Lesson 1: Communication Goals

Chapter Objectives

 Define graphic communication.

 Identify and define communication goals: information, persuasion, education, and

entertainment.

What is Graphic Communication?

Graphic communication is the result of a long evolution of tools and techniques. That evolution
was greatly accelerated by the establishment of modern, industrial societies—and graphic
communication itself greatly contributed to modern social and economic development, to the
extent that today visual communication is a readily identifiable force in the growth of both
Western and Eastern “postindustrial” information economies.

According to historical literature, graphic communication has taken as long as 30,000 years to
evolve (Meggs 1998). The role of the visual communicator—and the function of communication
—developed slowly: cave paintings done between 15,000 and 10,000 B.C., the invention of
writing with pictographs in Mesopotamia (3100 B.C.), the invention of paper and Chinese relief
printing (second century A.D.), the rise of late medieval illuminated manuscripts (eighth century
A.D.), and the breakthrough of movable type in Europe (1450 A.D.) all contributed to that
development. Investigation of communication design over the last century reveals patterns of
technological, economic, occupational, spatial, and cultural development that can be attributed to
the creation of an information-driven economy and society that relies on communication design
and technology for stability and growth.

Although enhanced and changed by modern technology, including software and computers, the
basics of communication have essentially remained the same through the millennia.
Communication is a process that requires a sender (the designer), a message (information or an
effort to persuade), a medium (the delivery platform), and a receiver of that message (the
audience). Communication comes in various forms and is delivered in various media, or
platforms for communication delivery. These media include all forms of printed paper or
material (books, magazines, newspapers, brochures, flyers, signage, and billboards), the Internet,
mobile phones and handheld devices, television, radio, CDs and DVDs, videos, video games,
and films. Media transmitted to mass audiences is called mass media; it includes television, film,
recordings, mobile technology, magazines, books, the Internet, and radio. Conversely, a
brochure, part of a collection of collateral material, may only be seen by a few people.

Communication and media futurist Marshall McLuhan theorized that “the medium is the
message,” meaning that we absorb and judge messages based on how they are delivered
(Benedetti and deHart 1997). If we see an advertisement in a newspaper, we initially perceive it
as factual simply because it comes to us via the mass media. Then, we step back and decipher the
message to determine if it can be trusted, and to what level it can be absorbed and used by us;
this process is part of media literacy. In all forms of communication, judicious design and
professional production values therefore become vital to the success of a message. The final
product—how it looks and performs visually—becomes a factor in the value of the
communication and how it meets its goal. The content, design, and medium (output) make up the
complete message, and each has an effect on the communication's perceived credibility and
persuasiveness.

Figure 1-1: A and B (overleaf). This brochure and Web page for the Tawkin' New Yawk City Walls art exhibit
combines panoramic photographs of New York City with classic graffiti stencil type that is lit up like a sign in
Times Square. The copy takes a stab at the stereotypical New York accent. The exhibit's theme is that the walls of
New York City are always talking to us through street art and design. Design by Jeewon Shin
Communication can be written, as with copywriting and poetry. It can be visual, as with graphic
design and fine art. It can be verbal, as with speech or song, or nonverbal, as with body language,
dance, or instrumental music. This book focuses on visual communication and production in
print (i.e., on paper) and on the Web.

Figure 1-2: Sensual: American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA) Detroit poster designed by Stefan Sagmeister.
Arresting imagery is used to convey the message that creating design can be painful. Art direction by Stefan
Sagmeister

The goals of such messages are to inform, to persuade, to educate, or to entertain. These goals
overlap in many instances, but ultimately we plan communication vehicles such as brochures,
Web sites, advertisements, commercials, animations, posters, flyers, books, magazines, video
games, films, newspapers, and presentations with one specific goal in mind. For example, a
children's site could have the specific communication goal of educating children in math
techniques. That central goal may be enhanced by using entertainment in the content of the site
—for example, interactive games and animation that explain math techniques in a fun, engaging
way. A newspaper attempts to deliver news that informs the reader quickly and efficiently by
using headline text, charts, and graphs. When newspapers print sensual or shocking images,
although the main goal may be to inform, the effect may be also to elicit an emotional response
from readers.

Paul Martin Lester (2006, 50–51) outlined two ways that we process communication: sensually
and perceptually. These differing pathways have been studied by scientists and other researchers.
The sensual process, that which leads from sensation to visual communication, occurs when our
eyes see visual forms and our brain takes the sensations (visual input) and makes a coherent
image (also known as a gestalt). Perceptual processing occurs when our brains make immediate
meaning from an image we see, such as that of a traffic light. The gestalt principle states that we
see the whole before we identify the parts. Our brains separate wholes into parts to establish a
figure (foreground) and a ground (background). When we can visually stabilize the parts into a
whole image and identify figure and ground, we can make visual sense of an image. Combining
images creates new meanings from the identification of associated symbols.

Figure 1-3: Perceptual: This poster for Neenah Paper uses a single punctuation mark—an apostrophe—to symbolize
the gun's trigger. The deeper meaning is that the apostrophe is responsible for letter elimination. Art direction by
Stefan Sagmeister

Perception to visual communication occurs when we see images beyond the sensations and
assign them complex meanings. An approach to understanding perception is semiotics, the study
of signs. Signs have complex cultural meanings and can be seen in three ways: iconic, indexical,
and symbolic (Lester 2006, 52–57). We are guided by iconic signs in everyday life: iconic signs
are intended to be true representations of what they present—such as a photograph. Indexical
signs have a logical connection to what they represent, such as dark clouds as a sign of stormy
weather or falling snow as a sign of winter. Symbolic signs forge a cultural or social connection
between an image or object and what it represents. Therefore, symbolic signs take on different
meanings for different audiences—as in the case of a flag, monument, or style of dress.

As designers, we create a series of signs each time we create imagery. Our focus on the goals of
a communication helps ensure that we create meaningful, simple, and understandable signs.
Creating thoughtful communication requires researching the audience, recognizing its cultural
and societal viewpoints, and delivering simple, clear messages that connect with its need or
ability to be informed, persuaded, educated, and entertained. Indeed, using communication with
the intended goal of informing, persuading, educating, or entertaining is the applied focus of
digital design. The pervasive, all-encompassing power of digital information and communication
technologies have given us a potent platform for gathering data, sculpting it into meaningful
information, and producing designs that can be delivered via print, Web, broadcast, mobile
technology, or industrial material.

Information

What is Information?

Information is a raw material of—and core ingredient in—all designs and is part of all
communication goals. Information is gathered in myriad ways and then adapted to fit the goal of
the communication—whether to inform, persuade, educate, or entertain. We must have
information in order to create a design.

Information is structured data. Data consists of random bits and pieces that can be seen all
around us and can be gathered. We process data to create information that has meaning and
contextualizes our reality. Numbers are a great example of data. Random numbers have little
meaning to us, but when they are placed in a context, such as a birthday, on a player's uniform,
or in a name (such as Louis XIV), they become information with meaning.

Figure 1-4: In this redesign of Time magazine, the infographic transforms data into meaningful information through
thoughtful illustration and the dominance of some design elements over others. Design by Luke Hayman
Figure 1-5: This Web page for Art Projects International provides small multiples of information in the form of
symmetrical thumbnails to unify the visual as a whole. Design by Kind Company

Information design arranges chunks of data and information to inform the viewer. Information-
focused designs communicate to us each day as we stop at a stop sign, read a train schedule, or
watch the weather report on the evening news. Information designs are seen in newspapers,
newscasts, calendars, timelines, charts, corporate reports, news Web sites, and instructional
materials.

The meaning attached to information design can be purposeful, as in a campus map, or it may be
lifesaving, as in an emergency exit sign. Information design must have high fidelity in meaning
and visual strength in execution-because it guides the viewer during action. People must navigate
through a Web site in order find information (text, photos, video, and audio content). Similarly,
when reading a newspaper, people must navigate through various articles and sections in order to
find information (stories, box scores, and ads) meaningful to them. Although there is an element
of curiosity (looking for things) and discoverability (finding things) in print and Web
interactions, information design—both for print and the Web—works to guide a viewer toward
meaning as quickly as possible. In print design, the message must be read, understood, and
processed by the viewer so it can be acted upon. This is known as legibility. In Web design, it is
known as usability. The concepts of legibility and usability are discussed further in part 2 of this
book.

Principles and Goals: Design for Information

When creating designs for information, decisions related to what viewers want—and what they
need to be informed—become critical to success, and smart choices must be made based on the
product definition, the audience, the environment, the development tools, and available raw
materials. Decisions about text, images, and technology, which are needed to develop and deliver
the message, should always be planned out.

Structure is the key component in information graphics (also known as infographics); achieving
the proper gestalt (unification of the parts) leads to understanding on the part of the viewer or
user. Therefore, information designers frequently use fact boxes, tables, diagrams, and
illustrations. In his classic text Envisioning Information, Edward Tufte describes the flat, two-
dimensional paper or video/computer screen media used in information design
as “flatland.” “Escaping flatland,” states Tufte, is a key goal in designing the presentation of
information (Tufte 1990, 12). He promotes information density (quantity) and resolving power
(clarity) in information design. He suggests the following principles to help escape flatland and
build meaningful designs for information:

 Micro/macro readings represent information that is rich in detail and in overall structure.
Micro refers to critical information that is read carefully to extract meaning. Macro refers
to the larger whole that contains the micro components. We frequently see micro/macro
readings in maps, flowcharts, blueprints, timetables, and monuments.

Figure 1-6: This spread from the book 100 Baseball Icons shows how composition can be used to present a
rich overall structure (macro) using detailed visual components (micro). Design by Kit Hinrichs
 Layering and separation represent an informational structure through overlapping
elements, grids, margins, and white space. We frequently see layering and separation in
Web pages, charts and graphs, catalogs, ads, magazines, newspapers, books, and
brochures.

Figure 1-7: The Act French poster design uses layering of type and creates separation using line and space.
Design by Julia Hoffmann

 Small multiples represent information using repetition, consistency, mimicry, and iconic
representation. We frequently see small multiples in instruction manuals, road maps,
posters, computer interfaces, data tables, and charts.

Figure 1-8: This wrapping paper for AIGA presents a fun overall visual structure using patterning. Smaller,
detailed images create micro structures that can be viewed independently, which is also fun. Design by
Julia Hoffmann
 Color provides hierarchical value, sensation, contrast, and visual texture. Color is a
fundamental component of all design.

Figure 1-9: The Alvin Lustig history site by Kind Company uses black and white and warm colors to
separate sets of visuals and information and to establish a stylized retro mood. Design by Kind Company

Figure 1-10: This poster for the 2007 Shakespeare Festival uses sensual colors to evoke the feeling of love.
Design by Paula Scher
Persuasion

What is Persuasion?

The notion of persuasion is essential to many scholars' definitions of communication. David

Berlo's definition of communication states, “All communication behavior has as its purpose the
eliciting of a specific response from a specific person (or group of persons)” (Berlo 1960, 16).

Figure 1-11: This advertising poster for the Adobe Student Design Competition depicts a designer creating an
award-winning work out of paper cups (real coffee was used). This emotional approach targets the design student
who identifies with carefully crafted work and caffeine, as many do. Art direction by Stefan Sagmeister. Design by
Matthias Ernstberger

Persuasion is central to all communication, especially digital design, and particularly as it is

applied to advertising. Information is converted into persuasive arguments during the advertising
creative process (White 2007, 11). Persuasive arguments provide controlled messages that
highlight features, advantages, benefits, and a unique selling proposition to a target audience.
Persuasion is attempted by delivering rational appeal (using factual argument) or emotional
appeal (using values, opinions, and attitudes) to bring someone to action. Action comes in the
form of buying a product or service, subscribing to an idea, donating to a public service
organization, or voting for a political candidate.
Figure 1-12: The pieces of a standard corporate identity package are the business card, letterhead, and envelope. This design
mark uses repetition, shape, and color to convey a visualization of science and media. Art direction by Stefan Sagmeister. Design
by Matthias Ernstberger

Figure 1-13: For the Barron's logo, designer Milton Glaser married a strong illustration with reversed serif type that
leaves no question about the brand name or the company focus on book publishing. Design by Milton Glaser.
Courtesy MiltonGlaser Studio

Brands, an essential tool in persuasion, are “created in the mind,” according to Walter Landor

(Wheeler, 2003). Brands become the icons that customers look for when purchasing products.
Built around symbolic logos, brands evolve into identities recognizable to consumers. The
designer works to establish a visual icon—a logo—that represents the brand and creates a
channel of persuasion built on trust and recognition. We recognize and connect to certain brands
as they become iconic, indexical, or symbolic to us. The look of the corporate identity is critical
in representing the company and its products and services.

Figure 1-14: Paula Scher quickly made visual sense of the Travelers merger with Citibank. She effortlessly mocked
up the concept on a napkin during the pitch meeting. Design by Paula Scher
Figure 1-15: The Citi logo. Photo by John DiMarco

Principles and Goals: Design for Persuasion

Figure 1-16: A digitally created, thought-provoking visual dominates this poster, “We Are All African,” which
forges a persuasive message. Design by Milton Glaser

Our goal as designers who create persuasive documents is simple in theory, but quite challenging
in practice. We must use type, image, and multimedia to bring the viewer to an understanding of
the message and a desire to act upon it. We want the viewer to understand the feature, advantage,
or benefit we are presenting. We want the viewer to agree to the unique selling proposition we
are pitching through the visuals we present in our persuasive designs.

Certain elements of persuasive designs have resonance in the human mind. A design cannot be
persuasive if it cannot be understood. Concentrate on one idea for each persuasive
communication. Follow these suggestions in your print and Web designs to increase their
persuasive value:

 Do research on the audience and the competition to put you in the viewer's situation.
  Use arresting or thought-provoking images (photos or illustrations) that act as a magnet
for the viewer's eyes.

 Use display type (which is larger and more dominant than the body text) that draws the
reader in. Create visually dominant attention-seeking headlines.

 Explain and clarify features, advantages, and benefits in highly legible body copy.

 Use grids to arrange elements in order of importance.

 Use size to clarify meaning and create visual hierarchy.

 Use color to attract attention, group elements, indicate meaning, and enhance aesthetics
(Lidwell et al. 2003, 38).

 Keep messages and visual elements simple so recognition is quick.

 Use themes to connect with the audience.

Entertainment

What is Entertainment?

Figure 1-20: The A&E Web site is built to entertain and persuade the viewer to explore the program offerings and
visit the site's banners and links
Dictionary.com defines entertainment as “something affording pleasure, diversion, or
amusement, esp. a performance of some kind.” Design for entertainment is seen in fine art,
television programs, plays, animation (for TV, Web, and gaming), video games, films, books,
magazines, movies (on television or the Web), e-books, and digital video on the Web.

Principles and Goals: Design for Entertainment

Entertainment design requires focus on creating an art form that has the ability to engage the
viewer or listener to appreciate a product emotionally and intellectually (Pramaggiore and Wallis
2008, 3). The basic framework of items that you would need to focus on when designing for
entertainment are:

 Narrative or documentary (the story and the writing: fiction or nonfiction)

 Cinematography (the camera work: shot setups, framing, lighting)

 Staging (the set design: stage or screen)

 Audio (dialogue and sound effects)

  Characters (the talent: actors or animations)

 Visuals (titling, images, special effects)

 Style (the look and feel of the details)

 Delivery medium (television, print vehicle, Web site, DVD, video, CD-ROM, movie
theater, stage, concert hall).

Entertainment design as a visual product (not a manuscript of text only) relies upon images and
narrative to create connection with the viewer. The digital design of visual entertainment content
is seen extensively in works with moving images, such as movies and animations. Entertainment
design is also seen in the packaging of entertainment content and news, such as posters, CD and
DVD covers, books, digital videos, Web sites, and magazines.

Figure 1-21: This poster for recording artist Lou Reed's album Set the Twilight Reeling uses handwritten typography
over a tightly cropped photograph of the artist to transfer the personal emotions embedded in the lyrics. Art direction
and design by Stefan Sagmeister

Figure 1-22: The Hillman Curtis Web site is a functional business promotion site as well as an
entertainment portal showcasing short films shot and designed for both Web and broadcast output. Design
by designer and filmmaker Hillman Curtis
Notes

1. Holtzschue (2006, 30) writes that sensation is the body's response to stimulus.

2. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/entertainment