Environmental Pollution 263 (2020) 114469

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Environmental Pollution
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/envpol

Are biodegradable plastics a promising solution to solve the global

plastic pollution?*
Maocai Shen, Biao Song, Guangming Zeng*, Yaxin Zhang, Wei Huang, Xiaofeng Wen,
Wangwang Tang
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University and Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control (Hunan
University), Ministry of Education, Changsha, 410082, PR China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A large amount of plastic waste has been discharged into the environment worldwide, which causes the
Received 1 November 2019 current white pollution problem. The accumulated waste plastics in the environment can be furtherly
Received in revised form degraded into small pieces such microplastics and nanoplastics through weathering, which will do more
7 March 2020
harm to the environment and humans than large plastics. Therefore, plastic production and disposal are
Accepted 25 March 2020
Available online 1 April 2020
needed to be considered. Biodegradable plastics (BPs) have become the focus of recent research due to
their potential biodegradability and harmlessness, which would be the most effective approach to
manage the issue of plastic waste environmental accumulation. However, in the long run, it is uncertain
Keywords:
Biodegradable plastic
whether BPs can be a promising solution to waste disposal and global plastic pollution. Consequently,
Global plastic pollution both sides of the dispute are discussed in this paper. At present, most conventional plastics can not be
Plastic waste disposal replaced by theses BPs. Biodegradation of BPs needs certain environmental conditions, which are not
Biodegradation always reliable in the environment. Additionally, changes in human behavioral awareness will also affect
Potential solution the development and application of BPs. BPs should not be considered as a technical solution, thus
excusing our environmental responsibility, because littering does not change with the promotion of an
effective technology. As such, the conclusion is that BPs may be a part of the solution. The effectiveness in
providing environmentally solutions for plastic waste management depends on the combination of
affordable waste classification technologies and investment in organic waste treatment facilities.
Therefore, there is still a long way to go to solve the global plastic pollution through BPs.
© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction worldwide, which causes the current white pollution problem

(Dauvergne, 2018). White pollution is a kind of image appellation
Plastics have been widely used in production and life since the for the environmental pollution phenomenon of waste plastics. It
day they were invented due to their remarkable properties in refers to the pollution of ecological environment and landscape
durability, lightness, stability and low cost. Global plastic produc- caused by the use of plastic products such as packaging bags,
tion has reached 348 million tons in 2017 (PlasticsEurope, 2018). agricultural mulch film, disposable tableware, plastic bottles etc.
Problematically, the durability and toughness of plastics have two made of polystyrene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polyvinyl chloride
sides. These properties can not only improve the performance of (PVC) and other high molecular compounds, which are discarded as
plastic, but also in turn pose a serious threat to the environment, solid waste. According to statistics, 280 million tons of plastic waste
making plastic resistant to natural degradation. This resistance has were produced in 192 coastal countries and regions in 2011, and
become a great challenge in the waste management process, about 8 million tons of the waste flowed into oceans (Jambeck et al.,
especially in the area of sustainable waste management. A large 2015). The accumulated plastics in the environment can be
amount of plastic waste has been discharged into the environment decomposed into small fragments, gradually forming microplastics
or even nanoplastics (Shen et al., 2019a; Shen et al., 2019b). The
negative impacts of plastics on society have become increasingly
* significant, such as causing direct landscape problems and posing
This paper has been recommended for acceptance by Eddy Y. Zeng.
* Corresponding author. potential environmental risks to living organisms and humans,
E-mail address: zgming@hnu.edu.cn (G. Zeng). especially those deliberately formulated plastics with inexpensive

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114469
0269-7491/© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 M. Shen et al. / Environmental Pollution 263 (2020) 114469

and almost indestructible properties. How can we deal with these BPs can be divided into two types: completely biodegradable
materials? Plastic waste disposal and its environmental risks are plastics and destructive biodegradable plastics. The first type is
serious problems to be considered. There are several ways to fully degradable, which is made of natural polymers such as starch,
manage plastic wastes: recycling, incineration, sanitary landfill and cellulose and chitin or agricultural and sideline products through
others. Plastic packing is one of the most problematic types of microbial fermentation or synthesis into degradable polymers
plastic waste because it is usually designed for single use and (Iannotti et al., 2018). According to the source of new materials, BPs
ubiquitous in garbage and extremely difficult to be recycled can be roughly divided into three categories: microbial synthetic
(PlasticsEurope, 2016). The flexible increasing use and multi-layer plastics, natural polymer plastics and synthetic biodegradable
packing poses challenges to collection, separation and recycling. plastics. Microbial synthetic plastics are a kind of polyester with
Although some plastics can be recycled, there are many steps aliphatic structure and ester group as the main chain (such as PHB),
involved, requiring separate collection, long-distance trans- which is produced by special microbes with sugar and organic acid
portation, processing and remanufacturing. The high cost of these as raw materials through fermentation and synthesis (Belal and
steps, the low commercial value of recycled plastics and the low Farid, 2016). The natural polymer plastics are some polymers
cost of raw materials limit the plastic recycles. Additionally, when existing in nature, among which the most representative is all
plastic waste is burned, the greenhouse gases (CO2) and other starch plastics. Starch is a polysaccharide produced by plants to
irritant gases (HCl) will be released. Harmful chemicals contained store energy. Starch based BP is thermoplastic starch (TPS), which is
in plastic wastes that can be released into the environment during a material made by heating and mixing starch with plasticizer.
plastic waste disposal. Currently, some measures have been taken Starch based biosynthetic plastics are more excellent degradable
to address the problem of plastic waste, including “plastic limit”, materials based on starch (Gere and Czigany, 2019). The second
“plastic prohibition”, and improving the treatment efficiency of type is destructive biodegradable plastics, which are not
plastic waste. However, these methods are only effective to some completely degraded (Pico
and Barcelo
, 2019). It is that a natural
extent, because the scale of plastic production is much higher than polymer such as starch is combined with a synthetic polymer to
the reduction by these treatment methods, and many people still achieve the purpose of destroying the structure of the copolymer
need to be educated about responsible waste treatment methods. by biodegradation of natural components, such as oxo-
With the increasing global plastic production, people are increas- biodegradable polymers (Thomas et al., 2012). Through the addi-
ingly aware of the environmental problems of plastic waste. tion of additives, the molecular chain in the polymer will be
Nowadays, the development of biodegradable plastics (BPs) destroyed, which will lead to its biodegradability (Napper and
from renewable biomass has become a topic of great interest. BPs Thompson, 2019). The combination of natural ingredients and
are usually made from renewable raw materials such as lignin, synthetic ingredients includes blending in molten or solution state,
cellulose, starch and bioethanol. At present, biodegradable and copolymerization of monomers in mixed dispersion system, etc.
commercially available natural polymers on the market mainly The difference between the two is that the natural component in
include polylactic acid (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), poly- the former is added into the formed ordinary plastics as an additive,
hydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydroxybutyrate valerate (PHBV) and and does not establish a chemical bond with the polymer structure
polyhydroxybutyrate (PHV). BPs can be biodegraded without any of the plastics; the latter is connected into the chain by chemical
harmful effects caused by their persistence (Haider et al., 2019). bond as a monomer of the plastics.
Today, BPs have been successfully applied in some industrial and Due to its good biodegradability, BPs are mainly used as soft and
environmental protection programs. Although some BPs have hard food packing materials. Packing is the largest application filed
shown excellent physicochemical, mechanical and degradable of BPs at present (European Bioplastics, 2019). The best-selling
properties in many industrial applications, it is well known that BPs products are garbage bags, soft packaging, rigid packaging and
are currently not a substitute for conventional plastics disposable ceramics. In the future, the main market of BPs is plastic
(Rujni
csokele and Pilipovi
c, 2017). In the view growth of BPs, there packing film, agricultural film, disposable plastic bag and dispos-
is an impact of knowledge gap to seek attention in this area. able plastic tableware. Compared with conventional oil-based
Consequently, there is still a question whether BPs can be a plastic materials, the cost of BPs is slightly higher (Rujni
csokele
promising solution to solve the waste disposal problem and global and Pilipovi
c, 2017), but people are willing to choose new BPs
plastic pollution in the long run. Herein, the both sides of the with higher price to protect the ecological environment. Therefore,
dispute about BPs are discussed in this paper. The application of BPs the BP industry has a huge development prospect and broad
and the challenge of solving environmental plastic pollution, and application market.
some perspectives are also raised.

3. Can BPs solve the problem of plastic environmental

2. What are BPs? accumulation?

Degradable plastic refers to a kind of plastic whose properties With the rapid development of petrochemical industry, plastics
can meet the use requirements and remain unchanged during the have gradually penetrated into every aspect of daily life, followed
storage period, but can be degrade into environmentally sound by the problem of “white pollution” which can not be ignored.
substances under natural environment conditions after use. BPs are These most incorruptible waste plastics not only do harm to human
a new type of plastics that can be biodegraded and disappeared in health, but also to the ecological environment (Shen et al., 2019b;
the natural environment ( HYPEPico
and Barcelo

, 2019). Its degra- Shen et al., 2019c). At present, the common treatment methods for
dation principle is that it can be decomposed by microbes (bacteria, waste plastics are incineration, landfill and recycling. As we all
fungi, algae, etc.) existing in the nature to materials (CO2, H2O, CH4 know, incineration and landfill are the most negative treatment
and biomass), which can be integrated into the natural ecosystem methods, which cause great pollution to the environment such as
without ecotoxic effect or residual by-products. The ideal BP is a release of stimulate gas and leakage of leachate, and are very un-
kind of polymer material, which has excellent performance and can desirable. Recycling is another relatively good way, however,
be slowly biodegraded, and finally it exists in nature as a part of actually, only a small percentage of “recyclable” plastic wastes are
carbon cycle. According to the degree and nature of biodegradation, recycled into the original products, even the most easily recycled
 M. Shen et al. / Environmental Pollution 263 (2020) 114469 3

plastics (Ellen MacArthur Foundation, 2016). Challenges lie in the has better barrier properties than PP, which makes PHB superior to
use of colorants, additives and fillers in the plastic production commercial plastics in the packaging of oxygen-sensitive products
process, pollution from consumer use, and loss of production dur- such as food and beverages. However, its application is still limited
ing recycling. Low-grade plastic waste, such as multi-layer plastic due to its low plasticity and impact strength, which results in many
packing and plastic film, is particularly difficult to separate and difficulties in polymer processing. The above two factors greatly
dispose. The plastic can only be recycled about 2e3 times before its limit the popularization and application of BPs and hinder the
quality drops to the point where it can no longer be used (Sedaghat, substitution of BPs for petroleum based plastics.
2018). Each cycle of the recycling process shortens the length of the Secondly, the production of BPs seems to be much easier than
polymer chain, thus causing mass loss and requiring further ma- their treatment. Degrading a polymer, especially conventional
terial treatment. As such, the best way to deal with waste plastics is plastics, requires more energy and exertions, which may also occur
to make them decompose into harmless CO2 and H2O in natural on BPs. Biodegradability is related to the chemical properties of
state to return to nature. polymers and the environmental conditions. Biodegradation is the
Plastic is a kind of high molecular compound which is poly- processing of using living organisms (bacteria, fungi, etc.) to
merized by monomers. The long chain of carbon molecule in its degrade BPs into oligomers, monomers or CO2 and H2O, and
structure is very firm and not easy to break, which is the main eventually entering the ecosphere. The biodegradation mechanism
reason why conventional oil-based plastics are difficult to decom- of BPs is illustrated in Fig. 1. Biodegradation usually involves three
pose. The principle of BPs is to reduce the difficulty of breaking the phases: biodeterioration, biofragmentation, and bioassimilation
long chain of carbon molecule, so that it is easy to decompose from (Emadian et al., 2017). BPs have long chain, high molecular weight
polymer into small pieces, and then further degrade into CO2, H2O, and complex chemical structure, which means that they can
and biomass. Unfortunately, however, there are still questions neither be ingested by microorganisms nor further degraded via
whether BPs can be a promising solution to solve the waste disposal cell membranes. In biodeterioration, living organisms aggregate on
problem and global plastic pollution. Accordingly, three scientific the surface or inside of environmental BPs to form biofilms (mi-
evidences are discussed here. crobial colonization), and the properties of BPs would be changed
Firstly, it is well known that BPs are currently not a substitute for due to the continuous growth and reproduction of microorganisms.
most conventional plastics. At present, only PP and PE are the most In biofragmentation, BPs are gradually converted into oligomers
common petroleum based plastics in the world (Geyer et al., 2017). and monomers in the presence of depolymerase produced by mi-
Global plastic production has reached 335 million tons in 2016 and croorganisms. Finally, these substances are assimilated by micro-
348 million tons in 2017 and is growing (PlasticsEurope, 2018). BPs organisms to provide carbon and energy sources and then
only accounted for 0.5% of about 335 million tons of the annual converted into CO2, H2O and other materials. When these metab-
plastic production, and are expected to increase to about 2.62 olites are released back into the environment, the whole biodeg-
million tons in 2023 (European Bioplastics, 2019). Although the radation process of BPs is completed. However, biodegradation of
production of BPs is still increasing, it is no more than a drop in the BPs needs certain environmental conditions, which is controlled by
bucker to solve the global problem of plastic environmental accu- oxygen content, ambient temperature, pH, water content, polymer
mulation. The key reason is cost. Plastic is too cheap, the production characteristics, etc. (Fig. 1). A fact is that BPs can be biodegraded but
process is too mature, and the use is too large in the world. Ac- the degradation process needs specific conditions that are not al-
cording to the analysis, the price of BPs produced by the current ways reliable under the natural conditions (Nazareth et al., 2019).
process is about several times (3e10 times) that of conventional PP For example, the slow degradation of BPs in marine environment
and PE (Luyt and Malik, 2019). Moreover, some BPs are not as good has been noted (Morohoshi et al., 2018; Sashiwa et al., 2018), and
as conventional plastics (Shahlari and Lee, 2012). For example, PHB the non-degradability of BPs has also been observed ins some cases

Fig. 1. Biodegradation process of biodegradable plastics (BPs) and influencing factors. The biodegradation processes of BPs are controlled by many factors: microbes, degradation
conditions and BPs themselves. These conditions may not be always feasible in field conditions. Supply of raw materials, investment and operational costs, and effective man-
agement of BP wastes can also directly or indirectly affect the wide application of BPs.
4 M. Shen et al. / Environmental Pollution 263 (2020) 114469

(Napper and Thompson, 2019). Consequently, these factors in the impact on the environment during its application. When BPs are
biodegradation process must be considered. The time of biodeg- disposed in an uncontrolled manner, there are two fates in the
radation controlled by polymer characteristics is critical for deter- environment: accumulate and break up. Like conventional plastics
mining the applicability of BPs to end-of-life management (PE and PP), BPs can also fragment into microplastics and nano-
technologies or their possible fate in the environment. If the plastics. Recently, scientists have begun to study the impacts of
biodegradation rate is not significantly different from that of con- biodegradable microplastics (BMPs) with the gradual understand-
ventional plastics of the same kind even in the presence of mi- ing of BPs. Shruti and Kutralam-Muniasamy (2019) thoroughly
croorganisms and key enzymes, limited biodegradability ill not discussed the potential effects of BMPs on the environment. The
benefit the environment or the management of BP wastes. potential effects of limited types of BMPs on aquatic organisms
Biodegradation depends on the complexity, the chemical structure have been characterized. Studies performed by Green et al. (2015)
and the crystallinity of the polymers. BPs with functional groups and Green et al. (2016) have demonstrated the adverse effects of
(eCOOe, eOH, and eCOOH) and with flexible active sites have BMPs (PLA) on diversity and benthic community growth richness.
higher degradation rates because these active groups can bind to Similar results of respiratory rate of Arenicola marina L. in sandy
enzyme sites much faster than those on rigid BPs. Shorter polymer sediment have also proved by the high concentration stress and the
chains lead to faster degradation, and complex chemical structures increase of respiratory rate caused by PLA in flat oyster and the high
(e.g., PHB) require additional enzymes or complex coenzymes dose response of PLA in sandy sediments (Green, 2016). Straub et al.
(Narancic and O’Connor, 2019). Ambient temperature and pH will (2017) studied the adsorption and function of BMPs (PHB) and
affect the biodegradation rate because surface cracking of BPs polymethylmethacrylate microplastics (PMMA) in the freshwater
caused by temperature and pH changes will accelerate the degra- amphipod Gammarus fossarum. The results showed that both
dation. The presence of plastic additives in BPs may also interfere microplastic treatments different particle sizes (32e250 mm)
with the biodegradation process. Additionally, large-scale disposal significantly affected the assimilation efficiency of amphipod
of BPs must be also considered. The production and consumption of Gammarus fossarum and reduced the increase of wet weight.
large quantities of BPs mean that a promising solution for large- Gonza
lez-Pleiter et al. (2019) studied the potential ecotoxicological
scale treatment is needed. Large-scale plastic waste is usually effects of secondary PHB nanoplastics (25e100 mg$L 1, 200 nm) on
disposed of by landfill, incineration, biological treatment (com- three representative aquatic organisms (Daphnia magna, Anabaena
posting and anaerobic digestion), and recycling. Currently, indus- sp. and Chlamydomonas reinhardtii). The results showed that sec-
trial composting is the main concern in the management of end-of- ondary PHB nanoplastics induced a significant decline in cell
life of BPs (Narancic and O’Connor, 2019). Before composting, BPs growth changes in related physiological parameters in all three
suitable for composting should be collected and separated through aquatic organisms. The authors also pointed out that the PHB
separate collection schemes and transported to industrial com- nanoplastics released as a consequence of abiotic degradation of
posting facilities. PHB microplastics were detrimental for the tested aquatic organ-
Thirdly, change of human behavioral awareness is important. isms. The above studies have shown that biological exposure to
The solution to the problem of global plastic pollution needs a conventional and biodegradable microplastics and nanoplastics
change in human behavioral awareness combined with viable also shows similar ecotoxicological effects to test organisms.
promising approaches, and the latter will be largely ineffective Consequently, induced changes can indicate that BPs are not
without the former. We should not consider BPs as a technical so- completely safe to the environment.
lution, thereby excusing our environmental responsibility, because In addition, BMPs can also act as vectors for microorganisms and
littering does not change with the promotion of an effective tech- chemical pollutants. Some studies have evidenced that micro-
nology. There are several possibilities for unmanaged plastics, plastics are important vectors of microorganisms (Frere et al., 2018;
including littering, open dumping and open burning, which are Shen et al., 2019c) and chemical pollutants (Hartmann et al., 2017;
more prevalent in rural areas or where waste management infra- Koelmans et al., 2016; Pittura et al., 2018; Ziccardi et al., 2016). Due
structure is less developed. BPs must be managed by society rather to the similar characteristics of particle size, good fluidity and good
than being randomly released into the environment. In addition, stability, BMPs also have a strong adsorption and enrichment tread
the use of greenwashing practices affects the purchase of so-called for chemical pollutants and microorganisms. Recently, Zuo et al.
biodegradable products by buyers who believe in sustainability or (2019) investigated the adsorption and desorption of poly(-
environmental privilege, and may cause people to improperly butylene adipate co-terephtalate) (PBAT, 2338 ± 486 mm), PS
discard these materials into the environment (Nazareth et al., (250 mm) and PE (2628 ± 623 mm) for traditional organic pollutants
2019). To some extent, these strategies can also have a positive (phenanthrene). The results showed that the adsorption and
impact on purchase decisions, which is very unfavorable to the desorption capacity of PBAT BMPs was significantly higher than
global public policies to control plastic pollution (Choice, 2010). that of PS and PE microplastics. The authors further reported that
Given the technologies currently available to identify polymers, BMPs were a strong vector of phenanthrene compared with the
products claiming to be biodegradable should be strictly controlled conventional microplastics.
and such strategies should be adopted before such environmental Unfortunately, however, it is too early to assert the threat state
damage leads to a loss of consumer confidence. Accordingly, BPs (with or without threat) of BMPs due to the lack of data in this
cannot provide an approach for society to continue to throw respect. Few studies have found the effect of BMPs on very limited
rubbish because it is also a kind of environmental pollution that BPs aquatic organisms. The potential effects of BMPs have not been
are thrown at random and piled up in the environment, but provide performed in many cases, and it is unclear for a series of animals
a new waste management option for human beings. The accumu- used as human food. As such, it is difficult to determine the more
lation of plastic waste on the earth is still a problem and the specific threat that BMPs may pose to the health of organisms,
management of plastic pollution requires global efforts. ecosystems and humans. The coecological effect of BMPs on
ecosystem should be a concern issue in the future. It is necessary to
4. What are the potential risks of using BPs to the evaluate and integrate the effect on human food safety and health
environment? by testing the potential effects of BMPs on different organisms and
ecosystems.
BP is also a kind of plastic, which inevitably has a potential
 M. Shen et al. / Environmental Pollution 263 (2020) 114469 5

5. What is the function of BPs in solving plastic pollution? PLA has many advantages: it not only has rich colors and good
transparency, but also can achieve higher printing speed and better
Although the current level of substitution is very low, BPs can printing; moreover it is environmentally friendly. Because of good
replace most of the conventional plastics currently in use and biocompatibility, PHAs are widely used in medical fields, such as
consumption. Shen et al. (2009) investigated the potential tech- medical suture, repair device, orthopedic needle, guided tissue
nology substitution of BPs for conventional oil based plastics. The repair, articular cartilage repair stent, etc. PCL has good thermo-
authors reported that the largest substitution rate could reach up plasticity and molding processability, which can be made into fi-
94%, of which 31% were BPs and 63% were biobased plastics but not bers, flakes, sheets, etc. Due to their special properties, BPs will play
biodegradable plastics. However, the actual level of production and more irreplaceable role in the high-end filed, and have broad
substitution is still far from the theoretical maximum. Because of development spaces.
economic factors, difficulties in rapid scale and the availability of BP
raw materials, and slow adoption of new BPs in the plastic industry, 6. What are the opportunities and challenges of using BPs?
this potential may not be exploited in the short and medium term.
Although BPs are still in the development stage, and the market is BPs are of great significance for global environmental protec-
not fully formed as a whole, it has shown the substitution effect on tion. The emergence of BPs is an inevitable requirement for the
conventional plastics in some fields. sustainable development of the environment in the 21st century.
Therefore, it is common goal for all countries in the world to
a) Disposable plastic products strengthen the research on BPs and promote the product devel-
opment of BPs. The challenge comes from promoting this alterna-
There are a large number of disposable plastic products in daily tive potential. There are four important factors: technical aspects,
life, such as plastic bags, garbage bags, disposal plastic lunch boxes financial, management and consumers (Fig. 2).
and tableware, product packing bags. This kind of these products is Firstly, the development of technology plays a big role in the
widely distributed in our daily life, with a large amount of con- acceptance rate of BPs. In the existing technology, there are
sumption, but as the same time, they produce a series of problems methods to improve the thermal stability and mechanical strength
such as white pollution. For BPs, disposable plastic products are the of BPs by compounding with inorganic materials. It will also cause
most potential application areas in the future strategy of realizing the increase of degradation products and the decrease of degra-
low-carbon economy and sustainable development of industry. BPs dation rate. The biodegradation performance of BPs is realized by
used for disposable products need to have a faster degradation degradation of macromolecules into micromolecules by environ-
speed, and their mechanical properties should be able to meet the mental microorganisms, and this degradation process is very slow,
strength requirements of daily use. especially the resin molecular materials. It is difficult to recycle the
waste plastics, and whether the degradation products will not
b) Agricultural application (biodegradable plastic mulch film) pollute the environment remains to be studied. Additionally, large-
scale disposal of BPs must be also considered. Improvements to the
At present, most of the mulch film used in production is a kind of compost infrastructure, including compost classification and BP
high molecular hydrocarbon transparent film, which is made of PP recycle, will allow for the treatment of BPs in compost facilities
blow molding. Conventional high polymer plastics have good (Andrade et al., 2016). Therefore, waste management and public
strength, and it will take hundreds of years for the residual film to behavioral awareness are the important factors in solving the
become harmless material to the soil. The residual plastic film in problem of plastic accumulation in the environment, but they are
the soil has a bad effect on the arable and aeration of the soil, and not fundamental. The progress of technology and the development
even leads to the decreases of crop yield. The harm of plastic mulch of new materials are also considered in the future.
film pollution is mainly manifested in the following aspects: (1) Secondly, financial measures greatly inhibit the development of
reducing the level of soil fertility; (2) affecting the fertilizer effi- BPs. Compared with conventional plastics, the material price for
ciency; and (3) making the crop malnutrition. The treatment of producing BPs is relatively high, and the technical process is com-
residual mulch film is mainly driven by administrative forces, me- plex, so the final product price is far high than that of conventional
chanical recovery and manual pickup. Unfortunately, however, no plastics. Cost has always been an important indicator of whether a
matter mechanical or manual, the accumulation of residual mulch product can be applied to the market on a large scale. Therefore, the
film cannot completely remove for a long time, and the cost of price of agricultural raw materials should be monitored to ensure
recovery of residual mulch film is also gradually rising. The most that they are competitive with fossil fuels, so as to promote the
feasible way to solve the problem of residual film is to use agri- transfer of conventional materials to biodegradable materials.
cultural degradable mulch films. On the one hand, the degradable Moreover, new equipment and synthesis process should be opti-
film has the same effect as the conventional film (PBAT vs PP), and mized to reduce the production cost of BPs. Improve the function of
at the same time solves the inevitable residual film pollution synthesis BP materials, such as cellulose, starch and shell, and
caused by the conventional film. On the other hand, large-scale widen the use of materials, which is also an important measure to
promotion of degradable mulch film can play a role in resolving reduce costs.
traditional excess capacity. Thirdly, the BP industry lacks a favorable management system.
There are three ways to manage plastic wastes: recycling, inciner-
c) High-end market ation, and sanitary landfill. Due to the chaotic collection system of
conventional plastic and BP, the disposal of plastic wastes has
The application of BPs in high-end market includes medical become difficult. BPs can be burned like conventional plastic, and
supplies, drug release materials, 3D printing materials, etc. PLA, the energy of BPs is similar to that of conventional plastics (Dilkes-
PHA, polycaprolactone (PCL) and other BPs have good biocompat- Hoffman et al., 2019). However, in terms of landfill, conventional
ibility, which can be controlled by molecular design synthesis, so plastics and BPs are quite different. Conventional plastics are
they have development potential in high-end market. PLA is one of difficult to decompose in landfill. During degradation of BPs in
the most commonly used 3D printing wires. Compared with other landfill, methane, a higher global warming potential gas than CO2,
used 3D printing materials such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, can be produced. Industrial composting and anaerobic digestion
6 M. Shen et al. / Environmental Pollution 263 (2020) 114469

Fig. 2. Potential challenges of BPs to replace conventional plastics. There are four important factors: technical aspects, financial, management and consumers. The actual level of
production and substitution is still far from the theoretical maximum. Because of economic factors, difficulties in rapid scale and the availability of BP raw materials, and slow
adoption of new BPs in the plastic industry, this potential may not be exploited in the short and medium term.

are also concerns in the management of end-of-life of BPs. How- performance; (b) everyone in the world can dispose of BP waste
ever, before that, BPs suitable for composting and anaerobic according to regulations and laws and should be responsible for our
digestion should be collected and separated through separate environment; (c) theses collected BPs can be biodegraded on a
collection schemes and transported to industrial composting and large-scale, and the biodegradation byproducts can be returned
digestion facilities. into the ecosystem; and (d) raw materials for BPs can be continu-
Finally, raising the environmental awareness of the public is also ously and inexpensively obtained from the environment.
an essential part of promoting BPs. How to identify and deal with
BPs is not only a major concern of the public, but also a problem to Acknowledgements
be solved. It is recommended to develop identification codes for
BPs (bags, containers, and other materials) to help separate them The study is financially supported by the Program for the Na-
from other recyclable materials. This needs to be combined with tional Natural Science Foundation of China (51521006), the Pro-
local education on how identify and deal with BPs. BPs may not gram for Changjiang Scholars and Innovative Research Team in
have an adverse impact on waste management if appropriate University (IRT-13R17), and the Three Gorges Follow-up Research
labelling and differentiated waste collection systems are Project (2017HXXY-05).
developed.
Appendix A. Supplementary data

7. Conclusion Supplementary data to this article can be found online at

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114469.
The accumulation of plastics on the planet is a severe problem in
this time. The severity of this problem will exponentially increase Declaration of interest
with the increase of global plastic production and consumption. As
such, measures should be taken to reduce the rate of plastic accu- The authors have no conflict of interest to declare regarding this
mulation and the ecological effects caused by the inevitable accu- article.
mulation. BPs can effectively protect and improve the environment,
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