper. By demonstrating, show the students how to create a “person” using the cut out
articles of clothing. Have the students make their own funny figures, while afterwards
naming what their characters are wearing. Through co-operation, the children help each
other locate what they need from the central pile of cut-outs, repeating the vocabulary and
generating a lot of laughter, therefore lowering any possible anxiety.
Getting Around
Make a large map of the school or village using strips of butcher paper or large newsprint
taped together or by blocking off various locations with masking tape placed on the floor.
The total area should be large enough so the students can stand on it and walk from place
to place. Label the rooms, buildings, or whatever is appropriate. Make sure it is clear what
each location is by placing pictures in each room, area. For example, you might place
pictures of food in the cafeteria. Using TPR, guide the students around the mapped out
location by following simple commands. If one student seems proficient enough, they can
act as guide for the other students. To follow up with this activity, take the students on a
real tour of the school, reinforcing the locations and vocabulary in English. For example,
“Here is the bathroom. This is where we use the toilet and wash our hands.”
Following a Process/Taking Directions

As students get used to the simple, repetitive commands in the classroom, expand their
vocabulary to series of commands. Through this process, students can learn to make simple
things by following sequential directions. Demonstrate by speaking while simultaneously
doing each step for the children, and then take them through the process as a unified
group, slowly and clearly. For example, making sandwiches. Have enough bread, tortillas,
pita, or whatever local bread is available, for each child and a variety of filling. Take them
through the making of a sandwich step by step. “Take two pieces of bread/Take one
tortilla/Take a pita. Good! Everyone has her/his bread/tortilla/pita. O.K. Now,
everyone take some lettuce. O.K. Now, put the lettuce on the bread. Well done! Now,
everyone take some meat/fish/cheese, and put it on/in your bread/tortilla/pita, and
so on. Students are not necessarily expected to speak in this activity; rather spontaneous
speech is encouraged while each child makes her/his choice about what they want on their
bread. Their listening and comprehension skills are being tested, however, as well as
following sequential imperative commands.
The above is just a small sampling of the many activities that can be used with students at
this beginning stage of language acquisition. Some are more applicable to certain ages than
others; activities should be adjusted according to age and level appropriateness.
Success in language learning for children is strongly influenced by a free and creative
classroom environment and by the reinforcement of the target language through recycling.
The teacher must make full use of visual aids in her/his teaching at this level as well: acting
out, modelling, exaggerated gestures, full use of body language, and realia, all help to
integrate the target language more fully. Using high frequency vocabulary, short sentences,
yes/no questions, either/or questions, and stress and intonation in voice also aid the
children’s understanding of the language. The teacher should also rely heavily on getting
the students physically involved with the target language in order to facilitate its acquisition.
At the same time, activities need to be varied and of short duration in order to maintain the
interest and engagement of the children.
Module 6.7: The Early Speech Production Stage ,

Numbers , Clothing & Getting to know you
The transition into this second stage of language learning usually begins with many of the
activities used in the comprehension stage. The teacher will gradually see changes in the
length of the responses of the students. Although the teacher has been soliciting full
sentence responses, it may take time for the students to offer full sentence replies on their
own, without prompting. For example, the answer to the question, “Who has on a blue
dress?” may be “Susannah has a blue dress, teacher” instead of simply “Susannah.” Once the
expanded responses begin to appear, they appear in abundance, and this signals the next
stage in acquisition for the children. The children’s speech will, at first, contain many errors,
which should be dealt with by modelling the correct speech. Omission of words is common
at this stage; therefore modelling back the correct and full response, orally stressing the
missed words, while intoning an affirmation for the student is the most effective strategy. It
is only when students feel comfortable making mistakes that they will want to continue
speaking within the English language classroom, so it is vitally important that positive
reinforcement built into echo-correction is used to prevent embarrassment or humiliation
which will cause students to hold back and be silent.
Speaking-focused Activities:
Charts and Other Board Visuals – It is recommended that visual aids also accompany this
stage of learning. They make discussion easier and serve as important aids in the transition
to reading and writing.
Numbers
How many people in the class are wearing …
a belt
a ring
glasses
black pants
a hat
white shoes
Clothing
What are you wearing?
The teacher A blue skirt

Carlos
Tomas
Rosa
Juan
Raoul
Getting to Know You
This chart can be used for older children (8-16) to encourage interaction and to help
students get to know one another. The students interview partners to fill in the chart below.
Question Partner 1 Partner 2

What is your name?
Where are you from?
What are your hobbies?
How old are you?
Module 6.8: Open Ended Sentences & Matrices

Open Ended Sentences
Offer several open-ended sentences on the board for students to complete. You, the
teacher, start by modelling the first sentence. In pairs or small groups the students take on
one sentence each. The intent of this exercise is to stimulate spontaneous conversation.
Correction of each grammatical error is not appropriate here; let the students exercise their
vocabulary and play with the language.
For example,
On Saturdays I _____________________________________.
My family likes to _________________________________.
My favourite movie is ______________________________.
Matrices
Open-ended sentences that are used in certain combinations for specific situations are
called matrices. Below are a few situations in which they might be used. The matrices should
not be drilled in audio-lingual style, but instead they should be used in role-playing
situations in which a variety of responses can be given. The students simply use the matrix
as an aid or framework to build the conversation around for as long as they need them.
Each matrix can be written on a cue card, put into a bag or container, and each pair of
students has to draw one and act out the scenario. These mini-dialogues provide valuable
practice for spontaneous conversation. The topics must be accessible to the students, as this
is not a time to introduce new vocabulary but instead to re-use known vocabulary.
First Meetings
Hi there, my name is _________________________.
Nice to meet you, I’m _________________________.
Are you a new student? _________________________.
On the Telephone
Hello.
Hello. This is __________________. Whom am I speaking to?
This is ________________________.
And so on . . .
Module 6.9: Asking for the Facts
The teacher brings in several simple sale advertisements from local newspapers or
magazines in English. Questions can be asked about the item being advertised. For example,
What is being sold?

How much was it?
How much is the sale price?
How much are you saving?
Getting into Reading and Writing
Even though the emphasis is on speaking in the above activities, these can also be used as
transitional activities into reading and writing. Key words written on the board, TPR
imperatives that students recognise, cue cards with matrices on them, sentences written
around the classroom, all help towards reading and writing in the target language. Students
who come from a non-Roman alphabet background will, of course, need extra time and
effort to learn the English alphabet. Regardless of the child’s linguistic background,
however, teaching should always be done through meaning rather than through teaching
isolated phonemes and words. Although teaching through the communicative method
focuses on oral communication and producing competent and fluent speakers, we certainly
consider reading and writing to be important and integrate those aspects of language
learning into our teaching as well.
Module 6.10: Further Speech Emergence Activities & Speech-

Emergence-Stage Activities
Further Speech Emergence Activities
Because speech has been emerging all along, to distinguish speech emergence as a
separate stage is thought by some ESL educators to be artificial. Perhaps extending
production is more appropriate as it indicates longer and more complex utterances. Many
errors will still be made at this stage, but they should gradually begin to decrease as the
students become more familiar with basic grammatical structures and the children gain
confidence in the target language.
At this stage a large number of activities can be used that are somewhat more demanding
and challenging but still within reach cognitively: music and poetry, role-playing and drama,
and problem-solving for older children. Many of the activities already shown can be
expanded upon to provide additional opportunities for development. Below is a sampling of
other activities that might be typical at this stage and beyond.
Speech-Emergence-Stage Activities
The People Hunt
Give the students the following list and ask them to find a person who:
o Has shoelaces
o Wears glasses
o Is laughing
o Speaks three or more languages
o Is wearing black socks
o Hates broccoli
o Has five letters in her or his name
o Lives with a grandparent
o Plays a musical instrument
The students must get the signature of at least one person in each category. As the students
become more advanced, they can find a person who:
o Has parents who drive a Toyota

o Has been to another country in the last five years
o Has a family with more than six people in it
o Has thought about being an actor/actress after completing high school
Module 6.11: Cartoons

Take several cartoons from the newspaper and white out the words in the bubbles. Place
the cartoons on a blank piece of paper, providing a space in the bubbles for the students to
write in their own dialogue. They can exchange cartoons and compare versions of the
dialogues.
Draw This!
This is a pair work or small group activity that is a lot of fun. Give one student per pair or
group a picture with simple lines and geometric shapes on it. Have this student give
directions to her or his group so that they can reproduce the picture without seeing it. The
student who comes closest to the original gives directions for the next picture. The pictures
should become progressively more difficult as the students become more proficient. They
should also try to target specific language, i.e. prepositions, location etc.
Shopping Spree
One corner of the room can be set up with resources to reflect various community
businesses; market or grocery store, doctor’s office, the post office, the bank, a clothing
store, a car garage, the library etc. Students can take turns being clerks, shoppers, and
cashiers. Various situations can be set up with dialogues to include exchanging an item,
giving the wrong change, asking where something is, etc.
Who am I?
Write the name of a very well-known person or character on a piece of paper and tape it on
the back of a student. The student needs to guess whose name is on her or his back by
asking yes or no questions of the class. “Is this person a woman?” Is this person alive? Is this
person young? Is this person an actor? And so on, until the identity is guessed.
Map-reading and Following Directions
This activity practises and reinforces vocabulary of direction, cardinal points, prepositions,
and community vocabulary. Helpful phrases could be written on the board; turn left/right;
go south/north/west/east; go around the corner/go straight; to the left/right; in the
middle/all the way down the block; down/up the street etc.
Have one student pick a set of directions from an assortment written on cue cards and
orally have them direct the other students to a particular destination while they follow along
on their maps at their desks. This activity is like a group treasure hunt where the
destinations are a surprise. First do a demonstration on the board on the large map, which
will be the same as the one the students have at their desks. Orally demonstrate, “Start at
the bank. Turn right and walk to the corner where the market is. Cross the street and follow
the sign to the gas station.” And so on.
Module 6.12: Writing Memos and Messages

This exercise practises not only writing skills but recall as well. Set up situations for the
students for which they can write memos. Some suggestions are offered here:
o Your mother is still at work when you arrive home from school. You are going
to a soccer game with some of your friends and then out for a pizza. Write a
memo to your mother explaining what you are doing.
o You are at home on a Saturday afternoon and someone calls for your older
brother. Write a note asking him to return the call.
o You have to write invitations to classmates for a birthday party that is going
to be at your home. Write the invitation, including directions on how to get to
your home.
Using Local or Foreign-Language Newspapers
Ask the students to find, cut out, and paste on butcher paper a sample of each of the
following. Students can work in groups or individually. This kind of activity could begin at
much earlier stages if the items are simple enough.
o the temperature in a major city

o a number greater than a thousand
o a face with glasses
o a sports headline
o a letter to the editor
o the price of a used car
o a city within 50 miles of your own
o a movie that starts between 7:00 & 9:00 p.m.
o an angry word
o the picture of a happy person
o a ten-letter word
Have the students go through the ads in a recent English newspaper. Ask them to find three
things that were a) produced in other countries and b) that were produced in their country.
Students can look for items and events of interest in the want ads. They can discuss what
they have found and tell others why they have chosen what they have.
They can look in the want ads to find items for sale. Have students play the role of potential
sellers and buyers. For example, the buyers can make “telephone calls” to the sellers to
gather more information about the content of the ads.
They can then write ads advertising things that they want to sell. They can even bring items
to class. Have students consider the following questions: What do you want to sell? Who do
you think will buy it? Why would someone want to buy it?
Once they have written their ads, collect them, copy them, and distribute them amongst the
students. Let them buy, trade and sell with each other.
Finding articles about interesting people in the news can be exciting. Students can plan a
celebrity party and make a list of those they would like to invite. Have them tell why they
would like to meet those they have selected.
Ask students to choose a headline and write an alternative story to go with it.
Module 6.13: Pen Pals

With the Internet and a rich network of other TESOL graduates and teachers, set up a pen
pal exchange for your students. Set your students up for success and talk about and review
the vocabulary needed to write an introductory letter. Have them write a first letter to their
pen pals, introducing themselves, including their names, gender, age, interests and hobbies,
etc.
The first three stages of communicatively-based learning flow into one another and it is
often difficult to tell where one ends and the next begins. At the comprehension stage,
students develop the ability to understand spoken language and to react to simple
commands. During this time, students experience their silent period when they are not
expected to speak, although they may respond with a word or two. At the early speech
production stage, students are able to produce a few words and can often recognise the
written versions. At the speech emergence stage, they begin to use simple sentences and
can read and write simple text in the target language. As students become capable of fuller
production, or intermediate fluency, they can express themselves in a variety of ways and
can understand much of what is said.
It should be noted that there is much overlap between one level and the next and one stage
and the next. Students may be beginners at some tasks but advanced learners at others. In
addition, an intermediate or advanced student might be thrown back temporarily into the
comprehension stage typical of beginners whenever new concepts are introduced.
Although the communicative approach is touted as one of the leading second language
methodologies and has gained much currency with educators, it does appear to have
several limitations. One of these is that the method itself is oriented towards oral
development with beginner to low intermediate students. While this emphasis on oral
production is not a fault in and of itself, teachers need to be aware that literacy skills require
more emphasis than they were given at the lower levels. In addition, older children entering
their teen years need to be challenged through increased attention on higher thinking skills
and on tasks that are likely to promote a more balanced linguistic proficiency.
Another limitation is thought to be that it does not adequately address the formal teaching
of grammar, but this accusation is too widespread to be applicable to all teachers who
adopt the communicative approach in their classroom. Most available curricula do include
formal grammar instruction within every lesson, but again, when referring to children, the
age and cognitive development of the children must be taken into account. Keep in mind
that young learners are learning their first language while simultaneously learning a second
language as well and that they are only capable of taking in small chunks of meaningful
language, including grammatical structures.
A further limitation, say the critics, is in the area of content. With the communicative
approach, the content in the beginner stages is mainly centred on everyday topics (foods,
colours, body parts, interests/hobbies and so forth). While these are fine for many students,
they may be inadequate for those wishing to reach a higher academic proficiency at a more
rapid rate. In practice, however, many teachers have introduced subject matter relating to
math, science, social studies etc when needed and have involved their older students in
tasks that were more likely to lead to academic success.
Go back to the discussion on colours and objects that was introduced earlier. There the
teaching focus was on the vocabulary of colours combined with familiar objects. Consider
the following similar dialogue, also for rank beginners, and introducing colours:
Teacher: Flowers come in many colours. Here is a red flower (The teacher holds up a red
flower, and then holds up another one, similar to the first, but also red.) Is this a red
flower?
Students: Yes.
Teacher: (holding up the same kind of flower, but this time it is yellow). Is this a red
flower?
Students: (shaking their heads) No.
Teacher: (pointing again to a red flower). No. Good. This is a red flower. I love the colour
red! Joon, do you like red? Carlos, show me a red book!
Note: And the dialogue continues in much the same way. The language becomes more
enriched by relating to other qualities that flowers have and by talking about where they
grow and how they grow.
Module 6.14
Even with a consistent age range, learners will be at various stages and capabilities,
depending upon individual learning styles and environment. Despite the fact that curricula
for young learners are activity centred, a hodgepodge of activities thrown together does not
make a curriculum. The activities must be carefully selected and adapted, and they must
logically fit into a well-planned, but flexible hierarchy of units and target language
structures. Key language units will have to be reinforced sufficiently to be acquired.
Although it seems as though the teacher is doing the majority of the talking, even choral
drilling and song work encourages children to speak. Do not discard group work at the early
stages, either; children need to be able to learn to work together.
Ultimately it is how the teacher implements the curriculum that s/he is given that
determines the success of the students’ learning. Let’s look at the other elements of a
successful children’s ESL classroom.
These four principles, if you will, are used in conjunction with other methods and
approaches, including Total Physical Response, Jazz Chants, Music, Games, Role Play, and
Storytelling, and produce incredibly rich classrooms where language is reinforced in a
variety of engaging ways.
Summary: As mentioned above, students move through three overlapping stages in

learning a language:
(1) comprehension,
(2) early speech production, and
(3) speech emergence.
Beyond this is intermediate fluency, which will be found in older students who have had
more sustained exposure to the English language. The length of time spent in each of these
stages depends upon various contributing factors: the individual, the program and how
successfully it is implemented, and the degree to which affective barriers have been
removed. Affective barriers refer to levels of anxiety produced by feeling intimidated,
overwhelmed, shy etc. Some students begin to speak after just a few hours, while others
need several weeks or classes. The second stage may take anywhere from a couple of weeks
to months. Generally speaking, students can become communicatively competent in
relatively short periods of time if the language material has been of high quality, if they have
had sustained and consistent exposure to the language, and if the student has been
receptive to it. At the beginning stages, the teacher does most of the talking to provide the
necessary responses; however, as the students become more proficient and excited to learn,
the balance of teacher-talk and student-talk shifts until the students are producing the
majority of speech. The teacher's role also shifts accordingly to that of organiser and
facilitator
1. What role do you think chants, music and/or poetry play in the acquisition of a first
language? What do they have in common?
2. Do you think children of all ages, including teens learning a second language might
benefit from them also? If so, in what ways?
3. Think about the experiences you may have had learning another language. To what
extent were you exposed to chants, music, and/or poetry during the process? What effects
did they have on your own success?
Module 7.1
Second language learners should have the opportunity to play with language. Children
especially can receive considerable enjoyment from being silly and frivolous with language.
Through word and sound play, considerable chunks of useful language can be incorporated
into the child’s linguistic repertoire at almost any age or level of proficiency. The use of
rhythm and rhyme, redundancy and repetition, can reduce anxiety and increase eagerness
to learn the second language. The process of learning through these elements is often
referred to as “palatable audiolinguism.” However, unlike the structured and confined nature
of audio-lingual drills, rhythm and rhyme carry the students into the realm of pure
enjoyment. The subject matter does not have to be frivolous but can be directly related to
meaningful experience.
Young children in second language classrooms should be exposed to meaningful word and
sound play through jazz chants, music and poetry, all of which can provide them with new
and exciting tools for communication, especially valuable at beginning levels. Similar to the
process inherent in TPR activities, students internalise routines, movement and patterns
without consciously doing so. Students do not even have to necessarily understand the
meanings of the words in order to use them to participate in the activity at hand. The only
possible drawback here is that others may at first assume that the children are more fluent
than they really are!
Module 7.2: Jazz Chants

Jazz chants provide a process through which patterns and routines in language are taught.
Especially at beginning levels of language acquisition, students need the practice that
repetition entails to master sound combinations, for example.
Carolyn Graham, an ESL teacher and jazz musician, developed jazz chants in order to
provide language learners with a rhythmic means to improving speaking and listening skills.
Through chants, students are exposed to natural intonation and stress in the language, to
idioms and expressions, and to the common rituals in everyday life. Because the chants are
often in dialogue or call and response format, even young children learn the cultural rules of
turn-taking and appropriate ways to communicate in English. Jazz chants generally take on
three forms: question/response; command/response; and provocative statement/response.
The former two are most commonly used in children’s classes.
To introduce and teach a jazz chant to children, the following steps are suggested:
o The teacher, in a normal conversational voice, gives each line of the chant
once or twice as needed and the students repeat in unison, choral drill format.
(It is fine to stop and correct intonation, as this will affect how the chant is
sung).
o The teacher then establishes a beat by snapping her/his fingers, clapping, or
using rhythm sticks.
o Step one is repeated, this time within the beat.
o The teacher runs through the chant one more time, and then divides the class
into two Units.
o Using the beat, the teacher repeats the lines.
o Each group of children repeats their line after the teacher as they are given.
The dialogue can now be repeated with the teacher taking one side and the students
responding without any prompting from the teacher.
Here is an example of a Jazz Chant
Easy Solutions
Ages 8 – teens
Note: This chant provides practice in giving an appropriate response or suggestion to a
complaint. It uses the simple present to indicate a condition (it’s hot in here, I’m sleepy) and
a command response to indicate an appropriate suggestion or action (Open a window, take
a nap).
Gee, I'm hungry.

Have a sandwich.
Gee, I'm angry.
Calm down.
Gee, I'm sleepy.

Take a nap.
Gee, it's chilly in here.

Put on a sweater.
Gee, it's hot in here.

Open a window.
I've got the hiccups.

Drink some water.
My nose itches.
Scratch it.
My feet hurt.
Sit down for a while.
My shoes are tight.

Take them off.
I have a toothache.
Go to the dentist.
I have a headache.
Take some aspirin.
I’m lonely.
Call up a friend.
I’m bored.
Go to a movie.
Student Exercises for the above Jazz Chant
Listen to your teacher read five complaints. Then listen again and write the complaints
below.
1. ___________________________
2. ___________________________
3. ___________________________
4. ___________________________
5. ___________________________
Now work with a classmate and write solutions to the complaints above using the
information from the chant.
1. ___________________________
2. ___________________________
3. ___________________________
4. ___________________________
5. ___________________________
Although Jazz Chants are normally oriented towards beginning students, intermediate and
advanced students are also exposed to idioms, humour, and types of language (formal vs.
informal). The cadence of jazz chants allows for constant practice of pronunciation,
intonation and builds the confidence level of the children.
Module 7.3: Another one of Carolyn Graham’s Jazz Chants

Love Song
Age: teenagers
Notes: this song provides practice in forming Yes/No questions in the simple present with
be and other verbs. It also provides practice with Yes/No questions using the future with
will. Have students listen for and practise the contrasting question and short-answer pattern
with be, does, and will. For example:
Is she happy? Yes, she is.

Does she love him? Yes, she does.
Will she hug him? Yes, she will.
Point out that pronouns such as he, him, and her usually lose the initial h sound except
when they begin a sentence. Have students listen for and practise the following phrases:
Does he, is he, will he, hug her, kiss her, leave her, hug him, kiss him, leave him, love her,
love him.
Have students practise the rising intonation pattern in the Yes/No questions throughout the
song. Call attention to the vowel sounds in love versus leave and to the z sound of the third-
person marker in knows.
Does she love him? Yes, she does.

Is she happy? Yes, she is.
Does he know it? Yes, he does. Yes, he knows it.
Will she hug him? Yes, she will.
Does he love her? Yes, he does.
Is he happy? Yes, he is.
Does she know it? Yes, she does. Yes, she knows it.
Will he hug her? Yes, he will.
Will he kiss her? Yes, he will.
Will he leave her? Yes, he will, if he has to.
Are they happy? Yes, they are.
Are they lucky? Yes, they are.
Do they know it? Yes, they do. Yes, they know it.
Will he find somebody new? Will she find somebody, too?
Yes, they will. Yes, they will, if they have to.
Student Exercises:
1. Does she love him? Yes, _________________________

2. Is she happy? Yes, _____________________________
3. Does she know it? Yes, __________________________
4. Are they lucky? Yes, _____________________________
5. Will he leave her? Yes, ___________________________
Jazz Chant #4:
I Told Him and He Told Her

Ages: 8 and up
This song provides practice in the simple past form of the irregular verb tell (told) as well as
in the use of the subject pronouns, he, you, and I and the object pronoun him, her, and you.
Point out the use of who as a subject in Who told you? And of everybody with the third-
person singular form knows.
Point out that the falling intonation pattern of the Wh- question Who told you? Is the same
as that of statements such as I told him and I told her.
To the tune of: “Old McDonald Had a Farm
I told him and he told her.

Who told you?
Who told you?
I told him.
He told her.
He knows. She knows.
Everybody here knows.
Who told you?
You told him and he told me.
Who told her?
You told him and he told me.
Who told her?
You told him.
He told her.
He knows. She knows.
Everybody here knows.
You told him and he told her.
Who told you?
Exercise
Listen to your teacher read five sentences. Then listen again and write the sentences below.
1. _________________________________
2. _________________________________
3. _________________________________
4. _________________________________
5. _________________________________
There are many ways in which jazz chants can be orchestrated. The two parts can be formed
with boys against girls, teacher against students, students whose birthdays fall between
January and June against those between July and December, those wearing red against
those wearing blue, and so on.
Module 7.4: Music

Music also reduces anxiety and inhibition in young second language learners. It is a great
motivator -- children of all ages are usually eager to learn the lyrics of a popular song that
they associate with a cartoon character or TV personality.
At the beginning level, music can be used to teach colours, numbers, body parts, simple
actions, clothes, and people in the neighbourhood, to mention a few categories of
vocabulary. The teacher does not have to be musically talented to successfully and
memorably use music in the ESL classroom. A gravelly, deep, masculine voice can provide
just as valuable an accompaniment as a higher, lighter melodic voice. Tapes or CDs can
provide accompaniment in some situations.
Here are some examples of songs for students aged 4 – 7:
Clap Your Hands

Clap your hands,
one, two, three.
(Clap hands three times.)
Then like this,

shake 'em free.
(Shake hands loosely in front of body.)
Bending forward, touch your toes,

(Bend down and touch toes.)
Then reach up and touch your nose!

(Stretch arms way up high,
then touch nose.)
Go Bananas!
Bananas unite!
(Put hands together over head)
Bananas split!
(Hands at side)
Go bananas!
Go go bananas!
Go bananas!
Go go bananas!
(Turn in circle, moving arms up and down
during these four lines)
Bananas to the left
(Point left)
Bananas to the right
(Point right)
Peel your banana and, mmmmmm, take a bite!
(Motion of peeling banana and biting it)
The Muffin Man

Formation:
Children form a circle with one person in the centre. Those in the circle dance in a ring
around the one in the middle, singing the first verse. They all stand still while the
'middleman' sings the second verse and afterward, he or she chooses one (or more) children
to join him/her in the middle of the ring. Continue singing the verses until all children have
been chosen. Then all sing the final verse.
First Verse:
Oh, do you know the muffin man,
the muffin man, the muffin man,
oh, do you know the muffin man,
who lives on Drury Lane?
Second Verse:
Oh, yes, I know the muffin man,
oh, yes, I know the muffin man,
who lives on Drury Lane.
More Second Verse Responses:

Now two of us know the muffin man,
now two of us know the muffin man,
A few of us know the muffin man,

a few of us know the muffin man,
Now we all know the muffin man,
wow we all know the muffin man,
Can You Be a Sunbeam?

Can you be a sunbeam, Can you be a flower,
A sunbeam, a sunbeam? A flower, a flower?
Can you be a sunbeam? Can you be a flower?
Then show me what you’d do. Then show me what you’d do.
I can be a sunbeam, I can be a flower,

A sunbeam, a sunbeam, A flower, a flower.
I can be a sunbeam, I can be a flower,
And I'll shine down on you! Growing just for you!
(Hands clasped together, arms (Children in kneeling position,
high, slowly ‘growing’ to stand big
make a large circle like the sun.) and tall)
Can you be a raindrop, Can you be a buzzing bee,

A raindrop, a raindrop? A buzzing bee, a buzzing bee?
Can you be a raindrop? Can you be a buzzing bee?
Then show me what you’d do. Then show me what you’d do.
I can be a raindrop, I can be a buzzing bee,

A raindrop, a raindrop. A buzzing bee, a buzzing bee.
I can be a raindrop, I can be a buzzing bee,
So here’s some rain for you! With honey sweet for you!
(Arms in the air, fingers floating ('Buzz' around like a bee)
down like rain)
(While this song centres on
nature,
you could try a 'farm animals' or
'zoo' theme, too
Who are the People? (Vocabulary Being practised: Community members)

The teacher introduces this song with:
 pictures/photos of community members; i.e. firemen, police workers, market sellers,

shoe shiners, doctors, shop owners, street sellers, business people, parents, etc.,
holding up each photograph and naming the profession, using
‘answer/question/answer’ format and repetition to introduce the vocabulary.
 S/he then introduces the song by singing it a couple of times, slowly and clearly.
 S/he then brings out the photos as review for profession vocabulary and posts
pictures around the classroom.
 When the song is sung, the teacher will pause and in the manner of “I Spy” will say in
a clear, loud voice. “I see the market women. Everyone point to the market women.”
and so on, until students are proficient enough to take on the role of the teacher as
well.
Who are the people in your neighbourhood, in your neighbourhood, in your

neighbourhood?
Oh, who are the people in your neighbourhood?
The people that you meet, when you’re walking down the street,
The people that you meet each day.
Hmmm, I see the postman. Where is the postman? Do you see the postman? (Students
point to the appropriate photograph while chanting the response “We see the postman!”
Oh the postman is a person in your neighbourhood… in your neighbourhood….”
Sleeping Bunnies (Vocabulary Category: Action verbs)

Teacher sings softly: See the little bunnies sleeping ‘til it’s nearly noon (children are on
the floor, curled up with eyes closed). (Teacher walks around the room checking to see that
“bunnies” are all asleep. She then pauses a moment for effect, then sings) Let us try and
gently wake them with this merry tune.
Oh so still…. Are they ill…? (singing very softly…) (In a more exaggerated and joyful tone,
sings) UP! little bunnies! Hop hop hop! (the children rise up and begin hopping about the
room) UP little bunnies hop hop hop… UP little bunnies hop….. hop…………… STOP!
As the children master short, repetitive songs, increase the length and complexity of the
songs, adding verses and new vocabulary for them.
The Bus Song (Wheels on the Bus)

(Vocabulary Category: Action verbs, present simple, common nouns)
The wheels on the bus go round and round
Round and round, round and round
The wheels on the bus go round and round
All through the town.
(Roll hands over each other)
The wipers on the bus go "Swish, swish, swish,

Swish, swish, swish, swish, swish, swish"
The wipers on the bus go "Swish, swish, swish"
(Put arms together in front of you and
'swish' like windshield wipers)
The door on the bus goes open and shut

Open and shut, open and shut
The door on the bus goes open and shut
(Cover eyes with hands on 'shut' and uncover them on 'open')
The horn on the bus goes "Beep, beep, beep

Beep, beep, beep, beep, beep, beep"
The horn on the bus goes "Beep, beep, beep"
(Pretend to honk horn)
The gas on the bus goes "Glug, glug, glug

Glug, glug, glug, glug, glug, glug"
The gas on the bus goes "Glug, glug, glug"
(Pretend to fill tank using pointer finger as gas nozzle)
The money on the bus goes "Clink, clink, clink,

Clink, clink, clink, clink, clink, clink"
The money on the bus goes "Clink, clink, clink"
(Pretend to put money in cash box on bus)
The baby on the bus says, "Wah, wah, wah!

Wah, wah, wah, wah, wah, wah!"
The baby on the bus says, "Wah, wah, wah!"
(Fisted hands in front of eyes and rub them like baby crying)
The people on the bus say, "Shh, shh, shh,

Shh, shh, shh, shh, shh, shh"
The people on the bus say, "Shh, shh, shh"
(Put pointer finger to mouth to 'shhh')
The mommy on the bus says, "I love you,
I love you, I love you"
The daddy on the bus says, "I love you, too"
(Point to self on 'I', right hand over heart on 'love', and
point to other on 'you')
Five Little Ducks
(Vocabulary Category: cardinal numbers)

Five little ducks went out one day,
Over the hills and far away.
Mother duck said, "Quack, quack, quack, quack!"
But only four little ducks came back.
Four little ducks went out one day,

But only three little ducks came back.
Three little ducks went out one day,

But only two little ducks came back.
Two little ducks went out one day,

But only one little duck came back.
One little duck went out one day,

And none of the five little ducks came back.
To review the process of introducing a song to a class, it is a good idea to simply let the
students listen to the song first. Then let them listen again line-by-line as you repeat the line
after it has been sung. For older children who are reading, the lyrics can be handed out to
them in written form and they can follow along. The third time the song is played the
children will, no doubt, try to sing along with the new words, so as they gain proficiency add
a few more lines. Song singing and performing can often be an arduous process; have
patience with your students.
Teaching Songs:
 Introduce the song vocabulary through photos and demonstration

 Let the students listen to the song in its entirety
 Let them listen to the song line by line
 Sing each line with them
 Let them try on their own, adding a line at a time, with the music
 Module 7.5: Poetry
 Although both music/songs and jazz chants contain elements of poetry, it can also
be treated as a separate category. Poems can be used at a variety of levels to
introduce new vocabulary, reinforce just-learnt language, and practise pronunciation
and fluency.
 It is important to remember that, like song lyrics, poems may not be understood at
first reading. In fact, when students are initially exposed to them, they may
understand only a few words. Presenting the poem with an associate illustration is
always helpful as well as remembering to enunciate clearly, and add stress and
exaggeration to your reading!
 There are literally dozens of volumes of poetry for young students, from age three
and up, that are suitable for the ESL classroom.
 Yellow Flower
Rain drop, rain drop
falling down, down
Rain drop, rain drop
falling down, and down
I'm a little yellow flower
waiting for the sun to shine
I'm a little yellow flower
waiting for the sun to shine
Sunshine's bright
Golden light
Sunshine, sunshine
All is right
 Dennis Lee, a well-known Canadian children’s poet, is wonderful in his cadence and
rhyme for young ESL students.
 Alligator Pie
Alligator pie, alligator pie,
If I don’t get some I think I'm gonna die.
Give away the green grass, give away the sky,
But don’t give away my alligator pie.
Alligator stew, alligator stew,
If I don’t get some, I don’t know what I’ll do.
Give away my furry hat, give away my shoe,
But don’t give away my alligator stew.
Alligator soup, alligator soup,
If I don’t get some I think I’m gonna droop.
Give away my hockey stick, give away my hoop,
But don’t give away my alligator soup.

Rattlesnake Skipping Song
Mississauga rattlesnakes
Eat brown bread.
Mississauga rattlesnakes
Fall down dead.
If you catch a caterpillar
Feed him apple juice;
But if you catch a rattlesnake
Turn him loose!
 Billy Batter
Billy Batter,
What’s the matter?
How come you’re so sad?
I lost my cat in the laundromat,
And a dragon ran off with my dad,
My dad ------
A dragon ran off with my dad!
Billy Batter,
What’s the matter?
How come you’re so glum?
I ripped my jeans
On the coke machine,
And a monster ran off with my mum,
My mum ------
A monster ran off with my mum!
Billy Batter,
Now you’re better -----
Happy as a tack!
The dragon’s gone to Saskatchewan;
The monster fell
In a wishing well;
The cat showed up with a newborn pup;
I fixed the rips with potato chips,
And my dad and my mum came back,
Came back ------
My dad and my mum came back!
 I Found a Silver Dollar

I found a silver dollar,
But I had to pay the rent.
I found an alligator
But his steering wheel was bent.
I found a little monkey,
So I took him to the zoo.
Then I found a sticky kiss and so
I brought it home to you.

Here is a great poem that incorporates not only rhyming words but also serves as a
great tongue twister for older children.
 I went to play in the park.

I didn’t get home until dark.
But when I got back I had ants in my pants
And my father was feeding the shark.
I went to play in the park,
And I didn’t get home until dark.
And when I got back I had ants in my pants
And dirt in my shirt, and glue in my shoe,
And my father was tickling the shark.
I went to play in the park.
The shark was starting to bark.
And when I woke up I had ants in my pants,
Dirt in my shirt, glue in my shoe,
And beans in my jeans and a bee on my knee,
And the shark was tickling my father.
My father went off to the park.
I stayed home and read to the shark.
And when he got back he had ants in his pants,
Dirt in his shirt, glue in his shoe,
Beans in his jeans, a bee on his knee,
Beer in his ear and a bear in his hair,
So we put him outside in the ark.
I started the ark in the dark.
My father was parking the shark.
And when we got home we had ants in our pants,
Dirt in our shirt, glue in our shoe,
Beans in our jeans, a bee on our knee,
Beer in our ear and a bear in our hair,
A stinger in our finger, a stain in our brain,
And our belly buttons shone in the dark.
So my dad he got snarky and barked at the shark
Who was parking the ark on the mark in the dark.
And when they got back they had ants in their pants,
Dirt in their shirt, glue in their shoe,
Beans in their jeans, a bee on their knee,
Beer in their ear and a bear in their hair,
A stinger in each finger, a stain in the brain,
A small polka-dot burp, with headache tablets,
A chip on the lip and a horse, of course,
So we all took a bath in the same tub and went to bed early.

One of the richest rewards for an ESL teacher of children is to see the light of
understanding after a chant, song or poem is understood. Discussion easily follows
from a song or poem, and they serve as rich points of departure for new vocabulary
as well as more affective or emotionally charged topics for older children.
 Module 7.6
 Once children have been exposed to the target language for a period of time, begin
a writing project in which they begin with making lists of rhyming words in English,
then categories of words, and from these lists, make short verses and poems. Offer a
demonstration for them as a model and develop group lists from there. For younger
learners, an outline of an animal can serve as the foundation for the poem, upon
which the child writes all the words that s/he can think of that relate to that animal,
for example, a butterfly. The outline of a butterfly can be drawn on a large sheet of
paper and the teacher can start by offering the word "wings". The student might
then suggest "fly" and so on, until the student has written on the outline all the
associated words.
 Jazz chants, music, and poetry often produce a more amenable and open
atmosphere for beginner learners especially. Through the medium of rhythm and
sound, young learners are able to absorb large chunks of language that allow them
to participate orally, albeit in a limited way, very early on in their language learning.
Jazz chants, music, and poetry allow those who really desire to communicate to do
so.
 Both older children and those at an intermediate level also benefit from jazz chants,
music and poetry. Idiomatic expression, subtle forms of humour, fluidity and ease of
speaking can all be internalised through these media. Pronunciation and intonation
patterns in the speaker take on a more 'native-like' quality through the use of word
and sound play.
 Module 8.0: Introduction

 Pre-Chapter Questions
 These questions are designed to stimulate your thinking and introduce you to the
Unit material. Do not submit answers as they are not part of your assessment. The
thinking process will get you ready for the following:
 1. How important do you think storytelling is to children acquiring a first language?

What about role-play and/or drama?
 2. Do you think older children, teenagers, and adults learning a second language
might also benefit from storytelling, role-play, and/or drama? If so, in what ways?
What is there about these activities that might facilitate the language learning
process?
 3. Recall your own experiences with one or more of these activities in learning
another language. What effects do you think they may have had on your own
language development?
 4. Think of some ways storytelling, role-play, and drama can be incorporated into a
second language program.
 Module 8.1
 Second language learners, even young children, can easily become absorbed in
drama and role-play, and in doing so, forget the self-consciousness often associated
with learning a new language. Drama-based activities can heighten the students'
abilities to acquire new language as well as allow students to explore relationships
such as negotiation, cooperation, sharing, and empathy. As a result, each student
may be able to improve her or his ability to produce the target language, lower
anxiety, acquire many of the non-verbal nuances of the language, and to improve
their ability to work cooperatively in group situations.
 Before the teacher involves the students in storytelling, role-play, and/or drama, a
series of warm-ups is recommended to create a warm, active environment.
 Warm-ups require almost no verbal language and as such can be used with rank
beginners. They help establish trust among group members and usually involve
simple exercises involving stretching and bending.
 Warm-up Activities
 Circle Mimics
 Students form a circle. The teacher models by making some sort of simple
movement such as waving. The second student responds by repeating the
movement and adding a new one, such as shaking a fist in the air. The third student
then waves, shakes her/his fist in the air, and hops on one foot; and so on it goes,
around the circle.
 Shaking the Sillies
 This activity is great for younger children, ages 3 1/2 to 6. It goes like this:
I'm gonna shake, shake, shake my sillies out
Shake, shake, shake my sillies out
Shake, shake, shake my silllies out
Wiggle my waggles away.
 I'm gonna yawn, yawn, yawn my sleepies out

Yawn, yawn, yawn my sleepies out
Yawn, yawn, yawn my sleepies out
And wiggle my waggles away.

Once students have worked out the kinks and tension and seemed to have lowered
their inhibitions, they may be ready to attempt storytelling.
Module 8.2: Storytelling

Stories are used cross-culturally and worldwide to teach, entertain, and to explain the
unknown. Storytelling in the communicative classroom is very interactive and takes
advantage of the approaches that we have mentioned already in this course: TPR and the
audio-lingual method. Some of the activities are more appropriate for younger learners,
others for older; the activities will also vary according to the language level of the students.
Keep in mind that almost any storytelling activity can be adapted to any age provided it is
within the cognitive range of the student.
Allowing students to be exposed to a story before fully understanding the words is highly
motivating for beginner learners, especially when they are young children. The same story
can be used over and over again, to introduce new vocabulary, review learned vocabulary,
to practise new sound combinations and pronunciation exercises etc. Through the teacher's
presentation of the story, the children's curiosity towards the target language is stimulated
and their interest and motivation is maintained for longer periods of time. Voice is crucial in
story presentation. The teacher will assume different accents, intonations, and expressions
as s/he takes on the different characters in the story.
Story Experience
o Have the students form a large circle.

o Choose a story or narrative poem such as the one that follows.
o Pick out the key words that can easily be acted out.
o Assign to each student, or group of students, a word to be acted out.
o Help the students understand the new words through illustration or
demonstration.
o Then read the story aloud, all the way through, with much exaggeration and
expressiveness.
o Then begin the second reading, with each student or group listening carefully
for her/his word.
o When the word is read, the students act out their word.
Sound Effects
Level: Beginners
Age: 6 yrs and over
Demonstrate the sound effects that accompany the story. Beginning students have to listen
for the words that cue the appropriate effect. Once the students understand the whole
story, they can act it out. If they want, they can change the ending as well.
Rosita's Night to Remember

Rosita is alone in the house. Outside she hears the wind blow through the trees
________________(hooing noise). Rain begins to fall __________
(patting of fingertips on the desks). There is a scratching at the door __________________(light
touch of fingernails on the desks). Maybe it is a lion ___________(roaring). Maybe it is a mouse
______________ (squeaking). Maybe it is a monster ________________(howling). Rosita is scared.
She turns on the radio to drown out the noise. The radio is playing a song
_________________(students sing anything). She turns it low ______________(students lower their
voices and sing softly), high ______________ (students sing louder), and off
_____________(students stop singing). At the door the scratching continues ________________.
She opens the door _________________(creaking). Her dog comes in, jumps up, and gives her a
big kiss _______________(students make kissing sounds).
Identifying Objects in Stories

Read very simple, repetitive stories with lots of illustrations in them to small groups of
children. Stop reading every few lines and ask students to point to various specific objects in
the pictures. Choose children's books that are clear, with simple language. Remember, kids
from English-speaking cultures are fluent at age 4 or 5... so a kids' book in our culture may
be very very difficult for kids in a non-English speaking country!
Story Act Out

Once the students are familiar with a particular story, have them volunteer to act out the
characters in the story while you act as narrator. This activity naturally grows out of TPR
activities familiar to beginner learners, activities such as action songs. Pin a sign on the
student with the character's name and rotate the actors so that everyone gets a turn.
Silly Stories
This activity can begin by exposing the children to funny stories in English, of which there
are many. Imagination and the fantastic are both avenues which motivate and engage
young language learners. Much depends upon the reading, however, and the teacher must
ensure that her/his voice is full of exaggeration and expression to promote understanding.
Module 8.3: Role Play and Drama

In some ways, it seems artificial to separate drama and role-play from storytelling as each
holds a part of the other. From the beginning levels of language acquisition, children are
exposed to modelling and role-play by you, their teacher, within a communicative
curriculum. The teacher mimes emotions such as happy, sad, angry; animal noises; like and
dislike, and so on, to help make the target language more accessible. In most cases then, it
is not difficult to make the transition into longer and more complex dialogues and role-
plays as the children gain proficiency in English. Moving from scripted and well-rehearsed
dialogues and roles to freer, more creative roles are expected.
Role-Play Situations For Young Children:

"Mother/Mum/Mama, come here. Come here. The cat is stuck up in the tree. He won't come
down. Come quick."
For Pre-adolescents:
"Look, I'm as big as you," Annie says to her brother Jonathon. She stretches up on her
tiptoes. "Why can't I go to the movie with you?"
"Look, you stay home this time, okay. This movie is not for you because . . . "
For Teenagers:
Mai comes home from school all excited. Joe, an Australian boy, has asked her out to a
movie. She tells her mother. Her mother is very upset.
"In Japan you do not do such thing," her mother reminds her.
"But, Mother, this is not Japan. This is Australia."
"But we are Japanese," her mother insists. "You are Japanese. This is not what we do. In time
you will be ready. Your father and I will arrange a nice Japanese man for you. We will not let
you go alone with this boy."
"Oh, Mother, . . . but . . . I . . ."
Module 8.4
It is important that the students be gradually worked into role-play situations; for example,
the teacher can prep the students by asking questions specific to the role. Another activity
for upper beginner to intermediate children is acting out roles of characters in their
favourite stories. Students are given matrices on small cards that can be used as cues. Short
scenes can begin with total physical response activities in which the teacher plays the role of
the director and directs students in their parts (sit down, walk to the table, point to the
door). Below are several examples of matrices for children 8 years and older.
In a restaurant:
(The waiter gives menus to two customers.)
Are you ready to order?
Yes, I will have the _____________________________
And you? (Looks at the second person)
I will have the _________________________________
At a food market:
(A market seller is setting out baskets of melons/oranges/beans. A customer approaches
from behind.)
Excuse me. Can you please tell me where the __________________________ is/are?
Oh, yes. It's/they're by the ____________________________.
Thank you.
Typical greetings, simple compliments, frequently asked questions, and often-used

comments can be introduced or reinforced in this manner. Other public places can be
brought into the classroom to serve as settings as well: the post office, clinic, sports arenas
etc. Once the students are accustomed to the format of short role-plays, they can be
divided into small groups or pairs and be given an oral description of a situation to which
they can respond through role play.
o You are in a restaurant. The waiter comes to take your order. You look at the
menu and tell the waiter what you want.
o You are in a grocery store/market. You can't find what you want to buy. You
ask the clerk for help.
o You are in a record store and you cannot find the CD that you want. You ask
the person next to you if they know it.
o You are on the basketball court and someone you know comes to ask you if
they can play.
 Module 8.5.
 The most beneficial kind of role-play, however, is that in which the teacher plays a
key role. For example, if the teacher is the waiter in the restaurant or the seller in the
market, s/he can provide incentive and motivation to the conversation; in other
words, keep it going if the conversation falters. The teacher can prompt, expand, or
offer help as needed. In this way, all students can participate – those who are shy and
need prompting, those who feel confident in their skills, and those who fit in
between. The following is an example:
 At the market: The students each have play money and they have learnt their
cardinal numbers and how to count. The teacher is the fruit seller at the market.
Joel: (stands in front of the display of strawberries).
Teacher: For you, Joel? (She holds up a basket of strawberries.)
Joel: Aaah . . . straw . . .
Teacher: Strawberries? Do you want strawberries?
Joel: . . . Strawberries . . . (nods his head).
Teacher: (offering the basket to him) Do you want to buy the strawberries? Yes? (she
points to the money on the counter.)
Joel: Yes . . . buy.
Teacher: One dollar. Give me one dollar. (Joel takes some play money from his
pocket but looks puzzled).
Teacher: One dollar (points to a dollar bill in his hand).
Joel: One dollar (gives the teacher the dollar bill).
Teacher: Thank you (takes the money and gives him the basket).
Joel: Thank you.
 Teacher: (turning to the next customer) Do you want some strawberries Susannah?

Susannah: No, thanks, I want oranges.
Teacher: Oranges, huh (moves to the display of oranges). I've got small, sweet ones
and big, juicy ones.
Susannah: Juicy?
Teacher: Yes, juicy. Lots of sweet juice inside (she squeezes one to show its softness).
Susannah: Oh, yes. Juice.
Teacher: They cost $1.50 a bag. Do you want a bag?
Susannah: Yes, I'll take a bag and also two bunches of bananas (gives the teacher
the money and takes her fruit).
 The teacher is able to adjust the language to fit the level and confidence level of
each child. No cue cards are needed! Students learn through repetition, listening and
innovation.
 Module 8.6: Drama

 To some teachers, separating drama from storytelling and role-play seems artificial,
as drama is an integral part of most communicative activities in the ESL classroom.
For the sake of clarity, drama refers to activities with roles, plots, and dialogue that
are written down in play form to be memorised and acted out or read aloud. Drama
activities must be progressively introduced over time and will consistently increase
students' skill base.
 At the beginning, children can be introduced to the simple emotions involved in

drama. The teacher can introduce happy, sad, angry, mischievous, puzzled, by
modeling exaggerated facial expressions and other movements to illustrate them.
Students can model the emotions themselves; they can refine their abilities to
recognize and reproduce emotions by learning to draw them. For further expression,
they can find pictures in magazines of people expressing specific feelings. The
pictures can be cut out and pasted onto a collage. Students can also participate in
group activities such as:
 Memory
 Students sit on the floor in a circle. The teacher places coloured cards face down in a
square pattern in the middle of the circle - 3 across, 4 down. Each card has a
photograph illustrating an emotion. There are two pictures of happy people; there
are two pictures of angry people, and so on. Each child picks a card, identifies and
says the emotion represented on the card, and replaces it face down. The added
challenge in Memory is that the students must remember where the other half of the
pair is so that both can be picked up. This game is played until all pairs are identified
and turned over. For younger children, a full group dynamic is recommended; for
older children, teams are fun.
 As students develop and grow into their new language, they are able to take on
more impromptu activities with more complex scenarios. Keep in mind, however, that
language students need to be familiar with content in order to succeed in dramatic
activities. Short plays, skits, can become term projects in the ESL classroom, often
developed around specific cultural topics.
 Module 9.0: Introduction

 Pre-Chapter Questions
 These questions are designed to stimulate your thinking and introduce you to the
Unit material. Do not submit answers as they are not part of your assessment. The
thinking process will get you ready for the following:
 1. Do you remember a favourite game that you played as a child that you think
helped you to learn your first language? What was that game? In what ways do you
think it helped you to learn language?
 2. Do you think older children and teenagers are too old for games that might help
them learn a second language? Why or why not?
 3. What advantages might games have in learning a second language?
 4. Would you incorporate them into an ESL course you might be likely to teach? If so,
how would you go about it? To what extent would you use games to teach
language?
 Module 9.1
 Games are often associated with fun and while it is true that games usually are fun,
teachers must not lose sight of their value in second language classrooms.
 Games are often used to develop and reinforce specific categories of vocabulary, to
add diversion to regular classroom activities, and even to break the ice, especially
with rank beginners. Like other activities we have discussed, games can lower anxiety,
enrich grammatical structures, and promote spontaneous speech. Occasionally they
are used to introduce new ideas. Although some games are quiet and contemplative,
others are noisy and require much verbal or physical involvement. Perhaps their most
important function, however, is to give practice in communication skills.
 Singular competition is usually avoided in the language classroom over games in

which every participant is successful and every child sees her/him self as a winner.
 It is important that the rules be few and clearly demonstrated. Most games can
be adapted to suit age and motor skill development, as well as cognitive content and
language skill/proficiency levels (beginning or intermediate) according to the
difficulty of the task involved.
 Games are usually divided into categories, depending upon their emphasis: board
advancing games, word-focus games, treasure hunts, and guessing games.
Module 9.2: Board-Advancing Games

Using game pieces (buttons, shells, etc) to represent the players, the children can perform
certain tasks to roll the dice to move forward on the board. The board itself can be as
colourful and imaginative as the teacher wants to make it. The spaces on the board must
form some sort of pathway to a finishing point, which is the goal. Sometimes the board can
be placed on the floor, as in Twister.
Tasks may include giving synonyms, antonyms, identifying objects on pictures, doing simple
math calculations, or any task that reinforces the lesson of the day. Students can play either
in teams or in pairs.
Word Focus Games

Once students have reached the upper beginner level and are comfortable within their
range of vocabulary, they can begin to do word focus games. Words can be made from a
parent word; for example “teacher” makes ear, her, teach, reach, cheer, each, hear, here,
arch, tea, and eat. By working in teams, students can find and make words within their
known vocabulary and experiment and come up with new words. For the first several times,
offer some words to get the students started.
Treasure Hunt
A treasure hunt is a favourite game of ESL teachers and students alike. It allows students to
work cooperatively in a group effort to determine the required items. During the process,
conversation around consensus and negotiation must be used to make the hunt effective.
For example, if the students are told to bring back something beautiful, then they have to
collectively decide on what is beautiful. The following steps are recommended for a treasure
hunt:
1. Divide the class into groups (for younger children, instructions will be given orally
and will be much simpler).
2. Give an identical list of treasures to each group.
3. Read the items aloud for children to ensure that all understand the vocabulary.
4. A time limit should be given.
5. Say, "go" to indicate when the groups can begin their searches.
6. At the end of the time limit, or when the first group returns, everyone gets together
to check each item, giving points for each completed item.
Depending upon the age group, treasure can include stickers, shiny coins, colourful shells,
pencils, nametags, feathers, buttons, and other unusual objects.
Here are a few interesting tasks for treasure hunts:
1. List five countries your group members would like to visit.

2. Who has the largest shoe size in your group?
3. Find something useless.
4. Make a dinner menu in English.
5. Find a photograph.
6. Collect the autographs of three people outside your group.
7. Find something that smells good.
8. Make a crazy hat for your teacher.
9. Write down six ways of making people laugh.
10. Find a picture of something good to eat.
11.Module 9.3: Guessing Games
12. Guessing games can be very effective ways to reinforce target vocabulary. "Guess
What I Am" or "Guess Who I Am" can be used to reinforce animals, professions, or
people. Each student takes a turn miming while the other children ask questions of
that student until the identity is guessed. The one who guesses correctly is the next
student to mime. Questions need to be closed; that is, they require a yes/no answer.
For example, "Are you a person?" is an example of a closed question as opposed to,
"Are you a man or a woman?" Using closed question format requires that both
parties use extended vocabulary to successfully complete the game.
13. Summary: Games can be used to develop or reinforce specific language, to add

diversion to the classroom, or just to break the ice. However, their most important
function is to give practice in communication.
14. It is recommended that competition be downplayed for most games, that the rules
are few, and that they be clearly explained and demonstrated where possible.
15. Although the categories may overlap, games are usually categorised, depending
upon their emphasis: board games, word-focus games, treasure hunts, and guessing
games.
16. One of the best sources for games in your classroom is the students themselves!
Pre-Chapter Questions:
1. What kinds of activities do you think will best promote reading and writing in second
language learners? Relate their use to your own experiences with developing literacy in your
first or second language. You may want to consider experiences you have already had as a
teacher.
2. Are there any types of activities that you would avoid? Again try to relate their use to your
own experiences.
3. Do you think it is important for reading and writing to be taught simultaneously? Why or
why not? To what extent do you feel they should receive separate treatment?
Although all the previous chapters encourage the development of literacy, this chapter
focuses more directly on it. The philosophy that we adhere to is an extension of the
communicative approach and is based upon the belief that learning to read and write is a
communal process. This approach assumes that the major goal of literacy is to effectively
create meaning as a writer or as a reader. Each learner comes to the classroom already rich
in knowledge and experience, which develops with age.
In this Unit, the following topics will be discussed:
o The language experience approach

o Literature-based curriculum
o Writing workshops
 Module 10.1: Language Experience Approach
 The language experience approach appeared in the educational field just before the
whole language approach, as discussed earlier in the course. Even though it
originally lacked a well-developed theoretical base, the language experience
approach was so efficient that it gained repute as a viable method of teaching
reading to native speakers. Later on, several versions of the method were suggested
for use with second language learners. This approach is founded on the idea that
students can write by dictating to the teacher what they already know and can
express verbally, and that they can then read that which has been written. The
students' first reading materials therefore come from their own repertoire of
language.
 The process always begins with the students' experiences. It may be a trip to the city,
a movie, a new food experience, a story, a new toy, and so on. The students first
discuss the experience with the teacher and fellow students and then dictate a
"story" about that experience to the teacher individually. The teacher writes down
exactly what the student says, including the errors. The teacher then reads aloud
each sentence after it is written, giving the student a chance to make changes. The
teacher may want to wait until the story is finished before reading it back, making
sure that the student sees the connection between what is being said and what is
written. The student is then encouraged to read the story first silently and then aloud
to the teacher or to another student and then to rewrite it, again making changes
that seem necessary.
 An interesting alternative is for the whole class or small groups within the class to
dictate a "group" story while the teacher writes it on the board. This is particularly
effective for young learners, aged 5 - 8. What makes this process particularly
interesting is that the students build upon each other's comments and vocabulary,
without even realising the co-operation between them.
 Once the stories are ready they can be put into a collection and displayed in the
classroom as reading material for the other students. Students can also provide
illustrations for their stories, either through their own efforts at drawing or by cutting
out from magazines. As the students gain more skill in grammar and vocabulary,
they can gradually be introduced to books that are within reach and easily attainable
for them.
 In the transition to books and stories, teachers often find it easier to break down a
story into component parts, often through putting the story on Bristol board, cutting
it into sentence strips, and asking the students to put it back together again in
proper sequence.
 Module 10.2: Advantages of the Language Experience Approach

 The biggest advantage of this approach to reading and writing is that the material is
appropriate both linguistically and cognitively since it comes from the students
themselves. Moreover, it reflects the culture of which the students are a part. The
students' own ideas and thoughts are validated from a young age, which fosters
confidence and independence in the learning process. The material being studied is
relevant – it is a creation and a finished meaningful product rather than isolated
words or sentences. With group work, students are learning from one another as well
as building upon one another's ideas. The teacher serves as a facilitator in the
process rather than as an editor of what is being produced.
 Possible Limitations
 Some ESL educators find that writing down the students' errors as part of the
dictation process reinforces the errors themselves rather than drawing attention to
them as mistakes to be corrected. These theorists tend to be advocates of the "pure"
language approach to learning and teaching. Most ESL educators feel that the
benefits far outweigh the disadvantages, especially for children and beginning
students who are in particular need of encouragement.
 A second limitation is that through dictation, students may get the idea that writing
is simply recorded speech. Of course, it is much more than that, and through the act
of learning to write itself, students create meaning, adjust, correct, amend, and
rewrite.
 Here is an example of a story creation where the teacher takes the role of facilitator
in active student collaboration.
 Teacher: (referring to a story she has just read aloud to the students). Let's write
what we think about the story. Did you like the story?
Ali: I didn't like the story.
Teacher: You didn't? Why? Why didn't you like it?
Ali: I didn't like it when Felix kept the ring. It was not his.
Teacher: Do the rest of you feel the same way? Did you not like it when Felix kept
the ring? (Five students raise their hands.) How do the rest of you feel?
Mai: It's okay.
Teacher: What's okay?
Mai: To keep the ring. It was his father's ring.
Ali: But his father gave it to his friend.
Teacher: How many of you agree with Mai that it was okay to keep the ring?
(Three students raise their hands.) Okay, what should we write?
Omar: Write, "We want Felix to keep the ring. It belonged to his Father."
Teacher: We wanted Felix to keep the ring? (She looks at Mai as she begins to write.
Mai nods. She writes "We wanted Felix to keep the ring. It belonged to his father.")
 And so the writing continues as the teacher guides the students, bringing out their
ideas and helping them to shape the language. The teacher is co-author, facilitator,
and provides new language upon which the children can scaffold. Indirect correction
is made through modelling. Gradually students begin to write more independently
and need less and less guidance by the teacher. Students eventually are able to finish
their compositions begun as collaborations.
 Module 10.3: Literature-Based Curriculum

 Even at beginner levels, the teacher can use literature as the pivot around which
curriculum can revolve. Stories can draw children into the excitement of language
and literature before they can even utter a word. Other activities using stories, as
discussed earlier in the course, can help students as they begin and continue their
journey through the language learning process. All the while, speaking, listening, and
writing can be incorporated as they relate to the literature being used. Often
speaking events can be turned into writing events as well. In addition, the language
experience approach just outlined offers major contributions to the development of
literacy by providing students with materials they themselves have written or helped
to write.
 Why Use Literature?
 Literature is authentic. It generally is not written for the purpose of teaching new
grammatical structures or categories of vocabulary, yet children gain valuable
language as they are exposed to ideas, plots, action, dialogue, and situations in
literature in the ESL classroom. More often than not, literature absorbs and engages
students in the things they really care about, both cognitively and emotionally.
Through it, they become intimately involved with the characters and their emotions.
Often they become so engaged that they lose their inhibitions and other barriers
generally associated with learning another language. Literature provides contexts for
language learning in which the language itself (the syntax, semantics, and lexicon)
becomes more memorable. Literature also exposes the children to variety – to
diversity within categories of language and culture. For example, homes around the
world, families, clothing, sports and play, occupations, schools and education, food,
and so on. By reading about these categories in other areas and cultures of the
world, the children are not just learning the language but picking up valuable cultural
knowledge as well
Module 10.4: The Pre-Reading Unit

Using literature in a second language classroom involves three stages or components: Pre-
reading, Reading, Post-reading. In this chapter we discuss each stage along with
suggested activities and strategies for the classroom.
The Pre-reading Unit

There are three main purposes for the pre-reading activities:
1. To help the child relate the text to prior knowledge and experience both in their first
language, and in English.
2. To pique the interest of the student.
3. To gain cultural and topical information that will contribute to further
comprehension of the text.
Pre-reading Activities
A. Asking Specific and Open-Ended Questions - these are questions in the realm of "what
do you think about . . ?", "think about your own situation; now think about [someone
else's]"; "try to imagine what it would be like to . . . "
B. Using Devices for Graphically Representing Ideas – Charts, Diagrams, etc. – A learning
chart to find out what the students already know about the theme in the upcoming story:
WHAT WE ALREADY KNOW ABOUT... WHAT WE WOULD LIKE TO KNOW ABOUT...

________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
________________________ ________________________
After the students finish the story, they fill in a third category - What We Learnt About . . .
The next example is a cluster, or web, which is filled in after the students answer a specific
question, such as the following:
What do you think it means to be a hero? Is a hero someone who is brave or has extra
speed and power? Name some people you think are heroes. They may be famous people.
They may be someone from your neighbourhood. They may be make-believe people or
characters from a movie or a book. Think about what makes them heroes. Make a list with
your group. Show it to the rest of the class.
C. Using Prediction Strategies and Anticipation Guides - Students can predict what is
going to happen next in the story. To add interest, the teacher may want to write down
some of the predictions as they are given and refer to them after the reading to see which
ones come closest to the actual narrative.
D. Journal Writing – Intermediate students can be given the central theme or idea of the
upcoming piece of literature or topic. They are then asked to describe their own experiences
in this area, those of others, they may express their own opinion, or they might write their
predictions.
Module 10.5: Pre-Reading Strategies for Students

While You Read
o Relax and feel how the words and sentences flow together.
o Ask questions of yourself as you read. Is the story real? What is coming next?
Do not stop reading every time you find a word you do not understand.
o The meaning may come to you a little further.
o If a word seems important and the meaning is not coming clear as you read
further, then look in the glossary or check with the teacher. You may want to
consult a classmate as well.
o If there are parts you do not understand, make a note of them so you can
return later.
o Re-read for better understanding. Return to the parts you did not understand.
Re-read them. Are they clearer to you now? If not, discuss them with a
classmate or with your teacher.
After You Read
o What did you learn from this book? Has it changed the way you thought
before?
o Did the book turn out as you expected?
Talk about it with fellow students.
Pre-reading activities should not be too long - a word of caution to teachers: in an attempt
to cover "all the bases" teachers tend to expose the students to too much information,
thereby delaying the experience of reading for the children. Although it is necessary for
second language learners to be exposed to cognitive frameworks and to have their curiosity
piqued, do not saturate them in pre-reading activities.
Module 10.6: Reading Activities

The reading Unit refers to what happens while a language learner is reading. The reading
selections should contain illustrations, photographs, artwork, subtitles, glossaries and
footnotes, all as clues to meaning.
Particularly important for language learners are footnotes and glossaries that the teacher
adds at the bottom of each page. These offer definitions and clues to help students
determine meaning through context. They are extremely valuable to a second language
student as they provide help while they are reading, when the need to understand is
immediate and the motivation is strong. The younger the reader, the more this is true.
In the communicative classroom, reading is an essential component, and in ideal situations,
a scheduled time for reading will occur daily, with the teacher acting as facilitator and aide
to the students. Often, however, there is insufficient time to fully cover a piece, in which case
the teacher breaks down the reading into comprehensible pieces to be taken up daily as a
skill-based activity during class time.
Once the students have read the assigned piece, they often benefit from hearing it read
aloud by the teacher, or by listening to it on cassette. They need to hear the intonation, the
pauses, the rhythm, and the pronunciation of the words. Language students are renowned
for their love of repetition in music and story and will want to listen again and again.
Being read aloud to for a language student is a rewarding and often exciting experience, but
being forced to read aloud in front of a group is often just the opposite. It can create
anxiety and fear in those students who do not read aloud well. Moreover, it is difficult for a
second language learner to focus on meaning while reading aloud. It is an acquired skill and
should only be expected from those who volunteer.
Module 10.7: The Post-Reading Unit

In this stage students test their conjectures and opinions about the story and re-read any
necessary parts. They discuss with their peers and their teachers the relevant Units of the
story and at the same time, stretch their vocabulary and oral proficiency to higher levels.
Groups can consist of the whole class and the teacher, or of smaller numbers of students.
The teacher can move from group to group, acting as facilitator and guide. Planned groups
in reading activities seem to work best, as students of varying abilities can be grouped
together - each group's work will be more likely to reflect a variety of proficiency levels as
well as perspective.
Letting students choose their own groups often works with older children and adolescents,
but be careful of member selection in that hurt feelings and bruised egos can result.
Inevitably there will be a student left out for one reason or another. In order to allow
students to have more freedom of choice, and at the same time, preserve self-esteem, it
may be wise for the teacher to ask the students to write down the names of the students
with whom they would most enjoy working. The teacher can then take these lists into
consideration when forming working groups.
Questions for Discussion
Two basic types of questions are discussed here: knowledge-based questions and reflective
questions.
Knowledge-Based Questions.
Often the whole class and the teacher discuss this kind of question. The purpose is to
ensure that students have comprehended the main points in the reading or story. Often the
questions begin with how, when, where, and why. They allow the students to know what is
essential to the meaning or central idea of the story or reading.
Reflective Questions.
Discussion questions requiring more thought are best handled in pairs or small groups
where students have more opportunity for genuine interaction. The teacher can circulate
and guide when necessary. A spokesperson from each pair or group shares the ideas with
the class. The teacher may want to summarise, both orally, and with a summary paragraph
on the board, for all to see.
When pre-teen and adolescent students are working in small groups or in pairs, it is
important that they be able to select or create the questions they want to deal with. There
are some questions that the students might prefer to write about privately in their journals
rather than discuss. This should always be an option.
Intermediate students should be encouraged to express their opinions and feelings about
the readings. Teachers should always promote higher level thinking skills as well, such as
critical thinking, analysis, debate, and so forth. Students should be encouraged to form their
own questions. Being able to think of and ask good questions is just as important as being
able to answer them and is an integral part of solid language development.
Module 10.8: Individual Projects and Activities

Interviewing
One way for students to interact with one another and with fluent English speakers is to
interview them. Students not only receive the benefits inherent in the social aspects of the
situation, but they learn and develop skills in asking questions, recording answers, and
sharing information that they learn in the interview. The teacher can readily draw on the
expatriate teaching community and invite English teachers from other parts of the world
into the classroom for the students to interview.
The following are some sample questions for the students to ask:
1. You come from a country where English is widely spoken. Now you are in . . .
[whatever country] where English is not spoken. How does that make you feel?
2. Is it difficult? Is it exciting? Are there advantages?
3. Have there been times when you felt fearful? Explain, please.
4. How did you overcome the problems involved in being in a new culture?
Interview several people that are fluent speakers of English. After each interview, write down
what you can remember of the answers you received. Share them with your class.
Writing in a Specific Genre
Intermediate students often like to try their own hand at writing in a specific genre, often
poetry, a short story, a play, and so on. When the ESL teacher as a regular teaching tool uses
literature, students tend to be highly motivated to express their own feelings and opinions
about what is important in life. One exercise that students can work on progressively is a
Desiderata collage.
Write your own list of things that you think are important in life. Share your paper with a
partner. Ask your partner to write a brief response, either agreeing or disagreeing, or both.
Module 10.9: Speech Writing

Writing a short speech on a topic about which the students feel strongly can be very
exhilarating for a second language student. Students are encouraged to write their own
short speech and share it first with their group and then with the class.
Write your own "I Have a Dream" speech (modelled after Martin Luther King's
autobiographical speech). It may be about a dream or wish that you have. Think about what
you would like the world to be like.
Students are encouraged to share their speech within their group. The student can either
read it or record it on cassette and play it for the group. The group members are then asked
to make a list of the ideas they feel to be most important in the speech. These ideas are
then discussed. Do they agree with what has been said in their colleague's speech? Why or
why not? What do they like about the speech? Do they have any questions about it?
Journal Writing
Journals provide children the opportunity to express their thoughts in writing and to relate
what they read and learn from the teacher to their own lives. In a standard journal, students
often describe events, experiences, family, and for older children, hopes and dreams. Often
students write about what happened on a given day; other times they are given a specific
topic from the teacher, usually related to what they are studying.
Reaction Entries: here the children write their responses to something specific - a story,
poem, lesson, a picture, or a song. The topic should be something that the children find
interesting and thought-provoking.
Dialogue Entries: Using a double column format, students write about their specified topic
in the left hand column; in the right column, a partner or the teacher responds. The writing
then becomes a conversation between the student and peers or the student and the
teacher.
Journal writing can be used as the root from which longer, more detailed writing emerges as
the children become more skilled in the language. It is a venue for students to express
thoughts, a brainstorming mechanism, a means for generating and clarifying ideas, and a
means for ongoing dialogue with the teacher.
Book Reviews
Book reviews can become an integral part of the independent reading process and provide
a means by which students can share their impressions and initiate dialogue and debate
with their peers and teacher. The following is a sample form:
BOOK REVIEW
Title: _______________________________________________
Author: _____________________________________________
Type of Book: _________________________________________
Your Name: __________________________________________
Date: _______________________________________________
What did you feel this book was about?

___________________________________________________
What did you like about this book?

___________________________________________________
Was there anything that you did not like about this book?
___________________________________________________
Do you think your classmates will like this book?
___________________________________________________
Summary: There are many ways to promote literacy in a second language classroom, some
of which are better than others. In this chapter, we have presented a few activities that have
proven successful with the communicative method of teaching a second language. Using
versions of the language experience approach, we begin where each student is. In other
words, we offer and invite students to work not only on their speaking skills, but their
reading and writing as well. We involve them with a literature-supplemented curriculum, we
use the power of voice and language to heighten awareness and fully engage the minds of
the children. Motivation and guidance are provided through a group approach to literature
investigation in which the students can take full advantage of the classroom community
they and the teacher have established. At higher levels, students take on progressively more
complex and advanced reading and writing tasks in an effort to become more broadly
prepared in the second language. All the while, all four skills are integrated and absorbed at
the rate of each individual learner, and the language is allowed to grow naturally out of
what is being learnt.
1. Think back about what you learnt in Unit 4, the Affective Domain. In your opinion what
were the most important factors discussed here? What do you think "affective activities"
might entail?
2. Have you ever personally participated in affective activities? If so, what activities? What
were the circumstances? What effect did they have on you?
3. How do you think affective activities might be used in a foreign language classroom? Do
you think they can be of benefit to language acquisition? If so, in what ways?
Module 11.1: Background Information
This Unit is really geared towards the older children, aged 10 – 16, whose proficiency level is
intermediate and above.
Many ESL educators feel that, for second language learners, especially those at an
intermediate level, affective activities can add another dimension to the language learning
process. If used appropriately, such activities not only provide meaningful dialogue in the
target language, but also can serve as an important means of bonding between students. It
should be pointed out, however, that affective activities are not for everyone.
They are not for:
o The teacher who feels uncomfortable sharing feelings and opinions

o The teacher who wants to treat them as therapy sessions
o The teacher who wants to change the belief systems of their students.
Exploring beliefs that have already formed and those that are emerging in the older children
can be a very rewarding experience for students and can greatly enhance their self-esteem
and confidence.
If affective activities are to be effective for language teaching, a teacher who exercises a
great amount of caution must use them. The activities chosen must be compatible with the
students’ age and proficiency, and they must be appropriate to the cultural environment in
which they are to be used. In some cultures, it is considered offensive to reveal oneself or to
probe the thoughts and opinions of others.
For the teacher who decides to implement affective activities, there are a few ground rules
to consider:
o Students must be given the right to pass, meaning they must not be forced to
answer questions or contribute.
o They must have the right to be heard.
o They must have the right to see their opinions respected.
o They must have a chance to express afterwards how they felt about specific
activities and what they learnt from them.
Activities should emphasize the positive and they should be low risk so that the teacher and
students will not feel threatened by them. In other words, instead of asking students what
they dislike about themselves, ask them what they like; ask them what makes them feel
proud. Negative feelings should be treated like any other feelings. We may want to ask
students what they would want changed in the world or how something might be made
better in their lives. The overall focus should be positive in that it is constructive.
Module 11.2
The chief duty of the teacher in these activities is that of facilitator. As facilitator, the teacher
needs to encourage honest responses, to establish a climate of trust, to listen with genuine
interest to what the students say, and to invite sharing amongst the students, but only when
they want to share. The teacher should clarify what they say by responding with questions
such as "Is this what you are saying?" by paraphrasing what has been said with statements
such as "I think you are saying . . . " In addition, the teacher should be free to reveal her or
his feelings and opinions in the discussion. It is thought by educators that the teacher
should only do so toward the end, after the students have had a chance to think things
through for themselves and express their own points of view. The teacher shares her/his
values but does not impose them. In this way, the teacher models an adult who prizes,
chooses, and acts according to those values. The weight of the teacher's values and
opinions holds no more weight than would anyone else's.
It may be naïve to think that the teacher's point of view can be downplayed to the extent
that it holds no more weight than anyone else's. The problem often is how the teacher can
make it known that they too are refining and developing their own opinions and values just
like the students. As a facilitator, the teacher should remain as objective as possible
throughout the activity. It is the facilitator's job to prepare and lead the students in a
particular activity, to enforce the ground rules, to listen thoughtfully and non-judgmentally,
to clarify, to accept each student as he or she wants to be accepted, and to provide closure
at the end of each activity.
The students' role also includes listening thoughtfully and non-judgmentally and accepting
others on their own ground, but it does not require that one remain impartial. A participant
has the right to state his or her opinions and feelings about the subject as long as others'
rights are respected.
Module 11.3
A teacher can, on occasion, switch roles and allow a student to facilitate. This usually creates
a great deal of excitement in the classroom as students realise that they too can take on the
responsibility of being facilitators.
There are some situations in which affective activities can be particularly beneficial. On days
when students are feeling especially tense, they can be comforting. Sitting in a circle, each
member of the class, including the teacher, can say one thing he or she especially likes
about each other. On alternate days, the teacher may want to centre on topics including:
choosing a pet, with younger children, thinking of your future/career with older children and
teens.
Most of the activities presented in this chapter are for small groups (two, three and up to
ten). Groups can be formed in many different ways, as discussed in earlier Units, by favourite
seasons, colours, food, and the like, or they can be formed randomly by numbering off the
students. The method used for forming the groups depends upon the activity, the number
of groups needed, the number of students in the class, and whether or not the groups need
to be of equal numbers.
Most of the activities here are intended for intermediate speakers, but some can be
accomplished with beginner students as well. Remember that these activities can also be
modified to accommodate both age and language ability by altering both subject and
content. Many of the questions are oriented towards children aged 12 and over. However,
they can be changed to reflect the interests of children. Topics appropriate to children
might include animals, toys, being the youngest or oldest in the family, TV cartoons, what
you want to be when you grow up, and so forth. The activities must always be tailored to
the needs, interests, and capabilities of the children. In addition, the teacher must feel
comfortable with them.
Module 11.4: Preparation of the Students

It is important at the beginning stages of language development to expose students to
some of the basic vocabulary that will be particularly useful for the affective activities later
on: emotions, feelings, favourite things to do, preferences in food, clothing, occupations,
classes, sports etc. These can be taught through methods already discussed, including TPR,
role-play and dialogue. Through repetition and discussion, students can hear and learn to
talk about these subjects.
As the children move into speaking, vocabulary becomes a little more sophisticated. Words
such as beautiful, stubborn, smart, safe, and selfish may be picked up. As the students are
able, new vocabulary such as self-confident, self-conscious, ridiculous, secure, enthusiastic,
open-minded, are added to the repertoire of descriptives. The teacher may want to provide
a short list of new words that students can incorporate into their known vocabulary and
provide exercises in which to practise:
If I were older, I would __________________________________________
One thing I do well is ____________________________________________
I want my friends to _____________________________________________

I wonder if _____________________________________________________
I like you because _______________________________________________
My sister makes me feel __________________________________________
My brother makes me feel _________________________________________
Students should be encouraged to get help from peers and the teacher when attempting to
express something that is temporarily beyond them rather than simply to pass.
If older children seem reluctant to use affective activities, it may be a good idea to start with
characters from a well-known movie or literature, or a popular figure that the students are
familiar with. The students can role-play certain scenes or events from the life of the
character, and in doing so, revealing the values and opinions of that character. It is easy
then to initiate discussion around the "and what would you have chosen/done in this
situation?" An alternative activity is to have the students make up a story about the people
in a picture shown to them and then have them role-play those characters according to
their individual interpretation. Once they feel comfortable talking about someone else's
feelings and opinions, they may not feel so reserved about talking about their own.
Module 11.5: Suggested Activities

Find someone who . . .
Hand out this sheet to every student and ask them to "find someone who" and write their
name in the blank after each item.
Likes to go to the library __________________________________
Has more than four brothers and sisters __________________________________
Has been to Asia __________________________________
Lives with their grandparents __________________________________
Has seen a Hollywood movie __________________________________
Can speak three languages __________________________________
Values Survey
Each student has the following handout. They are to go around their class and ask each
other the questions on the sheet. Tell the students that there are no right or wrong answers,
just opinions.
Which would you rather be?

____ a farmer
____ a fisher person
____ a business person
____ a teacher
If a genie gave you one wish, what would it be?

____ to be rich
____ to be famous
____ to stay the same
What kind of gifts do you prefer?

____ something someone made
____ money so that you can buy what you want
____ a gift that somebody buys for you
How would you like to spend an afternoon with a friend?

____ at the beach
____ at the movies
____ chatting
What is the most important quality in a "special friend/girl/boy friend"?

____ beauty
____ personality
____ interests and hobbies
Which do you like least?

____ a person who is loud and aggressive
____ a person who is dishonest
____ a person who talks about other people
Values Voting
This is a fast-paced activity that involves the entire class. The categories of information can
easily be changed to accommodate age and interest. These examples are appropriate for
ages 8 and up.
Begin with the question "How many of you ______________?" Students raise their hands if
the phrase is true of them.
 Have a dog as a pet
 Are afraid of storms
 Think parents should be stricter with their kids
 Do not like movies
 Plan to go to school forever
 Have been in love
 Like to eat sweet things
 Want to end all wars
 Want to get better grades in school
 Think their teacher is exciting
The Most Influential Person

Have students think about people that have affected their lives in some way. Have them
decide who has been the most influential. Ask them to write about this person/these people
and include information such as descriptions, how long they have known these people, and
what these people did that had such an impact on their lives. Divide the students into
groups to share their writing.

1. What have been your own experiences as a student or as a practicing teacher with
language evaluation and assessment? Were they mainly positive? Why or why not?
2. For what purposes do you think that foreign language learners should be tested in the
foreign language?
Module 12.1
If our goal in placing students is to roughly divide them according to proficiency into three
levels: beginning, intermediate, and advanced, then the combination of a listening task with
some TPR activities, oral interview, some informal writing, and a reading interpretation
might be all that is needed to make an accurate determination.
In the case of an oral interview, it is important that the evaluator/teacher go with the
student, rather than stay fixed on a predetermined set of questions. Anxiety levels are likely
to be much lower in more natural, interactive settings, and although the evaluation will be
highly individual and subjective, the outcome is likely to be more accurate. Interaction
between the evaluator/teacher can be considered real communication for testing purposes.
Having a hierarchy of questions during the oral interview is necessary to thoroughly assess a
student. If a picture is used, the teacher might begin with a general question that allows for
elaboration from the student. For example, "What is happening in this picture?" If there is
no response, the teacher moves to "What do you see in the picture?" If there is still no
response, the teacher becomes more specific, "What is this?" (points to an object in the
picture). If necessary, the teacher can go further down and ask, "Is this a boat?" Much of
what the teacher says will depend upon what the student says.
Information can be gathered to make the interview less intimidating for the child as well,
while pursuing responses from the student. For example, if the answer to the question
"What do you see in this picture?" is "I see water . . . I live by water" the teacher may follow
through with a comment, "Oh, you live by the water? Where? It must be wonderful to live by
the water." It is important that the teacher match the level of her/his responses to that of
the student. Once the teacher has determined the level of the child in each area - listening,
speaking, writing, and reading, it is important to finish and move on.
There is usually an overlap between one placement level and another, but this should not be
disturbing as language students normally advance in an irregular pattern from one skill set
to another, depending upon many external factors contributing to the learning
environment.
Module 12.2
Although there are tests on the market that may yield a more detailed diagnosis than most
teacher-made tests, unless they are pragmatic and relevant they often lead to overly specific
skill set evaluations. In addition, the tests on the market are expensive and longer than
necessary. Teacher-made tests may be highly subjective, but they are usually short, easy to
use, and flexible. They can include exactly those items and areas that are appropriate to a
specific situation and therefore be effective for the initial placement of the student.
The following contains a list of proficiency guidelines including language behaviors typical
of students at various levels of proficiency. It is concise and fairly easy to use, and the items
within it are expressed in a positive manner - in other words, it focuses on what the students
can do at each level rather than on what they can't do.
Beginning Students
Low
 Depends almost entirely upon gestures, facial expressions, objects, pictures, and
often a translator in an attempt to understand and be understood.
 Occasionally comprehends simple oral and written words and phrases.
Mid
 Begins to comprehend more complex English, but only when speaker uses
simultaneous gesture clues, speaks slowly, and repeats.
 Speaks with much hesitation if at all.
 Shows increasing recognition of written forms.
 May even be able to write short sentences.
Upper
 Is comprehending more and more in short social conversation, but with difficulty.
 Speaks to get basic needs met, but remains hesitant; makes frequent errors in
grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation; often falls silent.
 Can read very simple text.
 Can write a little, but very restricted in structure and vocabulary.
Intermediate Students
Low
 (same as upper beginner)
Mid
 may experience dramatic increase in social vocabulary recognition, both oral and
written.
 has difficulty with idioms.
 Often knows what he or she wants to say but searches for appropriate words, both
oral and written.
 Makes frequent errors in grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation.
 Is often asked to repeat and is frequently misunderstood, orally and in writing.
Upper
 Is beginning to comprehend substantial parts of normal conversation but often
requires repetitions, particularly in specific linguistic categories spoken at normal
rates.
 Is beginning to gain confidence in speaking ability; errors are common but less
frequent.
 Can read and write text that contains more complex vocabulary and structures;
experiences difficulty with abstract language.
Advanced Students
Low
 (same as high intermediate above)
Mid
 Comprehends much conversational and academic discourse spoken at normal rates;

sometimes requires repetition; idioms present less difficulty.
 Speaks more fluently but makes occasional errors; meaning is usually clear; at times
uses vocabulary or structures inappropriately.
 Reads and writes with less difficulty materials that are commensurate with his or her
cognitive development; demonstrates some problems in grasping intended meaning.
Upper
 Comprehends normal conversation and academic discourse with little difficulty; most
idioms are understood.
 Speaks fluently in most situations with fewer errors; meaning is generally clear but
experiences some regression at times.
 Reads and writes both concrete and abstract materials; is able to manipulate the
language with relative ease.
 Module 12.3
 The two most commonly used scoring techniques for rating language students are
holistic and analytic.
 Holistic scoring requires the evaluator to give a single impression of the student's

performance such as "beginning," "intermediate," or "advanced." Another holistic
scoring technique involves giving the student a number that corresponds to a
particular description of a level within a category. For example, if a teacher is
evaluating writing performance, a score of "10" might indicate a student who
communicates effectively, who organises logically, whose ideas flow in an organised
manner, and who makes no semantic or grammatical mistakes. In contrast, a "1"
might be the rating given to a student whose paper is very difficult to understand,
whose ideas are just listed with no logical connection between them, whose
semantic, syntactic, or mechanical errors are so frequent that they interfere with what
is being said.
 Analytic scoring is usually used for diagnosing students rather than placing them. It
requires the teacher to make judgments of individual aspects within a general
category such as writing. These aspects may include, for example, syntax,
organisation, vocabulary, mechanics, fluency, etc. The student may receive a "1" in
syntax if they make many errors and a "2" in vocabulary if the range of words is
limited, and so forth.
 It is the teacher in the classroom who has the task of putting it all together and
making it work. No book can dictate a program or a methodology. What may be
good for one group of learners in one particular setting may not be appropriate for
those in other situations.
Module 12.4: Final Activities

Research the Internet!
Choose ONE of the topics below and do some research. Use search engines such as:
 Ask Jeeves
 Google
 Yahoo
 Dogpile
 Or any others
Do you need help searching the Internet? Take our Internet Searches Tutorial
Topics:
1. Activities for Children. Look for activities, exercises, handouts, games, songs… the sky’s
the limit!
Search terms to help you: “ESL” “EFL” “activities” “children” “young learners” “games” ETC.
and any others you can think of. Remember! Different terms and different search engines
will bring up different results.
2. Learning Styles. Search for learning styles in children and for different learning styles in
different parts of the world. What are they defined by: religion, culture, language, gender
issues, etc?
Search terms to help you: “learning” “styles” “children” “different” “culture” “countries”

“ESL” ETC. Try all or a combination of these, and any other you can think of.
3. Placement and other Tests. Look for placement tests for young ESL students, and also
other types of tests geared towards children.
Search terms: What do you think?
4. Books and Resource Packs. Search for different types of course books and resource
books for teachers of young learners.
Search:
 Amazon
 Cambridge ELT
 MacMillan
 And others using different search terms.
Resource for Children's Lessons
http://www.esl-galaxy.com/index.htm Free ESL Printables, children's Activities, Games and

Online Exercises for Grammar, Vocabulary & Pronunciation.
http://www.english-4kids.com/ Many ESL resources for children.
http://www.eslkidslab.com/index.html Provides English (ESL, EFL, ELT, ESOL) learning and

teaching materials for young learners, preschool, beginners, elementary and pre-
intermediate.
Happy teaching!
Assessment section 1
If children’s language teaching is composed solely of repetitious dialogues that emphasise
error-free production and correct form, the risk is that most children will give up even
before reaching the end of the beginner curriculum.
Make your classroom fun! Young learners need to engage with the language they are
learning and keep their bodies in motion.
Introduction
Total Physical Response (TPR) is a successful approach to second language teaching that
incorporates the target language with structured and supervised movement. It involves
giving commands to which the students react. For example, the teacher might say,
“everyone RUN to the whiteboard!” Good. OK. Now, “everyone RUN to the blue desk!”
Great! Now, listen, “everyone RUN to the silver chair!” The imperative commands are meant
to bring the target language alive by making it comprehensible and, at the same time, fun.
The students are asked to act with their bodies as well as with their brains – in other words,
with their total beings. The cognitive process of language acquisition is therefore
synchronised with and partially facilitated by the movements of the body.
James Asher, the founder of the TPR approach to second language teaching, bases his
approach of TPR as the same way in which children learn their first language. Parents direct
the child’s attention to look at a particular object, to recognise it, and often, to pick it up.
Language production is delayed until the child’s listening comprehension has been
developed and the child is ready to speak. The child gradually becomes aware of the
language and what it means in relation to her/his environment; so, too, with second
language learners.
The commands are normally given to the class as a whole at the beginning, to reduce
anxiety in any one student. The teacher demonstrates the action first, while simultaneously
speaking the target vocabulary and making the actions very clear. No organising language
is needed – only the targeted language is spoken. Then the students are expected to carry
out the request. If the class does not respond at first, the teacher may have to repeat her/his
demonstration combined with the target language rather than demand that the students
comply with only a repetition of the words alone.
Gradually the requests and movements become more complex as the students gain
proficiency. When students are ready they can volunteer to give instructions themselves
while the teacher and the other students carry them out. Remember that students should be
allowed to make mistakes when they first engage in TPR activities as they are coordinating
both movement and language. It is expected that with repetition the children’s speech will
gradually take the shape of the teachers as they gain confidence and proficiency.
Although James Asher recommended a specific sequencing of language based on
grammatical acquisition, lessons using TPR are not focused on the grammatical point;
instead they are focused on meaning, especially at the beginning level. The students
internalise grammar as they repeat and learn.
Though my own experience, TPR techniques produce better results than, for example, the
audio-lingual method, because they utilise implicit learning.
Liberman.M (Fall 2003) Accessed

2/9/2018. https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/acquisition.html
The many Stages of language acquisition in young

children L2 (second language) learners
In nearly all cases, children's language development follows a predictable sequence.
However, there is a great deal of variation in the age at which children reach a given
milestone. Furthermore, each child's development is usually characterised by gradual
acquisition of particular abilities: thus "correct" use of English verbal inflection will
emerge over a period of a year or more, starting from a stage where verbal inflections
are always left out, and ending in a stage where they are nearly always used correctly.
There are also many different ways to characterise the developmental sequence. On
the production side, one way to name the stages is as follows, focusing primarily on
the unfolding of lexical and syntactic knowledge:
Stage Typical age Description

Babbling 6-8 months Repetitive CV patterns
One-word stage
(better one-morpheme or
9-18 months Single open-class words or word stems
one-unit)
or holophrastic stage
"Mini-sentences" with simple semantic
Two-word stage 18-24 months
relations
Telegraphic stage "Telegraphic" sentence structures
or early multiword stage 24-30 months of lexical rather
(better multi-morpheme) than functional or grammatical morphemes
Grammatical or functional structures
Later multiword stage 30+ months
emerge
Liberman.M (Fall 2003) Accessed
2/9/2018. https://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/acquisition.html
Last modified: Saturday, 13 October 2018, 3:09 PM

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Vocalisations in the first year of life ►
TEYL101
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TEYL101
Vocalisations in the first year of life
At birth, the infant vocal tract is in

some ways more like that of an ape than that of an adult human. Take a look at the diagram
of the infant vocal tract shown here on the left. In particular, the tip of the velum reaches or
overlaps with the tip of the epiglottis. As the infant grows, the tract gradually reshapes itself
into the adult pattern.
During the first two months of life, infant vocalisations are mainly expressions of discomfort
(crying and fussing), along with sounds produced as a by-product of reflexive or vegetative
actions such as coughing, sucking, swallowing and burping and so on. There are some non-
reflexive, non-distress sounds produced with a lowered velum and a closed or nearly closed
mouth, giving the impression of a syllabic nasal or a nasalised vowel.
During the period from about 2-4 months, infants begin making "comfort sounds", typically
in response to pleasurable interaction with a caregiver. The earliest comfort sounds may be
grunts or sighs, with later versions being more vowel-like "coos". The vocal tract is held in a
fixed position. Initially comfort sounds are brief and produced in isolation, but later appear
in series separated by glottal stops. Laughter appears around 4 months.
During the period from 4-7 months, infants typically engage in "vocal play", manipulating
pitch (to produce "squeals" and "growls"), loudness (producing "yells"), and also
manipulating tract closures to produce friction noises, nasal murmurs, "raspberries" and
"snorts".
Liberman’s work was very relevant to me when I was teaching ESL to a kindergarten in Japan
that had several babies’ rooms where, I tried my best to teach English to infants as young as
3 months old. Until I came across this treasure of information I often felt that my efforts in
the babies’ rooms were pointless and to be honest, it was at times ‘off putting’, as there was
no feedback or validation with what I was doing. But, I learned that with a big happy smile
and lots of energy in the rooms over the years the children that came through the babies
room had a noticeable foundations advantage over the kids that did not.
At about seven months, "canonical babbling" appears: infants start to make extended
sounds that are chopped up rhythmically by oral articulations into syllable-like sequences,
opening and closing their jaws, lips and tongue. The range of sounds produced can be
interoperated and heard as stop-like and glide-like. Fricatives, affricates and liquids are
more rarely heard, and clusters are even more rare. Vowels tend to be low and open, at least
in the beginning.
Repeated sequences are often produced, such as [bababa] or [nanana], as well as

"variegated" sequences in which the characteristics of the consonant-like articulations are
varied. The variegated sequences are initially rare and become more common later on.
Both vocal play and babbling are produced more often in interactions with caregivers, but
infants will also produce them when they are alone.
I also learnt from Liberman’s work, along with a good amount of ‘trial and error’ that
children at these stages react well when you are quick to acknowledge the productions they
perform for you. This is a good time to teach some vocabulary.
No other animal does anything like babbling. It has often been hypothesised that vocal play
and babbling have the function of "practicing" speech-like gestures, helping the infant to
gain control of the motor systems involved, and to learn the acoustical consequences of
different gestures.
One word (holophrastic) stage
At about ten months, infants start to utter recognisable words. Some word-like vocalisations
that do not correlate well with words in the local language may consistently be used by
particular infants to express particular emotional states: one infant is reported to have
used [aæji] to express pleasure, and another is said to have used [məməmə] to express
"distress or discomfort". For the most part, recognisable words are used in a context that
seems to involve naming: "duck" while the child hits a toy duck off the edge of the bath;
"sweep" while the child sweeps with a broom; "car" while the child looks out of the living
room window at cars moving on the street below; "papa" when the child hears the doorbell.
Young children often use words in ways that are too narrow or too broad: "bottle" used only
for plastic bottles; "teddy" used only for a particular bear; "dog" used for lambs, cats, and
cows as well as dogs; "kick" used for pushing and for wing-flapping as well as for kicking.
These under extensions and overextensions develop and change over time in an individual
child's usage.
Perception vs. production
Clever experiments have shown that most infants can give evidence (for instance, by gaze
direction) of understanding some words at the age of 4-9 months, often even before
babbling begins. In fact, the development of phonological abilities begins even earlier.
Newborns can distinguish speech from non-speech, and can also distinguish among speech
sounds (e.g. [t] vs. [d] or [t] vs. [k]); within a couple of months of birth, infants can distinguish
speech in their native language from speech in other languages.
Early linguistic interaction with mothers, fathers and other caregivers is almost certainly
important in establishing and consolidating these early abilities, long before the child is
giving any indication of language abilities.
Rate of vocabulary development
In the beginning, infants add active vocabulary somewhat gradually. Here are measures of
active vocabulary development in two studies. The Nelson study was based on diaries kept
by mothers of all of their children's utterances, while the Fenson study is based on asking
mothers to check words on a list to indicate which they think their child produces.

Nelson 1973 Fenson 1993
Milestone
(18 children) (1,789 children)
15 months 13 months
10 words
(range 13-19) (range 8-16)
20 months 17 months
50 words
(range 14-24) (range 10-24)
186 words 310 words
Vocabulary at 24 months
(range 28-436) (range 41-668)

There is often a spurt of vocabulary acquisition during the second year. Early words are
acquired at a rate of 1-3 per week (as measured by production diaries); in many cases the
rate may suddenly increase to 8-10 new words per week, after 40 or so words have been
learned. However, some children show a steadier rate of acquisition during these early
stages. The rate of vocabulary acquisition definitely does accelerate in the third year and
beyond: a plausible estimate would be an average of 10 words a day during pre-school and
elementary school years.
Play may be as old as the existence of humankind. Playthings have been discovered in the
artefacts of ancient civilisations and many believe that the earliest chess pieces date back to
6,000 B.C. Though the link between play and learning was more fully investigated in the
20th century by theorists such as Jean Piaget, Plato made the connection as early as the first
century B.C.
“You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in a year of conversation.”
Through joyful, healthy play, children begin a love of learning and prepare for life itself.
What is Play?
Play is a state of happiness, innocence, wonder and creativity... and happens when anyone is
truly living in the present tense.
The natural activity of early childhood, play is what children do and their way of life. For
young children, there is no distinction between play and learning; they are one and the
same. Playing is a priority in early childhood, yet not all play is the same. Most experts agree
that children’s play can be divided into these categories:
o Active play: running, jumping, climbing, riding, and other use of large
muscles.
o Quiet play: reading, stringing, colouring, etc.
o Cooperative or social play: games and activities that involve more than one.
o Solitary play: drawing, dreaming, or any activity that involves only one.
o Manipulative play: putting together puzzles, building with blocks, cutting and
pasting, or any activity that involves eye-hand coordination or fine motor
skills.
o Creative play: painting, modelling shapes, solving problems, making/singing
music, telling stories, or any activity that involves a child’s imagination.
o Dramatic play: dress-up, make-believe, or any play that involves pretending.
How to Teach English to Children
Make It Fun
Many years ago now, my son said to me after picking him up from kindergarten, “We didn’t
really do anything today. We just played and painted pictures!” I remember thinking to
myself “I’m sure what they did in class today contained some kind of academic merit”, it
turns out that it was well hidden beneath a thick layer of fun. Later that evening my son said
some words to me that I had not heard him say before and he asked me if he got the
meanings correct. The words were from one of the games he was playing earlier that day.
So don’t get discouraged if the learner seems to be more interested in something else, as
you never know what is going on in their minds.
Many educators believe that children learn best through play. And what is true of Native
English-speaking children, in this case, will also be true of your non-native English-learning
students or L2 (second language) students. Here are some ways you can make learning
more fun with your students:
Playing games is fun not only do games play on the competitive nature of most children,
but games also give them a goal to accomplish. When you win a game, you have really
done something, and you can feel good about your success.
There are so many games that can be used in an ESL classroom; we’ll only cover a
few today. Here are a few games that require little to no preparation, and are super fun for
young students.
Simon Says: The classic Simon Says is great for practicing listening skills. You can use it to
review body parts (“Simon says touch your head“) or prepositions (“Simon says put your
foot on your chair”) and so much more.
Hot and cold: Here is a game that you can use when teaching online.
Look at my favourite toy, it is a….? (Note, have a toy with you in the lesson) Tell the child to
close his/her eyes then pretend to reach through the screen and hide it somewhere in the
child’s room. Then have him/her search the room for your toy. If he’s wandering away from
it, he’s cold, and as he gets closer he’s warm, warmer, and finally hot when it is found! (Tell
the child to close his/her eyes and pretend to reach though and get the toy back)
Remember to use TPR and a big smile.
This game will sharpen your child’s emotional skills—he/she’ll learn patience, perseverance
and the idea that just because you can’t see something, it doesn’t mean it isn’t there.
Memory: Memory is great for learning vocabulary. Try putting a vocabulary word on one
card and a picture showing the word on another. Or put synonyms or antonyms on two
different cards. Lay all the cards on the table and have students try to remember where the
matches are.
Be Creative
Doing the same things in class every day is boring for your students, and you’re liable to fall
asleep on the job too, so be creative with your plans.
Change things up on a regular basis. Rearrange your students’ seats so they get a different
inspirational view from time to time. Give your students the test before you teach the
material, and let them answer the questions as they learn. Invite guest speakers in whenever
you get the chance.
When you are teaching shorter lessons with the same learners, be mindful that the students
can start to remember the lessons patterns and can predict what comes next. It can be a
good idea to simply switch the delivery order of the content. This works well and keeps
them on their toes.
You can keep the same basic schedule every day, but vary the types of exercises you do.
Rotate between doing exercises from the textbook, having students work on the computer
on social media or ESL learning websites, and giving them real-life materials to work with
rather than ESL materials.
Try a poem by any well-known poet rather than a simple reading passage. You can also
have students come up with their own games, activities and exercises. Have your
students write quiz questions for each other, or give them some simple game supplies and
let them make their own review game for the latest grammar point. You might be surprised
at how creative students can be.
(Note: some of these activities may not work with very young learners. However, once you
become familiar with activities and more comfortable teaching, it becomes easier to adopt
and adapt any lesson or activity to suit the learning environment).
Make It Active
Having learners move their bodies when learning language is a great way to break the ice
and make it an inclusive environment. The more language learners move, the better and
faster they understand what you are teaching and the more easily they can retain the
information.
TPR (Total Physical Response) works really well with children. In essence, you associate
physical movements with language instruction. Students move as they learn. They follow
instructions, copy your movements and get their whole bodies involved when they practice
language concepts. This is one of the most effective ways to teach ESL to children, more so
for children that are in the early stages of establishing their L1 first language.
Using hands-on material is also a great way to get your students moving as they learn
English. You can use simple items like flashcards, but you can also be more creative with
what you give your students to handle.
Small World Play: Try collecting animal figures that show up in a book or story your class is
reading, and let students retell the story using the figures. Try using this small world
play when you do units on different subjects. Create a small scenario that includes play-
sized items that represent those found in the real world.
Mystery Bags: Really target your students’ sense of touch by putting items in brown paper
bags. Then have them reach into the bags without looking and describe what they are
feeling.
Jenga Discussion: Rather than giving students a list of discussion questions on paper, write

each question on a Jenga block. Then have students answer the question on the block they
pulled for their turn. Or, (for very young learners Jenga can have single target words, nouns,
numbers, colours, verbs and so on each side)
Educative Play
Very young learners can be tricky, in that it can be difficult to gage how your lessons are
working out. It may feel like you are not getting anywhere because you often do not get
that instant feedback you do with older children. We need to remember that they are still
learning their first language at this development stage.
When you have learners at this stage, especially when your students are very young,
educative play is a useful technique for teaching them without ever letting on! Students can
be encouraged to play with one another in a variety of ways, either with board games or in
a playroom or space, depending on the way your classroom is laid out, or if online, how the
area is set up, do they have resources available to use. The idea with educative play is for
teachers and assistants (including parents of very young learners) to participate in the play
in English, asking questions those students can answer.
Examples of such questions may include:
 What are you doing?

 What are you playing?
 Can I play?
 What’s that?
 Would you like this (block, ball, doll)?
Keep in mind your access to resources can be limited especially if you are teaching young
learners online. One way of getting around this could be by asking what type of toys the
learners have on hand. Obviously, this would be best to know before the lesson begins but
if you are teaching something like body parts and the child is playing with a doll, Improvise
and encourage the child to use the doll when you are teaching the vocabulary for body
parts.
*If you are in a situation where you are teaching a one-on-one or in an online environment
with young learners, the examples above can be contextualised to suit this situation.
The key to making educative play fun and useful is to make sure that you engage students
without frustrating them. Asking them repetitive questions or simply asking too many
questions can be frustrating and counterproductive. Ask about one question every minute
or so.
You should always encourage your students to answer you in English, but don’t force them
to speak to one another in English. With time, students will start using their English with
each other. When this happens it is a very good way to see your hard work pay off.

Active Games
Kinesthetic learning is another great learning style and is very much like TPR in many ways.
It is also very useful in the classroom. Active games can also be a great way to get ESL
learners of all ages, especially beginners, up and moving.
A good game for beginners is Simon Says, or your own version if you have one.
Simon Says can be a very useful way to reinforce new vocabulary while also upping the
energy. That’s why it’s a great choice either at the beginning or in the middle of a class.
The obvious way to use Simon Says is to reinforce a vocabulary lesson involving body parts.
But what you might not think of is using Simon Says to reinforce the use of action words,
like “dance,” “jump” or “clap” And of course “stop”. Simon Says is good for prepositions as
well.
Always be sure to introduce the words you plan to use in lesson format before introducing
the game. For very young learners and older children just beginning, I often prepare
flashcards for the target vocabulary and pre-teach the words just before starting the activity.
Students can always assume they understand what you’re saying, particularly if they’re
following the rest of the group. Make sure you use TPR when introducing the game as you
would with all games at all development stages of learning.
It is equally important to start taking away your actions when appropriate so that the
language itself can be used to prompt the children into the directive you are giving them.
This way they are not relying on remembering your actions to understand what to do. It is a
good idea to take the away the action slowly and see how the learners react. If the reaction
is positive, start to take away different actions for the target words over the next few
lessons.
Some of the biggest challenges that many teachers face when they first start teaching
young learners can include, not knowing what resources to use, finding age appropriate
resources, not having a structured lesson or poor timing of delivery.
I know I was one of those teachers. This all happened before the dawn of smart phones and
fast internet. In fact, I think my first sets of flashcards were still chiselled in stone.
I was lucky as some of the more “senior” teaching staff were more than happy to share their
knowledge and point me in the right direction.
This is what I remember about my first lessons.
I was tense, I was nervous, I stuttered and I even sounded like a robot at times when I spoke
with the learners in class. It took a few conversations with other teachers and some trial and
error in the classes. I was then able to get better quite rapidly as I quickly learned that the
following was happening to me or I was making these mistakes.
Know what resources to use:

There are countless websites that provide all different types of ESL activities and many of
them are very good. But how do you know if the activities you find are going to work with
your students? The answer is quite simple; get to know the activities that you are going to
teach like the back of your hand.
Download them make them but most of all, play with them. If you have children, play the
activities/games with them. Trial as many games and activities as you can, this will help you
understand what games will suit what social or functional purpose. Once you become
familiar with the layout of the activities or games you will be able to alter them to suit the
target language for the age and type of lesson you will be delivering.
Find age appropriate resources:
A very good way to find new activities is to spend time surfing the net. But, it is not the only
way. Simple things like using toys or pictures with bright and vivid colours can help hold the
attention of young learners.
Transitioning of activities:
It is helpful to introduce each activity to the students before you start and be very clear
when an activity ends. It can be tricky as you are very busy and it may even feel pointless
but it will help with the students understanding over time and it will also help with your own
time management.
I am happy to report that I have not had this issue for a very long time. We now have
smartphones, high speed internet and thousands of reasons why we should have a lesson
ready to go at a moment’s notice.
Resources:
The World Wide Web has an unbelievable wealth of resources.
Before you search the Internet or go searching for ESL Books for your lesson materials,
make sure you understand and make a checklist for what is required in your lessons.
Lesson Plan Model for Children overview

Warm Up/ Review
Target Language A

Activity A
Target Language B
Activity A + B
Target Language C
Activity A+ B+ C
Homework
Lesson Planning Process

Although lessons follow the order shown (w-up, review, target language, activities and
homework), when sitting down to create the plan, we want to make it as efficient as
possible. So we will plan the sections, in a different order.
Let’s look at the process of planning a lesson.
1. Plan the Target Language Section.
This comes first when planning, as it contains the focus of your lesson. This is where you
teach the new language. What you do in all other sections will depend on what you do in
this one.
o What is the target language? What are you teaching your students this
lesson? E.g. For simple past, an example of the target language is: ‘What did
Anna do yesterday?’ ‘Yesterday Anna played her guitar.’
o If you are teaching new vocabulary (e.g. ‘on, behind, between’), four to ten
words are appropriate.
o Write down some age and level-appropriate examples. Can you use props?
Visuals? Realia (real life things)?
o Check that the target language is clear, consistent, and use regular forms
(unless you are teaching the irregular forms as your target language!)
o Your examples should make it clear to your students when and why they
should use this new language.
o Think about how you will drill the target language? What will you say?
o Write up your board work. Make it readable, neat, and interesting to look at.
Use capital letters only where appropriate!
2. Plan the Activities
Look at the list of points on the previous page. Above all, make sure your students are
producing the target language, i.e. speaking! This is the main purpose of this section: to
reinforce the target language you have taught above.
Refer to the activities unit for ideas, or make up your own. Lots of familiar games can be
adapted for use in the classroom.
Try to include activities that:
o Accommodate different styles of learners (auditory, visual, tactile and

kinaesthetic learners; active and quiet learners; right and left-brained learners;
group and individual learners).
o Focus on speaking and listening, but may include reading and/or writing.
o Get the students practising the target language.
o Allow students to be creative.
o Allow students to work alone and with different people. Encourage team-
work but also perhaps friendly competition.
o Relate to the real world.
o Allow you to check understanding part-way through so that you and the
students know what still has to be worked on. This is known as ‘formative
evaluation’.
o Allow you to check understanding at the end of the lesson to ensure that the
lesson has been learnt (e.g. through a take-up of the activity). This is known as
'evaluation’.
3. Plan the Review
The review is essentially an activity. It should be interesting and fun, and get all students
involved! Don’t use repetition drills – your students know this language already. You may
find it useful to review some vocabulary or a grammar point which will help your students in
today’s lesson, e.g. if your simple past example is ‘What did Anna do yesterday?’ –
‘Yesterday Anna surfed at the beach’, you might like to review ‘surf’, and any other verbs
you’re using.
Somewhere in this section, allow your students the possibility to ask any questions they may
have about material learnt thus far.
4. Homework
Give your students an example of what they have to do. Write a model answer up on the
board, or give them a clear handout. Plan enough time for your students to ask any
questions they may have, either about the homework itself or about the day’s lesson. The
homework should get your students using the target language.
5. Reflecting on your lesson/lessons learnt
At the end of each day, review your teaching performance. The results you achieved will be
fresh in your mind.
o What worked?
o What didn’t work? How could it be fixed?
o Was the lesson varied enough? Did it use different styles of activities?
o Did you have fun? If you did, then most likely your students did too!
o Revise your lesson plan if you need to.
 How to deliver great lessons
 o be prepared
 o arrive on time
 o speak clearly and reasonably slowly
 o use body language and gestures (TPR)
 o use props, visuals, board work, realia (real life/world things), other resources
 o make the lesson interesting
 o make the lesson relevant to your students’ lives
 o use authentic materials
 o use humour, but be professional
 o use lots of encouragement and sincere praise
 o use different approaches from lesson to lesson
 o use different styles of activities to appeal to visual, auditory, tactile, and

kinaesthetic learners
 o use English only
 o keep an eye on the time and pace the lesson
 o give your students a time limit before you begin an activity (you don’t have to
stick to it!)
 o keep to rules and routines. Manage your class effectively and positively.
 o discipline with consistency and fairness to all students
 o if an activity isn’t working, give it up! Move on, revise it, try again in another
lesson.
 o if you don’t know the answer to a question, admit it
 o if you’ve made a mistake, admit it
 o show your human side!
 o don’t always correct every mistake a student makes.
 o have several means of eliciting responses
 o make sure your activities get the students practising the new language
 o have extra activities handy
 o monitor during activities. Try to get around to everyone.

 o encourage creativity and risk-taking with the language
 o be sensitive and alert to your students’ needs
 o self-evaluate each lesson
 o try to chat with other teachers daily about your lesson, or lesson planning in
general
 o during the lesson: SMILE! Have fun!
 o be aware
 o make sure your lessons display continuity
 Teaching resources websites

 Below are some examples of ESL Resource websites:

 http://www.starfall.com
 https://www.mes-english.com
 www.onestopenglish.com
 www.english-to-go.com
 www.lessonplanspage.com
 www.esl-lounge.com
 www.lyrics.com
 www.puzzlemaker.com
 You can also download our Model Lesson Plan here
 o take initiative and be creative

Unit 1: Introduction: Pre-Chapter Questions

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Unit 1: Introduction

Grammar Based Approaches

2. The Audio-Lingual Method

Audiolingualism was developed to replace grammar-translation. Through the use of this

The Direct Method

An effective communicative approach, however, involves more of a relationship between the

Module 2.0: Introduction

successful and meaningful.

Banking education says that:

o Education is an act of depositing. The student is an empty depository and the

Libertarian education involves:

o A partnership between teacher and student

o exaggeration of pronunciation and facial expression;

Student: I throw it – box. (Points to a box on the floor)

Module 2.5: When Instructed Grammar Helps

One well-known language theorist developed what is called the Learnability/Teachability

It is important also to remember that most of language cannot be reduced to teachable

o I actively seek out opportunities to speak with native English speakers.

o Focus attention as completely as possible on what is being said.

o Think about what you are going to say.

o Find out as much as you can about your topic.

Module 3.0: Introduction

It’s easy when: It’s hard when:

The right-hand column is associated with bottom-up approaches to language learning

Module 3.3: Integrating the Four Skills - Listening,

Module 3.4: Reading as an Interactive Process

Facilitating the Reading Experience

1. Predicting content and outcome:

o What do you think the story/essay/poem/song will be about? Refer the

2. Relating the text to prior knowledge:

3. Making inferences and supporting conclusions:

o What is the author attempting to tell us here? (Refer to a specific line,

4. Relating to one's self and one's culture:

o What would you have done in a similar situation?

Module 3.5: Writing as an Interactive Process

Facilitating the Writing Process

Module 4.0: Introduction

Attitude toward Self

Attitudes toward the Teacher and the Classroom Environment

As we have seen, affective factors such as self-esteem, self-confidence, motivation, and

Module 4.2: Motivation

Instrumental motivation is a desire to use the target language, here English, to obtain

Time to Talk and a Reason to Talk

Module 4.3: Level of Anxiety

Module 5.0: Introduction

Total Physical Response is a successful approach to second language teaching that

Although James Asher recommended a specific sequencing of language based on

Below is a list of a few typical commands to use in a beginner class of children:

Wave to the teacher, each other etc.

Clap your hands.

Students, students, look this way (claps to get attention of students)

2. What’s the Weather? (to the tune of Oh My Darling Clementine)

3. The Walking Song (to the tune of “Are You Sleeping”)

If you are wearing red, shake your head,

1. Bouncing the Ball

Module 6.0: Introduction

1. What do you think a “natural” approach to acquiring another language in a classroom

3. The course syllabus should be based on communicative goals. Syllabi heavily focused

Because the focus of the communicative approach is on real communication, many