AUTO ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ANOOP S

Module 3

1. What do you mean by an actuator?

An actuator is something that converts energy into motion. It also can be used to apply a force. An
actuator typically is a mechanical device that takes energy — usually energy that is created by air,
electricity or liquid — and converts it into some kind of motion. That motion can be in virtually any form,
such as blocking, clamping or ejecting. Actuators typically are used in manufacturing or industrial
applications and might be used in devices such as motors, pumps, switches and valves.

2. Explain the types of actuators.

Many actuators have more than one type of power source. Solenoid valves, for example, can be
powered by both air and electricity. Alternatively, a solenoid can be powered by both hydraulics and
electricity.

Types of Motion

Actuators can create a linear motion, rotary motion or oscillatory motion. That is, they can create
motion in one direction, in a circular motion or in opposite directions at regular intervals. Hydraulic and
air cylinders can be classified as single-acting cylinders, meaning that the energy source causes movement
in one direction and a spring is used for the other direction. Alternatively, these cylinders can be double-
acting cylinders, meaning that the energy is used in two directions.

Muscles as Actuators

Although actuators typically are discussed in terms of mechanical implements, muscles are
sometimes given as an example of actuators. Energy is converted by the muscle into motion. For example,
the calories that are in food that a person consumes represent energy that can be used by his or her
muscles — which act as actuators — to create motion, such as running, kicking a ball or dancing.

3. What do you mean by On Board Diagnostics?

On-board diagnostics (OBD) is an automotive term referring to a vehicle's self-diagnostic and

reporting capability. OBD systems give the vehicle owner or repair technician access to the status of the
various vehicle sub-systems. The amount of diagnostic information available via OBD has varied widely
since its introduction in the early 1980s' versions of on-board vehicle computers. Early versions of OBD

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would simply illuminate a malfunction indicator light or "idiot light" if a problem was detected but would
not provide any information as to the nature of the problem. Modern OBD implementations use a
standardized digital communications port to provide real-time data in addition to a standardized series
of diagnostic trouble codes, or DTCs, which allow one to rapidly identify and remedy malfunctions within
the vehicle.

4. What do you mean by a solenoid?

In engineering, the term may also refer to a variety of transducer devices that convert energy into
linear motion. The term is also often used to refer to a solenoid valve, which is an integrated device
containing an electromechanical solenoid which actuates either a pneumatic or hydraulic valve, or a
solenoid switch, which is a specific type of relay that internally uses an electromechanical solenoid to
operate an electrical switch; for example, an automobile starter solenoid, or a linear solenoid, which is an
electromechanical solenoid.

5. Explain Common Rail Direct Injection or CRDI.

CRDI is an intelligent way of controlling a diesel engine with use of modern computer systems.
CRDI helps to improve the power, performance and reduce harmful emissions from a diesel engine.
Conventional Diesel Engines (non-CRDI engines) are sluggish, noisy and  poor in performance compared
to a CRDI engine.

CRDI or common rail direct injection system is also sometimes referred to by many similar or
different names. Some brands use name CRDe / DICOR / Turbojet / DDIS / TDI etc. All these systems work
on same principles with slight variations and enhancements here and there.

CRDI system uses common rail which is like one single rail or fuel channel which contains diesel
compresses at high pressure. This is a called a common rail because there is one single pump which
compresses the diesel and one single rail which contains that compressed fuel. In conventional diesel
engines, there will be as many pumps and fuel rails as there are cylinders.

As an example, for a conventional 4 cylinder diesel engine there will be 4 fuel-pumps, 4 fuel rails
each feeding to one cylinder. In CRDI, there will be one fuel rail for all 4 cylinders so that the fuel for all
the cylinders is pressurized at same pressure.

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The fuel is injected into each engine cylinder at a particular time interval based on the position of
moving piston inside the cylinder. In a conventional non-CRDI system, this interval and the fuel
quantity was determined by mechanical components, but in a CRDI system this time interval and timing
etc are all controlled by a central computer or microprocessor based control system.

To run a CRDI system, the microprocessor works with input from multiple sensors. Based on the input
from these sensors, the microprocessor can calculate the precise amount of the diesel and the timing when
the diesel should be injected inside the cylinder. Using these calculations, the CRDI control system delivers
the right amount of diesel at the right time to allow best possible output with least emissions and least
possible wastage of fuel.

The input sensors include Accelerator Pedal Position (APP) sensor, crank position sensor, pressure
sensor, lambda sensor etc. The use of sensors and microprocessor to control the engine makes most
efficient use of the fuel and also improved the power, fuel-economy and performance of the engine by
managing it in a much better way.

One more major difference between a CRDI and conventional diesel engine is the way the fuel
Injectors are controlled. In case of a conventional Engine, the fuel injectors are controlled by mechanical
components to operate the fuel injectors. Use of these mechanical components adds additional noise as
there are many moving components in the injector mechanism of a conventional diesel engine. In case of a
CRDI engine, the fuel injectors are operated using solenoid valves which operate on electric current and do
not require complex and noisy mechanical arrangement to operate the fuel Injection into the cylinder. The
solenoid valves are operated by the central microprocessor of the CRDI control system based on the inputs
from the sensors used in the system.

So if I summarize it, CRDI works on intelligently controlling the Diesel Engine by using sensors
and microprocessors. It replaces some of the mechanical components with intelligent electrical and
electronic systems which improve the power, response, efficiency and performance. It also reduces the
noise, emissions and vibration levels to a considerable extent.

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6. Explain electronically controlled fuel supply system in diesel engine

The performance of diesel engines is heavily influenced by their injection system design. In fact,
the most notable advances achieved in diesel engines resulted directly from superior fuel injection system
designs. While the main purpose of the system is to deliver fuel to the cylinders of a diesel engine, it is how
that fuel is delivered that makes the difference in engine performance, emissions, and noise characteristics.

Unlike its spark-ignited engine counterpart, the diesel fuel injection system delivers fuel under
extremely high injection pressures. This implies that the system component designs and materials should
be selected to withstand higher stresses in order to perform for extended durations that match the
engine’s durability targets. Greater manufacturing precision and tight tolerances are also required for the
system to function efficiently. In addition to expensive materials and manufacturing costs, diesel injection
systems are characterized by more intricate control requirements. All these features add up to a system
whose cost may represent as much as 30% of the total cost of the engine.

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 Fuel Tank and Fuel Supply Pump

 Fuel Filter

 Fuel Heaters & Coolers

 High Pressure Pump

 Accumulator

 Fuel Injector and Fuel Injection Nozzle

 Fuel Metering

 Nozzle Needle Control Actuators

Fuel Tank and Fuel Supply Pump

The fuel tank is a reservoir that holds the fuel supply and helps maintain its temperature at a level below
its flash point. The fuel tank also serves as an important means of dissipating heat from the fuel that is
returned from the engine [Bosch 1971]. The fuel tank should be corrosion-resistant and leak proof to
pressures of at least 30 kPa. It must also use some means to prevent excessive pressure accumulation such
as a vent or a safety valve.

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The fuel supply pump, often referred to as the lift pump, is responsible for drawing fuel from the tank and
delivering it to the high pressure pump. Modern day fuel pumps can be electrically or mechanically driven
by the engine. Using an electrically driven fuel pump allows the pump to be placed anywhere in the fuel
system including inside the fuel tank. Pumps driven by the engine are attached to the engine. Some fuel
pumps may be incorporated into units that serve other functions. For example, so called tandem pumps
are units that incorporate a fuel pump and a vacuum pump for the brake booster. Some fuel systems, such
as those based on a distributor type pump, incorporate a mechanically driven supply pump and the high
pressure pump in one unit.

Fuel pumps are commonly sized to deliver more fuel than is consumed by the engine at any particular
operating system. This extra fuel flow can serve a number of important functions including providing extra
fuel to help to cool injectors, pumps and other engine components and maintaining a more constant
temperature of the fuel in the entire fuel system. Also, the excess fuel that is heated by its contact with hot
engine components can be returned to the tank or fuel filter to improve the vehicle’s low temperature
operability.

Fuel Filter

Trouble-free operation of a diesel injection system is possible only with filtered fuel. Fuel filters help reduce
damage and premature wear from contaminants by retaining very fine particles and water to prevent them
from entering the fuel injection system. As shown in Figure 1, fuel systems can contain one or more stages
of filtration. In many cases, a course screen is also located at the fuel intake located in the fuel tank.

Two stage filter system typically uses a primary filter on the inlet side of the fuel transfer pump and a
secondary filter on the outlet side. The primary filter is required to remove larger particles. The secondary
filter is required to withstand higher pressures and remove smaller particles that can damage the engine
components. One-stage systems remove larger and smaller particles in a single filter.

Filters can be a box-type or replacement element design, as shown in Figure 2. The box-type filter is that
which can be completely replaced as needed and does not require cleaning. Filters with a replaceable
element have to be thoroughly cleaned when replacing elements and care must be taken to avoid any dirt
residue that could migrate to the intricate parts of the fuel injection system. Filters can be constructed of
metal or plastic.

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Hydraulic Accumulator

A hydraulic accumulator is a pressure storage reservoir in which a non-compressible hydraulic

fluid is held under pressure by an external source. The external source can be a piring, a raised weight, or a
compressed gas.[note 1] An accumulator enables a hydraulic system to cope with extremes of demand using a
less powerful pump, to respond more quickly to a temporary demand, and to smooth out pulsations. It is a
type of energy storage device.

7. What do you mean by sensor?

A sensor is a device  that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be
read by an observer orby an instrument. For example, a mercury thermometer converts the measured
temperature into expansion and contraction of a liquid which can be read on a calibrated glass tube. A
thermocouple converts temperature to an output voltage which can be read by a voltmeter.

8. Explain types of sensors.

PRESSURE SENSOR

 In automotive industry, pressure sensors form an integral part of the engine and its safety. In the engine,
these sensors monitor the oil and coolant pressure and regulate the power that the engine should deliver
to achieve suitable speeds whenever accelerator is pressed or the brakes are applied to the car.

For the purpose of safety, pressure sensors constitute an important part of anti-lock braking system (ABS).
This system adapts to the road terrain and makes sure that in case of braking at high speeds, the tires

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don’t lock and the vehicle doesn’t skid. Pressure sensors in the ABS detail the processor with the conditions
of the road as well as the speed with which the vehicle is moving.

Air bag systems also use pressure sensors so that the bags get activated to ensure the safety of the
passengers whenever high amount of pressure is experienced by the vehicle.

TYPES OF PRESSURE SENSORS

Pressure sensors can be classified in terms of pressure ranges they measure, temperature ranges of
operation, and most importantly the type of pressure they measure. Pressure sensors are variously named
according to their purpose, but the same technology may be used under different names.

Absolute pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to perfect vacuum

Gauge pressure sensor

This sensor measures the pressure relative to atmospheric pressure. A tire pressure gauge is an example of
gauge pressure measurement; when it indicates zero, then the pressure it is measuring is the same as the
ambient pressure.

Vacuum pressure sensor

This term can cause confusion. It may be used to describe a sensor that measures pressures below
atmospheric pressure, showing the difference between that low pressure and atmospheric pressure (i.e.
negative gauge pressure), but it may also be used to describe a sensor that measures low pressure relative
to perfect vacuum (i.e. absolute pressure).

Differential pressure sensor

This sensor measures the difference between two pressures, one connected to each side of the sensor.
Differential pressure sensors are used to measure many properties, such as pressure drops across  oil
filters or air filters, fluid levels (by comparing the pressure above and below the liquid) or flow rates (by
measuring the change in pressure across a restriction). Technically speaking, most pressure sensors are
really differential pressure sensors; for example a gauge pressure sensor is merely a differential pressure
sensor in which one side is open to the ambient atmosphere.

Sealed pressure sensor

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This sensor is similar to a gauge pressure sensor except that it measures pressure relative to some fixed
pressure rather than the ambient atmospheric pressure (which varies according to the location and the
weather).

PRESSURE SENSING TECHNOLOGY

Piezoresistive strain gauge

Uses the piezoresistive effect of bonded or formed strain gauges to detect strain due to applied

pressure. Common technology types are Silicon (Monocrystalline), Polysilicon Thin Film, Bonded
Metal Foil, Thick Film, and Sputtered Thin Film. Generally, the strain gauges are connected to
form a Wheatstone bridge circuit to maximize the output of the sensor and to reduce sensitivity to
errors. This is the most commonly employed sensing technology for general purpose pressure
measurement. Generally, these technologies are suited to measure absolute, gauge, vacuum, and
differential pressures.

Capacitive

Uses a diaphragm and pressure cavity to create a variable capacitor to detect strain due to applied
pressure. Common technologies use metal, ceramic, and silicon diaphragms. Generally, these
technologies are most applied to low pressures (Absolute, Differential and Gauge)

Electromagnetic

Measures the displacement of a diaphragm by means of changes

in inductance (reluctance), LVDT, Hall Effect, or by eddy current principle.

Piezoelectric

Uses the piezoelectric effect in certain materials such as quartz to measure the strain upon the
sensing mechanism due to pressure. This technology is commonly employed for the measurement
of highly dynamic pressures.

Optical

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Techniques include the use of the physical change of an optical fiber to detect strain due to
applied pressure. A common example of this type utilizes Fiber Bragg Gratings. This technology is
employed in challenging applications where the measurement may be highly remote, under high
temperature, or may benefit from technologies inherently immune to electromagnetic
interference. Another analogous technique utilizes an elastic film constructed in layers that can
change reflected wavelengths according to the applied pressure (strain).[1]

Potentiometric

Uses the motion of a wiper along a resistive mechanism to detect the strain caused by applied
pressure.

ELECTRONIC TYPE PRESSURE SENSOR

These types of electronic pressure sensors use other properties (such as density) to infer pressure
of a gas, or liquid.

Resonant

Uses the changes in resonant frequency in a sensing mechanism to measure stress, or changes in
gas density, caused by applied pressure. This technology may be used in conjunction with a force collector,
such as those in the category above. Alternatively, resonant technology may be employed by exposing the
resonating element itself to the media, whereby the resonant frequency is dependent upon the density of
the media. Sensors have been made out of vibrating wire, vibrating cylinders, quartz, and silicon MEMS.
Generally, this technology is considered to provide very stable readings over time.

Thermal

Uses the changes in thermal conductivity of a gas due to density changes to measure pressure. A
common example of this type is the Pirani gauge.

Ionization

Measures the flow of charged gas particles (ions) which varies due to density changes to measure
pressure. Common examples are the Hot and Cold Cathode gauges.

THROTTLE POSITION SENSOR 

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A throttle position sensor (TPS) is a sensor used to monitor the throttle position of a car. The sensor is
usually located on the butterfly spindle/shaft so that it can directly monitor the position of the throttle.
More advanced forms of the sensor are also used, for example an extra closed throttle position
sensor (CTPS) may be employed to indicate that the throttle is completely closed. Some engine control
units (ECUs) also control the throttle position electronic throttle control (ETC) or "drive by wire" systems
and if that is done the position sensor is used in a feedback loop to enable that control.

Throttle Position Sensor

FUEL FLOW SENSOR

Now available a gasoline fuel sensor for monitoring fuel consumption in a diesel or gasoline
vehicle. The sensor can be easily mounted in the fuel line system of your vehicle for an accurate and
reliable indication of the flow and fuel consumption of a car or generator.

This flow sensor is suitable for a standard 3/8" fuel line with maximum pressure to 6 bar/85 psi. A
wide supply voltage can be connected to the unit. The unit is constructed of long-life polymer and is
suitable for outdoor use. This unit is ideal for monitoring fuel consumption on a boat, construction
equipment or car.

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Fuel Flow Sensor

THERMISTOR SENSOR

Thermistors are one of the most commonly used devices for the measurement of temperature. The
thermistors are resistors whose resistance changes with the temperature. While for most of the metals the
resistance increases with temperature, the thermistors respond negatively to the temperature and their
resistance decreases with the increase in temperature. Since the resistance of thermistors is dependent on
the temperature, they can be connected in the electrical circuit to measure the temperature of the body.

Thermistor Sensor

OXIGEN SENSOR

 The galvanic fuel cell sensor is actually an electrochemical O2 transducer which generates a
current (µA) signal output that is both proportional and linear to the partial pressure of oxygen in the
sample gas. Oxygen diffuses through the front sensing membrane and reaches the cathode where it is
reduced by electrons furnished by the simultaneous oxidation of the anode. The flow of electrons from
anode to cathode via the external circuit results in a measurable current proportional to the partial
pressure of oxygen (PO2). The sensor has an inherent absolute zero, therefore, no oxygen no signal output.

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Oxigen sensor working

KNOCK SENSOR

Modern engine control systems are designed to minimize exhaust emissions while maximizing
power and fuel economy. The ability to maximize power and fuel economy by optimizing spark timing for
a given air/fuel ratio is limited by engine knock. Detecting knock and controlling ignition timing to allow
an engine to run at the knock threshold provides the best power and fuel economy. Normal combustion
occurs when a gaseous mixture of air and fuel is ignited by the spark plug and burns smoothly from the
point of ignition to the cylinder walls. Engine knock, or detonation, occurs when the temperature or
pressure in the unburned air/fuel mixture (end gases) exceeds a critical level, causing autoignition of the
end gases. This produces a shock wave that generates a rapid increase in cylinder pressure. The impulse
caused by the shock wave excites a resonance in the cylinder at a characteristic frequency that is
dependent primarily on cylinder bore diameter and combustion chamber temperature. Damage to pistons,
rings, and exhaust valves can result if sustained heavy knock occurs. Additionally, most automotive
customers find the sound of heavy engine knock objectionable.

Knock sensor generates a voltage when vibration is applied to them, utilizing the piezoelectric
effect. Due to the vibration, a counter weight inside the sensor is applying pressure on the piezo element;
this pressure creates an electric charge in the piezo- element which is the output signal of sensor.

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KNOCK SENSOR

9. Explain types of actuators.

Hydraulic
A hydraulic actuator consists of a cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to facilitate mechanical operation. The mechanical
motion gives an output in terms of linear, rotary or oscillatory motion. Because liquid is nearly incompressible, a hydraulic actuator can
exert considerable force, but is limited in acceleration and speed.

The hydraulic cylinder consists of a hollow cylindrical tube along which a piston can slide. The term double acting is used when
pressure is applied on each side of the piston. A difference in pressure between the two side of the piston results in motion of piston to
either side. The term single acting is used when the fluid pressure is applied to just one side of the piston. The piston can move in only
one direction, a spring being frequently used to give the piston a return stroke.

Pneumatic
A pneumatic actuator converts energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high pressure into either linear or rotary motion.
Pneumatic energy is desirable for main engine controls because it can quickly respond in starting and stopping as the power source
does not need to be stored in reserve for operation.

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Pneumatic rack and pinion actuators for valve controls of water pipes

Pneumatic actuators enable large forces to be produced from relatively small pressure changes. These forces are often used with valves
to move diaphragms and so affect the flow of liquid through the valve.

Electric
An electric actuator is powered by a motor that converts electrical energy to mechanical torque. The electrical energy is used to
actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves. It is one of the cleanest and most readily available forms of actuator because it does not
involve oil.

Mechanical
A mechanical actuator functions by converting rotary motion into linear motion to execute movement. It involves gears, rails, pulleys,
chains and other devices to operate. An example is a rack and pinion.

10. What do you mean by jetronics? Explain its types.

jetronic is a trade name of a fuel injection technology for automotive petrol engines, developed and
marketed by Robert Bosch GmbH from the 1960s onwards. Bosch licensed the concept to
many automobile manufacturers. There are several variations of the technology offering technological
development and refinement.

D- JETRONICS

The 'D' is an abbreviation from German: "Druck", which means pressure. Inlet manifold depression

(vacuum) is measured using a pressure sensor located in or connected to the intake manifold, in order to
calculate the duration of the fuel injection pulses. Originally, this system was just called Jetronic, but the
name D-Jetronic was later created to distinguish it from the newer versions.

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L- JETRONIC

L-Jetronic was often called Air-Flow Controlled (AFC) injection to further separate it from the
pressure-controlled D-Jetronic — with the 'L' in its name derived from German: luft, meaning air. In the
system, air flow into the engine is measured by a movable vane (indicating engine load) known as the mass
air flow sensor (MAF) — referred to in German documentation as the LuftMassenMesser or LMM. L-
Jetronic used custom-designed integrated circuits, resulting in a simpler and more reliable engine control
unit(ECU) than the D-Jetronic's.

L-Jetronic was used heavily in 1980s-era European cars,[2] as well as BMW K-Series motorcycles. Licensing

some of Bosch's L-Jetronic concepts and technologies, Lucas, Hitachi Automotive Products, NipponDenso,
and others produced similar fuel injection systems for Asian car manufacturers. Despite physical similarity
between L-Jetronic components and those produced under license by other manufacturers, the non-Bosch
systems should not be called L-Jetronic, and the parts are usually incompatible.

11. Explain Multipoint Fuel Injection.

The term MPFI is used to specify a technology used in Gasoline/petrol Engines. For Diesel
Engines, there is a similar technology called CRDI. We will discuss CRDI in a separate article to
avoid confusion.
MPFI System is a system which uses a small to control the Car’s Engine. A Petrol car’s engine
usually has three or more cylinders or fuel burning zones. So in case of an MPFI engine, there is
one fuel –injector installed near each cylinder that is why they call it Multi-point (more than
one points) Fuel Injection.

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In plain words, to burn petrol in an Engine to produce power, Petrol has to be mixed
with some air, ignited in a cylinder which produces energy and runs the engine. I will not talk of
further internal details because it will make this article for Engineers and not common people.
Before MPFI system was discovered, there was a technology called “Carburetor”. Carburetor
was one chamber where petrol and air was mixed in a fixed ratio and then sent to cylinders to
burn it to produce power. This system is purely a mechanical machine with little or no
intelligence. It was not very efficient in burning petrol; it will burn more petrol than needed at
times and will produce more pollution. But with the advancement of technology this was about
to change.
MPFI emerged an intelligent way to do what the Carburetor does. In MPFI system, each
cylinder has one injector (which makes it multi-point). Each of these Injectors is controlled by
one central car computer. This computer is a small micro-processor, which keeps telling each
Injector about how much petrol and at what time it needs to inject near the cylinder so that
only the required amount of petrol goes into the cylinder at the right moment.
So the working of MPFI is similar to Carburetor, but in an improved way, because now each
cylinder is treated independently unlike Carburetor. But one major Key difference is that MPFI
is an intelligent system and Carburetor is not. MPFI systems are controlled by a computer which
does lots of calculations before deciding what amount of petrol will go into what cylinder at a
particular point in time. It makes that decision based on the inputs it reads.
For the Inputs, the microprocessor (or car’s computer) reads a number of sensors. Through
these sensors, the microprocessor knows the temperature of the Engine, the Speed of the
Engine, it knows the load on the Engine, it knows how hard you have pressed the accelerator, it
knows whether the Engine is idling at a traffic signal or it is actually running the car, it knows
the air-pressure near the cylinders, it knows the amount of oxygen coming out of the exhaust
pipe.

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Based on all these inputs from the sensors, the computer in the MPFI system decides
what amount of fuel to inject. Thus it makes it fuel efficient as it knows what amount of petrol
should go in. To make things more interesting, the system also learns from the drivers driving
habits. Modern car’s computers have memory, which will remember your driving style and will
behave in a way so that you get the desired power output from engine based on your driving
style. For example, if you have a habit of speedy pick-up, car’s computer will remember that
and will give you more power at low engine speeds by putting extra petrol, so that you get a
good pick-up. It will typically judge this by the amount of pressure you put on accelerator.
12. Explain Electronic fuel supply system
Both the multi-point and the single-point systems operate in a very similar fashion,
having an electromechanically operated injector or injectors opening for a predetermined
length of time called the injector pulse width. The pulse width is determined by the engine’s
Electronic Control Module (ECM and depends on the engine temperature, the engine load and
the information from the oxygen (lambda) sensor. The fuel is delivered from the tank through a
filter, and a regulator determines its operating pressure. The fuel is delivered to the engine in
precise quantities and in most cases is injected into the inlet manifold to await the valve’s
opening, then drawn into the combustion chamber by the incoming air.

The Fuel Tank

This is the obvious place to start in any full system explanation. Unlike the tanks on early
carburettor-equipped vehicles, it is a sealed unit that allows the natural gassing of the fuel to
aid delivery to the pump by slightly pressurising the system. When the filler cap is removed,
pressure is heard to escape because the fuel filler caps are no longer vented.

The Fuel Pump

This type of high-pressure fuel pump (Fig 1.0) is called a roller cell pump, with the fuel
entering the pump and being compressed by rotating cells which force it through the pump at a
high pressure. The pump can produce a pressure of 8 bar (120 psi) with a delivery rate of
approximately 4 to 5 litres per minute. Within the pump is a pressure relief valve that lifts off its
seat at 8 bar to arrest the pressure if a blockage in the filter or fuel lines or elsewhere causes it
to become obstructed. The other end of the pump (output) is home to a non-return valve
which, when the voltage to the pump is removed, closes the return to the tank and maintains
pressure within the system. The normal operating pressure within this system is approximately
2 bar (30 psi), at which the current draw on the pump is 3 to 5 amps. Fuel passing across the
fuel pump's armature is subjected to sparks and arcing; this sounds quite dangerous, but the
absence of oxygen means that there will not be an explosion!

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The majority of fuel pumps fitted to today’s motor vehicles is fitted within the vehicle’s
petrol tank and are referred to as ‘submerged’ fuel pumps. The pump is invariably be located
with the fuel sender unit and both units can sometimes be accessed through an inspection hole
either in the boot floor or under the rear seat. Mounted vertically, the pump comprises an
inner and outer gear assembly that is called the ‘gerotor’. The combined assembly is secured in
the tank using screws and sealed with a rubber gasket, or a bayonet-type locking ring. On some
models, there are two fuel pumps, the submerged pump acting as a ‘lift’ pump to the external
roller cell pump.

Fuel Supply
A conventional ‘flow and return’ system has a supply of fuel delivered to the fuel rail, and the
unwanted fuel is passed through the pressure regulator back to the tank. It is the restriction in
the fuel line created by the pressure regulator that provides the system operational pressure.

Returnless Fuel Systems

Have been adopted by several motor manufacturers and differ from the conventional by having
a delivery pipe only to the fuel rail with no return flow back to the tank.
The returnless systems, both the mechanical and the electronic versions, were necessitated by
emissions laws. The absence of heated petrol returning to the fuel tank reduces the amount of
evaporative emissions, while the fuel lines are kept short, thus reducing build costs.

Mechanical Returnless Fuel Systems

The ‘returnless’ system differs from the norm by having the pressure regulator inside the fuel
tank. When the fuel pump is activated, fuel flows into the system until the required pressure is
obtained; at this point ‘excess’ fuel is bled past the pressure regulator and back into the tank.
The ‘flow and return’ system has a vacuum supply to the pressure regulator: this enables the
fuel pressure to be increased whenever the manifold vacuum drops, providing fuel enrichment
under acceleration.
The ‘returnless’ system has no mechanical compensation affecting the fuel pressure, which
remains at a higher than usual 44 to 50 psi. By increasing the delivery pressure, the ECM
(Electronic Control Module) can alter the injection pulse width to give the precise delivery,
regardless of the engine load and without fuel pressure compensation.

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Electronic Returnless Fuel Systems

This version has all the required components fitted within the one unit of the submersible fuel
pump. It contains a small particle filter (in addition to the strainer), pump, electronic pressure
regulator, fuel level sensor and a sound isolation system. The electronic pressure regulator
allows the pressure to be increased under acceleration conditions, and the pump’s output can
be adjusted to suit the engine's fuel demand. This prolongs the pump’s life as it is no longer
providing a larger than required output delivery.
The Electronic Control Module (ECM) supplies the required pressure information, while the fuel
pump’s output signal is supplied in the form of a digital squarewave. Altering the squarewave’s
duty cycle affects the pump’s delivery output.
To compensate for the changing viscosity of the fuel with changing fuel temperature, a fuel rail
temperature sensor is installed. A pulsation damper may also be fitted ahead of or inside the
fuel rail.

Injectors
The injector is an electromechanical device, which is fed by a 12 volt supply from either the fuel
injection relay or the ECM. The voltage is present only when the engine is cranking or running,
because it is controlled by a tachometric relay. The injector is supplied with fuel from a
common fuel rail. The injector pulse width depends on the input signals seen by the ECM from
its various engine sensors, and varies to compensate for cold engine starting and warm-up
periods, the initial wide pulse getting narrower as the engine warms to operating temperature.
The pulse width also expands under acceleration and contracts under light load conditions.
13. Describe Electrical fuel pump.

In many modern cars the fuel pump is usually electric and located inside the fuel tank.
The pump creates positive pressure in the fuel lines, pushing the gasoline to the engine. The
higher gasoline pressure raises the boiling point. Placing the pump in the tank puts the
component least likely to handle gasoline vapor well (the pump itself) farthest from the engine,
submersed in cool liquid. Another benefit to placing the pump inside the tank is that it is less
likely to start a fire. Though electrical components (such as a fuel pump) can spark and ignite
fuel vapors, liquid fuel will not explode (see flammability limit) and therefore submerging the

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pump in the tank is one of the safest places to put it. In most cars, the fuel pump delivers a
constant flow of gasoline to the engine; fuel not used is returned to the tank. This further
reduces the chance of the fuel boiling, since it is never kept close to the hot engine for too long.
The ignition switch does not carry the power to the fuel pump; instead, it activates a
relay which will handle the higher current load. It is common for the fuel pump relay to become
oxidized and cease functioning; this is much more common than the actual fuel pump failing.
Modern engines utilize solid-state control which allows the fuel pressure to be controlled via
pulse-width modulation of the pump voltage. This increases the life of the pump, allows a
smaller and lighter device to be used, and reduces electrical load.
Cars with electronic fuel injection have an electronic control unit (ECU) and this may be
programmed with safety logic that will shut the electric fuel pump off, even if the engine is
running. In the event of a collision this will prevent fuel leaking from any ruptured fuel line.
Additionally, cars may have an inertia switch (usually located underneath the front passenger
seat) that is "tripped" in the event of an impact, or a roll-over valve that will shut off the fuel
pump in case the car rolls over.
14. Explain Electronically controlled EGR valve

E-G-R stands for Exhaust Gas Recirculation. It’s been around for decades but it’s now
becomingly increasingly important in both diesel and spark ignition engines.

Computer-controlled, often externally-cooled, and potentially of much greater use than for just
decreasing emissions, EGR is making a major resurgence. So what are the emissions and fuel
economy implications of EGR? Some, including reducing full-load exhaust gas temps in turbo
engines without the need to run rich air/fuel ratios, are not at all what you’d expect!

Exhaust Gas Recirculation

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) is a process whereby some of the engine exhaust is fed back
into the intake.

External EGR is achieved by means of a pipe that connects the exhaust to the inlet manifold,
with a control valve interposed in this line to regulate EGR flow.

For exhaust gas to flow in this pipe, the pressure in the exhaust must be higher than the
pressure in the intake.

In conventionally throttled spark ignition engines, this pressure differential is present in varying
degrees at all loads, and is highest in part-throttle conditions. However, in throttle-less engines
like diesels and some direct injection spark ignition engines, this pressure differential is highly
dependent on exhaust backpressure. In turbocharged engines, exhaust pressure in front of the
turbine is always higher than intake manifold pressure.

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Internal EGR occurs when the valve timing is arranged so that there is some back-flow into the
combustion chamber from the exhaust, or all exhaust gases are not pushed out of the
combustion chamber on the exhaust stroke. Such engines normally have variable valve timing
so that internal EGR occurs only when dictated by the ECU; when internal EGR is required, this
is achieved by increasing valve overlap.

Internal EGR appears to be a better approach (at least on engines with variable valve timing) as
it avoids the need for external pipes and valves, reducing cost and improving packaging.
However, external EGR has a significant advantage – the recycled exhaust gas can be cooled
before being fed back into the intake. This is termed cooled EGR.

In cooled EGR systems, the amount of EGR flow that actually occurs depends not only on the
pressure differential between the exhaust and intake, but also on the pressure drop through
the EGR cooler. The actual amount of EGR occurring can be indirectly measured by the intake
airflow meter – more on this in a moment.

Traditional EGR Systems

EGR was first widely adopted in the 1970s as a means of reducing oxides of nitrogen (NOx)
emissions.

In the depicted Nissan system, the amount of EGR depended on two factors – engine load
(registered as intake manifold vacuum) and coolant temperature (monitored by a thermal
vacuum valve). The higher the manifold vacuum (ie the lower the load), the greater the EGR.
EGR was fully activated only at coolant temperatures above 63 degrees C, was partially
activated at 40 – 63 degrees C, and was inactive at temperatures below 40 degrees C.

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This Leyland EGR flow control valve consisted of a diaphragm and a valve. The diaphragm was
subjected to manifold vacuum and so valve lift decreased with load.

However, many EGR valves used more complex operation that this - for example, monitoring
exhaust backpressure as well as intake manifold pressure, so preventing EGR on the over-run
and at idle.

Even in this period, some cars additionally used solenoid control of the vacuum signal to the
EGR valve, the solenoid being controlled by a dedicated electrical unit.

Electronically-Controlled EGR Systems

Given that the optimal EGR valve opening varies with load, coolant temperature, pressure
differential between exhaust and intake manifold (and other factors), electronically-controlled
operation of the EGR valve has obvious advantages. All external EGR systems fitted to current
diesel and spark ignition cars use electronically-controlled flow valves.

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EGR system uses a vacuum-controlled EGR valve that is electronically controlled by the ECU.

This Honda system uses an electronically-controlled EGR valve that incorporates a feedback
sensor to determine the actual valve opening that is occurring.

This is a generic diagram of a typical diesel car EGR system. The important point to note is the
presence of the airflow meter. By comparing the modelled airflow requirements of the engine
(based on rpm, intake manifold pressure, intake air temp and volumetric efficiency) with the
actual amount of air being breathed, the amount of EGR that is occurring can be calculated and
adjusted as required.

EGR for Emissions Reductions

EGR reduces the emission of oxides of nitrogen (NOx).

NOx emissions are problematic because their generation is associated with lean combustion.
Diesels (that most frequently run air/fuel ratios of 50:1 – 100:1, with a richest air/fuel ratio of
about 20:1) and spark ignition engines run in stratified combustion and lean cruise modes (eg

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air/fuel ratios of 20:1 – 25:1) produce large amounts of NOx. EGR is therefore most often used
on engines running lean air/fuel ratios.

EGR reduces NOx emissions in three ways.

 The combustion is cooled by the presence of exhaust gas - the recirculated exhaust gas
absorbs heat.

 The dilution of the oxygen present in the combustion chamber reduces the production

of NOx.

 If exhaust gas is being recirculated, less air will be breathed by the engine, so reducing
the amount of exhaust gas produced.

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