Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Design Details

Treatment Plant Layout and Siting

Plant layout is the arrangement of designed treatment units on the selected site. The components that need to be included in a treatment
plant, should be so laid out as to optimize land requirement, minimize lengths of interconnecting pipes and pumping heads. Access for
sludge and chemicals transporting, and for possible repairs, should be provided in the layout.
Siting is the selection of site for treatment plant based on features as character, topography, and shoreline. Site development should
take the advantage of the existing site topography. The following principles are important to consider:

1. A site on a side-hill can facilitate gravity flow that will reduce pumping requirements and locate normal sequence of units
without excessive excavation or fill.
2. When landscaping is utilized it should reflect the character of the surrounding area. Site development should alter existing
naturally stabilized site contours and drainage as little as possible.

3. The developed site should be compatible with the existing land uses and the comprehensive development plan.

Treatment Plant Hydraulics

Hydraulic profile is the graphical representation of the hydraulic grade line through the treatment plant. If the high water level in the
receiving water is known, this level is used as a control point, and the head loss computations are started backward through the plant.
The total available head at the treatment plant is the difference in water surface elevations in the interceptor and the water surface
elevation in the receiving water at high flood level. If the total available head is less than the head loss through the plant, flow by
gravity cannot be achieved. In such cases pumping is needed to raise the head so that flow by gravity can occur.
There are many basic principles that must be considered when preparing the hydraulic profile through the plant. Some are listed below:

1. The hydraulic profiles are prepared at peak and average design flows and at minimum initial flow.
2. The hydraulic profile is generally prepared for all main paths of flow through the plant.

3. The head loss through the treatment plant is the sum of head losses in the treatment units and the connecting piping and
appurtenances.

4. The head losses through the treatment unit include the following:

a. Head losses at the influent structure.

b. Head losses at the effluent structure.

c. Head losses through the unit.

d. Miscellaneous and free fall surface allowance.

5. The total loss through the connecting pipings, channels and appurtenances is the sum of following:

a. Head loss due to entrance.

b. Head loss due to exit.

c. Head loss due to contraction and enlargement.

d. Head loss due to friction.

e. Head loss due to bends, fittings, gates, valves, and meters.

f. Head required over weir and other hydraulic controls.

g. Free-fall surface allowance.

Typical  Hydraulic  Profile  Through  Treatment  Facility

 . 
 
 

Organic loading rate is defined as the application of soluble and particulate organic matter. It is typically expressed on an area basis as
pounds of BOD per unit area, such as lb BOD5/ft2 /day. Control of organic loading can be accomplished by pretreatment to reduce the
BOD and TSS concentrations or by increasing the size of the infiltration area to reduce the mass loading per unit area.
Municipal Wastewater Collection and Treatment
 Layout and Design of Municipal Sewers 
Design of Sewers
The hydraulic design of sewers and drains, which means finding out their sections and gradients, is generally carried out on the same
lines as that of the water supply pipes. However, there are two major differences between characteristics of flows in sewers and water
supply pipes. They are:

 The sewage contain particles in suspension, the heavier of which may settle down at the bottom of the sewers, as and when the
flow velocity reduces, resulting in the clogging of sewers. To avoid silting of sewers, it is necessary that the sewer pipes be
laid at such a gradient, as to generate self cleansing velocities at different possible discharges.
 The sewer pipes carry sewage as gravity conduits, and are therefore laid at a continuous gradient in the downward direction
upto the outfall point, from where it will be lifted up, treated and disposed of.

Hazen-William's formula
            U=0.85 C rH0.63S0.54
Manning's formula
            U=1/n rH2/3S1/2
where, U= velocity, m/s; rH= hydraulic radius,m; S= slope, C= Hazen-William's coefficient, and n = Manning's coefficient.
Darcy-Weisbach formula
            hL=(fLU2)/(2gd)
Minimum Velocity
The flow velocity in the sewers should be such that the suspended materials in sewage do not get silted up; i.e. the velocity should be
such as to cause automatic self-cleansing effect. The generation of such a minimum self cleansing velocity in the sewer, atleast once a
day, is important, because if certain deposition takes place and is not removed, it will obstruct free flow, causing further deposition and
finally leading to the complete blocking of the sewer.
Maximum Velocity
The smooth interior surface of a sewer pipe gets scoured due to continuous abrasion caused by the suspended solids present in sewage.
It is, therefore, necessary to limit the maximum velocity in the sewer pipe. This limiting or non-scouring velocity will mainly depend
upon the material of the sewer.
Effects of Flow Variation on Velocity in a Sewer
Due to variation in discharge, the depth of flow varies, and hence the hydraulic mean depth (r) varies. Due to the change in the
hydraulic mean depth, the flow velocity (which depends directly on r2/3) gets affected from time to time. It is necessary to check the
sewer for maintaining a minimum velocity of about 0.45 m/s at the time of minimum flow (assumed to be 1/3rd of average flow). The
designer should also ensure that a velocity of 0.9 m/s is developed atleast at the time of maximum flow and preferably during the
average flow periods also. Moreover, care should be taken to see that at the time of maximum flow, the velocity generated does not
exceed the scouring value.
Preliminary and Primary Wastewater Treatment

Screening
A screen is a device with openings for removing bigger suspended or floating matter in sewage which would otherwise damage
equipment or interfere with satisfactory operation of treatment units.
Types of Screens
Coarse Screens: Coarse screens also called racks, are usually bar screens, composed of vertical or inclined bars spaced at equal
intervals across a channel through which sewage flows. Bar screens with relatively large openings of 75 to 150 mm are provided ahead
of pumps, while those ahead of sedimentation tanks have smaller openings of 50 mm.
Bar screens are usually hand cleaned and sometimes provided with mechanical devices. These cleaning devices are rakes which
periodically sweep the entire screen removing the solids for further processing or disposal. Hand cleaned racks are set usually at an
angle of 45° to the horizontal to increase the effective cleaning surface and also facilitate the raking operations. Mechanical cleaned
racks are generally erected almost vertically. Such bar screens have openings 25% in excess of the cross section of the sewage channel.
Medium Screens: Medium screens have clear openings of 20 to 50 mm.Bar are usually 10 mm thick on the upstream side and taper
slightly to the downstream side. The bars used for screens are rectangular in cross section usually about 10 x 50 mm, placed with larger
dimension parallel to the flow.
Fine Screens: Fine screens are mechanically cleaned devices using perforated plates, woven wire cloth or very
closely spaced bars with clear openings of less than 20 mm. Fine screens are not normally suitable for sewage
because of clogging possibilities.

Velocity

The velocity of flow ahead of and through the screen varies and affects its operation. The lower the velocity through the screen, the
greater is the amount of screenings that would be removed from sewage. However, the lower the velocity, the greater would be the
amount of solids deposited in the channel. Hence, the design velocity should be such as to permit 100% removal of material of certain
size without undue depositions. Velocities of 0.6 to 1.2 mps through the open area for the peak flows have been used satisfactorily.
Further, the velocity at low flows in the approach channel should not be less than 0.3 mps to avoid deposition of solids.

Head loss
Head loss varies with the quantity and nature of screenings allowed to accumulate between cleanings. The head loss created by a clean
screen may be calculated by considering the flow and the effective areas of screen openings, the latter being the sum of the vertical
projections of the openings. The head loss through clean flat bar screens is calculated from the following formula:
           h = 0.0729 (V2 - v2)
where, h = head loss in m
          V = velocity through the screen in mps
          v = velocity before the screen in mps
Another formula often used to determine the head loss through a bar rack is Kirschmer's equation:
h =  (W/b)4/3 hv sin 
where h = head loss,m
 = bar shape factor (2.42 for sharp edge rectangular bar, 1.83 for rectangular bar with semicircle upstream, 1.79 for circular bar and
1.67 for rectangular bar with both u/s and d/s face as semicircular).
W = maximum width of bar u/s of flow, m
b = minimum clear spacing between bars, m
hv = velocity head of flow approaching rack, m = v2/2g
 = angle of inclination of rack with horizontal
The head loss through fine screen is given by
h = (1/2g) (Q/CA)
where, h = head loss, m
Q = discharge, m3/s
C = coefficient of discharge (typical value 0.6)
A = effective submerged open area, m2
The quantity of screenings depends on the nature of the wastewater and the screen openings.
Equalization Tanks
The equalization tanks are provided (i) to balance fluctuating flows or concentrations, (ii) to assist self neutralization, or (iii) to even
out the effect of a periodic "slug" discharge from a batch process.
Types of Equalization Tanks
Equalization tanks are generally of three types:

1. Flow through type

2. Intermittent flow type

3. Variable inflow/constant discharge type

The simple flow through type equalization tank is mainly useful in assisting self neutralization or evening out of fluctuating
concentrations, not for balancing of flows since a flow through type tank once filled, gives output equal to input.
Flow balancing and self-neutralization are both achieved by using two tanks, intermittently one after another. One tank is allowed to
fill up after which it is checked for pH (or any other parameter) and then allowed to empty out. The second tank goes through a similar
routine. Intermittent flow type tanks are economic for small flows from industries.
When flows are large an equalization tank of such a size may have to be provided that inflow can be variable while outflow is at a
constant rate, generally by a pump.The capacity required is determined from a plot of the cumulative inflow and a plot of the constant
rate outflow and measuring the gaps between the two plots. A factor of safety may be applied if desired.
Generally, detention time vary from 2 to 8 hours but may be even 12 hours or more in some cases. When larger detention times are
required, the equalization unit is sometimes provided in the form of facultative aerated lagoon.
 

Grit Chambers
Grit chambers are basin to remove the inorganic particles to prevent damage to the pumps, and to prevent their accumulation in sludge
digestors.
Types of Grit Chambers
Grit chambers are of two types: mechanically cleaned and manually cleaned. In mechanically cleaned grit chamber, scraper blades
collect the grit settled on the floor of the grit chamber. The grit so collected is elevated to the ground level by several mechanisms such
as bucket elevators, jet pump and air lift. The grit washing mechanisms are also of several designs most of which are agitation devices
using either water or air to produce washing action. Manually cleaned grit chambers should be cleaned atleast once a week. The
simplest method of cleaning is by means of shovel.
Aerated Grit Chamber
An aerated grit chamber consists of a standard spiral flow aeration tank provided with air diffusion tubes placed on one side of the tank.
The grit particles tend to settle down to the bottom of the tank at rates dependant upon the particle size and the bottom velocity of roll
of the spiral flow, which in turn depends on the rate of air diffusion through diffuser tubes and shape of aeration tank. The heavier
particles settle down whereas the lighter organic particles are carried with roll of the spiral motion.
Principle of Working of Grit Chamber
Grit chambers are nothing but like sedimentation tanks, designed to separate the intended heavier inorganic materials (specific gravity
about 2.65) and to pass forward the lighter organic materials. Hence, the flow velocity should neither be too low as to cause the settling
of lighter organic matter, nor should it be too high as not to cause the settlement of the silt and grit present in the sewage. This velocity
is called "differential sedimentation and differential scouring velocity". The scouring velocity determines the optimum flow through
velocity. This may be explained by the fact that the critical velocity of flow 'vc' beyond which particles of a certain size and density
once settled, may be again introduced into the stream of flow. It should always be less than the scouring velocity of grit particles. The
critical velocity of scour is given by Schield's formula:
V = 3 to 4.5 (g(Ss - 1)d)1/2
A horizontal velocity of flow of 15 to 30 cm/sec is used at peak flows. This same velocity is to be maintained at all fluctuation of flow
to ensure that only organic solids and not the grit is scoured from the bottom.
Types of Velocity Control Devices

1. A sutro weir in a channel of rectangular cross section, with free fall downstream of the channel.
2. A parabolic shaped channel with a rectangular weir.

3. A rectangular shaped channel with a parshall flume at the end which would also help easy flow measurement.

Design of Grit Chambers

Settling Velocity
The settling velocity of discrete particles can be determined using appropriate equation depending upon Reynolds number.
 Stoke's law: v= g(Ss-1)d2
                         18

Stoke's law holds good for Reynolds number,Rebelow 1.

Re=vd
         
For grit particles of specific gravity 2.65 and liquid temperature at 10°C, =1.01 x 10-6m2/s. This corresponds to particles of size less
than 0.1 mm.

 Transition law: The design of grit chamber is based on removal of grit particles with minimum size of 0.15 mm and therefore
Stoke's law is not applicable to determine the settling velocity of grit particles for design purposes.
 v2 =   4g(p-)d 
              3   CD
where, CD= drag coefficient Transition flow conditions hold good for Reynolds number,Re between 1 and 1000. In this range CD can be
approximated by
CD= 18.5 =  18.5 
       Re0.6     (vd/)0.6 
Substituting the value of CD in settling velocity equation and simplifying, we get
v =   [0.707(Ss-1)d -0.6]0.714               
Primary Sedimentation
Primary sedimentation in a municipal wastewater treatment plant is generally plain sedimentation without the use of chemicals. In
treating certain industrial wastes chemically aided sedimentation may be involved. In either case, it constitutes flocculent settling, and
the particles do not remain discrete as in the case of grit, but tend to agglomerate or coagulate during settling. Thus, their diameter
keeps increasing and settlement proceeds at an over increasing velocity. Consequently, they trace a curved profile.
The settling tank design in such cases depends on both surface loading and detention time.
Long tube settling tests can be performed in order to estimate specific value of surface loading and detention time for desired efficiency
of clarification for a given industrial wastewater using recommended methods of testing. Scale-up factors used in this case range from
1.25 to 1.75 for the overflow rate, and from 1.5 to 2.0 for detention time when converting laboratory results to the prototype design.
For primary settling tanks treating municipal or domestic sewage, laboratory tests are generally not necessary, and recommended
design values given in table may be used. Using an appropriate value of surface loading from table, the required tank area is computed.
Knowing the average depth, the detention time is then computed. Excessively high detention time (longer than 2.5 h) must be avoided
especially in warm climates where anaerobicity can be quickly induced.
Design parameters for settling tank

Overflow rate Solids loading Detention

Types of settling Depth
m3m2/day kg/m2/day time
  Average Peak Average Peak
Primary settling only 25-30 50-60 - - 2.5-3.5 2.0-2.5
Primary settling followed by secondary
35-50 60-120 - - 2.5-3.5
treatment
Primary settling with activated sludge
25-35 50-60 - - 3.5-4.5 -
return
Secondary settling for trickling filters 15-25 40-50 70-120 190 2.5-3.5 1.5-2.0
Secondary settling for activated sludge
15-35 40-50 70-140 210 3.5-4.5 -
(excluding extended aeration)
Secondary settling for extended aeration 8-15 25-35 25-120 170 3.5-4.5 -

Secondary Wastewater Treatment

Activated Sludge Process
Activated sludge plant involves:

1. wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension,

2. solid-liquid separation following aeration,

3. discharge of clarified effluent,

4. wasting of excess biomass, and

5. return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.

In activated sludge process wastewater containing organic matter is aerated in an aeration basin in which micro-organisms metabolize
the suspended and soluble organic matter. Part of organic matter is synthesized into new cells and part is oxidized to CO2 and water to
derive energy. In activated sludge systems the new cells formed in the reaction are removed from the liquid stream in the form of a
flocculent sludge in settling tanks. A part of this settled biomass, described as activated sludge is returned to the aeration tank and the
remaining forms waste or excess sludge.
Activated Sludge Process Variables
The main variables of activated sludge process are the mixing regime, loading rate, and the flow scheme.
Mixing Regime
Generally two types of mixing regimes are of major interest in activated sludge process: plug flow and complete mixing. In the first
one, the regime is characterized by orderly flow of mixed liquor through the aeration tank with no element of mixed liquor overtaking
or mixing with any other element. There may be lateral mixing of mixed liquor but there must be no mixing along the path of flow.
In complete mixing, the contents of aeration tank are well stirred and uniform throughout. Thus, at steady state, the effluent from the
aeration tank has the same composition as the aeration tank contents.
The type of mixing regime is very important as it affects (1) oxygen transfer requirements in the aeration tank, (2) susceptibility of
biomass to shock loads, (3) local environmental conditions in the aeration tank, and (4) the kinetics governing the treatment process.
Loading Rate
A loading parameter that has been developed over the years is the hydraulic retention time (HRT), q, d
q = V         
        Q

V= volume of aeration tank, m3, and Q= sewage inflow, m3/d 

Design of Activated Sludge Systems

Design Consideration
The items for consideration in the design of activated sludge plant are aeration tank capacity and dimensions, aeration facilities,
secondary sludge settling and recycle and excess sludge wasting.
Aeration Tank
The volume of aeration tank is calculated for the selected value of qc by assuming a suitable value of MLSS concentration, X.
 VX = YQqc(SO - S) 
           1+ kdqc
Alternately, the tank capacity may be designed from
F/M = QSO / XV
Hence, the first step in designing is to choose a suitable value of qc (or F/M) which depends on the expected winter temperature of
mixed liquor, the type of reactor, expected settling characteristics of the sludge and the nitrification required. The choice generally lies
between 5 days in warmer climates to 10 days in temperate ones where nitrification is desired alongwith good BOD removal, and
complete mixing systems are employed.
The second step is to select two interrelated parameters HRT, t and MLSS concentration. It is seen that economy in reactor volume
can be achieved by assuming a large value of X. However, it is seldom taken to be more than 5000 g/m 3. For typical domestic sewage,
the MLSS value of 2000-3000 mg/l if conventional plug flow type aeration system is provided, or 3000-5000 mg/l for completely
mixed types. Considerations which govern the upper limit are: initial and running cost of sludge recirculation system to maintain a high
value of MLSS, limitations of oxygen transfer equipment to supply oxygen at required rate in small reactor volume, increased solids
loading on secondary clarifier which may necessitate a larger surface area, design criteria for the tank and minimum HRT for the
aeration tank.
The length of the tank depends upon the type of activated sludge plant. Except in the case of extended aeration plants and completely
mixed plants, the aeration tanks are designed as long narrow channels. The width and depth of the aeration tank depends on the type of
aeration equipment employed. The depth control the aeration efficiency and usually ranges from 3 to 4.5 m. The width controls the
mixing and is usually kept between 5 to 10 m. Width-depth ratioshould be adjusted to be between 1.2 to 2.2. The length should not be
less than 30 or not ordinarily longer than 100 m.
Oxygen Requirements
Oxygen is reqiured in the activated sludge process for the oxidation of a part of the influent organic matter and also for the endogenous
respiration of the micro-organisms in the system. The total oxygen requirement of the process may be formulated as follows:
O2 required (g/d) = Q(SO - S) - 1.42 QwXr
                                   f
where, f = ratio of BOD5 to ultimate BOD and 1.42 = oxygen demand of biomass (g/g)
The formula does not allow for nitrification but allows only for carbonaceous BOD removal.
Aeration Facilities
The aeration facilities of the activated sludge plant are designed to provide the calculated oxygen demand of the wastewater against a
specific level of dissolved oxygen in the wastewater.
Secondary Settling
Secondary settling tanks, which receive the biologically treated flow undergo zone or compression settling. Zone settling occurs
beyond a certain concentration when the particles are close enough together that interparticulate forces may hold the particles fixed
relative to one another so that the whole mass tends to settle as a single layer or "blanket" of sludge.
Compression settling may occur at the bottom of a tank if particles are in such a concentration as to be in physical contact with one
another. The weight of particles is partly supported by the lower layers of particles, leading to progressively greater compression with
depth and thickening of sludge. From the settling column test, the limiting solids flux required to reach any desired underflow
concentration can be estimated, from which the rquired tank area can be computed.
The solids load on the clarifier is estimated in terms of (Q+R)X, while the overflow rate or surface loading is estimated in terms of flow
Q only (not Q+R) since the quantity R is withdrawn from the bottom and does not contribute to the overflow from the tank. The
secondary settling tank is particularly sensitive to fluctuations in flow rate and on this account it is recommended that the units be
designed not only for average overflow rate but also for peak overflow rates. Beyond an MLSS concentration of 2000 mg/l the clarifier
design is often controlled by the solids loading rate rather than the overflow rate.
Sludge Recycle
The MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is controlled by the sludge recirculation rate and the sludge settleability and thickening in
the secondary sedimentation tank.
Qr =   X  
Q     Xr-X
where Qr = Sludge recirculation rate, m3/d
The sludge settleability is determined by sludge volume index (SVI) defined as volume occupied in mL by one gram of solids in the
mixed liquor after settling for 30 min. If it is assumed that sedimentation of suspended solids in the laboratory is similar to that in
sedimentation tank, then Xr = 106/SVI. Values of SVI between 100 and 150 ml/g indicate good settling of suspended solids. The
Xr value may not be taken more than 10,000 g/m3 unless separate thickeners are provided to concentrate the settled solids or secondary
sedimentation tank is designed to yield a higher value.
Excess Sludge Wasting
The sludge in the aeration tank has to be wasted to maintain a steady level of MLSS in the system. The excess sludge quantity will
increase with increasing F/M and decrease with increasing temperature. Excess sludge may be wasted either from the sludge return line
or directly from the aeration tank as mixed liquor. The latter is preferred as the sludge concentration is fairly steady in that case. The
excess sludge generated under steady state operation may be estimated by
qc =   VX  
       QwXr
or QwXr = YQ (SO - S) - kd XV
Design of Completely Mixed Activated Sludge System
Design a completely mixed activated sludge system to serve 60000 people that will give a final effluent that is nitrified and has 5-day
BOD not exceeding 25 mg/l. The following design data is available.
Sewage flow = 150 l/person-day = 9000 m3/day 
BOD5 = 54 g/person-day = 360 mg/l ; BODu = 1.47 BOD5
Total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) = 8 g/person-day = 53 mg/l
Phosphorus = 2 g/person-day = 13.3 mg/l
Winter temperature in aeration tank = 18°C
Yield coefficient Y = 0.6 ; Decay constant Kd = 0.07 per day ; Specific substrate utilization rate = (0.038 mg/l)-1 (h)-1 at 18°C 
Assume 30% raw BOD5 is removed in primary sedimentation, and BOD5 going to aeration is, therefore, 252 mg/l (0.7 x 360 mg/l).
Design:
(a) Selection of  qc, t and MLSS concentration:
Considering the operating temperature and the desire to have nitrification and good sludge settling characteristics, adopt qc = 5d. As
there is no special fear of toxic inflows, the HRT, t may be kept between 3-4 h, and MLSS = 4000 mg/l.
(b) Effluent BOD5:
Substrate concentration, S =  1 (1/qc + kd)=         1     (1/5 + 0.07)
                                         qY                (0.038)(0.6)
S = 12 mg/l. 
Assume suspended solids (SS) in effluent = 20 mg/l and VSS/SS =0.8. 
If degradable fraction of volatile suspended solids (VSS) =0.7 (check later), BOD5 of VSS in effluent = 0.7(0.8x20) = 11mg/l.
Thus, total effluent BOD5 = 12 + 11 = 23 mg/l (acceptable).
(c) Aeration Tank:
VX = YQqc(SO - S) where X = 0.8(4000) = 3200 mg/l 
         1+ kdqc
or 3200 V = (0.6)(5)(9000)(252-12) 
                       [1 + (0.07)(5)] 
      V = 1500 m3
Detention time, t = 1500 x 24 = 4h 
                               9000
F/M = (252-12)(9000) = 0.45 kg BOD5 per kg MLSS per day
          (3200) (1500)
Let the aeration tank be in the form of four square shaped compartments operated in two parallel rows, each with two cells measuring
11m x 11m x 3.1m
(d) Return Sludge Pumping:
If suspended solids concentration of return flow is 1% = 10,000 mg/l
R =        MLSS     = 0.67 
      (10000)-MLSS 
Qr = 0.67 x 9000 = 6000 m3/d
(e) Surplus Sludge Production:
Net VSS produced QwXr = VX =  (3200)(1500)(103/106) = 960 kg/d
                                     qc                   (5)
or SS produced =960/0.8 = 1200 kg/d
If SS are removed as underflow with solids concentration 1% and assuming specific gravity of sludge as 1.0,
Liquid sludge to be removed = 1200 x 100/1 = 120,000 kg/d
                                                              = 120 m3/d
(f) Oxygen Requirement:

1. For carbonaceous demand, 

oxygen required = (BODu removed) - (BODu of solids leaving) 
                       = 1.47 (2160 kg/d) - 1.42 (960 kg/d)
                       = 72.5 kg/h
2. For nitrification, 
oxygen required = 4.33 (TKN oxidized, kg/d) 
Incoming TKN at 8.0 g/ person-day = 480 kg/day. Assume 30% is removed in primary sedimentation and the balance 336
kg/day is oxidized to nitrates. Thus, oxygen required
                       = 4.33 x 336 = 1455 kg/day = 60.6 kg/h

3. Total oxygen required

        = 72.5 + 60.6 = 133 kg/h = 1.0 kg/kg of BODu removed.

Oxygen uptake rate per unit tank volume = 133/1500 

                      = 90.6 mg/h/l tank volume
(g) Power Requirement:
Assume oxygenation capacity of aerators at field conditions is only 70% of the capacity at standard conditions and mechanical aerators
are capable of giving 2 kg oyxgen per kWh at standard conditions.
Power required =   136   = 97 kW (130 hp) 
                        0.7 x 2
                      = (97 x 24 x 365) / 60,000 = 14.2 kWh/year/person

 Aerator Design for Activated Sludge Process

Aeration Facilities
The aeration facilities of the activated sludge plant are designed to provide the calculated oxygen demand of the wastewater against a
specific level of dissolved oxygen in the wastewater.
Secondary Settling
Secondary settling tanks, which receive the biologically treated flow undergo zone or compression settling. Zone settling occurs
beyond a certain concentration when the particles are close enough together that interparticulate forces may hold the particles fixed
relative to one another so that the whole mass tends to settle as a single layer or "blanket" of sludge. The rate at which a sludge blanket
settles can be determined by timing its position in a settling column test whose results can be plotted as shown in figure.
Compression settling may occur at the bottom of a tank if particles are in such a concentration as to be in physical contact with one
another. The weight of particles is partly supported by the lower layers of particles, leading to progressively greater compression with
depth and thickening of sludge. From the settling column test, the limiting solids flux required to reach any desired underflow
concentration can be estimated, from which the rquired tank area can be computed.
The solids load on the clarifier is estimated in terms of (Q+R)X, while the overflow rate or surface loading is estimated in terms of flow
Q only (not Q+R) since the quantity R is withdrawn from the bottom and does not contribute to the overflow from the tank. The
secondary settling tank is particularly sensitive to fluctuations in flow rate and on this account it is recommended that the units be
designed not only for average overflow rate but also for peak overflow rates. Beyond an MLSS concentration of 2000 mg/l the clarifier
design is often controlled by the solids loading rate rather than the overflow rate.
Sludge Recycle
The MLSS concentration in the aeration tank is controlled by the sludge recirculation rate and the sludge settleability and thickening in
the secondary sedimentation tank.
Qr =   X  
Q     Xr-X
where Qr = Sludge recirculation rate, m3/d
The sludge settleability is determined by sludge volume index (SVI) defined as volume occupied in mL by one gram of solids in the
mixed liquor after settling for 30 min. If it is assumed that sedimentation of suspended solids in the laboratory is similar to that in
sedimentation tank, then Xr = 106/SVI. Values of SVI between 100 and 150 ml/g indicate good settling of suspended solids. The
Xr value may not be taken more than 10,000 g/m3 unless separate thickeners are provided to concentrate the settled solids or secondary
sedimentation tank is designed to yield a higher value.
Excess Sludge Wasting
The sludge in the aeration tank has to be wasted to maintain a steady level of MLSS in the system. The excess sludge quantity will
increase with increasing F/M and decrease with increasing temperature. Excess sludge may be wasted either from the sludge return line
or directly from the aeration tank as mixed liquor. The latter is preferred as the sludge concentration is fairly steady in that case. The
excess sludge generated under steady state operation may be estimated by
qc =   VX  
       QwXr
or QwXr = YQ (SO - S) - kd XV

Trickling Filter Fundamentals and Design

Trickling Filters
Trickling filter is an attached growth process i.e. process in which microorganisms responsible for treatment are attached to an inert
packing material. Packing material used in attached growth processes include rock, gravel, slag, sand, redwood, and a wide range of
plastic and other synthetic materials.
Process Description

 The wastewater in trickling filter is distributed over the top area of a vessel containing non-submerged packing material.
 Air circulation in the void space, by either natural draft or blowers, provides oxygen for the microorganisms growing as an
attached biofilm.

 During operation, the organic material present in the wastewater is metabolised by the biomass attached to the medium. The
biological slime grows in thickness as the organic matter abstracted from the flowing wastewater is synthesized into new
cellular material.

 The thickness of the aerobic layer is limited by the depth of penetration of oxygen into the microbial layer.

 The micro-organisms near the medium face enter the endogenous phase as the substrate is metabolised before it can reach the
micro-organisms near the medium face as a result of increased thickness of the slime layer and loose their ability to cling to
 the media surface. The liquid then washes the slime off the medium and a new slime layer starts to grow. This phenomenon of
losing the slime layer is called sloughing.

 The sloughed off film and treated wastewater are collected by an underdrainage which also allows circulation of air through
filter. The collected liquid is passed to a settling tank used for solid- liquid separation.

Types of Filters
Trickling filters are classified as high rate or low rate, based on the organic and hydraulic loading applied to the unit.

S.No. Design Feature Low Rate Filter High Rate Filter

Hydraulic loading,
1. 1-4 10 - 40
m3/m2.d
Organic loading,kg BOD
2. 0.08 - 0.32 0.32 - 1.0
/ m3.d
3. Depth, m. 1.8 - 3.0 0.9 - 2.5
0.5 - 3.0 (domestic wastewater) upto 8 for strong
4. Recirculation ratio 0
industrial wastewater.
 The hydraulic loading rate is the total flow including recirculation appied on unit area of the filter in a day, while the organic
loading rate is the 5 day 20°C BOD, excluding the BOD of the recirculant, applied per unit volume in a day.
 Recirculation is generally not adopted in low rate filters.

 A well operated low rate trickling filter in combination with secondary settling tank may remove 75 to 90% BOD and produce
highly nitrified effluent. It is suitable for treatment of low to medium strength domestic wastewaters.

 The high rate trickling filter, single stage or two stage are recommended for medium to relatively high strength domestic and
industrial wastewater. The BOD removal efficiency is around 75 to 90% but the effluent is only partially nitrified.

 Single stage unit consists of a primary settling tank, filter, secondary settling tank and facilities for recirculation of the
effluent. Two stage filters consist of two filters in series with a primary settling tank, an intermediate settling tank which may
be omitted in certain cases and a final settling tank.

Process Design

Generally trickling filter design is based on empirical relationships to find the required filter volume for a designed degree of
wastewater treatment. Types of equations:

1. NRC equations (National Research Council of USA)

2. Rankins equation

3. Eckenfilder equation

4. Galler and Gotaas equation

NRC and Rankin's equations are commonly used. NRC equations give satisfactory values when there is no re-circulation, the seasonal
variations in temperature are not large and fluctuations with high organic loading. Rankin's equation is used for high rate filters.
NRC equations: These equations are applicable to both low rate and high rate filters. The efficiency of single stage or first stage of two
stage filters, E2 is given by
E2=              100               
       1+0.44(F1.BOD/V1.Rf1)1/2
For the second stage filter, the efficiency E3 is given by
E3=                      100                       
      [(1+0.44)/(1- E2)](F2.BOD/V2.Rf2)1/2
where E2= % efficiency in BOD removal of single stage or first stage of two-stage filter, E3=% efficiency of second stage filter, F1.BOD=
BOD loading of settled raw sewage in single stage of the two-stage filter in kg/d, F2.BOD= F1.BOD(1- E2)= BOD loading on second-stage
filter in kg/d, V1= volume of first stage filter, m3; V2= volume of second stage filter, m3; Rf1= Recirculation factor for first stage, R1=
Recirculation ratio for first stage filter, Rf2= Recirculation factor for second stage, R2= Recirculation ratio for second stage filter.
Rankins equation: This equation also known as Tentative Method of Ten States USA has been successfully used over wide range of
temperature. It requires following conditions to be observed for single stage filters:

1. Raw settled domestic sewage BOD applied to filters should not exceed 1.2 kg BOD5/day/ m3 filter volume.
2. Hydraulic load (including recirculation) should not exceed 30 m3/m2 filter surface-day.

3. Recirculation ratio (R/Q) should be such that BOD entering filter (including recirculation) is not more than three times the
BOD expected in effluent. This implies that as long as the above conditions are satisfied efficiency is only a function of
recirculation and is given by:

               E =   (R/Q) + 1  

                     (R/Q) + 1.5  

Design of Anaerobic Reactors

Anaerobic Reactor
Various types of anaerobic units that have been developed are as follows:

 Upflow anaerobic filters packed with either pebbles, stones, PVC sheets, etc. as media to support submerged biological
growths (fixed film). The units are reported to work well but a likely problem is accumulation of solids in the interstices.
 Downflow anaerobic filters packed with similar media as above but not to be confused with usual trickling filters which are
aerobic. In the anaerobic units, the inlet and outlet are so placed that the media and fixed film stay submerged.

 UASB type units in which no special media have to be used since the sludge granules themselves act as the 'media' and stay in
suspension. These are commonly preffered.

 Fluidized bed units filled with sand or plastic granules are used with recirculation under required pressure to keep the entire
mass fluidized and the sludge distributed over the entire reactor volume. Their power consumption is higher.

Design of UASB Reactors

UASB Units
UASB type units are one in which no special media have to be used since the sludge granules themselves act as the 'media' and stay in
suspension. UASB system is not patented. A typical arrangement of a UASB type treatment plant for municipal sewage would be as
follows:

1. Initial pumping
2. Screening and degritting

3. Main UASB reactor

4. Gas collection and conversion or conveyance

5. Sludge drying bed

6. Post treatment facility

In the UASB process, the whole waste is passed through the anaerobic reactor in an upflow mode, with a hydraulic retention time
(HRT) of only about 8-10 hours at average flow. No prior sedimentation is required. The anaerobic unit does not need to be filled with
stones or any other media; the upflowing sewage itself forms millions of small "granules" or particles of sludge which are held in
suspension and provide a large surface area on which organic matter can attach and undergo biodegradation. A high solid retention time
(SRT) of 30-50 or more days occurs within the unit. No mixers or aerators are required. The gas produced can be collected and used if
desired. Anaerobic systems function satisfactorily when temperatures inside the reactor are above 18-20°C. Excess sludge is removed
from time to time through a separate pipe and sent to a simple sand bed for drying.
Design Approach
Size of Reactor: Generally, UASBs are considered where temperature in the reactors will be above 20°C. At equilibrium condition,
sludge withdrawn has to be equal to sludge produced daily. The sludge produced daily depends on the characteristics of the raw
wastewater since it is the sum total of (i) the new VSS produced as a result of BOD removal, the yield coefficient being assumed as 0.1
g VSS/ g BOD removed, (ii) the non-degradable residue of the VSS coming in the inflow assuming 40% of the VSS are degraded and
residue is 60%, and (iii) Ash received in the inflow, namely TSS-VSS mg/l. Thus, at steady state conditions,
SRT= Total sludge present in reactor, kg 
         Sludge withdrawn per day, kg/d
     = 30 to 50 days.
Another parameter is HRT which is given by:
HRT= Reactor volume, m3 
         Flow rate, m3/h
     = 8 to 10 h or more at average flow.
The reactor volume has to be so chosen that the desired SRT value is achieved. This is done by solving for HRT from SRT equation
assuming (i) depth of reactor (ii) the effective depth of the sludge blanket, and (iii) the average concentration of sludge in the blanket
(70 kg/m3). The full depth of the reactor for treating low BOD municipal sewage is often 4.5 to 5.0 m of which the sludge blanket itself
may be 2.0 to 2.5 m depth. For high BOD wastes, the depth of both the sludge blanket and the reactor may have to be increased so that
the organic loading on solids may be kept within the prescribed range.
Once the size of the reactor is fixed, the upflow velocity can be determined from
Upflow velocity m/h = Reactor height
                                     HRT, h
Using average flow rate one gets the average HRT while the peak flow rate gives the minimum HRT at which minimum exposure to
treatment occurs. In order to retain any flocculent sludge in reactor at all times, experience has shown that the upflow velocity should
not be more than 0.5 m/h at average flow and not more than 1.2 m/h at peak flow. At higher velocities, carry over of solids might occur
and effluent quality may be deteriorated. The feed inlet system is next designed so that the required length and width of the UASB
reactor are determined.
The settling compartment is formed by the sloping hoods for gas collection. The depth of the compartment is 2.0 to 2.5 m and the
surface overflow rate kept at 20 to 28 m3/m2-day (1 to 1.2 m/h) at peak flow. The flow velocity through the aperture connecting the
reaction zone with the settling compartment is limited to not more than 5 m/h at peak flow. Due attention has to be paid to the geometry
of the unit and to its hydraulics to ensure proper working of the "Gas-Liquid-Solid-Separator (GLSS)" the gas collection hood, the
incoming flow distribution to get spatial uniformity and the outflowing effluent.
Physical Parameters
A single module can handle 10 to 15 MLD of sewage. For large flows a number of modules could be provided. Some physical details
of a typical UASB reactor module are given below:

Reactor
Rectangular or circular. Rectangular shape is preferred
configuration
Depth 4.5 to 5.0 m for sewage.
To limit lengths of inlet laterals to around 10-12 m for facilitating uniform
Width or diameter
flow distribution and sludge withdrawal.
Length As necessary.
gravity feed from top (preferred for municipal sewage) or pumped feed from
Inlet feed bottom through manifold and laterals (preferred in case of soluble industrial
wastewaters).
Sludge blanket
2 to 2.5 m for sewage. More depth is needed for stronger wastes.
depth
This is a deflector beam which together with the gas hood (slope 60) forms a
"gas-liquid-solid-separator" (GLSS) letting the gas go to the gas collection
channel at top, while the liquid rises into the settler compartment and the
Deflector/GLSS
sludge solids fall back into the sludge compartment. The flow velocity through
the aperture connecting the reaction zone with the settling compartmentt is
generally limited to about 5m/h at peak flow.
Settler
2.0-2.5 m in depth. Surface overflow rate equals 20-28 m3/m2/d at peak flow.
compartment

Process Design Parameters

A few process design parameters for UASBs are listed below for municipal sewages with BOD about 200-300 mg/l and temperatures
above 20°C.
HRT 8-10 hours at average flow (minimum 4 hours at peak flow)
SRT 30-50 days or more
Sludge blanket concentration
15-30 kg VSS per m3. About 70 kg TSS per m3.
(average)
Organic loading on sludge 0.3-1.0 kg COD/kg VSS day (even upto 10 kg COD/ kg VSS day
blanket for agro-industrial wastes).
1-3 kg COD/m3 day for domestic sewage (10-15 kg COD/m3 day
Volumetric organic loading
for agro-industrial wastes)
BOD/COD removal efficiency Sewage 75-85% for BOD. 74-78% for COD.
Inlet points Minimum 1 point per 3.7-4.0 m2 floor area.
Either constant rate for pumped inflows or typically fluctuating
Flow regime
flows for gravity systems.
About 0.5 m/h at average flow, or 1.2 m/h at peak flow,
Upflow velocity
whichever is low.
Sludge production 0.15-0.25 kg TS per m3 sewage treated.
Sludge drying time Seven days (in India)
Theoretical 0.38 m3/kg COD removed. Actual 0.1-0.3 m3 per kg
Gas production
COD removed.
Method of use is optional. 1 m3 biogas with 75% methane content
Gas utilization
is equivalent to 1.4 kWh electricity.
Nutrients nitrogen and
5 to 10% only.
phosphorus removal

 Tertiary and Advanced Treatment

Nitrification-Denitrification Systems
A certain amount of nitrogen removal (20-30%) occurs in conventional activated sludge systems. Nitrogen removal ranging from 70 to
90 % can be obtained by use of nitrification-denitrification method in plants based on activated sludge and other suspended growth
systems. Biological denitrification requires prior nitrification of all ammonia and organic nitrogen in the incoming waste.
Nitrification
There are two groups of chemoautotrophic bacteria that can be associated with the process of nitrification. One group (Nitrosomonas)
derives its energy through the oxidation of ammonium to nitrite, whereas the other group (Nitrobacter) obtains energy through the
oxidation of nitrite to nitrate. Both the groups, collectively called Nitrifiers, obtain carbon required, from inorganic carbon forms.
Nitrification of ammonia to nitrate is a two step process:
                                   Nitrosomonas            Nitrobacter
NH3      NH4  NO2     NO3
Stoichiometrically, 4.6 kg of oxygen is required for nitrifying 1 kg of nitrogen. Under steady state conditions, experimental evidence
has shown nitrite accumulation to be insignificant. This suggests that the rate-limiting step for the conversion of ammonium to nitrate is
the oxidation of ammonium to nitrite by the genus Nitrosomonas.
qc =  1 
       m
where m is the growth rate of nitrosomonas at the worst operating temperature. Sludge age (or mean cell residence time), qc in a
treatment plant must be sufficiently high if nitrification is desired.

Combined and Separate Systems of Biological Oxidation & Nitrification

ollowing figure shows flow sheets for combined and separate systems for biological oxidation and nitrification. 
Combined system is favoured method of operation as it is less sensitive to load variations - owing to larger sized aeration tank -
generally produces a smaller volume of surplus sludge owing to higher values of qc adopted, and better sludge settleability.
Care should be taken to ensure that the oxygenation capacity of aeration tank is sufficient to meet oxygen uptake due to carbonaceous
demand and nitrification. Recycling of sludge must be rapid enough to prevent denitrification (and rising sludge) owing to anoxic
conditions in the settling tank.
In separate system, the first tank can be smaller in size since a higher F/M ratio can be used, but this makes the system somewhat more
sensitive to load variations and also tends to produce more sludge for disposal. An additional settling tank is also necessary between the
two aeration tanks to keep the two sludges separate. A principal advantage of this system is its higher efficiency of nitrification and its
better performance when toxic substances are feared to be in the inflow.
. Biological Denitrification

The four basic processes that are used are: (1) ammonia stripping,
(2) selective ion exchange, (3) break point chlorination, and 
(4) biological nitrification/denitrification.
Biological nitrification/denitrification is a two step process. The first step is nitrification, which is conversion of ammonia to nitrate
through the action of nitrifying bacteria. The second step is nitrate conversion (denitrification), which is carried out by facultative
heterotrophic bacteria under anoxic conditions.
Microbiological Aspects of Denitrification

 Nitrate conversion takes place through both assimilatory and dissimilatory cellular functions. In assimilatory denitrification,
nitrate is reduced to ammonia, which then serves as a nitrogen source for cell synthesis. Thus, nitrogen is removed from the
liquid stream by incorporating it into cytoplasmic material.
 In dissimilatory denitrification, nitrate serves as the electron acceptor in energy metabolism and is converted to various
gaseous end products but principally molecular nitrogen, N2, which is then stripped from the liquid stream.

 Because the microbial yield under anoxic conditions is considerably lower than under aerobic conditions, a relatively small
fraction of the nitrogen is removed through assimilation. Dissimilatory denitrification is, therfore, the primary means by which
nitrogen removal is achieved.

 A carbon source is also essential as electron donor for denitrification to take place. This source may be in the form of carbon
internally available in sewage or artificially added (eg. as methanol). Since most community wastewaters have a higher ratio
of BOD:N, the internally available carbon becomes attractive and economical for denitrification.

Denitrification releases nitrogen which escapes as an inert gas to the atmosphere while oxygen released stays dissolved in the
liquid and thus reduces the oxygen input needed into the system. Each molecule of nitrogen needs 4 molecules of oxygen
during nitrification but releases back 2.5 molecules in denitrification. Thus, theoretically, 62.5% of the oxygen used is released
back in denitrification.
Typical Flowsheets for Denitrification
Denitrification in suspended growth systems can be achieved using anyone of the typical flowsheets shown in the figure.

 The use of methanol or any other artificial carbon source should be avoided as far as possible since it adds to the cost of
treatment and also some operating difficulties may arise fro dosing rate of methanol. Too much would introduce an
unnecessary BOD in the effluent while too little would leave some nitrates undernitrified.
 A more satisfactory arrangement would be to use the carbon contained in the waste itself. However, the anoxic tank has to be
of sufficient detention time for denitrification to occur which, has a slower rate; since the corresponding oxygen uptake rate of
the mixed liquor is mainly due to endogenous respiration and is thus low. The denitrification rate, therefore, in a way also
depends on the F/M ratio in the prior aeration tank.

 Consequently, if desired, a portion of the raw waste may be bypassed to enter directly into the anoxic tank and thus contribute
to an increased respiration rate. This reduces the sizes of both the anoxic and aeration tanks, but the denitrification efficiency
is reduced as the bypassed unnitrified ammonia can not be denitrified.

 By reversing the relative positions of anoxic and aerobic tanks, the oxygen requirement of the waste in its anoxic state is met
by the release of oxygen from nitrates in the recycled flow taken from the end of nitrification tank. Primary settling of the raw
waste may be omitted so as to bring more carbon into the anoxic tank.

 More complete nitrification-denitrification can be achieved by Bardenpho arrangement. The first anoxic tank has the
advantage of higher denitrification rate while the nitrates remaining in the liquor passing out of the tank can be denitrified
further in a second anoxic tank through endogenous respiration.

 The flow from anoxic tank is desirable to reaerate for 10-15 minutes to drive off nitrogen gas bubbles and add oxygen prior to
sedimentation.

 Residuals Management
Sludge Digestion

Sludge digestion involves the treatment of highly concentrated organic wastes in the absence of oxygen by anaerobic bacteria.The anaerobic
treatment of organic wastes resulting in the production of carbon dioxide and methane, involves two distinct stages. In the first stage, referred
to as "acid fermentation", complex waste components, including fats, proteins, and polysaccharides are first hydrolyzed by a heterogeneous
group of facultative and anaerobic bacteria. These bacteria then subject the products of hydrolysis to fermentations, b-oxidations, and other
metabolic processes leading to the formation of simple organic compounds, mainly short-chain (volatile) acids and alcohols. However in the
second stage, referred to as "methane fermentation", the end products of the first stage are converted to gases (mainly methane and carbon
dioxide) by several different species of strictly anaerobic bacteria.
Digestion Tanks or Digesters: A sludge digestion tank is a RCC or steel tank of cylindrical shape with hopper bottom and is covered with
fixed or floating type of roofs.

Types of Anaerobic Digesters: The anaerobic digesters are of two types: standard rate and high rate. In the standard rate digestion process,
the digester contents are usually unheated and unmixed. The digestion period may vary from 30 to 60 d. In a high rate digestion process, the
digester contents are heated and completely mixed. The required detention period is 10 to 20 d.

Often a combination of standard and high rate digestion is achieved in two-stage digestion. The second stage digester mainly separates the
digested solids from the supernatant liquor: although additional digestion and gas recovery may also be achieved.
Design Details
Generally digesters are designed to treat for a capacity upto 4 MLD.

1. Tank sizes are not less than 6 m diameter and not more than 55 m diameter.
2. Liquid depth may be 4.5 to 6 m and not greater than 9 m.

3. The digester capacity may be determined from the relationship 

              V = [Vf-2/3 (Vf - Vd)]t1 + Vdt2 

where V = capacity of digester in m3, Vf = volume of fresh sludge m3/d, Vd = volume of daily digested sludge accumulation in tank
m3/d, t1= digestion time in days required for digestion, d, and t2 = period of digested sludge storage.

Gas Collection

The amount of sludge gas produced varies from 0.014 to 0.028 m3per capita. The sludge gas is normally composed of 65% methane and 30%
carbondioxide and remaining 5% of nitrogen and other inert gases, with a calorific value of 5400 to 5850 kcal/m3.