CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDIES

This chapter includes the review of related literature and studies which the

researchers perused to provide clearer understanding of information that are relevant

and similar to the present study.

RELATED LITERATURE

As the Violence against Women constantly increased in the Philippines, women

tend to rely on the actions and support from the government. Being a growing concern,

public safety has become the center of interest of the society because of the dangers

that currently pose to individuals. At every arena of public life, implementing agencies

ensures public security through programs and activities, so that health and normal life is

always maintained.

Thus, this study focuses its discussion in the related literature on the assessment

of the actions and program implemented by different barangays in Batangas City in

order to prevent violence against women. It will also discuss ordinances promoting self-

defense workshops and seminars for the public safety of women in Batangas City,

violence faced by women as well as crime rate and factors resulted by this assaults.

LEGAL FRAMEWORK

The Philippine Constitutions provides that “The States values the dignity  of

each person and guarantees full respect for human rights” expressively in Article II,
Section 11. It additionally guarantees one and all the proper to life, security of person

and privacy, right to be free from torture, discretionary arrest and detention, the

proper to be free from discrimination and therefore the right to freedom of

expression, and therefore the right to arrange associations. (Article III Section 1, 2, 4, 8

and 12)

Section 3 of Republic Act 9710 otherwise known as the Magna Carta of Women

(MCW) provides that “All individuals are equal as human beings by virtue of the inherent

dignity of each human person. No one should therefore suffer discrimination on the

basis of ethnicity, gender, age, language, sexual orientation, race, color, religion,

political or other opinion, national, social or geographical origin, disability, property,

birth, or other status as established by human rights standards. Magna Carta for

Women on "Protection from Violence" Section 9 states that the State shall ensure that

all women shall be protected from all forms of violence as provided for in existing laws.

As an act upholding a strong security for women against violence and abuses on

gender inequality, it prioritizes into the defense and protection of women against

gender-based offenses and help women attains justice and healing.

Moreover, Section 9 mandates women to have an incremental increase in the

recruitment and training of women in the police force forensics and medico-legal

services, and social work services availed of by women who were victims of gender-

related offenses until 50 percent (50%) of the personnel thereof shall be women. Also,

women shall have the right to protection and security in situations of armed conflict and

militarization. Towards this end, they shall be protected from all forms of gender-based

violence particularly rape and other forms of sexual abuse, and all forms of violence in
situations of armed conflicts. The state shall observe international standards for the

protection of civilian population in circumstances of emergency and armed conflict.

However, Rule IV of the Rules and Regulations Implementing the Magna Carta

of women provides establishment of violence against Women (VAW) desk in every

barangay to ensure that violence against women cases are fully addressed in a gender-

responsive manner. (Joint Memorandum Circular No. 2010-2)

In addition, Anti-Discrimination Ordinances that prohibit discrimination based on

sexual orientation and gender identity have been enacted in nineteen (19) LGUs,

namely: Barangays Bagbag, Lagro and Pansol in Quezon City, Angeles City in

Pampanga, Antipolo City, Bacolod City in Negros Occidental, Batangas City in

Batangas, Candon City in Ilocos Sur, Cebu City, Dagupan City in Pangasinan, Davao

City, Mandaue City, Puerto Princesa, Quezon City, Vigan City in Ilocos Sur, Municipality

of San Julian in Eastern Samar, Province of Agusan del Norte, Province of Cavite. Sur,

Cebu City, Dagupan City in Pangasinan, Davao City, Mandaue City, Puerto Princesa,

Quezon City, Vigan City in Ilocos Sur, Municipality of San Julian in Eastern Samar,

Province of Agusan del Norte, Province of Batangas and Province of Cavite.

Moreover, the punong barangay shall designate a VAW Desk person who is

trained in gender-sensitive handling of cases; preferably a woman barangay kagawad

or woman barangay tanod. Functions of the Barangay VAW desk is further explained

and shall perform the following tasks :( 1) respond to gender-based violence cases

brought to the barangay. (2) Record the number of gender-based violence handled by

the barangay and submits quarterly report on all cases of VAW to the DILG
City/Municipal Field Office and the City/ Municipal Social Welfare Development Office

(C/MSWDO). (3) keep VAW case records confidential and secured, and ensure that

only authorized personnel can access it.(4) assist victims of VAW in securing Barangay

Protection Order (BPO) and access necessary services.(5) develop the barangay

gender-responsive plan in addressing gender-based violence, including support

services, capacity building and referral system. (6) Coordinate with and refer cases to

government agencies, non-government organization (NGOs) institutions, and other

service providers as necessary. (7) Address other forms of abuse committed against

women, especially senior citizens, women with disabilities, and other marginalized

groups. (8) Lead advocacies on the elimination of VAW in the community. (9) Perform

other related functions as may be assigned. All government personnel involved in the

protection and defense of women against gender-based violence shall undergo a

mandatory training on human rights and gender sensitivity.

VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

The term violence against women describes a wide range of acts, including

murder, rape and sexual assault, physical assault, emotional abuse, beating, stalking,

prostitution, genital mutilation, sexual harassment and pornography. In the still evolving

field, there is little consensus on exactly how to define violence against women. The

main contention is whether the word ' violence' should be strictly defined or whether the

phrase ' violence against women' should be seen more generally as aggressive

behavior that adversely and disproportionately affects women.

define violence, definitions that can be implemented. For example, Gelles and Straus

(1979) defined violence as “any act carried out with a view to causing physical pain or

injury to another person or with a perceived intention.” Similarly, the National Research

Council (NRC) report Understanding and Preventing Violence (Reiss and Roth, 1993)

limited its definition to "behavior by persons against persons that intentionally threatens,

attempts, or actually inflicts physical harm." The 1993 NRC study deliberately excluded

behavior that inflicts harm unintentionally, while the Gelles and Straus definition

includes behaviors that may be unintentional but are perceived by the victim to be

intentional.

In contrast to those definitions, researchers in such fields as psychology, mental

health, and social work frequently consider "violence" to cover a wider range of

behaviors. The Committee on Family Violence of the National Institute of Mental Health

(1992) included in its definition of violence "acts that are physically and emotionally

harmful or that carry the potential to cause physical harm … [and] may also include

sexual coercion or assaults, physical intimidation, threats to kill or to harm, restraint of

normal activities or freedom, and denial of access to resources. The Task Force on

Male Violence Against Women of the American Psychological Association defined

violence as ''physical, visual, verbal, or sexual acts that are experienced by a woman or

a girl as a threat, invasion, or assault and that have the effect of hurting her or

degrading her and/or taking away her ability to control contact (intimate or otherwise)

with another individual" (Koss et al., 1994). Those who argue for these broader

definitions suggest they more accurately represent the experiences of victims, who
often say they find verbal and psychological abuse more harmful than actual physical

abuse (Walker, 1979; Follingstad et al., 1990; Herman, 1995). In the field of intimate

partner violence or battering, the problem of violence against women is frequently

characterized as one of coercive control that is maintained by tactics such as physical

violence, psychological abuse, sexual violence, and denial of resources. The concern is

about the multitude of behaviors used to dominate women. Physical violence does not

often need to be used to be effective: “In fact, abusers may regret resorting to violence,

but may feel ' driven' when their other methods of enforcing subordination are

insufficient “(Herman, 1995, p. 2). Fear is a key factor in the field of rape; it is a major

concern of many women (Warr, 1985; Gordon and Riger, 1989; Klodawsky and Lundy,

1994). Although women are the victims of violent crime less often than men, women are

more afraid of crime (Federal Office of Investigation, 1991) and this fear seems to be

largely based on their fear of fear of rape (Riger et al., 1981). Many feminist theorists

contend that this fear of rape serves to intimidate and control all women (Griffin, 1971;

Brownmiller, 1975; Dworkin, 1991).

In the broadest sense, violence against women is any violation of a woman's

personhood, mental or physical integrity, or freedom of movement through individual

acts and societal oppression. It covers all the ways in which our society aims and

oppresses women. Violence against women ranges from sterilization abuse,

pornography, stalking, battering and rape. It includes girls ' sexual and physical abuse

and elder abuse. (Collective Boston Women's Heath Book, 1998)

Every form of violence threatens all women and limits their ability to make

choices about their lives. Sexual violence is particularly insidious because sexual acts
are ordinarily and rightly a source of pleasure and communication. It is often unclear to

a victimized woman and to society as a whole whether sexual abuse was committed out

of sexual desire or through violent intent or whether these motivations can even be

distinguished, because violence itself is seen as sexual or erotic. (Collective Boston

Women's Heath Book, 1998)

Women are more likely to be victimized by male offenders than by female

offenders; about three-quarters of violent crimes against women are committed by

males (Bachman, 1994). In one urban emergency room, violence was the most

common cause of injury to women between the ages of 15 and 44 and the second most

common cause of injury for all women (Grisso et al., 1991). Finally, women are far more

likely than men to be sexually assaulted. The National Crime Victimization Survey

(NCVS) found women were 10 times more likely to be raped or sexually assaulted than

were men (Bastian, 1995). The annual rate of rape is estimated to be 7.1 per 1,000

adult women, and 13 percent of all women will experience forcible rape sometime

during their lives. (Kilpatrick et al., 1994)

In spite of the attention that has been paid to violence against women in recent

years, the research endeavor is relatively young, and much remains unknown. There

really is no one field focused on violence against women per se. Studies on rape and

sexual assault, for example, are separate from those on intimate partner violence, which

is different from the nascent stalking study. And all this research on violence in general

is different. Many of the studies on violence against women in this newly emerging field

are at an early stage of scientific research. The methodological weaknesses in battering

and rape research have been extensively discussed in other papers (Rosenbaum,
1988; Gelles, 1990; Koss, 1992, 1993; Rosenfeld, 1992; Smith, 1994). Definitions differ

from study to study, comparisons and weak deeds to eliminate these types of misery.

SELF-DEFENSE

Instruction on self - defense is defined as " preparation to minimize the possibility

of assault; it is training to learn and use a small group of simple effective physical

actions. If there is no alternative, learning to defend oneself is mainly the process of

learning how to avoid becoming a victim. (Cummings, p. 183, 199)

Moreover, advocates of self-defense for women believe that the development of

particular physical and mental skills will strengthen woman’s physical capacities,

support woman’s independence, and increase women’s mobility and, ultimately, move

women from a culturally conditioned passivity to being non-passive, powerful

individuals. (Cummings, 1992, p.184)

However, women's self-defense courses function as new groups of reference

that day offer a more empowering perspective to women. According to Shibutani (1995),

“a reference group is a standard or checkpoint used by an actor in the formulation of his

assessment of the situation, in particular his own position.”

The main features of a self - defense class that fosters group development and

cohesion include opportunities to share narratives and mutual perspectives. (Fraser and

Russell, 2000; Steveson, 2006)

There is some evidence that teaching female self-defense strategies such as

hitting, punching, kicking, and screaming and yelling to attract help can reduce
victimization and increase self-efficiency among individuals (Anderson and

Wiston,2005;Sochting, Fairbrother and Koch, 2004). However, Robertson and

Dickenson (2008) suggest that while rape prevention and resistance can be a response

for individual women, they cannot be a solution for women as a group because males

diluted by such tactics target women who have not been trained in self - defense.

(Dickinson et.al, 2010, p.24)

Furthermore, Women’s self-defense training aims to arm women with the skills to

avoid, interrupt, and resist assault. Early second-wave feminists, aware of the

pervasiveness of violence against women and critical of society’s reluctance to address

it, took their safety literally into their own hands, adapting martial arts techniques to suit

women’s needs; adding verbal, psychological, and emotional skills; and integrating a

critical gender consciousness into their trainings (Telsey, 1981 cited by Hollander, 2016,

p. 207).

The self - defense course of a woman, which includes both physical technique

and assertiveness or verbal limitation, teaches women to adjust their responses to

others in a way that protects and affirms their self - esteem, identity and emotions while

respecting the identity and emotions of the other with whom they interact.

In learning self – defense there are “changes in the interaction patterns of women

with strangers, even if they do not threaten violence”. In this way, self - defense training

literally trains women to defend themselves, not only physically and sexually, but also

psychologically and emotionally, and to improve relationships with others. (Hollander,

2004, p. 217)
PUBLIC SAFETY

As defined by United State (US) Legal Dictionary, public safety, as a welfare and

protection of the general public, is expressed as a governmental responsibility. Most

states have public security departments with the primary objective of preventing

dangers and protecting the public from crimes and disasters. In different cases, the

Public Safety Division is made up of people from other organizations including police,

emergency medical services, fire force, etc.

Furthermore, public security achieves the extent to which social integration

among peoples is high. It is a substitute term for social integration. It can be measured

indirectly, as in the case of suicide, murder, rates of accidental death or violent attacks,

but these are not social integration measures or the density of connections. This

integration is mobilized by a common emotional experience, supported by celebration

and dramatization, and imminently symbolized by security and security agency

practices. Police Science Encyclopedia: 2-volume set)

According to Chris Cornell (2010), public security is a growing concern due to the

dangers that individuals and society currently face. He stressed that public safety is

important in the implementation of public safety measures to ensure that health and

normal life are always maintained. Every country has its own regulations and rules on

safety maintenance.

UN Women’s Global Flagship Initiative, “Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces,”

builds on its “Safe Cities Free of Violence against Women and Girls” Global Program,

launched in November 2010, with leading women’s organizations, organizations, UN

to develop, implement and evaluate tools, policies and comprehensive approaches to

preventing and responding to sexual harassment and other forms of sexual violence

against women and girls throughout the world. It began with founding program in Quito,

Ecuador; Cairo, Egypt; New Delhi, India; Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea; and Kigali,

Rwanda, and now spans more than 20 cities.

As the worldwide program demonstrates, the UN Women’s Safe Cities and Safe

Public Spaces Global Initiative continues to deliver a number of innovative results

through partnerships with mayors ' offices, national governments, women's groups and

other community partners.

In Cairo, the Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Development of Egypt has

carried out women's security audits to guide urban planning, and more than 100 youth

change agents (50 percent young men and 50 percent young women) have been

involved and are leading transformative activities in schools and other settings in the

program's intervention sites to promote respectful gender relationships, gender equality,

and safety in public spaces.

Mayors and local governments have played a major role in the evolution of

community security in Europe, North America, Africa and Australasia over the past

twenty years. The number of initiatives aimed at crime, victimization and social

exclusion of individuals, minority groups and neighborhoods has increased.

The connection between poverty and social disadvantage, crime and

victimization has shown that many agencies must work together to prevent crime.
Mayors and local governments have seen Community security as a fundamental human

right and an aspect of community quality of life. They were able to mobilize local

partnerships with key players-police, agencies, organizations and residents-to develop

safe, secure and lively communities in large metropolitan areas and smaller towns and

rural areas: (a) the shift from a relatively narrow focus on crime prevention to a broader

public good community security and security issue (b) the development of consensus on

the need to work for community security by addressing the social and economic

conditions that promote crime and victimization (c) from the primary responsibility of the

police to the recognition that governments, communities and partnerships at all levels

must be actively involved (d) the recognition of the crucial role played by local municipal

leaders in this process through the organization and motivation of local partners '

coalitions to create a healthy and safe communities (e) Increasing evidence shows that

intervention targeting risk factors can be effective and cost effective in reducing crime

and other social problems. (Shaw, 2014)

One of the underlying elements of good governance is an educated and well-

trained government workforce. For this reason, the CSC is committed to interventions

that will improve the knowledge, skills and expertise of government employees,

especially middle - level managers, and equip them with new ones in accordance with

the principle that “tomorrow’s jobs cannot be done with yesterday’s skills.” (Rosas,

2000)

Violence against women takes many forms. (a.) Domestic violence is where a

person attempts in an intimate relationship to control and assert power over his or her

partner. Any woman can be affected and in any house. Twenty - five per cent of all
reported violent crimes involve a man attacking his wife or partner. Domestic violence

involves physical, emotional, financial and sexual abuse. (b) Sexual assault and rape.

Rape is considered the most underreported violent crime and research at European

level shows that only 2 to 10% of rape is reported to the authorities. In 2011, there were

28, 615 helpline contacts to Rape Crisis services, a 10% increase on 2010. Statistics

for that year also show that 90 percent of perpetrators were known to the survivor when

sexual assaults occurred. (c) Prostitution and trafficking in which women suffered

terrifying and degrading treatment in this form of violence, and extreme levels of

violence, such as beatings, rape and sexual assault. The strong connection between

prostitution and sexually exploited trafficking has been well documented. On average,

1000 women can be sold every day and the vast majority is migrant women and girls.

(d) Female Genital Mutilation is considered an act of violence against women and

children because it can cause irreparable harm to female genitalia and reproductive

organs. It is common practice in at least 28 countries, in Africa, Middle East and Asia.

(e) Forced Marriage where women have found themselves deceived and subject to

sexual and other forms of abuse by agents and or prospective spouses. (f) Sexual

Harassment occurs when unwanted conduct has the purpose or effect of violating a

person’s dignity and creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating or offensive

environment for the person. (Violence against women on issue of Gender-Highlighting

the role of gender in analysis and response- December 2013 issue)

In The World Women’s 2015 Journal Issue, violence can lead to long - term

physical, mental and emotional problems; violence against women can lead to death in
the most extreme cases. Two thirds of the victims of inmate partner / family homicides

are women, while only 20% of the victims of all cases are women on cases of homicide.

There are numerous physical consequences of victimization. Some of these are

direct consequences of abuse and/or sexual assault, such as traumatic injury, unwanted

pregnancy, pregnancy complication and sexually transmitted illness. Others, such as

gynecological symptoms, chronic pain syndromes, and gastrointestinal problems, are

consequences of the effect of traumatic stress, which can influence physical health by

various mechanisms. Some of these mechanisms are based on psychology, but

emerging literature shows that many reflect physiological changes. Such effects are

especially common for women who suffer from repeated or long - term victimization.

Many of these repercussions last several years after violence. . Although the severity

and duration of violence are important determinants of the extent of the physical

consequences, several factors contribute to the physical response of any particular

woman to violence. Doctors and other healthcare professionals deal with the many

physical sequences of violence, even if they do not identify them. In fact, women who

have been subjected to violence are more likely to seek medical attention than to use

mental health, social services, clergy counseling, victim assistance or legal assistance.

Because of this increased utilization, health care providers have numerous opportunities

to help women who are experiencing of the effects of trauma (Tjaden and Thoennes,

2010).

In the Philippines, the government has established facilities and programs

primarily to address the VAW issue. These programs and facilities include temporary

care and shelter for women in particularly difficult circumstances, the Department of
Social Welfare and Development's Haven crisis intervention unit. The Department of

Health (DOH) institutionalizes the women and children protection on all its 39 hospitals

nationwide, now called the Women and Children Protection Unit, each WCPU is

founded on a 24-hour quick-response approach that delivers a personalized and

comprehensive healthcare to survivors.

In collaboration with the Unit for Child Protection and Women's Desk of the

Philippine General Hospital of the University of the Philippines, DOH has developed a

training program for WCPU doctors that meet the needs of women and children

survivors of violence. The training program also allows forensic doctors to work so that

they can provide evidence and stand as experts witness in court.

Various programs of different agencies also contribute to the general awareness

rising programs of government on the issues on violence against women. This initiative

includes the following. (a) The Philippine Judicial Academy (PHILJA) conducts gender-

awareness seminars for prosecutors and judges as well as the five pillars of the justice

system. (b) National Youth Commission organized “YOUTHSPEAK” to reach a

covenant with media practitioners to develop a more responsive media environment

reflective of the youth’s visions and aspirations and supportive of their well-being.

(d)NGO community should be credited for not only raising violence against women as a

public issue and for providing services even before government systems were setup. (e)

Women’s Crisis Center (WCC), the first crisis center for victims/survivors of VAW-

launched its national family violence prevention program in 1997 with 18 cities and

municipalities all over the Philippines. It is a community-based strategy of preparing

family members to protect themselves against violence and manage peaceful resolution
of conflict within the context of family relations. (f) Other women NGOs that have been

at the forefront of the crusade against VAWC AR SALIGAN (a legal group)

KALAKASAN (women against Violence, an NGO providing shelter and counseling) and

Women’s’ legal bureau (legal group). (g) Several networks on violence against women

such as coalition against trafficking in women focus on issue of prostitution and

trafficking local and international. (A Deeper Look at Violence against Woman: The

Philippine case).

VAW desk is a facility that would address VAW cases in a gender-responsive

manner, managed by a person designated by the punong barangay. It is situated within

the premises of the barangay hall.

RELATED STUDIES

UN WOMEN conducted a study focusing on the alternative method for ensuring

their safety against violence and crimes against women. It shows that around 120

million girls worldwide (slightly more than 1 in 10) at some point in their lives have

experienced forced sex or other sexual acts.

More than one in four women in Washington, DC, USA, experienced some form

of sexual harassment in public transport, according to a 2016 survey. Adult women

make up 51% of all trafficked persons detected worldwide. Together, women and girls

account for 71%, with girls representing almost three out of four trafficked women and

girls being trafficked for sexual exploitation. Some national studies show, however, that

up to 70% of women have experienced physical and/or sexual abuse from an intimate

partner throughout their lives. It is estimated that in 2012, almost half of all women who
were victims of homicide worldwide were killed by intimate partners or family members,

compared with less than six per cent of men killed in the same year. With regard to

violence, the study shows that less than 40% of women who experience violence are

seeking help of any kind. Among women who look for family and friends, most look for

formal institutions and mechanisms, such as police and health services.

A recent study by Virginia Martan in West Virginia, “Study of Violence against

Women, " conducted in 1997, states that women have fewer advantages and privileges

than men built into the patriarchal system. Women are in a lower position and

positioned as potential sexual assault victims.

There is also a new study from Canada involving 893 Canadian women who are

undergoing the Sexual Assault Resistance Program of the Enhanced Assessment

Acknowledge Act, which shows that college students who received 12 hours of training

in sexual assault resistance were far less likely to be attacked.

This study is based on earlier research carried out by the self - defense training

company Model Mugging. They surveyed 60,000 of their female students and found that

98.3 percent of their students were able to prevent attacks after training (more intense

than Canadian training). Of those attacked, 97 percent were able to fight their

aggressor,

Gidycz together with other researchers recently conducted studies on the

efficacy of a sexual assault risk reduction program including a physical self - defense

component for college women was evaluated in 2006 (N=500). Over the six - month

follow - up period, the women of the program group significantly increased their
protective behavior. However, during the follow - up periods there were no significant

differences between the two groups regarding sexual victimization rates, assertive

communication or feelings of self-efficacy. Women in the program group who were

victimized during the 3-month follow - up period showed less self-defamation and

greater offender blame than control group women who were victimized following the

program. Given that women in the program were more aware of sexual assault at the

end of the study than women in the control group, the difficulties in addressing the

impact of programming on sexual victimization rates are discussed.

De Welde, K. (2003) in his study entitled " Getting Physical: Subverting Gender

through Self - Defense, " ethnographic research on a women's self-defense course

proposes that socially available gender narratives of white femininity may be

disempowering and victimizing to women. Changes in self-telling in the course reflect a

stronger self that challenges dominant discourses. The process he used is to reframe

victimization, liberate him and allow the body to transform gender and self-narratives

that affirm “femininity “while subverting its defining ideologies.

In terms of the effectiveness of self - defense training for women, Cummings

studies (1992) entitled “Self - defense training for female college " examines the

effectiveness of self - defense training for female college. Advocates of self - defense

training believe that these courses will not only provide women with the physical survival

techniques necessary to effectively repel attacks, but also help prevent future violence

by developing traits such as assertiveness and confidence in individuals. There is

evidence that women with such features are less likely to be victims. Opponents argue

that self - defense training does not adequately prepare women for an attack, does not
address rape threats adequately and can give students a dangerous false sense of

security.

Leanne R. Brecklin and Sarah E. Ullman on their “Self - Defense or

Assertiveness Training and Women's Response to Sexual Acts” studies explains that

self - defense classes aim to prevent violence against women by enhancing the ability

of women to defend themselves. Little research has, however, examined the effects of

self - defense training on attempts by women to combat back during actual attacks. This

study investigated the relationship between training in self - defense or assertiveness

and the physical and psychological responses of women to subsequent rape attacks

(N=1,623). Multi - disciplinary analyzes showed that victims with pre-assault training

were more likely to say that their resistance stopped or made the offender less

aggressive than victims without training. Women with training prior to their attacks were

angrier and less afraid than women without training, in line with self-teaching.

Preassault trainers rated their degree of non - consent or resistance as lower than non -

participants, perhaps because they were higher. Suggestions for future research on self

- defense and rape prevention for women are included in her recommendations.

In a case study focusing on Oregon's plan to prevent violence against women

conducted at the University of Oregon, a well-known and widely respected PSE

academic class reveals additional important research support. This 4-credit Women's

Studies class was taught by the author of the Inside Out Self - Defense. Nadia Telsey is

a national non - violence and personal security expert and founder of the National

Women's Martial Arts Federation, which has been teaching at Oregon University for 17

years. During a 10-week academic quarter, her course included 45 hours in PSE. This
women's class included 3 hours of physical and verbal PSE training per week plus a

weekly discussion period of 1.5 hours. A qualitative longitudinal study revealed deep

and wide - ranging learning results for the students. Researchers identified five areas in

which the most striking changes were: “interactions with strangers, interactions with

known others (acquaintances, friends, employers, teachers, and intimates), feelings

about one’s body, perceived self-confidence, and beliefs about women, men, and

gender” (Hollander, 2004, p. 212).

Self - defense programs can enhance assertiveness, perceived control, self -

efficacy, risk avoidance, trust and self - esteem, and can also reduce anxiety and fear

(Brecklin, 2008; Hollander, 2004). It was important to note that low self - esteem and

low assertiveness predict sexual victimization (Brecklin & Ullman, 2005).

In the Philippines, self - defense workshops are held (a) in Laoag City in

particular, Ilocos Norte teaches self - defense to its women, as well as providing

livelihood opportunities, as the month of women celebrates. Under their Provincial

Gender and Development office, Ilocos Norte’s 2017 celebration of National Women’s

month kicks off with a woman’s trade fair and self-defense training for female students.

(b) Philippine Commission on Women conducted Sessions on self-defense with the

theme “ Be fit to Fight VAW”.(c) The Philippine Embassy in Athens, Greece conducted

“Basic Self-Defense Awareness and Skills Training” for the female members of the

Filipino community as part of its Gender and Development activities for 2014 and in time

for the month’s celebration of women’s month.(d) Two hundred women personnel of the

Department of Agrarian Reform-Negros Occidental 2 learned self-defense as part of

their Gender Awareness and Development enhancement program. (e)In Davao, a

held.

PHILIPPINE LAWS FOR WOMEN AGAINST VIOLENCE

In the Philippines, the rights of women against violence were protected by the

following laws:

1.1The 1987 Philippine Constitution - The protection of the human rights of all

Filipinos is contained in the Philippine Constitution. Among its salient provisions

is Article II, Section 14 which provides that “the state recognizes the role of

women in nation building and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the

law of women and men.”

1.2 Anti-Mail Order Bride Law (Republic Act 6955) – The law declares

unlawful the matching of Filipino mail-order brides to foreigners. It penalizes the

business of matching Filipino women for marriage to foreign nationals either

through personal introduction as well as through advertisement, publication,

printing or distribution of brochure and flyers, through membership in clubs

created for matching Filipinas to foreign nationals and, through the use of the

postal service.

1.3 Anti-Sexual Harassment Act of 1995 (Republic Act 7877) – The law

makes incidents involving unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual

favors, or other verbal or physical conduct of sexual nature, made directly or

indirectly in the employment, education or training environment unlawful. Sexual

sexual favors.

1.4 Anti-Rape Law of 1997 (Republic Act 8353) – The law reclassifies rape as

a crime against persons, defining it as public rather than a private crime. It

recognizes marital rape and questions the notion of sexual obligation in marriage.

It also notes that rape happens even without penetration and the use of objects

as constituting sexual assault, which is also considered as a form of rape. The

law also increased the penalties against rape.

1.5 Rape Victims Assistance and Protection Act of 1998 (Republic Act 8505)

– The law provides assistance and protection to rape victims, establishes for the

purpose a rape crisis center in every province and city and authorizes the

appropriation of funds for the establishment and operation of the rape crisis

center. Aside from the provision of services, capacity building/training is also

mandated for the law enforcement officers, public prosecutors, lawyers, medico-

legal officers, social workers and barangay officials on human rights and their

responsibilities, gender sensitivity and legal management of rape cases.

1.6 Anti-Trafficking in Persons Act of 2003 (Republic Act 9208) – The law

defines trafficking in person in terms of the acts, means and purposes of

trafficking. The trafficked person is considered as a victim thus, she/he should be

provided protection and support services by the State. Government agencies are

mandated to provide services to the trafficked persons at the international,

national and local levels for his/her early recovery and reintegration.
 1.7 Anti-Violence Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004 (Republic

Act 9262) – The law defines violence against women and their children as a

public crime. It provides for the security of the woman-complainant and her

children through the availment of the barangay, temporary or permanent

protection orders. It also identifies the duties of barangay officials, law enforces,

prosecutors, court personnel, social welfare and health care providers and the

LGUs to provide the necessary protection and support of VAWC victims. 

The Anti-Violence Against Women and their Children Act of 2004 is in keeping

with the fundamental freedoms guaranteed under the constitution, the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of all

Forms of Discrimination Against Women, Convention on the Rights of the Child,

and other international human rights instruments which the Philippines is a party.

The forms of VAW addressed are physical, sexual, psychological and economic

abuse. 

1.8  Article 245 of the Revised Penal Code (Republic Act 3815) – The law

provides that abuse against chastity is committed by any public officer who shall

solicit or make immoral advances to a woman interested in matters pending

before such office for decision, or with respect to which he is required to submit a

report to or consult with a superior officer; or by any warden or other public officer

directly charged with the care and custody of prisoners or persons under arrest

who shall solicit or make immoral or indecent advances to a woman under his

temporary special disqualification shall be imposed on the offender. 

The Philippines has adopted several National Plans to address VAW, beginning

with the Philippine Women's Development Plan (PDPW), 1989-1992, approved and

adopted by Executive Order 348 on 17 February 1989. Chapter 12 of the PDPW details

the programs and projects to be added and these were: domestic violence, rape, sexual

harassment, pornography, white slavery/prostitution, military rapes and sexual abuses

and medical abuse (including unnecessary abortion and caesareans). 

The PDPW was then followed by the Philippine Plan for Gender-

Responsive Development (1995-2025), signed on September 8, 1995, through

Executive Order 273 by then president Fidel V. Ramos. The PPGD has a long - term

vision of women's empowerment and gender equality and translates the Beijing

Platform for Action into Filipino women's policies and strategies and programs and

projects. 

It includes a chapter (i.e., Chapter 19) on Violence Against Women which

identifies, among others, the following common forms of VAW: domestic violence,

marital rape, incest, reproductive rights violations, rape, sexual harassment, sex

discrimination, lesbophobia/homophobia, medical abuse, abuse of women with physical

or mental disabilities, culture-bound practices harmful to women, ritual abuse within

religious cults, sexual slavery, prostitution and international trafficking of women,

relocation camps, and custodial abuse   

 Framework Plan for Women (FPW) 2001-2004. The FPW is a time frame of the

PPGD and was developed in 2001 by the NCRFW in cooperation with partner

government agencies. The FPW sets out the government's priority goals for women's

advancement. The evolution of FPW was guided by the PPGD and the BPFA

framework. It adopts a gender and development approach that recognizes that the

unequal relationship between women and men in the Philippines hinders the pursuit of

national development objectives. The FPW acknowledges the inter-relationship of

VAW, reproductive health, and human rights and reflects this in its commitment to

addressing the “structural roots of gender gaps”.  It also emphasizes human rights and

places VAW in its objective of promoting women's human rights committed to protecting

and advancing women's human rights through a strengthened service and justice

system for VAW survivors and information, women's rights education campaigns.

The FPW outlines its thrusts along three areas of concern:  Women’s Human

Rights, Women’s Economic Empowerment, and Gender-Responsive Governance. 

Aside from the national efforts of the government to prevent violence against

women there were also local ordinances in the Philippines passed to protect women’s

right and safety: (a) an ordinance providing for a women’s development code of Davao

city, and for other purposes---This ordinance shall be known as the “Women

Development Code of Davao City. It shall be the policy of the Local Government Code
of Davao City to uphold the rights of women and the belief in their worth and dignity as

human beings. (b) Quezon City Council- an ordinance amending ordinance no. sp1401,

s-200, entitled” an ordinance providing for a city gender and development code, and for

other purposes” to harmonize with the provisions of republic act no. 9710, otherwise

known as “the Magna Carta of women” and to adopt the un women’s safe cities and

safe public spaces initiative. (c) An ordinance compelling every barangay of the city of

Batangas to establish violence against women (VAW) desk and launch protocol in

handling VAW cases at barangay in Batangas city.