Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 2077–2082

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Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Carbon dioxide heat pipe in conjunction with a ground source heat pump (GSHP)
Karl Ochsner *
Ochsner Wärmepumpen GmbH, Ochsnerstraße 1, A-3350 Stadt Haag, Austria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The principle of the heat pipe has been well-known for a long time. This system is once again gaining
Received 31 October 2007 importance by the use of the heat transfer medium CO2. Contrary to a brine heat pipe (a heating pipe that
Accepted 21 April 2008 is a single phase water pipe), a CO2 thermosyphon is a two-phase system. The advantage of this technol-
Available online 6 May 2008
ogy is that such systems are also applicable in water protection zones. Furthermore, CO2-heat pipes offer
the advantage that circulation pumps, which are needed for brine heat pipes, are unnecessary and thus
Keywords: higher seasonal performance figures (SPF) are attainable. For this reasons the author‘s company in co-
Ambient heat
operation with independent research institutions developed a new CO2-heat pipe.
Heat pipes
Ground source heat pump
The article reports on experiences with the high-grade steel corrugated pipe system, which – contrary to
CO2-heat pipe other pipe systems permits raw length up to 100 m. The article also describes the establishment of the
Subcritical–transcritical process heat pump system in general.
Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction CO2 as a heat distribution medium does not endanger ground

water, it has the advantage, that legal permission is not necessary
Ambient heat is a 100 % renewable energy source that is avail- for its use. This is very important as in water protection zones the
able anywhere by using heat pump technology, for instance with drilling for brine-tubes is not permitted.
vertical collectors using low-enthalpy geothermal heat. The utilisa- Conventional brine-tubes use different heat transfer fluids,
tion of this technology is economic, sustainable and without harm- mostly propylene, or ethylene glycol. The use of these fluids has
ful emissions on site. This is of the greatest advantage, both for disadvantages.
environmental and for economical reasons. Ambient heat is the Firstly, they show – as a function of their respective concentra-
ever present energy stored in the air, in ground water and the tion – different freezing points when mixed with water. Addition-
ground itself. Ambient heat is the result of natural processes. ally the lack of use of inhibitors leads to the corrosion of metal
Fig. 1 shows ambient heat in conjunction with other renewable en- parts in heat exchangers, brine-fixtures or circulation pumps.
ergy sources. The use of brine-tubes requires the use of a circulation pump,
Various methods can be applied for using ambient heat from which must guarantee the defined circulation of the heat transfer
the ground for heating and hot water supply of households as well fluid. This affects the SPF negatively. The use of a CO2-tube makes,
as for the air conditioning of buildings [1]: however, the use of a circulation pump unnecessary, since the CO2
is self-circulating within the tube.
 The use of groundwater as heat source. This variant is thus advantageous for economic reasons as well.
 Direct expansion/terrestrial heat register. Apart from the costs for the circulation pump itself, the user also
 Ground source glycol collectors. saves the costs for electricity to run the pump. Operating a heat
 Ground source heat pipes (without circulation pumps). pump with glycol/water mixture requires a pump rating of approx-
imately 200 W. For heating a single family house this results in a
For decades earth taps have been used for utilising the ground saving of up to 360 kW h per annum and so increases the seasonal
as a heat source. In these tubes brine circulates as a heat distribu- performance figure by 15–20% compared to conventional brine-
tion medium and absorbs the warmth from the ground. An impor- tubes. Apart from cost savings for electricity the reduction of
tant new development in this field is the CO2-tube. CO2-emissions is also to be seen as an advantage [2].
CO2 is harmless and the risks concerning the greenhouse gas
problem are, compared with other refrigerants negligible. Since 2. Thermodynamic characteristics of CO2-subcritical and
transcritical cyclic process

* Tel.: +43 7434 42451 0; fax: +43 7434 42451 25. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is an almost ideal refrigerant from an
E-mail address: Karl.ochsner@ochsner.at. ecological and safety-relevant point of view [5]. As a natural

1359-4311/$ - see front matter Ó 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2008.04.023
2078 K. Ochsner / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 2077–2082

Fig. 1. EHPA (European Heat Pump Association) categorization of renewable energies.

refrigerant it neither directly nor indirectly contributes to the Within the transcritical range (see Fig. 3) (with R744 – temper-
greenhouse effect (the direct global warming potential GWP = 1 ature over 31.1 °C) the heat output is made by cooling the gas in
is to be neglected, the ozone depleting potential ODP = 0). the gascooler. The critical pressure of R744 is much higher com-
This natural gas is chemically inactive, harmless and fire proof. pared with other refrigerants and amounts to 73.8 bar. CO2 refrig-
It is a by-product of the chemical industry, and thus very cheap to erant cycles for hot water supply and heating are mostly operated
produce. When using CO2, no special regulations for its disposal are on the high pressure side between 80 and 150 bar.
to be considered. If CO2 is used as heat transfer medium in a heat pipe then the
A property which is very substantial for the energetic use of car- thermodynamic processes – evaporation and condensation – pro-
bon dioxide is its very high volumetric cooling capacity. This value ceed in the subcritical range at a temperature of 0 °C, without addi-
is around six to eight times higher than other refrigerants such as tional external energy [6].
R407C or NH3. This high cooling capacity leads to small volumetric
flow rates and thus very small pressure losses. CO2 has a low crit- 3. Function of a CO2-tube
ical temperature of 31.1 °C and a high critical pressure of 73.8 bar.
As the heat delivery to the heat distribution medium (water of the Pumpless CO2-earth taps work on the principle of the heat pipe.
heating system) takes place in the supercritical range it is difficult A heat pipe transports warmth from a heat source to a heat pump.
to use this refrigerant efficiently within the refrigerant cycle of The heat transfer medium collects heat energy by evaporating and
heat pumps. Therefore, on the one hand, condensation tempera- delivers heat when condensing (see Fig. 4).
tures of more than 35 °C are necessary, while on the other hand In the case of the heat tube described – CO2 (which is in the
the steam pressure is changing with 1 bar/K. This means that, with two-phase state) is used as a heat transfer medium. The liquid
input temperatures to the heating system of more than 30 °C, pres- phase is in the lower range of the tube. Here, CO2 is at a pressure
sures of more than 100 bar can be measured [6]. For a comparison of approximately 40 bar.
to other refrigerants (see Table 1). The liquid CO2 evaporates at a temperature between 9 and 10 °C
The thermal absorption of R744 (CO2) heat pumps (with low and thereby collects the ambient heat. The gaseous CO2 ascends in
source temperatures and high heating temperatures) usually takes the middle of the pipe due to its smaller density (thermosyphon
place within the subcritical range (see Fig. 2), the heat output with- principle). In the upper section (head of the heat pipe) the heat en-
in the supercritical or also transcritical range. ergy is delivered into the heat exchanger of the heat pump (evap-
In the case of using HFC (hydrofluorocarbons such as R134a) as orator). As a refrigerant of the direct-expansion heat pump R407C
a refrigerant in the subcritical range, the heat output is called is used. Transferring the warmth leads to condensation of CO2. The
phase change. This process takes place in the condenser. liquid flows down the inner wall of the tube and the procedure be-
gins from new.
Opposed to a single phase brine heat pipe, a CO2-thermosyphon
Table 1 is a two-phase system with liquid and gaseous CO2.
Conventional refrigerants and their potential for ozone layer destruction and In the top of the tube, there is a collector, which is equipped
greenhouse effect with a heat exchanger. In the heat exchanger the refrigerant is
Refrigerant ODPa GWPb Critical temperature (°C) Critical pressure (bar) evaporated by taking up the warmth. The refrigerant gas is brought
to a higher pressure and temperature level by the compressor and
R744 (CO2) 0 1 31.1 73.8
R134a 0 1300 101 40.7 transfers the heat energy to the heating system.
R407C 0 1525 86.7 46 The tube consists of a pressure resistant, flexible high-grade
R410a 0 1725 72.1 49.2 steel corrugated pipe, although different pipe materials are also
Illustration of critical temperature and critical pressure [4].
in use. The tube is brought vertically into the earth whereby the
a
Ozone depletion potential. maximum depths of these patented tubes amount to approx.
b
Global warming potential. 100 m [4].
 K. Ochsner / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 2077–2082 2079

Fig. 2. Subcritical CO2-process [7].

Table 2 CO2-tubes can be installed either as a single tube or as a double

Object data and type of heating system tube version. With a single tube the danger exists that, if the pipe
Object data and heating system
diameter is too small, the liquid CO2 flowing downward interferes
with the gaseous CO2 rising upward. If the diameter is too large the
Heated area 160 m2
thin CO2-film could ‘‘tear off”. This has the consequence that not
Construction design Low energy house
Heat demand 33 W/m2 the entire length of the pipe can be used for evaporating the CO2.
Number of persons 3 With the double tube system, however, a separation of the liquid
Heating system and gaseous phases takes place. The vaporous CO2 ascends in the
Heat pump OCHSNER Golf GMDW 7 outer pipe to the heat exchanger (evaporator of the heat pump),
Heating capacity (E0/W35) 6.4 kW condenses and runs down in the inner pipe. See following Fig. 5 [1].
Heat source Ground source direct expansion, 1 CO2-tube
The use of ambient heat by a CO2-tube takes place via the com-
Heating mode Monovalent
Distribution system Floor- and wall heating system bination with a heat pump system for direct expansion. The refrig-
Flow temperature max. 35° erant of the heat pump (R407C is used in the installation example)
Hydr. decoupling 800 L buffer tank circulates in the cooling head of the CO2-tube and evaporates
Hot water supply OCHSNER Europa 303 there. As a result of this direct evaporation highest performance
figures and greatest working reliability arise, since circulation

Fig. 3. Transcritical CO2-process (Lorentzen process) [7].

2080 K. Ochsner / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 2077–2082

Fig. 4. Principle of a heat pipe [6].

pumps are not needed. Fig. 6 shows the installation system consist-
ing of CO2-tube and refrigerant cycle.

4. CO2-heat pipe – installation example Fig. 5. Single tube/double tube system [1].

One example of the realisation of a CO2-heat pipe is for a family sion system serves as heating system was built as a ‘‘low energy
house in the city of Freistadt. Freistadt is situated in the region building‘‘. It covers a heated area of 160 m2 and has a heating load
‘‘Muehlviertel” in Northern Austria. The climate zone can be de- of 33 W/m2.
scribed as low-mountain range climate. The temperatures in this For the owner of the house, the decision for a heat pump in con-
area can drop far below zero. This means strict requirements for nection with a low energy building was clear, since this repre-
house construction, insulation of buildings and for the heating sys- sented the most meaningful combination. Due to the local
tem itself. The house for which a CO2-heat pipe with direct-expan- conditions he decided for a heat pump with a CO2-tube.

Fig. 6. Cooling cycle of a direct-expansion heat pump R407C coupled with a CO2-heat pipe [8].
 K. Ochsner / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 2077–2082 2081

Fig. 7. Heat pipe with CO2: maximum heat capacity and length in function of diameter at 50 W/m [3].

The direct-expansion heat pump has a thermal output of Backfilling: during the backfilling of the CO2-tube (see Fig. 8)
7. 8 kW (E4/W35), it uses R407C as a refrigerant and is equipped which is to be done by the drilling company, it must be ensured
with a helical tube heat exchanger. It covers the space heating that a filling material with a very good conductivity is selected.
demand of the house in monovalent heating mode – the heat pump The backfilling is to be made along the entire length of the corru-
alone supplies heat during the heating season. The heat pump is gated pipe. Tubing deformations in the borehole should be
coupled with a floor and/or a wall heating system. The maximum avoided. At 40/42 bar (CO2 filling pressure) the corrugated pipe
flow temperature amounts to 35 °C. For hot water supply a sepa- could show deformations during unsuitable backfilling.
rate heat pump is used (see Table 2).
On the heat source side the direct-expansion heat pump is con-
nected with the heat transfer medium of the CO2-tube. Since CO2-
tubes reach a depth of approximately 100 m, the ambient temper-
atures amount to approximately 15 °C, the developing pressure is
at approximately 50 bar. For this reason, and because CO2 diffuses
in conventional polyethylene pipes, for this CO2-tube a pressure
resistant, flexible high-grade steel pipe was used for this CO2-tube.
The high-grade steel pipe has the advantage that the CO2-film
can run better down the tube. If diameters are too small, the CO2
evaporates before it reaches the full depth of the tube and so the
full length of the tube can not be completely used. The diameter
of the high-grade steel pipes amounts to 40 mm. This diameter en-
ables tube lengths of approximately 100 m and a thermal absorp-
tion of 50 W/m. Conventional polyethylene coated copper tubes
are produced with a maximal diameter of 14 mm. As the maximum
heat flow inside the probe is limited by physical effects and de-
pends largely on the diameter of the tube it is important to use in-
side diameters of approximately 40 mm. The advantage of tubes
with larger diameters compared to others is shown in the follow-
ing figure. For attaining the same heat flow compared to a
40 mm diameter tube, a higher number of tubes with smaller
diameters is required (see Fig. 7).
The efficiency of a CO2 tube is higher than the efficiency of
traditional brine-tubes. Reasons are the better heat transfer in
the tube, the lower temperature-differences between CO2 and
refrigerant and the fact, that no brine circulation pump is
needed.
Installation: the installation of the heat tube is similar to those
with glycol/water filling and should be carried out by the drilling
company. The flexible high-grade steel pipe is installed in the bore-
hole by means of an unwinding device. In addition a weight is fixed
at the tube for overcoming the uplift (see Fig. 8). Fig. 8. CO2-heat pipe – installation vault.
2082 K. Ochsner / Applied Thermal Engineering 28 (2008) 2077–2082

Fig. 10 shows the development of the heat pump performance

during the heating season 2006/2007. The measured seasonal per-
formance factor (SPF) amounted to 4.1 in this period. SPF is defined
as the ratio of the heat delivered and the total energy supplied over
the season. It takes into account the variable heating demands, the
variable heat source and sink temperatures over the year. This
means, that per unit of electrical driving power 4.1 units of heating
energy and more than three units of ambient heat are made avail-
able by the heat pump.

5. Conclusions

The CO2-heat pipe represents a special case of a heat pipe. It

consists of a high-grade steel corrugated pipe filled with CO2 as
heat transfer fluid.
Alternative also different materials are in use. According to the
principle of a ‘‘heat pipe” liquid CO2 runs down on the inside of the
corrugated pipe, evaporates and takes up thereby warmth from the
Fig. 9. Connection of CO2-tube. surrounding soil. This happens without auxiliary energy or any cir-
culation pump (patent Professor H. Kruse, FKW Hanover) [3].
The vaporous CO2 transfers the warmth over a heat exchanger
to the refrigerant of the heat pump. The depths of these patented
4.8
5 tubes (Prof. Horst Kruse, FKW Forschungszentrum für Kältetechnik
4.5 4.1
4.1 4.1 und Wärmepumpen, Hannover) amount to approx. 100 m. The
3.9 3.9 4 3.9
thermal absorption from the soil corresponds to that of a conven-
4
tional tube. The employment is water-economically harmless.
Performance Figures

3.5 Advantages of the CO2-tube are:

3
Small space requirement of the CO2-tube.
2.5 Source temperature is constant over the year (even at lowest
2 outside air temperatures).
Low operating costs: no circulating pump is needed.
1.5
High working reliability by closed cycle without mobile parts.
1 Environment-friendliness.
0.5
Acknowledgement
0
Oct. 06 Nov. 06 Dec. 06 Jan. 07 Feb. 07 Mar. 07 Apr. 07 SPF
The support from the EC TREN/05/FP6EN/S=/.54455/020114,
Fig. 10. Monthly performance figures and seasonal performance figures for the Network for promotion of Ecobuilding technologies, small poly-
heating season 2006/2007. generation, and renewable heating and cooling technologies for
buildings – PEP-Net‘‘ has been gratefully acknowledged.

References
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2002.
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