Unit 4 Module 7 Decision Making
Unit 4 Module 7 Decision Making
Unit 4 Module 7 Decision Making
Unit ‐ 4
Module ‐ 7
Decision Making
• Introduction and Meaning
• Steps in Decision Making
• Managerial Decision Making Problems
• Models of Decision Making
• Concepts of Relevant Costs and Irrelevant Costs
• Different Costs for Decision Making
o Sunk Costs
o Opportunity Costs
o Imputed Costs
o Fixed Costs
o Variable Costs
o Out of Pocket Cost
o Book Cost
o Shut down Cost
o Differential Cost
• Features of Differential Cost
• Difference between Marginal Costing and Differential Cost
• Types of Decision Making
• Practical Problems
Introduction and Meaning:
Decision Making involves the act of selecting one course of action from among
various feasible alternatives available. Many quantitative and qualitative aspects
have to be taken into account in decision‐making. The manager chooses that
course of action which he considers as the most effective for achieving goals and
solving problems. Decision‐making is an integral part of all management functions
like planning, organization, coordination and control. All decisions are futuristic in
nature, involving a forecast of what management thinks is likely to occur but it is
very uncertain. The term 'cost' is has multiple nuances. It has different meanings
in different situations. A cost accountant examines each situation in depth to
decide the kind of cost concepts to be used and plays an important role in
decision‐making by making precise and relevant data available to the
management.
There are chiefly two kinds of decisions involved in the decision making: long‐
term and short‐term decisions. Short‐term decisions, usually, are particular in
nature. The specificity of information for the decision making relies on the given
situation calling for a decision. Here, such information is called the 'relevant data'.
The short term decisions are mostly affected within a year. Such short‐run
operating decisions may involve a host of special non‐recurring decisions such as
make or buy; sell or process; accept or reject an order and other decisions.
The long ‐term decisions force the management to look beyond the current year.
Time value of money and return on investment are major considerations in long
term decisions. Uncertainty is an integral part of the decision‐making. Hence, the
task of decision‐making is quite difficult, crucial and critical.
Managerial Decision Making is the act of making up your mind about something
or a position or opinion or judgment that is arrived at after some consideration.
Managerial Decision Making is the process of selecting from several choices,
products or ideas, and taking actions.
"Managerial Decision Making is the process by which managers’ responds to
opportunities and threats by analyzing options and making decision about goals
and courses of action.”
‐ Warren Weber
Steps in Decision‐Making:
It will be opportune here to discuss some major important steps which are helpful
in logical decision making.
1. Defining and Clarifying the Problem: The first step is to define problem
clearly and precisely for decision making so that quantitative data that are
relevant to its solution can be determined. The possible alternative solutions
to the problem should be identified. At times, consideration of more
alternative solutions may make the matters more complex. After that,
proper scanning device will help to remove unattractive alternatives.
2. Collective and Analyzing Data: In this regard, if the decision‐taker feels
necessary, he may ask for further information. In fact, a number of decisions
improvised by acquiring further information and it is normally possible to
obtain such information.
3. Analyzing the Problem: All alternatives have their own advantages and
disadvantages. The decision taker has to take decisions on the basis of the
problem intensity. Problem must be observed from different vantage points
to determine the largest net advantage.
4. Ascertainment of Alternative action: The decision maker identifies an
alternative course of action. The screens possibilities by computing various
cost structure and revenues under each of the options.
5. Evaluating each Alternative: There are two types of aspects, viz.
quantitative aspects and qualitative aspects. A decision maker observes all
benefits and limitations of the various aspects to get a best option for
enhancement of the company.
6. Selection of an Alternative: After defining, collecting, analyzing, checking
various alternatives and evaluating them, the decision‐maker can select the
alternative and start work on it.
7. Appraisal of the Result: After executing the decisions, the decision maker
should regularly seek an appraisal of the results. This will help him in
correcting his mistake, modifying his target and making a better forecast in
the times to come.
In this regard, numbers of techniques are used for decision making which are
as follows:
a) Marginal Costing
b) Break‐even Analysis
c) Differential Cost Analysis
Managerial Decision Making Problems:
Managerial decision making typically hinges on three types of problems, which
are as follows:
1. Crisis: A crisis problem is a serious difficulty requiring immediate actions.
2. Non‐Crisis: A non‐crisis issues that requires resolution do not
simultaneously have the importance and immediacy characteristics of a
crisis.
3. Opportunity Problems: An opportunity problem is a situation that offers
strong potential for significant organizational gain if appropriate actions are
taken.
Models of decision making:
1. Rational Model: It is most popular type of model which is based on a
cognitive judgment, and pros and cons of various options.
2. Non‐Rational Model: This can be further classified in to the followings:
A. Satisfying Model:
B. Incremental Model:
C. Garbage‐can Model:
Concepts of Relevant Costs and Irrelevant Costs:
1. Relevant Costs:
It is the process of analyzing and selecting a course of action from a number
of alternatives. In this analysis, basic emphasis remains on identification of
relevant costs, revenues and resources that change in between alternative
courses of action. The term 'relevant' means 'applicable to decision at hand'.
Costs are relevant if they guide the manager towards the decision that
synchronizes with top management's objectives. It will be ideal if the costs are
not only relevant or applicable but also accurate.
Managerial Accounting essentially describes costs that are specific to the
management’s decisions. The concept of relevant costs eliminates
unnecessary data that could complicate the decision‐making process.
Relevant costs are decision specific in that they may be important in one
situation but irrelevant in another. Some examples of the relevant costs in a
business are selling or keeping a business unit, making or buying an item, or
accepting a special order.
Making correct decision is one important task of a successful manager. Every
decision involves a choice between at least two alternatives. The decision
process may be complicated by volume of data, irrelevant data, incomplete
information, an unlimited alternatives etc. The role of the managerial
accountant in this process is often that of a gatherer and summarizer of
relevant information rather than the ultimate decision maker.
The cost and benefits of alternatives need to be compared and contrasted
before making a decision. The decision should be based only on 'Relevant
Information'. Relevant information includes the predicted future cost and
revenues that differ among the alternatives. Any cost or benefit that does not
differ between alternatives is irrelevant and can be ignored in a decision. All
future revenues and/or costs that do not differ between the alternatives are
irrelevant. Sunk Costs (cost already irrevocably incurred) are always irrelevant
since they will be the same for any alternative.
To identify which costs are relevant in a particular situation, consider
following three‐step approach:
1. Eliminate sunk cost.
2. Eliminate cost and benefits that do not differ between alternatives.
3. Compare the remaining costs and benefits that differ between alternatives
to make proper decision.
Characteristics:
1. Relevant Costs are future expected costs: The decision is to be implemented
in future and so relevant costs are also to be incurred in future. Certainly, all
future costs are not relevant costs but all relevant costs are future costs. This
is because past costs are the result of past decisions and no current or future
decision can change what has already happened.
2. It differs between different decision alternatives: It differs when more than
two alternatives are considered. Those costs which will not change between
different alternatives are to be ignored.
3. It may not be available in for books: All relevant costs are not available in
have books, for only those expenses are mentioned in books which have
already taken place, excluding the anticipated costs.
4. Relevant Costs are Cash Flows: Those alternatives only that enhance the
value of cash resources in future should be accepted. That expense is
irrelevant for decision‐making in which no cash payment is involved.
5. Variable Costs may be Irrelevant: The variable costs are usually relevant
costs. However, such costs may be irrelevant sometimes.
Concept of Irrelevant Cost:
The concept of irrelevant cost is one part of the process of decision making in
managerial accounting. In the course of business the eventual developments
occur that do not happen to affect the production process directly. However,
these developments may or may not be denominated in monetary terms. Thus,
such developments are called irrelevant cost.
Characteristics:
1. They do not differ between different decision alternatives.
2. They may be in money terms or not.
Different Costs for Decision Making:
In management accounting system, each product is usually charged with a
portion of indirect costs, which are not traceable to the product. Hence, cost data
drawn from the cost accounting system are often not relevant as they are
historical costs. Therefore, such cost that alternatively keeps on oscillating may in
future be qualified for the relevant cost.
(1) Marginal Costing: It includes only variable costs and it does not include
fixed costs. At any particular level of output, a change in the total cost by
increase or decrease of one unit is called marginal cost. Marginal costing is
based on variable cost so that the management can take decisions on the
basis of variable costs. Marginal costing is extremely useful for decision
making. In fact, it is a major tool for decisions making.
(2) Sunk Cost: It refers to the money already spent and permanently lost. Sunk
costs are past opportunity costs that are partially (salvaged, if at all).
Therefore, it should be considered irrelevant to future decision making. Sunk
costs are those costs which do not change under given circumstance and do
not play any role in decision making process. They are historical costs that
had incurred in the past. In other words, these are the costs which have
been incurred by a decision made in the past and cannot be changed by any
decision to be made in the future. This cost is also known as Committed Cost
and Historical Cost.
(3) Opportunity Cost: The opportunity cost of the value of opportunity foregone
is taken into consideration when alternatives are compared. Opportunity
cost is the value of the next best alternative. In other words, it is the
opportunity cost lost by diversion of input factor from one use to another. It
is the measure of the benefit of opportunity foregone. Opportunity cost is a
pure decision‐making cost. It is an imputed cost, which does not require cash
payout.
The opportunity cost is helpful to managers in evaluating various
alternatives available when multiple inputs can be employed for multiple
uses. These inputs may nevertheless have a cost and this is measured by the
sacrifice made by the alternative action in course of choosing another
alternatives.
"The value of a benefit sacrificed in favour of an alternative course of
action."
‐ C.I.M.A. London
(4) Imputed (Notional) Cost: This is similar cost to the opportunity cost in that
they are not recorded in the accounting books. However, they are
hypothetical costs that must be taken into consideration if a correct decision
is to be arrived at. In auditing it requires special treatment. Imputed cost
comes from what one could have made from an asset if you had used it
differently. If one has money tied up in assets that are declining in value, or
in accounts receivable, audit standards allow one to deduct an imputed cost
for that money. In accounting, the expenses of unreimbursed goods and
services are provided by one entity to another entity. It is an expense that is
borne indirectly. For example, notional rent charged on business premises
owned by the proprietor or interest on capital for which no interest has
been paid.
(5) Fixed Costs: The cost which always remains fixed irrespective of production
volume is known as fixed costs. This cost remains constant whether
production activity is increased or decrease. It doesn’t mean that fixed costs
are fixed for all time to come. It is subject to change over a period of time.
The fixed cost per unit will become smaller with increase in volume because
fixed costs are unaffected by volume changes, any increase in volume
implies that the cost will be allocated to a more number of units and vice
versa. For short term managerial decision making, fixed cost may be relevant
or irrelevant. When a particular decision is made that results in occurrence
of fixed cost, it is relevant but if it occurs irrespective of any decision taken in
a certain situation then it is irrelevant cost. From the viewpoint of Profit
Planning and Control, it is useful to sub‐divide fixed cost into two types i.e.
'Committed Fixed Costs' and 'Discretionary Fixed Costs'.
(6) Variable Costs: The cost which varies with the production volume is known
as variable cost. It suggests that this cost varies with the increase or
decrease in production. It is so because the input of raw material is used in
the exact quantities needed for production process. From the viewpoint of
their behavior, variable costs are also known as 'Engineered Cost'. Though it
is believed that all variable costs are relevant, it is actually not so because if
variable costs vary depending on different alternatives for decision making
process.
(7) Out of Pocket Cost: Out‐of‐Pocket costs are those expenses which are
current cash payments to the outsiders. All the explicit costs like payment of
rent, wages, salaries, interest, transport charges etc. fall in category of out‐
of‐pocket costs. This cost is useful while taking decision like make or buy and
price fixation during depression. When availability of fund or cash resources
is limited, this type of cost becomes decisive in decision making process.
(8) Book Cost: Book costs are those business costs that do not involve any cash
payment. However, a provision is made for book costs where of they are
considered under the profit and loss account. This exercise enables the
company to gain tax benefits. Here, the provisions for book costs, for
example, could be depreciation, unpaid amount of the interest on the
owners capital employed in the firm among others.
(9) Replacement Cost: It is a cost at which an asset or material was purchased
that would replace the previous valuables. It is the cost of replacement at
current market price.
(10) Avoidable Cost and Unavoidable Cost: These costs can be avoided in future
as a result of managerial choices because the management can choose not
to incur them. Particular avoidable costs are often compared with the
decision alternatives. For instance, salary paid to employees in the section
can be stopped if the section is terminated. Unavoidable cost is that cost
which will not be eliminated with the discontinuation of a product or
section. For instance, salary of company manager cannot be stopped even if
a product is terminated.
(11) Differential Cost: Differential cost (which may be incremental cost or
decremental cost) is the difference in the total cost that will arise from the
selection of one alternative instead of another. It involves the estimation of
the impact of decision alternatives on costs and revenues. The two basic
concepts which go together with this type of cost analysis are 'incremental
cost and incremental revenue and decremental costs and decremental
revenue.' It is used generally as a synonym to relevant cost. If the change in
the cost is in the increasing mode, it is called incremental cost; if it is
decreasing with the decrease in output, it is decremental cost. Incremental
revenue increases between two alternatives, while decremental revenue
decreases between two alternatives.
Features of Differential Cost:
1. It differs from action to action.
2. It does not include all variable costs due to being a future cost and it is
considered as differential depending upon the situation.
3. This data is related to costs, revenue and investment factors.
4. It considers only incremental cost or decremental costs and not the cost per
unit.
5. At the time of selecting alternatives one should consider optimistic
difference between cost and revenue.