Oxford Excellence For Cambridge AS & A Level

Oxford excellence for Cambridge AS & A Level
Contents
Introduction 6
AS Level
Topic 1: Financial accounting 8
Section 1.1: The accounting cycle 8
Chapter 1.1.1: An introduction to double-entry bookkeeping 9
Chapter 1.1.2: Source documents and books of prime entry 25
Chapter 1.1.3: Preparing the books of account 47
Chapter 1.1.4: Capital and revenue expenditure 61
Chapter 1.1.5: Accounting concepts and principles 64
Section 1.2: Accounting for non-current assets 69
Chapter 1.2.1: Accounting for non-current assets 70
Section 1.3: Reconciliation and verification 80
Chapter 1.3.1: Verification: trial balance 81
Chapter 1.3.2: Verification: bank reconciliation 90
Chapter 1.3.3: Verification: ledger control accounts 97
Section 1.4: Preparation of financial statements 105
Chapter 1.4.2A: Sole traders: preparation of accounts 106
Chapter 1.4.1: Adjustments to financial statements 115
Chapter 1.4.2B: Final accounts from incomplete records 122
Chapter 1.4.3A: Partnerships: preparation of accounts 140
Chapter 1.4.3B: Dissolution of partnerships 166
Chapter 1.4.4A: Limited companies: structure and
accounting for share issues 174
Chapter 1.4.4B: Limited companies: financial statements 187
Section 1.5: Analysis and communication of accounting
information to stakeholders 202
Chapter 1.5.1: Analysis and communication of accounting
information to stakeholders 203
Exam-style questions 220
Contents
Topic 2: Cost and management accounting 223

Section 2.1: Costing for materials and labour 223
Chapter 2.1.1: Costing principles 224
Section 2.2: Traditional costing methods 230
Chapter 2.2.1: Absorption costing 231
Chapter 2.2.2: Marginal costing 240
Chapter 2.2.3A: Cost–volume–profit analysis 254
Chapter 2.2.3B: Unit, job and batch costing 258
Section 2.3: The application of accounting to business
planning 262
Chapter 2.3.1: The application of accounting to business
planning 263
A Level
Topic 1: Financial accounting 269
Section 1.1: Preparation of financial statements 269
Chapter 1.1.1: Manufacturing businesses 270
Chapter 1.1.2: Not-for-profit organisations 283
Chapter 1.1.3: Limited liability companies 298
Chapter 1.1.4: International accounting standards 310
Chapter 1.1.5: Auditing and stewardship of limited
companies 326
Section 1.2: Business purchase and merger 332
Chapter 1.2.1: Business purchase and merger 333
Section 1.3: Consignment and joint venture accounts 354
Chapter 1.3.1: Consignment and joint venture accounts 355
Section 1.4: Computerised accounting systems 365
Chapter 1.4.1: Computerised accounting systems 366
Section 1.5: Analysis and communication of accounting
information 372
Chapter 1.5.1: Further interpretation and analysis ratios 373
Contents
Topic 2: Cost and management accounting 393

Section 2.1: Activity-based costing (ABC) 393
Chapter 2.1.1: Activity-based costing (ABC) 394
Section 2.2: Budgeting and budgetary control 402
Chapter 2.2.1: Budgeting and budgetary control 403
Section 2.3: Standard costing 420
Chapter 2.3.1: Standard costing 421
Section 2.4: Investment appraisal 437
Chapter 2.4.1: Investment appraisal and sensitivity analysis 438
Index 453
Access your support website: www.oxfordsecondary.com/9780198399711
Introduction
Welcome to your study of Accounting

The study of accounting provides an excellent introduction to
understanding so many aspects of the way in which businesses and
other organisations operate. For many it will give an opportunity to
take the first steps necessary towards a career in some aspect of finance,
accountancy, management or some related field. For some, A Level
Accounting will be the first step on a pathway leading to further study
such as a degree or professional qualification or both.
The purpose of this book

The intention is that this book will:
u help you to make good progress with your learning so that you enjoy
your course of study and gain real satisfaction from the work you do
u provide you with the background knowledge you need to help you
achieve your best at AS and/or A Level
u develop your knowledge and understanding of accounting
techniques and concepts
u help you to develop your skills in recording, analysing and evaluating
financial information
u provide coverage of the entire syllabus
u provide a good basis for further study of the subject.
The features of the book

To help you get the best out of this book, and to help you succeed in the
subject, the book has a number of important features:
u Key concepts tells you the key concepts that apply to each section.
u Learning objectives provide a succinct summary of what you will
learn in each chapter.
u Key terms are used to highlight important ideas. They are all
collected together in the Glossary.
u Illustrations are worked examples that show you how to apply the
concepts and techniques covered in each chapter.
u Getting it right is designed to warn you how to avoid some of the
most common mistakes made by students.
u Links signpost connections with explanations and illustrations
elsewhere in the book.
6
Introduction
u End-of-chapter questions will enable you to develop the skills

necessary to show you have a good understanding of the ideas and
techniques covered. There is a mix of multiple-choice questions and
questions requiring a longer response. Answers to all of the odd-
numbered questions can be found on the website.
u Exam-style questions will help you to familiarise yourself with the
style of questions that will be asked, and the sort of things students
may be required to do.
Key concepts
Each section highlights how key concepts relate to the content of the
chapter(s) in the section. These key concepts are:
u True and fair view: the importance of giving information to owners
and other stakeholders in which they can have confidence.
u Duality (double entry): the idea that every transaction affects
aspects of an organisation’s financial position in two different ways
which are reflected in the way records are kept.
u Consistency: in the way accounting information is recorded,
processed and reported to ensure that users can make meaningful
comparisons from one period to another.
u Business entity: the idea that a business and the owner of the
business are two separate entities; the accounting records are
concerned with business’s financial affairs as distinct from the
personal financial affairs of the owner.
u Money measurement: acknowledges that accounting records are
expressed in money values and so cannot record aspects of an
organisation whose value cannot be determined in money.
Website
The website contains interactive resources to help you practise exam-
style questions. These include:
u Test yourself: multiple-choice questions, which reinforce learning.
u On your marks: which give guidance on how to answer
computational questions and those requiring a prose response.
u Exam preparation, which will help you prepare for success.
u A glossary, which contains all of the key terms you need to know for
A Level Accounting.
u Answers to odd-numbered end-of-chapter questions and exam-style
questions to help you review your progress.
u Additional questions to develop skills in completing double-entry
records, with answers.
7
1 Financial
accounting
Section 1.1: The
accounting cycle
Key concepts
Double-entry bookkeeping is based on the idea that accounting records
are required for a business and these are quite separate from the private
financial records of the owner: the business entity concept. Double-
entry records are also based on the idea that there are two aspects to
every transaction which lead to the necessity of making two entries in
the financial records for each transaction: the duality (double-entry)
concept. Accounting records can only record information that has a
monetary value: the money measurement concept.
8
Learning objectives 1.1.1: An introduction to
In this chapter you will learn: double-entry bookkeeping
u about the role of the
bookkeeper and the role of
the accountant
Note:
u about different types of This chapter has been designed to help those students who have not
business organisation yet studied double-entry bookkeeping. As a result this chapter has been
u the main types of financial written to introduce some important aspects of accounting. The basic
statement principles have been outlined in a simple way in order for new students
u about the accounting cycle
to get started on their course of study. More experienced students will
probably find they can skip much of the content of this chapter.
u the basic principles of the
double-entry system
u the accounting equation
u how to prepare simple Introduction
ledger accounts. There is nothing new about keeping careful records of financial
information. Even thousands of years ago individuals were concerned
about being well informed about what they received and spent, so that
they could have some idea about whether they were well off or not.
Nowadays these same questions apply to individuals and organisations.
In the case of businesses, the owners need to know:
u whether they are making a profit, because this is the main reason for
engaging in business activity
u that they have enough money to pay all their commitments on time
u that they are making the best use of the funds they have invested in
the business.
In the modern world, business activity can be on a very large scale and
very complex. Even a really simple form of business organisation (e.g.
a market stall) can involve a great deal of financial activity, including
handling money, buying goods to sell, paying assistants, etc. Accounting
is about providing accurate and comprehensive financial information to
those involved in making decisions, so that businesses can survive, be
successful and be run efficiently.
In order to provide this comprehensive financial information, it is
Key terms necessary for the following to happen.
Bookkeeping: recording u All financial transactions need to be recorded in a systematic way, so
financial information,
that the owner of a business, and other users, can be provided with
particularly transactions, in a
systematic way.
the information they need to make the right decisions. This record-
Accounting: selecting, keeping aspect of accounting is often called bookkeeping.
classifying and summarising u From the bookkeeping records, which often contain vast amounts of
financial data in ways that
detail, it is important to select, classify and summarise information,
provide the owners of
businesses (and others) with
so that owners and other users can be given the appropriate
useful information to help them information in the form of financial statements to help them manage
assess performance and plan the business effectively. The preparation of financial statements and
future activities. providing some interpretation of what the statements reveal is often
called accounting.
9
1 Financial accounting
Types of business organisation

What is a business? Businesses are organisations which provide goods
and/or services in order to make a profit. There are a number of ways of
classifying businesses.
It is possible to think about businesses by what they do, for example:
u provide raw materials through mining, farming, fishing, etc.
u manufacture goods, turning raw materials into finished products
u sell goods to the general public (retailers) or to other businesses
(wholesalers)
u provide services for businesses and the general public.
It is also possible think about businesses in terms of who owns them,
for example:
u Sole trader: where one individual owns the business. The individual
controls the business. If successful, the profits made by the business
belong to this individual; if unsuccessful, the individual can lose
whatever has been invested and private resources too.
u Partnerships: where several individuals own the business. Partners
jointly control the business sharing profits between them. They are
also jointly responsible for the debts of the business, and can lose
their private resources if the partnership is unsuccessful.
u Limited liability companies: these are owned by shareholders
who each contribute to the funds needed to establish and run the
company. Most shareholders do not take part in the day-to-day
management and control of the company, but elect directors to
undertake these responsibilities on their behalf. Shareholders are
rewarded by receiving some of the profits made by the company if
successful. Shareholders’ responsibility for the debts of the company
is limited to the amount they invest. Unlike sole traders and
partners, shareholders are not at risk of losing their private funds if
things go wrong.
Links u Not-for-profit organisations: this category includes clubs and
There is more about financial societies which are formed by their members so that they can meet
statements in the following: for particular activities: perhaps social or sporting activities. These
(for sole traders) AS Level organisations do not aim to make a profit, but they have to be
Section 1.4 Preparation of financially viable in order to survive.
financial statements; AS Level
Chapter 1.4.3A Partnerships: What are the financial statements?
preparation of accounts; Owners, managers and other stakeholders will inspect the following
AS Level Chapter 1.4.4A
financial statements.
Limited companies: structure
and accounting for share
For information about profit (or loss)
issues; and A Level
Chapter 1.1.2 Not-for-profit u The income statement is the chief source of information about
organisations. profits or losses for sole traders, partnerships and limited
companies.
10
1.1.1: An introduction to double-entry bookkeeping
u In the case of not-for-profit organisations, information about

surpluses or deficits (these words are used instead of profit and loss)
is provided by an income and expenditure account.
For information about ability to meet commitments on time

The statement of financial position provides details of the resources
owned by the business which can be used to meet commitments
(cash and bank balances, money to be received in the near future,
etc.) and some of the commitments (e.g. amounts due to suppliers).
Statements of financial position are prepared by all the organisations
listed above.
For information about the efficient use of resources

The statement of financial position provides detailed information about all
the resources owned by a business, and in conjunction with information
about profits it can be used to reveal how successful, or otherwise, the
owners and managers have been in using these resources well.
The accounting cycle
The accounting cycle is the name given to the sequence of events
and processes that are used to develop the accounting records
of an organisation. Briefly, the cycle is made up of the following
stages:
u Stage 1: the collecting of source documents that provide details for
the financial records.
u Stage 2: the listing of key details in books of prime entry. There are
separate books of prime entry for different categories of transactions:
credit sales, credit purchases, returns, cash and bank transactions
and other miscellaneous transactions.
u Stage 3: ‘posting’ the information shown in the books of prime entry
to ledger accounts. There are separate ledger accounts for each aspect
of a business’s finances. Bookkeeping involves the process of making
two entries for every transaction in ledger accounts; this is often
referred to as double-entry bookkeeping.
u Stage 4: checking and control systems to ensure that accounting
records are arithmetically correct.
u Stage 5: summarising financial information periodically (and at least
annually) in the form of income statements, statements of financial
position, etc. These end-of-year financial statements provide the
main means of judging how well a business has performed, leading
to key decisions by owners, managers and others.
… and then back to the beginning; hence the idea of an accounting
cycle.
11
Record key facts in

START HERE! BOOKS OF PRIME ENTRY
Collect SOURCE DOCUMENTS Cash book
Cash receipts Petty cash book
Till rolls General journal
Cheque counterfoils Purchases journal
Paying-in slip counterfoils Sales journal
Bank statements Returns outwards journal
Invoices Returns inwards day journal
Credit notes
Prepare INCOME STATEMENT and Post information to

STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL LEDGER ACCOUNTS
POSITION etc. General ledger
Purchases ledger
Sales ledger
Check double entry with a

TRIAL BALANCE
and other control systems such as
bank reconciliation statements
and control accounts
Figure 1.1.1A: The accounting cycle
Simple accounting records

Assets, liabilities, capital and the accounting
equation
All businesses own resources such as cash, vehicles, furniture, premises.
Key term These resources are known as assets. The owner of a business will have
Assets: resources with a
provided or purchased each asset to ensure that the enterprise can
monetary value which are
owned by a business.
trade or provide a service effectively. Assets have a monetary value and
provide a benefit to the business. Here are some more examples:
u property
u machinery
u equipment
u fittings
u inventories.
Cash is an important asset for all businesses. Usually this asset is
separated into two categories as follows:
u Cash in hand: money in the form of notes, coins, cheques, etc. which
are at the business premises (probably locked in the safe or in the
cash register).
12
u Cash at bank: all money that has been transferred by the owner of
Getting it right the business to the business’s bank account.
You will notice that assets
Some businesses provide goods or services on credit to their customers.
do not include employees!
Assets have to be owned
This means that the customer agrees to pay for the goods or services
by the business. some time after they have been sold to the customer. The amount due
from credit customers is referred to as trade receivables.
What are liabilities?
Key term Businesses often owe money to other businesses or organisations.
Trade receivables: amounts Amounts owing to other businesses or organisations are called
owed by credit customers. liabilities. For example, many businesses buy goods on credit from their
suppliers. In other words, the goods are purchased but payment for
them is made at some later date. The suppliers to whom the business
owes money are referred to as trade payables. Here are two more
Key terms examples of liabilities:
Liabilities: amounts owed
by a business to other u bank loans
businesses, organisations or u bank overdrafts.
individuals.
Trade payables: amounts What is capital?
owed by a business to Businesses only exist because their owners have invested private funds
suppliers.
in the business. As a result businesses then acquire the kinds of asset
described above. Maybe other businesses and organisations also provide
some finance – the liabilities also described above. The finance or
Key terms investment provided by the owner is called capital.
Capital: the investment made It is usual to divide assets and liabilities into subcategories.
by the owner(s) of a business.
It equates to the net value of Non-current assets are assets that the business intends to keep and
the business. make use of for a long time (more than one year). Non-current
Non-current assets: assets assets include: premises, machinery, equipment, vehicles, furniture,
that should be of benefit to the fittings, etc.
business for a long time (more
than one year). Current assets are assets that are frequently changing in value such
Current assets: assets that as inventory, trade receivables, bank and cash. So, any one item of
are quickly turned into cash inventory, or an amount owing from a particular trade receivable, will
and are of benefit to the only be an asset for the business for a short time (less than one year).
business for a short time (less
than one year). Non-current liabilities are amounts due that are likely to be repaid
Non-current liabilities: in a future financial period (after more than one year). Non-current
liabilities that will be settled in liabilities would normally include bank loans.
the longer term (longer than
one year). Current liabilities are amounts due that will be repaid within the
Current liabilities: liabilities financial period (less than one year). An example of current liabilities is
that will be settled in the near trade payables.
future (in less than one year).
Accounting equation: links What is the accounting equation?
the three elements that are a There is a simple link between the three elements: assets, liabilities
feature of all businesses, i.e. and capital. This link, called the accounting equation, is based on the
assets, liabilities and capital. following idea:
The equation is: Assets =
Capital + Liabilities. u Each business has a number of assets. These assets have either been
provided by the owner of the business (capital) or by using funds
provided by other businesses or organisations (liabilities).
13
u It follows that whatever the scale of the business: Assets = Capital +

Liabilities.
Illustration 1: The accounting equation

John is the owner of a general store. The business has assets with a total
value of $75 000. John provided $60 000 from his private resources to
buy these assets; the other $15 000 of assets was purchased by asking for
a loan from the bank.
Summary: Assets $75 000 = Capital $60 000 + Liabilities $15 000
The accounting equation can be useful for calculating otherwise
unknown facts about businesses. So, if you know that business has assets
of $40 000 and liabilities of $5000, it is possible to work out that the
owner’s capital must be $35 000. In other words:
Assets = Capital + Liabilities
$40 000 = ? + $5000
So: $40 000 = $35 000 + $5000
Two aspects for every transaction

Key term
Duality concept: the idea
Accounting records are based on the idea that for any transaction
that there are two aspects to there will be two consequences, so that one transaction will lead to two
every transaction which lead entries in the accounting system. This idea is often referred to as the
to the necessity of making two duality concept.
entries in the financial records
for each transaction.
Illustration 2: Examples of transactions
leading to two consequences
A business has assets of $40 000, capital of $30 000 and liabilities of
$10 000, i.e. the accounting equation is:
A = C + L
40 000 = 30 000 + 10 000
a The owner of a business purchased some office furniture by cheque

for $1200.
As a result of this transaction:
u Asset Office furniture will increase
u Asset Bank will decrease
Here is the effect on the accounting equation.
A = C + L
before 40 000 = 30 000 + 10 000
transaction + 1 200 − 1 200
after 40 000 = 30 000 + 10 000
14
b The owner of a business arranged a bank loan of $6000 with funds

transferred to the business’s bank account.
u Asset Bank will increase
u Liability Bank loan will increase
A = C + L
before 40 000 = 30 000 + 10 000
transaction + 6 000 + 6 000
after 46 000 = 30 000 + 16 000
c The owner of a business withdrew a cheque for $500 for private use
Key term (often referred to as drawings).
Drawings: the withdrawal of As a result of this transaction:
funds for private use by the
owner of a business. u Asset Bank will decrease
u Capital will decrease
A = C + L
before 46 000 = 30 000 + 16 000
transaction − 500 − 500
after 45 500 = 29 500 + 16 000
d A motor vehicle, value $8000, was purchased on credit from Smartvans.

u Asset Motor vehicle will increase
u Liability Smartvans will increase
A = C + L
before 45 500 = 29 500 + 16 000
after 53 500 = 29 500 + 24 000
Notes:
1 The transactions demonstrate the effect of a small variety of
transactions on the accounting equation.
2 The illustration includes a mixture of cash and credit transactions.
3 Whatever the transaction there are two effects.
4 Whatever the transactions the two sides of the accounting equation
always agree.
15
Some more transactions affecting capital

Capital represents the net value of a business. Certain transactions will
affect this net value. The aim of the owner(s) of every business is to
increase the businesses value over a period of time. How is this done?
u In a service business (examples: a health and fitness centre, a
hairdresser, a firm of accountants) the business receives money
(sales) from providing a service. However, at the same time funds
will be spent on running costs: electricity charges, wages, insurance,
rent, etc. If receipts from sales exceed the running costs over a period
of time, then the value of the business (i.e. capital) will increase; in
effect the owner(s) will be wealthier.
u In a retail business (for example any of the stores in your local
shopping centre) the business will receive money (sales) from selling
goods. However, at the same time funds will have to be spent on
the goods to be sold (purchases) and on running costs. As long as
sales exceed purchases and running costs the value of the business
(capital) will increase, and the owner(s) will be wealthier.
Here is a summary of these ideas using the accounting equation:
Assets = Capital (increasing for sales; decreasing for running costs) +
Liabilities
Illustration 3: Further examples of effects of

transactions on the accounting equation
Jason owns Ultra Fitness Centre. The business’s accounting equation is
as follows.
A = C + L
82 000 = 55 000 + 27 000
a During a recent week the business received money from clients

totalling $4500.
u Asset Bank will increase
u Capital will increase because the business is now more valuable.
A = C + L
before 82 000 = 55 000 + 27 000
after 86 500 = 59 500 + 27 000
b During the same period Jason paid staff wages by cheque $2100.
u Asset Bank will decrease
u Capital will decrease because the business is now less valuable.
16
A = C + L
before 86 500 = 59 500 + 27 000
transaction − 2 100 − 2 100
after 84 400 = 57 400 + 27 000
Recording transactions in accounts

Transactions are recorded in accounts. There are separate accounts to
record each aspect of a transaction. So there are separate accounts for each
asset, each liability, each running cost, sale, purchase, drawing, etc.
Each account has the same simple structure:
Title
Dr Cr
The expression ‘T account’ is sometimes used because of the shape of

this structure.
The left-hand side of an account is called the debit side (abbreviated
as Dr).
The right-hand side of an account is called the credit side (abbreviated
as Cr).
The way information is recorded in accounts depends on the type of
account and reflects the way the accounting equation works.
Asset Capital Liability
Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
This pattern has been developed to reflect that assets are on the
opposite side to capital and liabilities in the accounting equation, so the
accounts work in different directions as shown.
Illustration 4 shows the way accounts are set up and how they work
based on this pattern.
Illustration 4: Simple examples of how

transactions are recorded
a A business arranges a bank loan for $6000 and funds are transferred
to the business bank account.

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
17
Bank Capital Loan

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
6 000 6 000
Notes:
1 All transactions result in a pair of entries.
2 Notice that because of the way the accounts are set up, one account
has an entry on the left-hand side (a debit entry) and the other
account affected has an entry on the right-hand side (a credit entry).
b The owner introduces additional capital by paying $2000 into the
business bank account.

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
Bank Capital Liability

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
2 000 2 000
Note:
Once again there is a matching pair of entries: debit and credit.
c A business receives cash (banked) from sales $700.

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
Bank Sales Liability

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
700 700
Notes:
1 Once again there are matching debit and credit entries.
2 The entry in the sales account records the increase in the value of the
business (i.e. an increase in capital).
d Rent is paid by cheque, $400.
Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
18
Bank Rent Loan

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
400 400
Notes:
1 The entries record the decrease in an asset (bank) and the decrease in
the value of the business (rent).
2 This again results in a matching pair of debit and credit entries.
3 It is easy to get confused: the entry in the rent account is not
indicating there is less rent, it is indicating there is less capital
(i.e. the business is worth less).
e The owner withdrew a cheque for $200 for private use (drawings).

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
Bank Drawings Loan

Dr Cr Dr Cr Dr Cr
+ − − + − +
200 200
Notes:
1 As always there is a matching pair of debit and credit entries.
2 The entries record the decrease in an asset (credit entry) and the
decrease in capital (because of the withdrawal of funds).
3 Again, avoid getting confused: the entry in the drawings account is
not indicating there are less drawings, it is indicating there is
less capital.
Detailed entries in ledger accounts

Accounts are grouped together in what is called a ledger – hence the
term ‘ledger accounts’. To record a transaction it is necessary to enter the:
u amount
u date of transaction
u name of the account where the matching entry is shown.
19
As a result ledger accounts are designed as shown:

Debit (Dr) Credit (Cr)
Date Details $ Date Details $
The date The account The The date The account The
of the to which amount of the to which amount
transaction the other of the transaction the other of the
part of the transaction part of the transaction
transaction transaction
is posted is posted
Illustration 5: Examples of entries in ledger

accounts
Here are some examples of transactions recorded in ledger accounts.
Dr Bank Cr
Oct 1 Capital 30 000 Oct 2 Rent 1 000
5 Sales 4 900 3 Drawings 800
8 Bank loan 10 000 4 Purchases 5 500
Dr Capital Cr
Oct 1 Bank 30 000
Dr Drawings Cr
Oct 3 Bank 800
Dr Purchases Cr
Oct 4 Bank 5 500
Dr Rent Cr
Getting it right
Remember: whatever the Oct 2 Bank 1 000
transaction it will result in a
matching debit and credit
Dr Sales Cr
entry. So if you find yourself
making two debit entries Oct 5 Bank 4 900
(or two credit entries) for a
transaction, retrace your
steps and start again! Dr Bank loan Cr
Oct 8 Bank 10 000
20
Illustration 6: Preparing simple ledger accounts

Sahera opened a health food store on 1 February 2015. The following transactions occurred during the first
two weeks of trading.
Feb 1 Sahera opened a business bank account and introduced capital of $50 000
2 Purchased a delivery vehicle $17 000 by cheque
3 Paid rent on shop premises by cheque for the month $600
4 Purchased goods for resale on credit from DZX Ltd $5 600
5 Cash sales (banked) totalled $4 900
7 Sahera withdrew a cheque for $800 for private use (drawings)
8 Sold goods on credit to BQY for $1 300
11 Paid DZX Ltd by cheque $3 000
13 Received a cheque from BQY in full settlement of the amount due
First, here is the detail of the double entry required to record these transactions.
Feb 1 Dr Bank Debit bank account to record an increase in an asset

Cr Capital Credit capital account to record an increase in capital
2 Dr Delivery vehicle Debit delivery vehicle to record an increase in an asset
Cr Bank Credit bank to record a decrease in an asset
3 Dr Rent Debit rent to reflect the decrease in capital
4 Dr Purchases Debit purchases to reflect the decrease in capital
Cr Trade payable (DZX Ltd) Credit trade payable to record an increase in a liability
5 Dr Bank Debit bank to record an increase in an asset
Cr Sales Credit sales to reflect the increase in capital
7 Dr Drawings Debit drawings to reflect the decrease in capital
8 Dr Trade receivable (BQY) Debit trade receivable to record an increase in an asset
Cr Sales Credit sales to reflect the increase in capital
11 Dr Trade payable (DZX Ltd) Debit trade payable to record a decrease in a liability
13 Debit Bank Debit bank to record an increase in an asset
Credit Trade receivable (BQY) Credit trade receivable to record a decrease in an asset
Here are the ledger accounts recording these details.
LEDGER ACCOUNTS
Dr Bank Cr
Feb 1 Capital 50 000 Feb 2 Delivery vehicle 17 000
5 Sales 4 900 3 Rent 600
13 BQY 1 300 7 Drawings 800
11 DZX Ltd 3 000

21
Dr Capital Cr
Feb 1 Bank 50 000

Dr Delivery vehicle Cr
Feb 2 Bank 17 000

Dr Drawings Cr
Feb 7 Bank 800

Dr Purchases Cr
Feb 4 DZX Ltd 5 600

Dr Rent Cr
Feb 3 Bank 600

Dr Sales Cr
Feb 5 Bank 4 900
8 BQY 1 300
Dr Trade payable (DZX Ltd) Cr

Feb 11 Bank 3 000 Feb 4 Purchases 5 600

Dr Trade receivable (BQY) Cr

Feb 8 Sales 1 300 Feb 13 Bank 1 300
Reminders:
u Every transaction must lead to a matching debit and credit entry.
u When making an entry in an account the rule is to name the other account affected by the transaction.
Note:
If you are new to keeping ledger accounts, you will find it really useful
to spend some time practising preparing sets of ledger accounts. It
is entirely usual for it to take some time to develop confidence and
accuracy in keeping double-entry records. Further questions are
contained on the CD-ROM for those of you who feel you would like a
little more practice on the topics covered in this chapter.
22
End-of-chapter questions
1 The role of the bookkeeper and accountant 6 Using the accounting equation
What are the differences in the role of the The following table shows details about some
bookkeeper and the accountant? businesses’ total assets, capital and total
liabilities. For each business calculate the missing
2 Types of business
figure, making use of the accounting equation.
Describe the main features of a:
u sole trader Total assets Capital Liabilities
u partnership Assets = Capital + Liabilities
u limited company $ $ $
u not-for-profit organisation. Business A 80 000 20 000
3 Purpose of financial statements Business B 42 000 11 000
What is the purpose of the following? Business C 57 000 24 000
a An income statement. Business D 650 000 490 000
b A statement of financial position. Business E 170 000 20 000
Business F 558 000 82 000
4 Terminology
Explain each of the following terms: 7 Double entry
a non-current asset Hakim is in business selling furniture. The following
b current asset transactions took place during the first week of May.
c non-current liability
Date Details $
d current liability
e capital. 1 May Purchased furniture for resale by cheque 2 850
2 May Paid rent by cheque 1 500
5 Identifying assets, liabilities and capital
3 May Purchased a motor vehicle by cheque 3 500
Here is a list of assets and liabilities and references
to capital. Read through the list, and then identify 4 May Sold furniture for cash 200
which items are assets, liabilities, capital. 4 May Purchased furniture for resale on credit 4 150
5 May Sold furniture on credit 1 140
(a) Vehicle (k) Inventory
6 May Paid a cheque for drawings 600
(b) Shop fittings (l) Trade receivables
7 May Purchased furniture for resale in cash 400
(c) Cash at bank (m) Bank overdraft
(d) Bank loan (n) Trade payables Required
(e) Owner’s investment in the (o) Machinery Detail the double entry for each of these
business transactions.
(f) Cash in hand (p) Loan from a friend
8 Double entry
(g) Equipment (q) Value of owner’s Jack owns a business selling computers. The
stake in the business
following transactions took place during the first
(h) Amounts owing to (r) Amounts owed by week of September.
suppliers customers
(i) Furniture (s) Cash at bank Date Details $
(j) Land (t) Fittings 1 Sept Introduced additional capital into the 5 000
bank account
1 Sept Purchased goods for resale on credit 3 450
3 Sept Sold goods for cash 875
3 Sept Sold goods on credit 2 119
23
4 Sept Paid motor vehicle repairs by cheque 814 10 Preparing simple ledger accounts
Aziza’s business opened on 1 January 2015. The
5 Sept Purchased goods for resale by cheque 8 295
business had the following assets and liabilities at
5 Sept Paid a cheque for drawings 450
that date.
6 Sept Purchased a new motor van by cheque 3 300
$
Required
Shop fittings 18 000
State the ledger accounts to be debited and
Cash at bank 3 400
credited to record these transactions.
Cash in hand 900
9 Preparing simple ledger accounts Bank loan 4 000
Kisha’s business opened on 1 November 2014.
The business had the following assets and Required
liabilities at that date. a Calculate Aziza’s capital on 1 January 2015
using the accounting equation.
$ The following transactions occurred during
Furniture and fittings 18 000 January 2015.
Cash at bank 4 100
Cash in hand 600 Jan 2 Purchased goods for resale and paid in cash
$800
Bank loan 7 000
4 Paid rent on business premises by cheque for
month $500
Required
6 Purchased goods on credit from Trez Ltd
a Calculate Kisha’s capital on 1 November 2014 $5 800
using the accounting equation.
9 Cash sales totalled $1 700
The following transactions occurred during
12 Aziza arranged an additional loan with bank for
November 2014.
$2 000; funds were transferred to the business
bank account
Nov 1 Purchased goods for resale and paid by
cheque $3 100 14 Aziza withdrew cash $700 for private use
4 Paid rent on shop premises by cheque for 19 Sold goods on credit to HLK for $4 900
month $900 23 Purchased new shop fittings and paid by
7 Cash sales $2 800 cheque $1 700
10 Purchased goods on credit from Seema Ltd 25 Paid Trez Ltd $2 900 by cheque
$3 600 26 Paid assistants’ wages in cash $1 000
12 Sold goods on credit to Abaxa $3 300 29 Received cheque from HLK in full settlement of
15 Kisha withdrew cash for $700 for private use the amount due
19 Sold some unwanted fittings and received a
cheque for $1 000 Required
23 Paid staff wages in cash $1 300 b Record all of the information in suitable ledger
25 Received cheque from Abaxa for $2 500 accounts.
26 Made a repayment on the loan $500; the funds
were transferred from the business bank account
29 Paid Seema Ltd $1 800 by cheque
Required
b Record all of the information in suitable ledger
accounts.
24
Learning objectives 1.1.2: Source documents and
In this chapter you will learn: books of prime entry
u about the source
documents from which
Note:
accounting records are
prepared This chapter has been designed to help those students who have not yet
u how source documents studied double-entry bookkeeping. Some more experienced students
are used to prepare books
may find that they can spend less time on this chapter because they are
familiar with much of the contents. It is recommended that all students
of prime entry
feel confident in preparing double-entry records as this skill is invaluable
u about the limitations of the
in understanding more advanced financial accounting techniques.
books of prime entry.
Introduction
In this chapter the principle of making two entries for every transaction
(the duality concept) in ledger accounts is developed further to show
how information is recorded prior to the preparation of ledger accounts.
Information in a business’s accounting system will record information
with a monetary value (money measurement concept) about that
business’s affairs, not those of the owner (entity concept).
Record key facts in

STEP 1 BOOKS OF PRIME ENTRY
Credit notes
Prepare INCOME STATEMENT and Post information to

STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL LEDGER ACCOUNTS
POSITION etc. General ledger
Purchases ledger
Sales ledger

TRIAL BALANCE
Figure 1.1.2A The accounting cycle: Step 1 p
25
Every entry in ledger accounts must be supported by evidence in the

form of ‘source documents’. When a source document is received it is
possible to start making entries in the accounting system (step 1 in the
accounting cycle, see page 25). Source documents must be carefully
stored for future reference and to provide justification for an entry in
the accounting system if any query is raised.
The role of different source documents

Invoices
The seller of goods or services provides an invoice for the buyer.
This invoice will detail the following information:
u Addresses: the supplier’s address, the customer’s address and the
delivery address (if different).
u Dates: the order date and the delivery date.
u Reference: a unique invoice number will be present, together with
the customer’s order number.
u Description: of the goods or services supplied.
u Value: the total amount owed by the customer.
u Terms: when the invoice is due for payment and any discount that is
available to the customer.
The invoice informs the buyer how much is being paid for the goods
or services.
Credit notes
Credit notes are sent from the supplier to the customer when an
adjustment to the amount owed is required. This may, for example, be
due to a calculation error, an incorrect delivery, damage to the goods,
returned goods or goods lost in transit. The credit note informs the
buyer how much has been deducted from the amount owed to the
supplier.
Cheque counterfoils
When a cheque is written, the details are recorded on the cheque
counterfoil and this becomes the source document.
The details to be recorded are:
u the date of the cheque
u the payee (the person the cheque is made payable to)
u the amount of the cheque.
Each cheque has a unique sequential number and this must be included
when the details are transferred into the accounting records.
Paying-in slip counterfoils
When cash or cheques are paid into the bank, the details are recorded
on the paying-in slip counterfoil and this becomes the source document.
26
1.1.2: Source documents and books of prime entry
The details to be recorded are:

u the date of the paying-in slip
u the drawers of cheques (the persons paying the organisation) or the
source of cash banked
u the amount of the cheques/cash banked.
Cash receipts and till rolls

When cash or cheques are received by a business, a receipt will be
issued. This receipt may take the form of a till roll or alternatively it
may be a handwritten receipt. The duplicate copies of these receipts
form the source document for cash and cheque receipts.
Bank statements
Payments and receipts may be debited or credited directly through the
bank account. In these circumstances the bank statement itself becomes
Key terms the source document for:
Direct debit: authority is u Direct debits: authority is granted by the business to a third party
granted by the business to a (for example a supplier of goods or services) for fixed or variable
third party for fixed or variable payments to be made at the request of that third party.
payments to be made at the
request of that third party. u Standing orders: a fixed payment is made at regular intervals by the
Standing order: a fixed bank on the instructions of the business.
payment that is made at regular
intervals by the bank on the u Bank interest and charges: the bank processes its charge to the
instructions of the business. business for maintenance of the bank account or the interest on
funds borrowed.
u Credit transfers: money has been paid direct into the bank account
of the business by a third party.
Key term Petty cash vouchers
Petty cash voucher: an
authorised voucher containing
When small payments are made in cash, a voucher should be made out
details of small cash payments detailing the date, the amount and what the payment was in respect of. This
made. voucher (called a petty cash voucher) should be signed by an authorised
person and, wherever possible, should have a receipt attached to it.
Other key documents

Delivery notes
Key terms A delivery note is a document detailing the goods that have been
Delivery note: a document delivered by the supplier. This should be signed by the recipient and a
detailing the goods that have copy returned to the supplier as proof of delivery.
been delivered by the supplier.
Purchase order: a document Purchase orders
used to place an order with A purchase order is a document raised by the purchasing department
a supplier. used to place an order with a supplier.
Remittance advice: a
document sent with a payment, Remittance advice notes
advising the recipient which
invoices etc. are being paid.
A remittance advice note is a document sent with a payment, advising
the recipient which invoices etc. are being paid.
27
Statement of account
Key term A statement of account is a document sent to customers detailing all
Statement of account: a recent transactions and showing the total amount outstanding.
document sent to customers
detailing all recent transactions Books of prime entry
and informing them of the total
When a source document is received the important financial details are
amount outstanding.
first entered in a book of prime entry. In a full accounting system there
are seven books of prime entry as follows:
u sales journal
Getting it right u purchases journal
It is quite a common
mistake to think that the u returns outwards journal
sales ledger contains the u returns inwards journal
sales account, and that the
purchases ledger contains u cash book
the purchases account.
Both these accounts appear
u petty cash book
in the general ledger. u general journal.
Whatever the transaction, one of these books of prime entry will be
appropriate for making the first entry (Step 2 in the accounting cycle,
see page 29).
Note: It may be useful to know that books of prime entry are
sometimes referred to as ‘subsidiary books’ or ‘books of original entry’.
Sometimes journals are called ‘day books’.
Posting to ledger accounts
Key terms When transactions details are recorded in a book of prime entry,
Sales ledger: a part of the
information is then ‘posted’ (i.e. transferred) to appropriate ledger
double-entry system that is
used to keep the personal
accounts (step 3 in the accounting cycle, see page 29). Most businesses
accounts of trade receivables. organise their ledger accounts into groups as follows:
Purchases ledger: a part of u Sales ledger: which includes separate accounts for each trade
the double-entry system that receivable (note: it does not include the sales account).
is used to keep the personal
accounts of trade payables. u Purchases ledger: which includes separate accounts for each trade
General ledger: a part of payable (note: it does not include the purchases account).
the double-entry system that
is used to keep all ledger
u General ledger: which includes all the remaining accounts except the
accounts other than those cash and bank accounts which form part of the cash book (see page 35).
of trade payables, trade The individual accounts of trade receivables and trade payables are often
receivables, cash and bank. referred to as ‘personal accounts’.
Preparing books of prime entry
Sales journal
Key term The sales journal is a list of all credit sales transactions. Depending
Sales journal: a book of prime on the volume of transactions, the sales journal will be totalled daily,
entry that records credit sales
weekly or monthly. The usual layout for the sales journal is as follows.
invoices.
Date Customer Invoice number Total ($)
1 May Jeremy S376 214.35
2 May Martin S377 674.02
28 888.37
STEP 2
STEP 1 BOOKS OF PRIME ENTRY
Credit notes
STEP 3
Prepare INCOME STATEMENT and
Post information to
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL
LEDGER ACCOUNTS
POSITION etc.
General ledger
Purchases ledger
Sales ledger

TRIAL BALANCE
Figure 1.1.2B The accounting cycle: Steps 2 and 3 p
The accounts of each trade receivable will be updated immediately an

invoice is recorded in the sales journal. It is important that a business
has up-to-date information about amounts owed by credit customers.
However, the sales account in the general ledger will be updated with
the total of credit sales periodically (once a month).
The double-entry postings in the above sales journal example are:
Debit Jeremy $214.35
Debit Martin $674.02
Credit Sales account $888.37
The customers’ accounts in the sales ledger will appear as follows,

reflecting the amount owed (trade receivables) by these two businesses.
Getting it right Dr Jeremy Cr
It is important to note that Date Details $ Date Details $
only credit sales based on
1 May Sales journal 214.35
information in sales invoices
is recorded in the sales
journal. Cash sales are Dr Martin Cr
recorded elsewhere (i.e. in Date Details $ Date Details $
the cash book).
29
Here is the sales account in the general ledger.
Dr Sales account Cr
Purchases journal
Key term The purchases journal is a list of all supplier invoices received in respect of
Purchases journal: a book of credit transactions. As is the case with the sales journal, depending on the
prime entry that records credit volume of transactions, this will also be totalled daily, weekly or monthly.
purchase invoices. The usual layout for the purchases journal is identical to the layout of the
sales journal.
Date Supplier Invoice number Total ($)

1 June Richard P7037 106.55
2 June Steven L4815 450.27
556.82
The individual invoices are posted to the accounts of the suppliers

in the purchases ledger as soon as a record is made in the purchases
journal. This ensures the accounts of trade payables are up to date
and show clearly the amount outstanding at any time. The total of the
purchases journal is posted to the purchases account in the general
ledger periodically.
The double-entry postings in the above example are:
Debit Purchases account $556.82

Credit Richard $106.55
Credit Steven $450.27
The suppliers’ accounts in the purchases ledger will now appear as follows,
reflecting the amount owing (trade payables) to these two businesses.
Dr Richard Cr
1 June Purchases journal 106.55
Dr Steven Cr
Getting it right
Here is the purchases account in the general ledger.
Cash purchases are not
recorded in the purchases
Dr Purchases account Cr
journal. They are recorded
elsewhere (i.e. in the Date Details $ Date Details $
cash book).
30
Trade discount
Key term A trade discount is the reduction in the price to be charged for goods.
Trade discount: a reduction The following important conditions normally apply to this form of
in price given as a reward for discount:
buying in large quantities.
u trade discount is only offered to other businesses engaged in the
same line of activity
trade discounts are given for placing large orders
Getting it right
u
Remember that the amount u trade discount is normally not available to private individuals.
of trade discount is not
Information about trade discounts will be shown on source documents,
recorded in the accounting
system – only the net
but it is important to note that only the net amount being charged is
amount after deducting recorded in the accounting system. What matters to a business is the
trade discount is shown in actual charge (not what might have been charged).
the books of prime entry
and ledger accounts. There
is no such thing as a trade Illustration 1: Accounting records and trade
discount account! discount
Lendford Wholesalers received the following invoice during September
2014.
Sept 8 Purchase invoice T2734 received from JFZ Manufacturers.

The normal price of the goods was $7 500. However, the
invoice showed the deduction of a 20% trade discount.
Lendford Wholesalers issued the following invoice during September

2014.
Sept 12 Sales invoice N835 sent to Amberly Stores. The normal price
of the goods was $2 800. However, the invoice showed the
deduction of a 10% trade discount.
Here are the invoice details.

Purchase invoice:
JFZ Manufacturers (8 September) $

Goods at normal selling price 7 500
Less: 20% trade discount 1 500
AMOUNT CHARGED 6 000
Sales invoice:
Amberly Stores (12 September) $

Goods at normal selling price 2 800
Less: 10% trade discount 280
AMOUNT CHARGED 2 520
31
Here are the purchases and sales journals.
Purchases journal
Date Supplier Invoice $
number
Sept 8 JFZ Manufacturers T2734 6 000
Total purchases 6 000
Sales journal
Invoice
Date Customer $
number
Sept 12 Amberly Stores N835 2 520
Total sales 2 520
Note: the amounts entered in the journals are the net amount actually
charged by the supplier, or charged to the customer.
Here are the transfers to the purchases, sales and general ledgers.
PURCHASES LEDGER
Dr JFZ Manufacturers Cr
Sept 8 Purchases 6 000
SALES LEDGER
Dr Amberly Stores Cr
Sept 12 Sales 2 520
GENERAL LEDGER
Dr Purchases Cr
Sept 30 Purchases journal 6 000
Dr Sales Cr
Sept 30 Sales journal 2 520
Returns outwards
It is not unusual for a business to return goods to suppliers which have
previously been purchased on credit. This can happen when some items
in a delivery are:
u damaged or broken
u not as ordered (wrong model, wrong size, wrong colour, etc.)
u received too late (sell-by date exceeded).
32
The return of goods to a supplier is often referred to as returns

Key terms outwards or ‘returns out’ (as the goods are going ‘out’ of the business
Returns outwards: goods and back to the supplier), and sometimes referred to as ‘purchases
sent back by a business to returns’. At the end of a financial period the total of returns outwards is
the supplier; sometimes also deducted from the total purchases to give a net figure for purchases for
called purchases returns. the period.
Returns inwards: goods
sent back to a business by Of course, it is also possible for a customer to return goods that have
a customer; sometimes also previously been sold on credit. This situation would be referred to as
called sales returns. returns inwards. At the end of a financial period the total of returns
Credit note: the source inwards is deducted from the total sales to give a net figure for sales for
document that records the
the period.
amount to be deducted from
(or allowed against) a previous The usual source document for returns outwards is a credit note
invoice to avoid a business which is sent by the supplier to the business that has received
being overcharged – usually damaged or unwanted goods to the notify it of the amount that can
the business has returned
be deducted from the invoice. Sometimes the credit note will be used
goods to the supplier.
Returns outwards journal: to correct an overcharge in the original invoice. If a trade discount was
the book of prime entry used involved in the original purchase it will also be shown on the credit
to list in date order details note, and only the net amount will be recorded in the accounting
shown on credit notes relating system.
to goods returned to suppliers.
Details from credit notes received from suppliers are recorded in the
returns outwards journal.
Illustration 2: Preparing and posting a returns

outwards journal
Here is an example of a completed returns outwards journal that has
been posted to the relevant ledger accounts.
Returns outwards journal

Date Supplier Credit note $
number
Sept 14 Bennett & Co 347 112
27 Mungroo Ltd 1279 273
Total returns outwards 385
Here are the double-entry records for these returns outwards.
PURCHASES LEDGER
Dr Bennett & Co Cr
Sept 14 Returns outwards 112
Dr Mungroo Ltd Cr
Sept 27 Returns outwards 273
33
GENERAL LEDGER
Dr Returns outwards Cr
Sept 30 Returns outwards journal 385
Notes:
1 The process for recording returns outwards is very similar to that for
credit purchases and credit sales.
2 Credit notes received from suppliers are listed in date order in the
returns outwards journal. The personal accounts in the purchases
ledger are updated immediately.
3 At the end of the month (or more frequently if desired) the journal
is totalled and the total of returns outwards is posted to the general
ledger account.
Recording returns inwards

Key term The accounting procedures for returns inwards follow a similar
Returns inwards journal: the sequence to that described for returns outwards.
book of prime entry used to list
in date order details shown on The basic double entry for returns inwards is:
credit notes relating to goods
u Debit: a returns inwards account
returned by customers.
u Credit: the account of the trade receivable.
A business receiving back goods from a dissatisfied credit customer
will make out a credit note, send the original version to the customer,
and keep a copy from which the accounting records can be prepared.
If a trade discount was involved in the original, it will also appear
in the credit note and only the net amount will be recorded in the
accounting records.
Illustration 3: Preparing and posting a returns

inwards journal
Here is an example of a completed returns inwards journal that has been
posted to the relevant ledger accounts.
Returns inwards journal
Date Customer Credit note $

number
Jan 9 Garcia Ltd 103 23
23 Rampersad & Co 104 119
Total returns inwards 142
34
Here are the double-entry records for these returns inwards.
SALES LEDGER
Dr Garcia Ltd Cr
Jan 14 Returns inwards 23
Dr Rampersad & Co Cr
Jan 23 Returns inwards 119
GENERAL LEDGER
Dr Returns inwards Cr
Jan 31 Returns inwards journal 142
Notes:
1 Copies of credit notes issued to customers are listed in date order in
the returns inwards journal. The personal accounts in the sales ledger
are updated immediately.
2 At regular intervals the journal is totalled and the total of returns
inwards is posted to the general ledger account.
Key terms
Three-column cash book: a
book of prime entry used to
record payments and receipts
The three-column cash book
and to make a note of cash Source documents recording money transactions are recorded in
discounts allowed and received. a cash book. The cash book has a double role as it also shows the
Discount allowed: a discount ledger accounts for cash and for bank. Many businesses make use
given as a reward for prompt of a three-column cash book which makes it possible to record cash
payment by a business for and bank transactions as part of the double-entry process, but also
goods sold on credit to
to make a note of cash discounts. Cash discounts are rewards for
customers.
Discount received: a discount
prompt payment. When credit customers pay the amount due within
given as a reward to a business a specified time limit they may be permitted to deduct what is called
for paying credit suppliers a discount allowed. When a business pays its credit suppliers within
within a specified time. a specified time it may be permitted to deduct what is called a
discount received.
Illustration 4: The three-column cash book

Robin is the owner of a wholesale business. He offers his credit
customers a 2 per cent cash discount for prompt payment of amounts
due. Robin’s suppliers also offer a cash discount of 5 per cent for prompt
payment.
On 1 May 2014 Robin’s cash book showed balances as follows: cash
$1350, bank $7480.
35
The following money transactions occurred during May 2014.
Date Source document Transaction

May 3 Cheque counterfoil Payment of a trade payable, Campbell Traders. The amount owed was
$2 600. This amount was settled less 5% cash discount
5 Paying-in slip counterfoil Receipt of cheque from trade receivable, K Scott, who owed $1 600.
This amount was settled less 2% cash discount
9 Till rolls Cash sales totalling $4 540
16 Cheque counterfoil Payment of a trade payable, LT Wright. The amount owed was $4 480.
21 Paying-in slip counterfoil Paid cash, $4 200, into the bank account
28 Paying-in slip counterfoil Receipt of a cheque from trade receivable, D Pitts, who owed $900.
29 Cheque counterfoil Rent for the month $350
Here is the three-column cash book for May.
Dr Cash book Cr
Discounts Cash Bank Discounts Cash Bank
allowed received
$ $ $ $ $ $
May 1 Balances 1 350 7 480 May 3 Campbell Traders 130 2 470
5 K Scott 32 1 568 16 LT Wright 224 4 256
9 Sales 4 540 21 Bank 4 200
21 Cash 4 200 29 Rent 350
28 D Pitts 18 882
50 354
The discount columns are totalled and the totals posted to the discount accounts in the general ledger.
GENERAL LEDGER
Dr Discounts allowed Cr
May 31 Cash book 50
Dr Discounts received Cr
May 31 Cash book 354
Notes:
1 The opening entry to record the starting amount in any account is called
the balance. Key term
2 An entry in the discounts allowed column is a note that a discount was Balance: the starting amount
given to customer – it is not a debit entry for that discount. in any account.
3 An entry in the discounts received column is a note that a discount was
received from a supplier – it is not a credit entry for that discount.
36
4 Discount columns are totalled and the totals are used to make one entry per month in the discounts
allowed account and discounts received account in the general ledger. These entries for discount totals
replace what would otherwise have been individual debit/credit entries every time a discount was
allowed or received.
5 When cash is paid into the bank account (see 21 May) or when cash is taken from the bank account, both
the debit and credit entries for these transactions will appear in the cash book. These entries are sometimes
referred to as ‘contras’.
The petty cash book

In some businesses where there are a large number of transactions in
cash, the decision is sometimes made to operate a second cash book
which is used exclusively to record relatively minor cash transactions –
otherwise known as petty cash transactions.
Often the task of preparing the petty cash book is given to a more junior
Key terms member of the accounts team, who is sometimes called the petty cashier.
Petty cash: small cash Responsibility for handling the business’s cash is usually tightly controlled.
payments. u The petty cashier is only allowed to handle a specified maximum
Imprest: a system for
amount of petty cash at any one time. This maximum amount is
maintaining a petty cash
book which gives the petty
sometimes called the float or imprest. The size of the float or imprest
cashier responsibility for a is decided by the owner or manager of the business.
petty cash float. u The petty cashier is only allowed to give cash to employees to reimburse
them for payments they have made on behalf of the business if they can
produce formal evidence, usually in the form of a receipt.
For each payment made, the petty cashier is required to complete a
petty cash voucher. The voucher has to be signed by the person receiving
cash as well as by the petty cashier. Other evidence of the transaction
(e.g. the receipt) is attached to the voucher.
Illustration 5: An analysed petty cash book

The owner of a business decided to maintain a petty cash book. It was agreed that the imprest would be $150.
The following transactions occurred in May 2014.
Voucher
number
May 1 Petty cashier received $150 cash
2 1 Stationery $32.62
8 2 Postage $26.29
11 3 Travel expenses $18.40
15 4 Postage $11.83
20 5 Purchases ledger account of D Morris, $20.70
27 7 Travel expenses $19.11
37
Here is the petty cash book for May 2014.
PETTY CASH BOOK
Receipts Date Details Voucher Stationery Postage Travel Purchases

number ledger
$ $ $ $ $ $
150.00 May 1 Cash
2 Stationery 1 32.62 32.62
8 Postage 2 26.29 26.29
11 Travel 3 18.40 18.40
15 Postage 4 11.83 11.83
20 D Morris 5 20.70 20.70
23 Stationery 6 11.37 11.37
27 Travel 7 19.11 19.11
140.32 43.99 38.12 37.51 20.70
Notes:
1 In the petty cash book the receipts column is the equivalent of the debit side of the petty cash account; the
payments column is the equivalent of the credit side.
2 Each payment must be cross-referenced to the relevant voucher.
3 Each payment is analysed under appropriate headings. These would be decided in advance by the owner or
manager of the business. Theoretically there can be as many analysis columns as are required.
4 The analysis columns are totalled at agreed intervals, and the totals are posted to the relevant ledger
accounts. This process saves much time as otherwise separate entries would have to be made in the ledger
accounts of every petty cash payment however small the amount involved.
The general journal

Key term The general journal is a book of prime entry. The general journal is used
General journal: a book of to record non-routine transactions or entries when no other book of
prime entry used to make the prime entry is suitable.
first record of transactions that
it would not be appropriate to A journal entry is a written record of an instruction to those who
record in the other books of keep ledger accounts of the entries that are to be made for particular
prime entry. Sometimes this situations. In other words, a journal entry is an instruction as to
book of prime entry is referred which account should be debited and which account should be
to as the ‘Journal’
for convenience.
credited.
There is a considerable range of possible source documents for journal
entries. As well as the familiar invoice (for the purchase of a non-
current asset), there could be letters or emails received from other
businesses or organisations, and internal notes or emails written by the
owner, managers or other employees.
38
Illustration 6: Purchase of a non-current

asset on credit
On 4 July 2014 the owner of a business purchased a new vehicle, value
$32 000, for business use on credit from Blue River Motors Ltd.
The journal entry is shown below.
JOURNAL
Date Details Dr Cr
$ $
July 4 Vehicles 32 000
Blue River Motors Ltd 32 000
Purchase of new vehicle on credit, invoice

number 4872
Notes:
1 A journal entry requires the following details:
a date of the transaction
b account to be debited and the amount
c account to be credited and the amount
d a short explanation of the nature of the transaction – called the
narrative.
2 It is usual to slightly indent the name of the account to be credited in
the detail column.
3 Each journal entry is separated from the next one by ruling off the
details column.
The journal entry should be posted through to the relevant ledger
accounts as follows. (Please note: in some businesses the account of
a supplier of a non-current asset on credit would be recorded in the
general ledger, in order that the purchases ledger is used exclusively for
the accounts of suppliers of goods for resale on credit.)
GENERAL LEDGER
Dr Vehicles Cr
July 4 Blue River Motors Ltd 32 000
PURCHASES LEDGER
Dr Blue River Motors Ltd Cr
July 4 Vehicle 32 000
39
Illustration 7: Cancelling entries

Here is another example of a situation when a journal entry would
be required.
The owner of a business recently paid a trade payable, I Watson, and
deducted a cash discount of $40. However, on 12 October 2014,
I Watson emailed to say that the discount should not have been
deducted because payment was made after the 30-day limit.
The journal entry is as follows.
JOURNAL
Date Details Dr Cr
$ $
Oct 12 Discount received 40
I Watson 40
Cancellation of discount deducted in error
And ledger account entries are:
GENERAL LEDGER
Dr Discount received Cr
Oct 12 I Watson 40
PURCHASES LEDGER
Dr I Watson Cr
Oct 12 Discount received 40
Illustration 8: Correcting errors

It is inevitable that errors will be made in the accounts from time to time.
The rule is always that errors should be corrected by making additional
entries. It would never be acceptable to cross out or try to remove the
wrong entries as this could look as if the accounts had been tampered with.
On 5 August 2014 a business’s bookkeeper recorded the payment of rent
by cheque, $345, as $354 in both the bank account and rent account.
The journal entry to record the correction of these entries is:
JOURNAL
Date Details Dr Cr
$ $
Aug 5 Bank 9
Rent 9
Correction of error in recording the amount
paid for rent
40
Here are the entries in the bank account and in the rent account,
showing the original entries and the posting of the corrections.
Dr CASH BOOK (Bank columns) Page 5 Cr

Bank Bank
$ $
Aug 5 Rent 9 Aug 5 Rent 354
Link
There is much more about GENERAL LEDGER
the correction of errors in
Dr Rent (Account number 4) Cr
AS Level Chapter 1.3.1
Verification: trial balance. Aug 5 Bank 354 Aug 5 Bank 9
Illustration 9: Starting a business and

opening ledger accounts
Salim started a business selling cameras on 1 February 2015.
He introduced a motor vehicle worth $4000, fixtures and fittings worth
$2000 and cash in the bank of $5000.
JOURNAL
Date Details Dr Cr
$ $
Feb 1 Motor vehicle 4 000
Fixtures and fittings 2 000
Cash at bank 5 000
Capital 11 000
Entries to record the assets and capital on
opening the books of account
The limitations of books of prime entry

Books of prime entry are designed to ensure that all transactions are
recorded in date order as soon as source documents are available.
Their role in the accounting system is therefore rather limited. It is
not possible to use the books of prime entry to find some of the key
facts that are of interest to the owners and managers of businesses. For
example, it is important to know just how much is owing to each trade
payable and how much is owed by each trade receivable. For this, and
for analysed information about a business’s finances, it is necessary to
look at ledger accounts.
41
6 The owner of a business purchased a new
Note: delivery vehicle for business use. A cash deposit
of 10 per cent was paid at the time of purchase;
If you are new to preparing books of prime
the balance is to be paid in four months’ time.
entry, you will find it really useful to spend
Which books of prime entry should be used to
some time developing your skills in this area.
record this information?
Remember it is entirely usual for it to take some
A General journal
time to develop confidence and accuracy in
B General journal and cash book
keeping double-entry records. Further questions
C Purchases journal
are contained on the CD-ROM for those of you
D Purchases journal and cash book
who feel you would like a little more practice on
the topics covered in this chapter. 7 The following totals were shown in the discount
columns of a business’s cash book.
1 Entries in the purchases journal are taken from:
Dr CASH BOOK Cr
A cash receipts
B credit notes Discounts Cash Bank Discounts Cash Bank
C delivery notes
D invoices
2 If you wished to check the accuracy of the returns
610 450
outwards journal, which of the following should
you examine, referring to copies if necessary? What entries should be made in the general
A Credit notes issued ledger?
B Credit notes received
C Invoices issued A Debit discounts Credit discounts
D Invoices received allowed $450 received $610
B Debit discounts Credit discounts
3 Which of the following source documents should
allowed $610 received $450
be used for making entries in the sales journal?
A A credit note received from a supplier C Debit discounts Credit discounts
B An invoice sent to a customer received $450 allowed $610
C Petty cash voucher for travelling expenses D Debit discounts Credit discounts
D Statement of account sent by a supplier received $610 allowed $450
4 A paying-in slip counterfoil is used to make entries 8 On 1 August Salma sold goods to Riaz. Riaz
in the: returned some of these goods a week later.
A cash book In which order will Salma issue documents to
B petty cash book Riaz during April?
C purchases journal A Credit note, invoice, statement of account
D sales returns journal B Invoice, credit note, statement of account
C Invoice, statement of account, credit note
5 Which of these transactions should be entered in
D Statement of account, invoice, credit note
the general journal?
A Correction of error in recording purchases 9 Adam is responsible for keeping a petty cash
returns book for his employer. The monthly imprest is
B Owner’s cash drawings $200. During January the following petty cash
C Purchase of new equipment by cheque payments were made: travel expenses $82;
D Returns of goods to a supplier postage $45; office cleaning $39.
42
How much should Adam receive at the end of Prepare the following accounting records to
January to restore the imprest? record these transactions:
A $34 u sales journal
B $166 u trade receivable accounts in the sales ledger
C $200 u sales account in the general ledger.
D $366
13 Recording purchases and sales where there
10 A retailer purchased $2000 of goods from a supplier is a trade discount
on the following terms: 25 per cent trade discount, James and Alvo Ltd are wholesalers of bicycles.
10 per cent cash discount if the invoice is paid The company buys goods from a number of
within 30 days. bicycle manufacturers. Manufacturers offer trade
The retailer paid the invoice 20 days after receipt. discounts for large orders.
How much should the retailer pay? During October 2014 the following invoices were
A $1300 received.
B $1350
C $1500 Oct 12 Purchase invoice received from Melfin Ltd for
20 bicycles with a normal price of $160 each.
D $1800
The invoice showed the deduction of a trade
11 Preparing a purchases journal and posting to discount of 25%
ledger accounts 28 Purchase invoice received from Harvey Bikes
Becky owns a shoe shop. During May 2014 she for 15 bicycles with a normal price of $430
each. The invoice showed the deduction of a
received the following purchase invoices.
trade discount of 33 1 3 %
May 3 Invoice 2730 Purchase invoice received
James and Alvo Ltd sell bicycles to many retailers.
from Whiteford Ltd for $1 230
11 Invoice 9702 Purchase invoice received
During October 2014 the following invoices were
from P Sackley for $2 720 issued.
24 Invoice 1818 Purchase invoice received Oct 7 Sales invoice sent to W Gifford for 6 cycles with a
from A Hereton for $990 normal price of $400 each. The invoice showed
27 Invoice 2823 Purchase invoice received the deduction of a trade discount of 20%
from Whiteford Ltd for $2 440 26 Sales invoice sent to T Perry for 8 cycles with
a normal price of $330 each. The invoice
Prepare the following accounting records to showed the deduction of a trade discount of
record these transactions: 15%
u purchases journal Prepare the following accounting records in the
u trade payable accounts in the purchases ledger books of James and Alvo Ltd:
u purchases account in the general ledger.
u purchases journal
12 Recording credit sales in a sales journal and u sales journal
posting to ledger accounts u purchases ledger accounts
Stephen owns a shop selling the latest music u sales ledger accounts
technology. During August 2014 he issued the u appropriate general ledger accounts.
following sales invoices to customers.
14 Recording returns outwards
Aug 5 Invoice Sales invoice sent to Bartford Ltd Kerron owns a shop supplying fishing tackle. During
T339 for goods $1 480 March 2014 he returned goods to suppliers that
10 Invoice Sales invoice sent to J Williams for had previously been purchased on credit.
T340 goods $920
March 11 Credit Goods returned to Scott Ltd
23 Invoice Sales invoice sent to Bartford Ltd
note 242 with a value of $275
T341 for goods $2 840
18 Credit Goods returned to Taylor &
28 Invoice Sales invoice sent to J Williams for
note 375 Sons with a value of $328
T342 goods $1 550
43
29 Credit Goods returned to Scott Trade payables give a cash discount of 5 per cent
note 247 Ltd. These goods had been if accounts are settled within 30 days.
invoiced at $550 less a trade Apex Universal gives a cash discount of 2 per cent
discount of 20%
to its credit customers who settle their accounts
Prepare the following accounting records to within 30 days. During November 2014, the
record these transactions: following transactions occurred.
u returns outwards journal Date Source Transaction
u trade payable accounts in the purchases ledger document
u returns outwards account in the general ledger.
Nov 5 Cheque Payment of amount due to
15 Recording returns inwards counterfoil TM Davis on 1 November less
Mikhail is the owner of a business supplying car 5% cash discount
accessories to local garages and car dealers. 8 Paying-in Cheque received from Fray
During June 2014 credit customers returned slip Ltd in full settlement of their
goods that had been sold to them on credit. counterfoil account on 1 November less
2% cash discount
June 11 Credit Goods returned by Parsed 14 Till roll Cash sales totalling $1 420
note 454 Garages Ltd with a value of
$220 17 Paying-in Transfer of cash to bank
slip $1 250
13 Credit Goods returned by Beretta Car
counterfoil
note 455 Dealers with a value of $507
24 Credit Goods returned by Parsed 21 Cheque Payment of amount due to
note 456 Garages Ltd. These goods had counterfoil Ryan & Co on 1 November
been invoiced at $1 500 less less 5% cash discount
a trade discount of 33 1 3 %
24 Paying-in Cheque received from
slip VK Watson in full settlement of
Prepare the following accounting records to
counterfoil their account on 1 November
record these transactions: less 2% cash discount
u returns inwards journal
u trade receivable accounts in the sales ledger Prepare the business’s three-column cash book
u returns inwards account in the general ledger. for November 2014. Total the discount columns on
this date. Post the totals of the discount columns
Note: Students requiring further practice at this to the discount accounts in the general ledger.
point should turn to additional questions 1, 2 and
3 on the CD-ROM. 17 Preparing a three-column cash book and
discount accounts
16 Preparing a three-column cash book and The following balances were extracted from
discount accounts the books of Sophia’s business on 1 June 2014.
The following balances were extracted from
the books of Apex Universal, a wholesaler, on $
1 November 2014.
Cash in hand 450
$ Cash at bank 2 720
Cash in hand 2 190
Trade payables:
Cash at bank 7 330
N Singh 3 200
Trade payables:
TM Davis 1 600 Zamran Stores 1 500
Ryan & Co 2 300 Trade receivables:

Trade receivables: K Gobin 600
Fray Ltd 900 QR Pulchan Ltd 2 080
VK Watson 650
44
Trade payables give a cash discount of 5 per cent During February 2014 the following petty cash
if accounts are settled within 30 days. transactions occurred.
Sophia gives a cash discount of 5 per cent to its
Voucher
credit customers who settle their accounts within
number
30 days.
Feb 1 Petty cashier received cash to
During June 2014, the following transactions restore the imprest
occurred.
Date Source Transaction 8 142 Vehicle fuel $35.50
document
10 143 Postage $11.10
June 5 Cheque Payment of amount due to
counterfoil N Singh on 1 June less 5% 13 144 Casual labour $38.25
cash discount 15 145 Office expenses $8.42
8 Paying-in Cheque received from 18 146 Trade payable, Ryan & Co Ltd,
slip K Gobin in full settlement of $17.11
counterfoil their account on 1 June less
5% cash discount 21 147 Vehicle fuel $34.22
14 Till roll Cash sales totalling $3 920 23 148 Trade payable, BY Scott, $9.28
17 Paying-in Transfer of cash to bank 25 149 Postage $8.56

slip $3 800 26 150 Casual labour $21.80
counterfoil
21 Cheque Payment of amount due to Prepare the petty cash book for February 2014
counterfoil Zamran Stores on 1 June less and total the analysis columns.
5% cash discount
19 Selecting the correct book of prime entry
24 Paying-in Cheque received from QR Renea is the owner of a retail unit. Her business’s
slip Pulchan Ltd in full settlement
accounting system includes all seven books of
counterfoil of their account on 1 June less
5% cash discount prime entry as part of her books of account. The
following transactions were among those that
Prepare the business’s three-column cash occurred during September 2014. In each case
book for June 2014. Total the discount decide which book of prime entry should be used
columns on this date. Post the totals of the to make the first record of the transaction.
discount columns to the discount accounts
in the general ledger. Prepare the customer Sept 3 Received an invoice for some new
equipment for business use
and supplier accounts recording the opening
balances and the transactions in June 2014. 6 Cheque stub showed the payment of rent
for the month
18 Preparing a petty cash book
11 Entries were made to correct a mistake
Jamal’s business makes use of a petty cash made by the bookkeeper
book. On 1 February 2014 the balance of petty
cash in hand was $14.55. The petty cash book 14 Invoice was issued for the sale of goods
on credit
operates with an imprest of $220 and with the
following analysis columns: 15 Credit note was issued for the return of
goods by a customer
u postage
u stationery 20 A voucher showed the purchase of
postage stamps
u vehicle expenses
u casual labour 23 Invoice was received for goods for resale
u office expenses 25 Some of the new equipment was found to
u purchase ledger accounts. be faulty and was returned to the supplier
45
20 Selecting the correct book of prime entry 14 It was noticed that the bookkeeper had
During the month of February 2015, the following made a mistake when recording the sale of
transactions occurred affecting the accounts of goods, $780, on credit to TM Williams. The
Rishi, a trader. Rishi maintains all seven books of correct entry had been made in the sales
prime entry as part of his books of account. In the account, but the account of T Williams Ltd
had been debited in error. Entries were
case of each transaction, decide which book of made to correct this mistake
prime entry should be used to make the first entry
19 Some of the equipment purchased from
in the accounting system. J Rajah Ltd on 3 July was returned to
the supplier as it was damaged in transit.
Feb 4 Received an invoice for goods for resale
The supplier sent a letter agreeing to the
7 Paid a trade payable by cheque deduction of $520 from the amount due
11 A voucher showed the payment of travel
expenses in cash Show how all the journal entries would be posted
15 Received a credit note from a trade payable to ledger accounts.
for goods damaged in transit
22 Preparing journal entries
17 Cancelled the entries for a cash discount that
Prepare journal entries to record the following.
had been incorrectly deducted by a customer
when settling their account
May 1 The owner of a business opened the books
18 A cheque was drawn for the payment of wages of account with the following: bank $5 000,
22 Received an invoice for a new vehicle for fixtures and fittings $23 000, bank loan
business use $8 000 and capital $20 000
24 Issued a credit note to a trade receivable for 12 An error was made when the purchase
goods returned as unsuitable of stationery for $105 was posted to the
debit side of the purchases account rather
28 Corrected a mistake in the accounts where than the debit side of the administration
the wrong amount had been debited and expenses account. This mistake was
credited in the ledger accounts corrected
15 Some fixtures, $1 050, were purchased for
21 Preparing journal entries
business use on credit from Albo Shelving
Prepare journal entries to record the following. Ltd, invoice number 3088
July 3 Purchases new equipment, $3 600, for 30 A cash discount of $100 had been
business use on credit from J Rajah Ltd – deducted when settling the account of
invoice number 7361 a trade payable, TX Singh Ltd. However,
this supplier has written to say that this
10 A customer, Gobin Ltd, had claimed a discount should be cancelled as the
cash discount of $380 when settling their payment had been made after the specified
account and this had been recorded in the time limit. Entries were made to cancel
accounting records. However, it has now the discount
been decided that the customer was not
entitled to the discount and the entries are Show how all the journal entries would be posted
to be cancelled to ledger accounts.
46
Learning objectives 1.1.3: Preparing the books of
In this chapter you will learn: account
u how to prepare ledger
accounts from the books Note:
of prime entry
This chapter has been designed to help those students who have not yet
u how to prepare a trial
studied double-entry bookkeeping. Some more experienced students
balance may find that they can spend less time on this chapter because they are
u how to balance accounts. familiar with much of the contents. It is recommended that all students
feel confident in preparing double-entry records as this skill is invaluable in
understanding more advanced financial accounting techniques.
Introduction
The three fundamental concepts associated with double-entry bookkeeping
are applied in this chapter: entity, duality, money measurement.
In the previous chapter it was shown how source documents provide
evidence for making the first entries in an accounting system by
recording key financial details in the seven books of prime entry. It is
now possible to provide an illustration showing how this process leads
to the posting of information to ledger accounts. It will also be possible
to show a simple process for checking the arithmetical accuracy of the
double-entry records (a trial balance), i.e. that every transaction has
led to matching debit and credit entries. It is useful if each account is
summarised at some point to show the net amount left in the account;
this is referred to as balancing accounts.
Preparing the double-entry records
Illustration 1: Preparing double-entry records

from source documents
On 1 January 2015 Carmen opened a new business with the following.
$
Cash at bank 3 500
Vehicle 36 000
Equipment 19 000
Capital 58 500
Carmen has decided to maintain the following books of prime entry:

u general journal
u three-column cash book
u sales journal
u purchases journal
u returns inwards journal
u returns outwards journal.
47
During January the following transactions occurred.
Date Source document Details

Jan 4 Invoice (302) From MJT Ltd for goods for resale $6 400 less 25% trade discount
7 Till rolls Cash sales totalled $1 240
10 Cash receipt Operating expenses $280
11 Paying-in slip counterfoil Banked cash $800
14 Credit note (478) Received from MJT Ltd for goods returned as damaged, $200, less 25% trade discount
15 Invoice (478) Additional equipment for business use from Bridge Products, $880
16 Invoice (001) To Geeta Stores for goods $1 200, less 15% trade discount
19 Credit note (227) From Bridge Products for some equipment returned as not as ordered, $90
22 Credit note (001) Issue to Geeta Stores for goods $100 less 15% trade discount
24 Cheque counterfoil Paid MJT Ltd in settlement of their account at this date less 2% cash discount
29 Paying-in slip counterfoil Received a cheque from Geeta Stores in full settlement of their account at this date,
less a cash discount of $24
Step 1: Rule up the six books of prime entry required for Carmen’s books of account.
Step 2: Rule up three sets of ledger accounts: a general ledger (11 accounts are required); a sales ledger (just
one account required) a purchases ledger (just one account required).
Step 3: Take each transaction in date order and make entries in the relevant book of prime entry (the first
entry is in the general journal to record the assets and capital of the business on opening). As each transaction
is recorded in the book of prime entry post information through to the relevant ledger accounts.
Step 4: At the end of the month total the discount columns in the cash book and post these to the general
ledger; total the sales, purchases, returns inwards, returns outwards journals and post these totals to the
relevant accounts in the general ledger.
u The completed books of prime entry are as shown below.
JOURNAL
Date Details Dr Cr
$ $
Jan 1 Bank 3 500
Vehicle 36 000
Equipment 19 000
Capital 58 500
entries to open books of account
15 Equipment 880
Bridge Products* 880
purchase of equipment for business use on credit,
invoice number 478
19 Bridge Products* 90
Equipment 90
return of equipment purchased on credit
* The account of Bridge Products has been recorded in the general ledger. Many businesses use their purchases
ledger exclusively for the accounts of suppliers of goods in which the business trades.
48
1.1.3: Preparing the books of account
Dr CASH BOOK Cr
Discounts Discounts
allowed Cash Bank received Cash Bank
$ $ $ $ $ $
Jan 1 Balance 3 500 Jan 10 Operating exp 280
7 Sales 1 240 11 Bank 800
11 Cash 800 24 MJT Ltd 93 4 557
29 Geeta Stores 24 911
24 93
Purchases journal
Date Details Invoice no $
Jan 4 MJT Ltd 302 4 800
Total purchases 4 800
Sales journal
Date Details Invoice no $
Jan 16 Geeta Stores 001 1 020
Total sales 1 020
Returns outwards journal

Credit note
Date Details no $
Jan 14 MJT Ltd 073 150
Total returns outwards 150
Returns inwards journal

Credit note
Date Details no $
Jan 22 Geeta Stores 001 85
Total returns inwards 85
PURCHASES LEDGER
Dr MJT Ltd Cr
Jan 14 Returns outwards 150 Jan 4 Purchases 4 800
24 Bank 4 557
24 Disc received 93
SALES LEDGER
Dr Geeta Stores Cr
Jan 16 Sales 1 020 Jan 22 Returns inwards 85
29 Bank 911
29 Disc allowed 24
49
GENERAL LEDGER
Dr Bridge Products Cr
Jan 19 Equipment 90 Jan 15 Equipment J1 880
Dr Equipment Cr
Jan 1 Balance 19 000 Jan 19 Bridge Products 90
15 Bridge Products 880
Dr Capital Cr
Jan 1 Balance 58 500
Dr Discounts allowed Cr
Jan 31 Cash book 24
Dr Discounts received Cr
Jan 31 Cash book 93
Dr Operating expenses Cr
Jan 10 Cash 280
Dr Purchases Cr
Jan 31 Purchases journal 4 800
Dr Returns inwards Cr
Jan 31 Returns inwards journal 85
Dr Returns outwards Cr
Jan 31 Returns outwards journal 150
Dr Sales Cr
Jan 7 Cash 1 240
31 Sales journal 1 020
Dr Vehicle Cr
50
The trial balance

Key term
A trial balance provides a quick check on the accuracy of the double-
Trial balance: a summary
of the balances on all the
entry records. It is based on the idea that for every debit entry there
accounts in a business’s should be a matching credit, so that if all has gone well, total debit
books of account that provides entries should equal total credit entries. It is often said that a trial
a check on the arithmetical balance checks the arithmetical accuracy of the double-entry records.
accuracy of the double entry. Preparing a trial balance forms part of Step 4 in the accounting cycle.
STEP 2
STEP 1 Record key facts in
Collect SOURCE DOCUMENTS BOOKS OF PRIME ENTRY
Cash receipts Cash book
Till rolls Petty cash book
Cheque counterfoils General journal
Paying-in slip counterfoils Purchases journal
Bank statements Sales journal
Invoices Returns outwards journal
Credit notes Returns inwards day journal
STEP 3
Prepare INCOME STATEMENT and
Post information to
STATEMENT OF FINANCIAL
LEDGER ACCOUNTS
POSITION etc.
General ledger
Purchases ledger
Sales ledger
STEP 4
TRIAL BALANCE
Figure 1.1.3A The accounting cycle: Step 4 p
Getting it right Illustration 2: The idea behind a trial balance

Preparing a set of books Here is a very simple set of accounts which have been correctly
even on a small scale is maintained using the rules of double entry.
a skilful task. It is easy to
overlook a transaction, for Dr Bank Cr
example. A common error Jan 1 Balance 13 000 Jan 4 Trade payable 2 000
is to forget to total discount
columns in the cash book 10 Sales 4 000
and post the totals to the
ledger accounts. It is also
Dr Capital Cr
easy to forget to post the
totals of the sales, purchases Jan 1 Balance 11 400
and returns journals.
51
Dr Trade payable Cr
Jan 3 Bank 2 000 Jan 1 Balance 2 000
7 Purchases 3 000
Dr Purchases Cr
Jan 7 Bank 3 000
Dr Sales Cr
Jan 10 Bank 4 000
There are very few entries, so it is fairly easy to see that total debit entries
are $22 000 and total credit entries are also $22 000. So, because total
debit entries equals total credit entries, it appears that the rules of double
entry have been followed. You can check the detail here.
Account Total of debit Total of credit

entries entries
$ $
Bank 17 000 2 000
Capital − 11 000
Trade payable 2 000 5 000
Purchases 3 000 −
Sales − 4 000
Totals 22 000 22 000
A trial balance also provides a quick check on double entry but also
provides some useful information for those using the accounts. Here is a
trial balance based on these accounts.
Trial balance at 10 January 2015

Dr Cr
$ $
Bank 15 000
Capital 11 000
Trade payable 3 000
Purchases 3 000
Sales 4 000
18 000 18 000
Instead of showing total debit entries and total credit entries for each
account, a trial balance shows the net amount in each account. The reason
is that a trial balance is also used to provide anyone who is interested
with a quick update on each account in the system, as well as providing
a check on the whether double-entry procedures have been followed
correctly.
52
Illustration 3: Preparing a trial balance at

31 January 2015 for Carmen’s business
Here is the trial balance for Carmen’s business based on the accounts
shown in Illustration 1.
Trial balance at 31 January 2015

Dr Cr
$ $
Cash 160
Bank 654
Bridge Products 790
Vehicle 36 000
Equipment 19 790
Capital 58 500
Discounts allowed 24
Discounts received 93
Operating expenses 280
Purchases 4 800
Returns inwards 85
Returns outwards 150
Sales 2 260
61 793 61 793
Notes:
1 The correct title for a trial balance is always ‘trial balance at [date]’.
2 The totals of the trial balance agree, which would appear to confirm
that the double-entry records are correct.
The trial balance is a very useful accounting technique, not least because
it provides a brief summary of what is in the accounting system.
However, it is important to note that there could still be errors in the
accounts. For example, it could now be revealed that another invoice
received from Carmen’s supplier MJT Ltd had been overlooked. Types
of error and how to correct them will be explored in a later chapter.
Key terms
Balancing accounts: the
Balancing accounts
process of working out the net Over a period of time many of the ledger accounts you have been
amount left in an account and preparing could grow to a very large size. Even the smallest business will
clearly stating this as a debit or have hundreds – possibly thousands – of transactions to record over a
credit balance at the beginning
period of a few months.
of the next accounting period.
Closing accounts: the In this chapter you will learn about balancing or closing accounts. This
process of finishing off an process is important because it has the following benefits:
account that does not have a
balance. u It breaks up each record into more manageable segments based on
time periods.
53
u It brings many accounts to a neat conclusion with a clear statement

Getting it right or update on the net value shown in the account (the balance).
It is a very common u It brings some other accounts to a neat conclusion by clearly showing
weakness to find that
students do not balance
that there is no balance and that the account is now closed.
accounts correctly. u It provides summary information for the preparation of the trial
Even some of the most balance and other financial statements.
experienced students fail to
follow the very precise rules The owner of a business could balance and close the accounting
for balancing accounts. records at any time. In practice balancing accounts will occur at regular
These rules are set out intervals. This could be monthly for many accounts, possibly weekly
here. for others. All accounts should be balanced or closed at the end of the
financial year.
Accounts are balanced following a precise set of rules or steps which
can be applied to almost every account that has some net value at a
particular date.
Illustration 4: Balancing an ASSET account

Here is a typical set of entries in the account of a trade receivable.
Dr Trade receivable: XJX Ltd Cr

Sept 1 Balance 1 800 Sept 6 Returns inwards 300
14 Sales 8 000 10 Bank 7 800
22 Sales 5 300 10 Discount allowed 200
In order to balance the account the following steps are necessary.

Step 1: Calculate the balance. Here the total debit entries are
$15 100 and the total credit entries are $8300. So the balance is $6800
(i.e. $15 100 less $8300).
Step 2: Start the balancing process by recording the balance on the side
of the account which has the ‘smaller total value’.

14 Sales 8 000 10 Bank 7 800
6 800
Now label this entry with the date (30 September) and the narrative
balance c/d. The abbreviation c/d means ‘carry down’.

14 Sales 8 000 10 Bank 7 800
30 Balance c/d 6 800
54
Step 3: By making the credit entry for $6800, the two sides of the
account now total the same amount ($15 100). The next step is to record
this total on each side of the account.

14 Sales 8 000 10 Bank 7 800
15 100 15 100
You will notice that the totals appear on the same line and that the next
available line has been used.
Step 4: As you know, you cannot make a credit entry in the accounts
without also having a matching debit entry. So to complete the balancing
process, make a matching debit entry in the trade receivables account for
the balance. This time label the balance ‘b/d’ (brought down) and for the
date use the first day of the next month (here 1 October).
14 Sales 8 000 10 Bank 7 800
15 100 15 100
Oct 1 Balance b/d 6 800
You will see that the trade receivables account is now ready for use
during October, and that all of September’s transactions have been
neatly summarised by stating the net value at the end of September.
Illustration 5: Balancing a LIABILITY account

Here is a typical liability account.
Dr Trade payable: DTQ Cr

June 10 Bank 2 400 June 1 Balance 3 300
22 Purchases 500
Following the same four steps:

Step 1: The balance on the account is $3800 less $2400 = $1400
Step 2: The balance c/d (dated 30 June) will appear on the debit side
because this is the side with the smaller total value.
Step 3: Record the totals on both sides of the account.
Step 4: Make a matching entry for the balance – in this case a credit
entry. The balance b/d should be dated 1 July.
55
Dr Trade payable: DTQ Cr

June 10 Bank 2 400 June 1 Balance 3 300
30 Balance c/d 1 400 22 Purchases 500
3 800 3 800
July 1 Balance b/d 1 400
Balancing an account where ENTRIES ARE ALL

ON ONE SIDE
Before balancing:
Dr Trade receivable: Broqif Cr

April 1 Balance 6 000
13 Sales 2 000
27 Sales 1 000
After balancing:
Dr Trade receivable: Broqif Cr

April 1 Balance 6 000 April 30 Balance c/d 9 000
13 Sales 2 000
27 Sales 1 000
9 000 9 000
May 1 Balance b/d 9 000
Sometimes accounts have entries that are all on one side. Here the
only transactions affecting receivables have been additional sales on
credit. You will notice that the step-by-step balancing technique can be
followed in the same way as in all the previous examples.
Accounts where there is only ONE ENTRY
Before balancing:
Dr Vehicles Cr
March 1 Balance 24 500
After balancing:
Dr Vehicles Cr
Getting it right March 1 Balance 24 500
Do not forget to bring down
balances. This is the most Nothing needs to be done with an account with just one entry! Some
common mistake made accounts rarely have entries made in them. Do not be tempted to waste
when balancing accounts. time balancing an account with just one entry – you will only end up
where you started!
56
Balancing a three-column cash book

Getting it right Here is Carmen’s cash book (from Illustration 1) showing the cash
Remember that the and bank columns balanced at the end of the month. Exactly the same
discounts allowed and balancing procedures have been applied here.
discounts received
columns are not balanced,
they are totalled.
Dr CASH BOOK Cr
Discounts Discounts
allowed Cash Bank received Cash Bank
$ $ $ $ $ $
Jan 1 Balance 3 500 Jan 10 Operating exp 280
7 Sales 1 240 11 Bank 800
11 Cash 800 24 MJT Ltd 93 4 557
29 Geeta Stores 24 911 31 Balances c/d 160 654
24 1 240 5 211 93 1 240 5 211
Feb 1 Balances b/d 160 654
1 Preparing a business’s books of account
Kimberly Watson opened a business on 1 September 2014. On that date her business’s assets and liabilities
were as follows.
$
Cash in hand 1 380
Cash at bank 1 750
Non-current assets 86 500
Bank loan 15 000
Capital 74 630
During September the following transactions occurred.
Date Source document Transaction

Sept 4 Purchase invoice (2361) From TM Bennett Ltd for goods $2 800 less 25% trade discount
6 Cash receipt Paid general expenses in cash $180
7 Credit note received (G09) From TM Bennett Ltd for goods not as ordered, $240 less 25% trade discount
12 Till roll Cash sales totalling $1 090
14 Cheque counterfoil Paid TM Bennett Ltd in full settlement of their account at this date less 5% cash discount
15 Sales invoice (0001) To KS Maharaj for goods $2 000 less 20% trade discount
19 Cheque counterfoil Rent for three months $2 480
21 Paying-in slip counterfoil Transfer of cash to bank $730
23 Cash receipt Kimberly withdrew cash $280 for her private use
26 Credit note issued (01) To KS Maharaj for damaged items sold on 15 September, $125, less 20% trade discount
28 Paying-in slip counterfoil Cheque received from KS Maharaj in full settlement of their account at this date less 2%
cash discount
30 Bank statement Bank charges for the month totalled $70
57
Prepare the following books of prime entry for 3 Preparing a trial balance
September 2014: Prepare a trial balance dated 30 September 2014
for the business owned by Kimberley Watson
u general journal
based on the answer to Question 1.
u three-column cash book
u purchases journal 4 Preparing a business’s books of accounts
u sales journal starting with a trial balance and including the
u returns outwards journal preparation of a final trial balance
u returns inwards journal. Omar owns a wholesale business supplying
computer accessories to retailers in the region.
Post the entries in the books of prime entry to the
His business’s trial balance on 1 November was
purchases, sales and general ledgers.
as follows.
The discount columns in the cash book should be
totalled and posted to the general ledger. Trial balance at 1 November 2014
Dr Cr
2 Preparing a trial balance
$ $
On 31 March 2015 the owner of a business
Bank overdraft 1 480
extracted the following list of balances from the
accounting system. Capital 103 560
Cash 440
$ Discounts allowed 1 320
Capital 13 700 Discounts received 1 890
Cash at bank 600 Drawings 37 320

Furniture and equipment 180 000
Cash in hand 100
Operating expenses 45 360
Trade payables 2 500 Purchases 578 270
Trade receivables 1 400 Returns inwards 4 890
Drawings 2 200 Returns outwards 5 130
Sales 732 340
Electricity 300
Trade payables
Furniture 14 900
LDZ Ltd 4 500
Loan interest 500 M Chin Ltd 3 200
Purchases 7 700 Trade receivables
Oldbridge Retail Unit 2 800
Salaries 11 200
Peterson Stores 1 700
Sales 22 700
852 100 852 100
Prepare a trial balance at 31 March 2015. During November 2014 the following transactions
occurred.
Date Source document Details

Nov 1 Cash receipt for operating expenses $380
3 Invoice from LDZ Ltd (number 891) for goods for resale, $4 500 less 33 1 3 % trade discount
7 Paying-in slip cheque received from Oldbridge Retail Unit in settlement of their account at this date less 5%
counterfoil cash discount
8 Credit note received from LDZ Ltd (number 223) for goods purchased on 3 November, not as ordered,
$330 less 33 1 3 % trade discount
12 Till roll cash sales totalling $2 460
13 Cheque counterfoil Omar withdrew $720 for private use
58
14 Letter copy of letter sent to Oldbridge Retail Unit stated that the discount claimed by them when
making payment on 7 November was cancelled because payment had been made after
specified time limit
17 Invoice sent to Peterson Stores (number 407) for goods $2 450 less 20% trade discount
18 Paying-in slip Banked cash $1 800
counterfoil
20 Invoice for additional equipment for business use, $1 460, received from Deva Office Supplies
(invoice number 2789)
22 Credit note sent to Peterson Stores (number 082) for goods damaged in transit, $150 less 20% trade
discount
25 Cheque counterfoil paid M Chin Ltd the amount due at this date less 5% cash discount
29 Paying-in slip cheque received from Peterson Stores in settlement of their account at this date less a cash
counterfoil discount of $110
Prepare the following:

u general journal u returns inwards journal
u three-column cash book u purchases ledger accounts
u purchases journal u sales ledger accounts
u sales journal u general ledger accounts
u returns outwards journal u trial balance dated 30 November 2014.
5 Balancing accounts
Make a copy of the following accounts.
Dr Motor vehicles Cr
Aug 1 Balance 7 000 Aug 12 Bank 7 000
14 Bank 9 500
Dr Bank loan Cr
Aug 31 Bank 3 200 Aug 1 Balance 39 400
Dr Premises Cr
Aug 1 Balance 74 000
Dr Trade receivable: DBQ Ltd Cr

Aug 1 Balance 3 600
26 Sales 1 700
59
Dr Trade payable: Zexton & Co Cr

Aug 1 Balance 2 100
11 Purchases 800
25 Purchases 1 300
Balance each account as appropriate.
6 Balancing accounts
Make a copy of the following accounts.
Dr Equipment Cr
Jan 1 Balance 3 240 Jan 11 Bank 1 050
15 Bank 4 360
Dr Trade payable: UVY Ltd Cr

Jan 1 Balance 4 150
16 Purchases 2 040
Dr Bank loan Cr
Jan 31 Bank 1 320 Jan 1 Balance 11 000
Dr Fittings Cr
Dr Equipment Cr
Jan 1 Balance 4 980
18 Bank 3 070
Balance each account as appropriate.
Note: Students requiring further practice at this point should turn to additional questions 1, 2 and 3 on the
CD-ROM.
60
Learning objectives 1.1.4: Capital and revenue
In this chapter you will learn: expenditure
u the meaning of capital
expenditure Introduction
u the meaning of revenue It is very important to recognise the difference between capital
expenditure expenditure and revenue expenditure.
u the importance of the
differences between the Capital expenditure is money spent that has a long-term benefit to the
two types of expenditure. business (more than one year). In practice, this usually means money
spent on buying non-current assets.
Revenue expenditure is money spent that has a short-term benefit to
the business (less than one year). For example, the running costs of
Key terms the business.
Capital expenditure: money
spent on the long-term Capital expenditure
purchase or improvement of
non-current assets. Any money spent on buying, altering or improving a non-current asset
Revenue expenditure: money is classed as capital expenditure. Non-current assets are intended for
spent on the short-term day- continuing, long-term use in the business; they are not intended for
to-day running of a business. resale. Examples include:
u premises
u motor vehicles
u plant and machinery
u fixtures and fittings.
Money spent on acquiring, improving or adding to a non-current asset
is also classed as capital expenditure. Examples include:
u an extension to a property
u sign writing on a van
u legal expenses when purchasing a property.
Revenue expenditure
Money spent on the day-to-day running costs of a business is classed as
revenue expenditure. Examples include:
u purchase of raw materials
u staff wages
u maintenance or repair of non-current assets
u rent, rates, light and heat
u stationery
u advertising.
One feature of revenue expenditure is that it is recurring: in other
words, it is not usually a one-off payment.
61
Illustration 1: Revenue expenditure

A business purchases a new motor van and incurs the following costs.
$
Cost price of the van 22 100
Sign writing the company name on the van 300
Fitting shelves into the van 550
Van insurance 650
Fuel 85
The capital expenditure is the cost price of the van, the sign writing and
fitting the shelves: a total of $22 950. These are permanent, one-off
items of expenditure.
The revenue expenditure is the recurring costs of insurance and fuel:
a total of $735.
Why the distinction between the two

is important
Capital expenditure appears on the statement of financial position
of a business, listing all assets and liabilities of a business. Revenue
expenditure appears on the income statement of a business and is
deducted from revenue to calculate the profit or loss for a period.
If an error is made by incorrectly classifying expenditure under the
wrong heading, the result would be as follows:
u The profit or loss for the period shown on the income statement
would be either understated or overstated.
u The value of the business shown by the statement of financial
position would be incorrect.
Both of these errors may result in the owners of a business drawing
incorrect conclusions from the information and possibly making wrong
decisions about the business as a result. In addition, the errors could
result in an incorrect taxation liability being assessed.
62
1.1.4: Capital and revenue expenditure
1 Capital expenditure 6 Capital and revenue expenditure

Explain the term ‘capital expenditure’ and give For each of the following items of expenditure,
two examples of it. state whether they are capital expenditure or
revenue expenditure.
2 Revenue expenditure
Explain the term ‘revenue expenditure’ and give a Motor vehicle repairs.
two examples of it. b Extension to business premises.
c Redecorating the office premises.
3 Capital and revenue expenditure d Sign writing on a new van.
If revenue expenditure was incorrectly treated as
capital expenditure, what would be the effect on 7 Capital and revenue expenditure
the business’s profit for the year? George has had new machinery installed in his
factory. The total expenditure was as follows.
4 Capital and revenue expenditure
If capital expenditure was incorrectly treated as $
revenue expenditure, what would be the effect on Cost price of the machinery 45 600
the business’s profit for the year?
Alterations to the machinery to make it fit for purpose 1 570
5 Capital and revenue expenditure Maintenance contract 1 200
For each of the following items of expenditure,
Lubricant for the machine 260
state whether they are capital expenditure or
revenue expenditure. Installation costs of the new machinery 300
Strengthening the factory floor prior to installation 650
a Repairs to plant and machinery.
b Legal fees on the purchase of new premises.
Required
c Computer repairs.
d Annual maintenance contract on computer Calculate the total capital expenditure and total
systems. revenue expenditure for the new machinery.
63
Learning objectives 1.1.5: Accounting concepts
In this chapter you will learn: and principles
u how to explain the
purpose of accounting Introduction
concepts and principles Various accounting principles, concepts and conventions underlie the
u how to explain the rule accounting process and you will find it much easier to understand new
covered by each concept techniques if you are familiar with all of these. The purpose of the rules
and the reason for the rule is to ensure that everyone treats a particular situation in the same way.
u how to apply each This ensures that the financial statements will be the same, no matter
concept to a variety of who has prepared them.
situations.
Going concern
The concept of going concern states that it should be assumed that the
Key term business is going to continue to trade for the foreseeable future (at least
Going concern: this concept one year). A result of this concept is that assets should be valued on the
states that it should be basis of cost, not on what they would fetch if sold today. The reason is
assumed that the business clear: assets are to help the business trade, they are not for sale.
will continue to trade for the
foreseeable future.
Illustration 1: Going concern concept
Baahir owns specialised machinery that helps to produce his products.
He has been advised that although the machinery has a value of $8000
on his statement of financial position, if he was forced to sell it, it would
only realise $2000.
Because Baahir intends to continue in business producing his products,
the value to his business is $8000 and it should remain on the statement
of financial position at that value. If he intended to close the business down,
then the value should be written down to the realisable value of $2000.
Accruals
Key term
Accruals: this concept states
The accruals concept (sometimes referred to as the matching concept)
that costs and revenues states that costs and revenues should be matched to the same
should be matched to the accounting period. This matching of costs and revenues considers
same accounting period. whether or not monies have been paid or received. This concept is
the reason why financial statements make adjustments for accruals,
prepayments and closing inventory.
Link Illustration 2: Accruals concept

There is more about Hadeel is in business selling ladies’ clothes. She has purchased inventory for
adjustments in AS Level $5000 but at the year end has only sold $2000 of that inventory. Although
Chapter 1.4.1 Adjustments to she has bought and paid for all the inventory, the financial statements
financial statements. should be adjusted by reducing purchases by the closing inventory of $3000
that will be carried forward into the next accounting period.
Hadeel has not yet received an invoice for some advertising taken out last
month. Although this has not yet been paid for, it relates to this year’s
accounts and should be provided for by increasing this year’s advertising
64
cost with an accrual.
1.1.5: Accounting concepts and principles
Consistency
Key term
Consistency: this concept
The consistency concept states that when a business adopts a particular
states that accounting policies policy in recording its transactions, it should continue to use the same
should not be changed without policy for future financial statements. This means that year-on-year
a specific and valid reason. figures can be directly compared in the knowledge that the same policies
have been applied.
Link Illustration 3: Consistency concept

There is more about Kamal has always depreciated his non-current assets at 25 per cent
depreciation in AS Level each year. This year he feels that his profit looks rather low and he
Chapter 1.2.1 Accounting for wants to change the depreciation rate to 10 per cent to make the
non-current assets. business look more profitable.
He is advised that unless there is a specific business reason for making
the change, he should not do so since the accounts would not be
comparable on a like-for-like basis and would mislead users of the
information.
Key term Materiality

Materiality: this concept
states that financial statements
The concept of materiality states that the financial statements should
should not take account of not take account of items that are trivial or may be misleading. In other
items that are trivial or may be words, the information in the accounts should be significant to the
misleading. users of those accounts.
Illustration 4: Materiality concept

Layla purchases a new calculator for her office for $6. She thinks that
the calculator will last for three years. Although it could be regarded
as a non-current asset, the amount involved is so small that there
would be no benefit in depreciating the calculator over its three-year
life, so it should be written off to the income statement in the year
of purchase.
Key term
Prudence: this concept Prudence
states that losses should be
provided for as soon as they The concept of prudence states that losses should be provided for as
are anticipated; profits should soon as they are anticipated, but profits should not be recognised until
not be recognised until they they are realised. The basic reason behind this concept is that if the
are realised. owners of a business were to be over-optimistic, then profits may be
overstated and be misleading to the users of financial statements.
Link Illustration 5: Prudence concept

There is more about debts Nabeel sold goods to a customer for $120 and has been waiting for
in AS Level Chapter 1.4.1 payment for six months. On the grounds of prudence, Nabeel should
Adjustments to financial write off the amount as an irrecoverable debt, since it is becoming
statements. increasingly unlikely that he will be paid.
65
Business entity
Key term
The business entity concept states that only those matters that affect
Business entity: this concept
states that only those matters
the financial position of a business should be recorded in the accounting
affecting the financial position records. Any private financial transactions of the owners of a business
of the business should be should be disregarded.
recorded in the accounting
records.
Illustration 6: Business entity concept
Dalal purchased a computer using her business funds. The computer was
actually for her own private use at home. Since there was to be no benefit
to the business, the computer should have been purchased using her
own money rather than that of the business. In these circumstances, the
amount should be debited to Dalal’s drawings.
Key term Historical cost

Historical cost: this concept The concept of historical cost states that all transactions should be
states that all transactions recorded using the original actual cost of purchase. The basis behind
should be recorded using the concept is that it avoids the necessity of using someone’s opinion as
the original actual cost of to the value of an asset.
purchase.
Illustration 7: Historical cost concept

Jamal purchased machinery some years ago for $9000. He has been told that
it may now cost $14 000 to replace the machinery and he wonders whether
he should adjust the cost of the machinery in his financial statements.
Jamal should leave the machinery in his financial statements at the
historical cost of $9000, because the actual replacement cost of the
machinery would vary depending on a variety of factors.
Key term Realisation

Realisation: this concept
The realisation concept states that revenue should only be recorded
states that revenue should only
be recorded either when cash in the books of account either when cash has been received or when a
has been received or when an receivable recognised by the issue of an invoice has been processed.
invoice has been issued.
Illustration 8: Realisation concept

Rafiq has completed work worth $1500 for a customer but has not yet
Key term invoiced him. The $1500 should not be recorded in the books of account
True and fair view: a principle until the invoice has been produced and sent to the customer. Until this
stating that the income happens, there is no obligation for the customer to pay.
statement should show a ‘true
and fair view’ of the profit or
loss; the statement of financial True and fair view
position should show a ‘true
and fair view’ of the business’s The true and fair view principle states that the income statement should
financial position. show a ‘true and fair view’ of an organisation’s profit or loss and that
the statement of financial position should show a ‘true and fair view’
66
1.1.5: Accounting concepts and principles
of the organisation’s financial position. This means that the financial

Key term statements should be factually accurate wherever possible and should
Money measurement: a show reasonable, accurate estimates only if necessary.
concept stating that financial
statements should only Money measurement
record information that has a
The principle states that financial statements should only record
monetary value.
information that has a monetary value. Some aspects of a business
cannot be recorded in monetary terms, for example the location of the
business, its customer base, the loyalty of its employees, etc.
Illustration 9: The money measurement

principle
James has owned a supply business for a number of years. The business
has many regular and reliable customers and loyal staff who have worked
for him since the business started. Although both of these facts are assets
to the business, it is not possible to place a monetary value on them and
as such, they will not appear in James’s financial statements.
Duality
The principle states that every business transaction has two aspects leading
to making two entries for each transaction in the accounting records.
Illustration 10: The duality concept

Luke purchased new machinery by cheque for $2000. The duality
concept recognises both aspects of this transaction. Firstly, the value
of non-current assets has increased by $2000 therefore machinery is
debited with $2000. The second aspect of this transaction is that the
current asset of cash at the bank reduces so that account is credited
with $2000.
Substance over form

Key term
The principle states that information shown in the financial statements
Substance over form:
a principle stating that
should reflect the underlying realities of accounting transactions rather
information should show the than the legal form in which they appear.
substance of a transaction
rather than the legal form.
Illustration 11: The substance over form
principle
Thomas purchases a new motor van on hire purchase. The legal position
is that the van remains the property of the seller until the final payment
has been made. However, Thomas has full use of the motor van in
exactly the same way as all of his other non-current assets that have not
been bought on hire purchase. This is the substance of the transaction,
and even though legally Thomas does not own the motor van, it will
appear as a non-current asset on his financial statements.
67
1 Accounting concepts c The owner of a business wishes to change

The owner of a business purchased a new the rate of depreciation applied to his non-
television for his own use and charged the current assets in order to increase his profit
amount to his drawings account. Which for the year.
accounting concept is this an example of? d A business has not yet received an invoice
A Accruals for rent for the last three months of the year.
B Business entity The owner wishes to ignore this in order to
C Consistency increase her reported profit for the year.
D Prudence 4 Accounting concepts
2 Accounting concepts Identify the appropriate accounting concept to be
The owner of a business had paid two months’ applied to the following:
rent in advance at her year end and deducted the a A trader uses the reducing-balance method of
payment from her expenses. Which accounting depreciation for all of his non-current assets.
concept is this an example of? He is considering changing to the straight-line
A Accruals method in order to deduct fewer expenses
B Consistency from his income statement.
C Prudence b A business purchases computer software for
D Realisation $96. The owner of the business wishes to
class this as a non-current asset as he says it
3 Accounting concepts will last for many years.
Identify the appropriate accounting concept to be c On the last day of his financial year, Jake sells
applied to the following: goods to a customer for $4500 but does
a Trade receivables include a figure of $1000 that not produce the invoice until one week later.
the owner knows is an irrecoverable debt. He He wishes to show the sale in the current
wishes to leave this figure in trade receivables financial year.
to show the highest value of current assets d A business has a financial year end of 31
possible. December 2014. At the year end, the owner
b The owner of a successful business is of the business has not received an invoice for
planning for next year. She is considering rent for the final two months of the year. She
showing her non-current assets at the cost wishes to ignore this as it would reduce her
of replacement in order to show the highest profit for the year.
value of non-current assets possible.
68
Section 1.2:
Accounting for
non-current assets
Key concepts
The key concept that is of greatest importance in accounting for
non-current assets is the duality (double-entry) concept. This concept
requires two entries to be made for every transaction to reflect that there
are two aspects to every transaction.
In addition, it is important that the other key concepts are also applied.
For example, the owners and managers of a business must always
ensure that they present a true and fair view of the business’s non-
current assets. This is particularly important when assessing depreciation
changes.
Furthermore, accounting policies (e.g. depreciation methods) must
always be applied consistently in each accounting year to ensure that
meaningful comparisons of a business’s results can be made.
69
Learning objectives 1.2.1: Accounting for
In this chapter you will learn: non-current assets
u the difference between
capital and revenue Capital and revenue expenditure and
expenditure and receipts receipts
u what a non-current asset is
u how to record the
As discussed previously, it is very important to recognise the difference
purchase of a non-current
between capital expenditure and revenue expenditure and receipts.
asset Capital expenditure is money spent that has a long-term benefit to the
u the nature of depreciation business (more than one year). In practice, this usually means money
u how to depreciate a non- spent on buying or improving non-current assets.
current asset
u how depreciation is Revenue expenditure is money spent that has a short-term benefit to
calculated the business (less than one year), for example the day-to-day running
u how to record the sale of costs of the business.
a non-current asset Capital receipts arise from the sale of non-current assets or capital
u how to deal with being invested in the business from either the owners or outside
part exchange.
lenders.
Revenue receipts are receipts that arise from normal business activities.
Examples include rent received, commission received, etc.
Key terms
Capital receipts: revenue Capital receipts
from the sale of non-current
assets or from investment in Any money received that is not from normal trading activities is classed
the business. as a capital receipt. Examples include:
Revenue receipts: receipts
arising from normal business
u sale proceeds from the disposal of non-current assets
activities. u receipt of loan finance from banks or other lenders
u capital introduced into the business by the owners.
Capital receipts do not appear on the income statement but are
accounted for on the statement of financial position.
Revenue receipts
Revenue receipts arise from the normal business activities, for example
the sale of goods or services. They may also be incidental to the main
business activity.
Examples include:
u rents received
u commission received
u interest received.
Revenue receipts are credited to the income statement.
70
1.2.1: Accounting for non-current assets
Illustration 1: Capital and revenue receipts

The receipts of a business during the month included the following.
Cash received from the sale of a motor van $4 000

Rent received from a tenant $450
Bank loan received into the business bank account $8 000
The capital revenue is the cash received from the sale of a motor van and the
receipt of the bank loan. Both of these items are one-off receipts of funds.
The revenue receipt is the rent received from a tenant. This is the cash
received in the normal course of business; it is a recurring receipt.
Recording the purchase of a non-current

asset
The purchase of a non-current asset that is paid for immediately will
be recorded in the cash book. The purchase of a non-current asset on
credit will be recorded in the general journal.
Illustration 2: Recording the purchase of a

non-current asset
George purchased:
u a new property for $45 000 and paid $1200 legal fees, paying by cheque
u some machinery for $82 000 on credit from QDP Ltd.
The entries in the books of prime entry are as follows.
Dr Cash book (bank columns) Cr
$
Property 45 000
Property (legal fees) 1 200
Journal
Dr Cr
$ $
Machinery 82 000
QDP Ltd 82 000
purchase of machinery on credit
71
The non-current asset accounts appear as follows.

GENERAL LEDGER
Dr Machinery Cr
QDP Ltd 82 000
Dr Property Cr
Bank 45 000
Bank 1 200
Depreciating a non-current asset

Most non-current assets do not last forever, they have what is known as
Key terms a useful economic life. This will vary from asset to asset. For example,
Useful economic life: the
a property may last for 100 years or more, but a computer may have a
expected useful lifetime of an useful life of only two or three years.
asset. The reasons for this limited useful life are as follows:
Depreciation: the spreading
of the cost of an asset over its u Most assets will lose value through wear and tear and eventually
useful economic life. they will wear out.
u As technology changes over time, assets will become outdated and
will no longer meet the business’s needs.
u As the business grows, machinery may become inadequate to meet
the increased capacity and needs of the business.
To account for this loss in value, non-current assets are depreciated over
Key terms their useful economic life. As an example, if a non-current asset is purchased
Residual value: the expected for $30 000 and sold five years later for $10 000, then it has depreciated
value of an asset at the end of
$20 000 over the five years it has been owned. This total amount of
its useful economic life.
Straight-line method of
depreciation must be spread over the lifetime of the asset in accordance with
depreciation: the cost of the accruals concept. Providing for depreciation is also an application of
the asset less the expected the prudence concept. If the cost of using an asset was not included in the
residual value, spread equally income statement then profits would be overstated. The annual charge for
over the estimated useful life of depreciation appears as an expense on the income statement.
the asset.
Reducing-balance method How depreciation is calculated
of depreciation: a fixed
percentage of the net book In order to calculate depreciation, the following information is needed:
value of the asset is charged u The purchase price of the asset.
as depreciation each year.
Revaluation method of u The estimated useful economic life of the asset.
depreciation: the annual
depreciation charge is based
u The estimated residual value (how much the asset will be worth at
on the difference between the the end of its useful economic life).
estimated value of a group of There are three main methods of calculating depreciation: the straight-
non-current assets at the end
line method, the reducing-balance method and the revaluation method.
of the year and the estimated
value at the start of the year.
72
The straight-line method of depreciation

The straight-line method involves depreciating the asset by the same
amount each year. It is calculated as follows:
Cost of the asset – Net residual value
The annual depreciation charge =
Estimated useful life of the asset
Illustration 3: Straight-line method of

depreciation
Bushra purchased a new machine for $14 000. She estimates that its
useful economic life will be six years and that the machine will have a
residual value of $2000 at the end of the six years.
Calculate the annual depreciation charge for the machine.
$14 000 – $2000
The annual depreciation charge = = $2000 per annum.
6 years
The straight-line method of depreciation has the advantage that it is

very straightforward to calculate and it results in the same depreciation
charge to the income statement each year.
The reducing-balance method of depreciation
Key term The reducing-balance method of depreciation calculates the annual
Net book value (NBV): the depreciation charge as a fixed percentage of the net book value (NBV)
value of an asset less the of the asset.
depreciation shown in the
books of account.
Illustration 4: Reducing-balance method of
depreciation
Bushra purchased a motor vehicle for $20 000. She depreciates her motor
vehicles at 25 per cent per annum using the reducing-balance method.
Calculate the annual depreciation charge for the motor vehicle for the
first two years.
Year 1 $20 000 × 25% = $5 000
Year 2 $20 000 – $5 000 = NBV $15 000. Annual depreciation = $15 000 × 25%
= $3 750
The NBV of the motor vehicle to carry forward into Year 3 is therefore
$15 000 – $3750 = $11 250.
The reducing-balance method of depreciation is more complicated to

calculate, but it may be more realistic because as the asset reduces in
value, so the annual depreciation charge will also reduce.
The revaluation method of depreciation
The revaluation method of depreciation is based on comparing the
estimated value of a group of non-current assets at the end of the year
73
with the estimated value of the same group of non-current assets at the
start of the year. The difference in this value is charged as depreciation
for the year in the income statement.
Illustration 5: Revaluation method of

depreciation
A building contractor uses many small loose tools that are added to or
replaced regularly. At the start of the financial year, the owner of the
business valued these loose tools at $3600. During the year, new loose
tools were purchased for $1600. At the end of the financial year, the
estimated value was $3900.
The depreciation charge for the year is the difference between the closing and
opening valuations after taking account of the additional tools purchased.
Opening valuation $3 600

Additions $1 600
$5 200
Closing valuation $3 900
Depreciation charge for the year $1 300
Choosing the right method of depreciation

As providing for depreciation is an application of the accruals
concept, what should be considered before deciding which method of
depreciation is appropriate for a particular non-current asset?
The straight-line method will be most appropriate when the asset is
expected to earn revenue for the business evenly over its useful life
or where the asset has a clearly defined fixed life. Motor vehicles are
frequently depreciated using this method.
The reducing-balance method will be most appropriate when the earning
power of the asset is expected to diminish with age. Most items of plant
and machinery are depreciated using the reducing-balance method.
The revaluation method will be most appropriate where, due to the
nature of the asset, it may be unreasonable to keep detailed records.
For example, the assets may individually be of limited value, but taken
together their value may be significant. The most common example of
assets being depreciated using the revaluation method are loose tools in
a building or construction environment.
Accounting entries for depreciation

It is important to remember that the depreciation on a non-current
asset is not recorded in the asset account, it is credited to a separate
account called provision for depreciation. A business must keep a
separate provision for depreciation account for each class of asset. As a
result, the amount recorded in the provision for depreciation account
will increase each year until such time as the asset is sold.
74
In the financial statements, the balance on the provision for

depreciation account appears under non-current assets on the
statement of financial position, reducing the value of the non-current
asset to its net book value.
Illustration 6: Journal entry for depreciation

In Illustration 4, the journal entry for depreciation in Year 1 would be:
Details Dr ($) Cr ($)

Depreciation (income statement) 5 000
Provision for depreciation: motor vehicles 5 000
Illustration 7: Ledger entries for depreciation

Kamal purchased a new machine on 1 January 2012 for $18 000. The machine is depreciated at 10 per cent
per annum using the reducing-balance method.
Record the purchase of the machine and the depreciation for each of the first three years in Kamal’s records.
Step 1: Record the purchase of the machine in the non-current asset account.
Step 2: Calculate the annual depreciation charge for each of the first three years.
Step 3: Record the entries for depreciation in the provision for depreciation account.
Machinery at cost account
2012 Details $ 2012 Details $
1 Jan Bank 18 000
Bank account
1 Jan Machinery 18 000
Provision for depreciation machinery account

31 Dec Balance c/d 1 800 31 Dec Income statement 1 800
2013 2013
31 Dec Balance c/d 3 420 1 Jan Balance b/d 1 800
31 Dec Income statement 1 620
3 420 3 420
2014 2014
4 878 4 878
31 Dec Balance b/d 4 878
The net book value of the machinery at 31 December 2014 is $18 000 – $4878 = $13 122.
75
How to record the sale of a non-current

Key term
Accumulated depreciation:
asset
the total depreciation charged When a non-current asset is sold, it is necessary to do the following:
on an asset to date.
u Open a disposal of non-current assets account.
u Transfer the cost of the asset sold from the debit of the asset cost
account to the credit of the asset disposal account.
u Transfer the accumulated depreciation on the asset sold from the
credit of the provision for depreciation account to the debit of the
asset disposal account.
u Record the amount received for the asset in the credit of the asset
disposal account.
It is then necessary to assess whether a profit or a loss has been made
on the sale of the asset. If the sale proceeds are more than the net book
value of the asset, then a profit has been made; if the sale proceeds are
less than the net book value of the asset, a loss has been made.
If the balance on the asset disposal account is a debit, then a loss has
been made; if the balance on the asset disposal account is a credit, then
a profit has been made.
The resulting balance on the asset disposal account (i.e. the profit or
the loss) is then transferred to the income statement at the end of the
financial period.
Illustration 8: Ledger entries for sale of a non-current asset

Kamal sold the machine that was purchased in Illustration 7 on 31 December 2014 for $13 000.
Record the sale of the machine in Kamal’s records.
Step 1: Open a disposal of non-current assets account.
Step 2: Transfer the cost of the machine sold to the disposal of non-current assets account.
Step 3: Transfer the accumulated depreciation on the machine to the disposal of non-current assets account.
Step 4: Transfer the balance on the disposal of non-current assets account to the income statement.
Machinery at cost account
1 Jan Bank 18 000 31 Dec Disposals account 18 000
Bank account
31 Dec Disposals account 13 000
76
Provision for depreciation machinery account

31 Dec Balance c/d 1 800 31 Dec Income statement 1 800
2013 2013
3 420 3 420
2014 2014
31 Dec Disposal account 4 878 1 Jan Balance b/d 3 420
4 878 4 878
Disposal of non-current assets account

31 Dec Cost 18 000 31 Dec Depreciation 4 878
31 Dec Bank 13 000
31 Dec Income statement 122
18 000 18 000
The machine was sold at a loss of $18 000 – ($4878 + $13 000) = $122.
Purchase of non-current assets on part-

Key term
exchange basis
Part exchange: when part of
the purchase price of a new Occasionally, a business may purchase a new non-current asset and
non-current asset is satisfied part exchange a non-current asset that it wishes to dispose of, as part
by exchanging an old non- of the purchase price. The part-exchange value of the asset being
current asset. disposed of is debited to the non-current asset cost account and
credited to the disposal account.
Illustration 9: Purchase of a motor vehicle using part exchange

On 30 November 2014, Yannick purchased a new motor vehicle at a total cost of $35 000. He paid for the
vehicle with a cheque of $28 000 and part exchanged his old vehicle for the balance. The old vehicle had
originally cost $26 000 and had been depreciated by $20 000.
Record this transaction in Yannick’s records.
Step 1: Open the motor vehicles at cost account with an opening balance of $26 000 for the old vehicle.
Step 2: Open the motor vehicles provision for depreciation account with an opening balance of $20 000 for
the old vehicle.
Step3: Transfer the cost of the old motor vehicle that is being part exchanged to the disposal of non-current
assets account.
Step 4: Transfer the part-exchange value of the old motor vehicle that is being part exchanged to the disposal of
non-current assets account (debit motor vehicles at cost account and credit disposal of non-current assets account).
77
Step 5: Transfer the accumulated depreciation on the old vehicle to the disposal of non-current assets account.
Step 6: Record the amount of the cheque paid in the motor vehicles at cost account and in the bank account.
Step 7: Transfer the balance on the disposal of non-current assets account to the income statement.
Motor vehicle at cost account

30 Nov Balance b/d 26 000 30 Nov Disposal account 26 000
30 Nov Disposal account 7 000 30 Nov Balance c/d 35 000
30 Nov Bank account 28 000
35 000 35 000
1 Dec Balance b/d 35 000
Motor vehicle provision for depreciation account

30 Nov Disposal account 20 000 30 Nov Balance b/d 20 000
Disposal of non-current assets account

30 Nov Motor vehicle cost account 26 000 30 Nov Motor vehicles depreciation a/c 20 000
30 Nov Income statement 1 000 30 Nov Motor vehicles cost account 7 000
27 000 27 000
Bank account
30 Nov Motor vehicles cost account 28 000
1 Depreciation calculation and journal entry 2 Depreciation calculation and entries in the
Kate purchased new machinery for her business books of account
at a cost of $69 000. She estimates that the Holly purchased a new motor vehicle for her
machinery will have a useful economic life of business for $24 000. Holly depreciates motor
eight years and that it will have a residual value vehicles at 25 per cent per annum using the
of $9000. Kate uses the straight-line method of reducing-balance method of depreciation.
depreciation. a Calculate the annual charge for depreciation
a Calculate the annual charge for depreciation of the motor vehicle for each of the first three
of the machinery. years of ownership.
b State the journal entry required to include b Complete the motor vehicle at cost account
the depreciation in the financial statements for to record the purchase of the motor vehicle.
the first year. Complete the provision for depreciation
78
for the motor vehicle account to show the van was sold on 31 March 2014 for $12 000.
annual charge for depreciation. The business’s financial year end is 31 March.
Bernard’s policy is to provide a full year’s
3 Calculation of profit or loss on disposal
depreciation in the year of purchase and the year
Patrice has sold machinery for $2000. The
of sale.
machinery was purchased two years ago for
$3600. Patrice depreciates his machinery at Complete the following accounts in Bernard’s
20 per cent per annum using the reducing- books of account.
balance method of depreciation. a Motor van at cost account.
Calculate the profit or loss on the sale of the b Motor van provision for depreciation account.
machinery. c Disposal of non-current assets account.
4 Calculation of profit or loss on disposal 7 Purchase involving part exchange
Anais has sold a motor vehicle for $8500. She Lee purchased a new motor vehicle for $25 000.
purchased the motor vehicle three years ago for The cost of the vehicle was settled by the
$18 000 and estimated that it would have a useful payment of $21 000 by cheque and the part
economic life of four years. She estimated that exchange of his old motor vehicle for the balance.
the residual value at the end of four years would The old motor vehicle had originally cost $15 000
be $4000. Anais depreciates her motor vehicles and had been depreciated by $12 000 at the date
using the straight-line method of depreciation. of part exchange.
Calculate the profit or loss on the sale of the Complete the following accounts in Lee’s books
motor vehicle. of account.
5 Depreciation and disposal entries in the a Motor vehicle at cost account.

books of account b Motor vehicle provision for depreciation
Rahul purchased machinery on 1 January 2011 account.
for $64 000. He estimated that it would have a c Disposal of non-current assets account.
useful economic life of five years and that the 8 Purchase involving part exchange
residual value at the end of that time would A business purchased new plant and machinery
be $34 000. Rahul sold the machinery on for $38 000. The cost was settled by the payment
31 December 2014 for $41 000. Rahul of $34 000 by cheque and the part exchange of
depreciates machinery using the straight-line two items of plant and machinery for the balance.
method of depreciation. The business’s financial The two items part exchanged had cost $14 000
year end is 31 December. and $8000 originally and had net book values of
Complete the following accounts in Rahul’s books $5000 and $1000.
of account. The following were the balances of the plant and
a Machinery at cost account. machinery account in the business’s books of
b Machinery provision for depreciation account at the date of the part exchange:
account. Cost $160 000, Provision for depreciation
c Disposal of non-current assets account. $96 000, Net book value $64 000.
6 Depreciation and disposal entries in the Complete the following accounts in the business’s
books of account books of account.
Bernard purchased a new motor van on 1 April a Plant and machinery at cost account.
2011 for $32 000. Motor vans are depreciated b Plant and machinery provision for depreciation
at 25 per cent per annum using the reducing- account.
balance method of depreciation. The motor c Disposal of non-current assets account.
79

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Topic 2: Cost and management accounting 223

Topic 2: Cost and management accounting 393

Welcome to your study of Accounting

The purpose of this book

The features of the book

u End-of-chapter questions will enable you to develop the skills

Types of business organisation

u In the case of not-for-profit organisations, information about

For information about ability to meet commitments on time

For information about the efficient use of resources

Record key facts in

Prepare INCOME STATEMENT and Post information to

Check double entry with a

Simple accounting records

u It follows that whatever the scale of the business: Assets = Capital +

Illustration 1: The accounting equation

Two aspects for every transaction

a The owner of a business purchased some office furniture by cheque

b The owner of a business arranged a bank loan of $6000 with funds

d A motor vehicle, value $8000, was purchased on credit from Smartvans.

Some more transactions affecting capital

Illustration 3: Further examples of effects of

a During a recent week the business received money from clients

Recording transactions in accounts

The expression ‘T account’ is sometimes used because of the shape of

Illustration 4: Simple examples of how

Asset Capital Liability

Bank Capital Loan

Asset Capital Liability

Bank Capital Liability

Asset Capital Liability

Bank Sales Liability

Bank Rent Loan

Asset Capital Liability

Bank Drawings Loan

Detailed entries in ledger accounts

As a result ledger accounts are designed as shown:

Illustration 5: Examples of entries in ledger

Illustration 6: Preparing simple ledger accounts

Feb 1 Dr Bank Debit bank account to record an increase in an asset

Here are the ledger accounts recording these details.

Dr Trade payable (DZX Ltd) Cr

Dr Trade receivable (BQY) Cr

Record key facts in

Prepare INCOME STATEMENT and Post information to

Check double entry with a

Every entry in ledger accounts must be supported by evidence in the

The role of different source documents

The details to be recorded are:

Cash receipts and till rolls

Other key documents

Check double entry with a

The accounts of each trade receivable will be updated immediately an

The customers’ accounts in the sales ledger will appear as follows,

Here is the sales account in the general ledger.

Date Supplier Invoice number Total ($)

The individual invoices are posted to the accounts of the suppliers

Debit Purchases account $556.82