WHAT IS MATTER MADE OF ?

Matter is built of elementary Particles i.e.

ATOMS , MOLECULES , IONS [RADICLES]

WHAT IS ATOM ?
An atom is defined as the smallest particle of an
element that can exist.
• Atoms are the building blocks of all matter.
• All matter, living or non-living, is made up of
atoms.
• Atoms are so small that we cannot see them
without the help of electron
microscopes.
• Each element is made up of its own type of atom.
• The atoms of different elements are different in sizes
‘O’ – Oxygen atom ‘Na’ – Sodium ‘Cl’ – Chlorine ‘H’ – Hydrogen
Atom ATOM Atom

What is a molecule?
• A molecule is made up of two or more
atoms of the same kind or of different
kinds chemically combined together.
• Molecules exist in both elements and
compounds.
• Molecules in elements consist of a fixed
number of one kind of atom only.
• In some cases, three identical atoms
may combine to form a molecule, as in
the ozone molecule
which is made up of three oxygen atoms.
• Molecules in compounds consist of a
fixed number of two or more different kinds of atoms chemically combined together.
RADICALS :
An atom or molecule with an unpaired electron. Because they have a free electron,
such molecules are highly reactive.

Free radicals are capable of starting rapid chain-reactions that destabilize the ions in other

nearby molecules generating more free radicals.

In biological systems, free radicals are deactivated by anti-

oxidants, uric acid, and certain enzyme activities.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF ATOM :

Atoms : are built up of sub atomic particles –

PROTONS
NEUTRONS
ELECTRONS

Nucleus : In centre of the atom contains – PROTONS

NEUTRONS

Modern Periodic Table:

A tabular arrangement of elements in groups and periods which highlights the regular trends in properties of
elements is defined as the periodic table.
What is Atomic Number?
 The total number of protons in the nucleus of an atom gives us the atomic number of that atom.
 It is represented with the letter ‘Z.’
 All the atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons, and hence the same atomic number.
 Atoms of different elements have different atomic numbers.
 For example, all carbon atoms have the atomic number of 6,
whereas all atoms of Oxygen have 8 protons in their nucleus.


What is Mass Number?

 The number of protons and neutrons combined to give us the
mass number of an atom.
 It is represented using the letter ‘A.’
 As both protons and neutrons are present in the
nucleus of an atom, they are together called
nucleons.
 For example, an atom of carbon has 6 protons and 6
neutrons. Thus, its mass number is 12.
 While the number of protons remains the same in all
atoms of an element, the number of neutrons can
vary. Thus, atoms of the same element can have
different mass numbers, and these are called
isotopes.
 The weight of an electron is almost negligible. Thus, the atomic mass of an atom is almost the same as its
mass number.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
The English chemist John Dalton suggested that all matter is made up of atoms, which were indivisible and
indestructible. He also stated that all the atoms of an element were exactly the same, but the atoms of different
elements differ in size and mass.
Chemical reactions, according to Dalton’s atomic theory, involves a rearrangement of atoms to form
products. According to the postulates proposed by Dalton, the atomic structure comprised of atoms, the smallest
particle responsible for the chemical reactions to occur.
The following are the postulates of his theory:

 Every matter is made up of atoms.

 Atoms are indivisible.
 Specific elements have only one type of atoms in them.
 Each atom has its own constant mass that varies from element to element.
 Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical reaction.
 Atoms can neither be created nor be destroyed but can be transformed from one form to another.
Dalton’s atomic theory successfully explained the Laws of chemical reactions, namely, the Law of conservation of
mass, Law of constant properties, Law of multiple proportions, and Law of reciprocal proportions

Demerits of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

 The theory was unable to explain the existence of isotopes.
 Nothing about the structure of atom was appropriately is explained.
 Later, the scientists discovered particles inside the atom that proved, the atoms are divisible.
 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MODERN PERIODIC TABLE AND DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY :

Dalton’s Atomic Theory Modern Atomic Theory

1. All matter is composed of 1. All matter is composed of atoms.

extremely small particles called
atoms.

2. Atoms of an element are identical 2. Atoms of the same element have the
in size, mass, and other same chemical properties; atoms of
properties; atoms of different different element have different
chemical properties.
elements differ in size, mass, and
other properties.

3. Atoms cannot be subdivided, 3. Atoms of an element have a

created, or destroyed. characteristic average mass which is
unique to that element.

4. Atoms of different elements 4. Atoms cannot be subdivided, created, or

combine in simple whole-number destroyed in ordinary chemical
ratios to form chemical reactions. However, these changes can
occur in nuclear reactions.
compounds.

5. In chemical reactions, atoms are 5. Compounds are formed when atoms

combined, separated, or of two or more elements unite, each
rearranged. atom losing its own characteristic
properties

Rutherford, in his experiment, directed high energy streams of α-particles from a radioactive source at a thin sheet
(100 nm thickness) of gold. In order to study the deflection caused to the α-particles, he placed a fluorescent zinc
sulphide screen around the thin gold foil. Rutherford made certain observations that contradicted Thomson’s atomic
model.

Observations of Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment :

The observations made by Rutherford led him to conclude that:

1. A major fraction of the α-particles bombarded towards the gold sheet passed through it without any
deflection, and hence most of the space in an atom is empty.
2. Some of the α-particles were deflected by the gold sheet by very small angles, and hence the positive
charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed. The positive charge in an atom is concentrated in a
very small volume.
 3. Very few of the α-particles were deflected back, that is only a few α-particles had nearly 180o angle of
deflection. So the volume occupied by the positively charged particles in an atom is very small as
compared to the total volume of an atom.

Rutherford Atomic Model

Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the atomic structure of elements.
According to the Rutherford atomic model:

1. The positively charged particles and most of the mass of an atom was concentrated in an extremely small
volume. He called this region of the atom as a nucleus.
2. Rutherford model proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus of an atom. He also
claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with very high speed in circular paths.
He named these circular paths as orbits.
3. Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of positively charged
particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.

Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model :

Although the Rutherford atomic model was based on experimental observations it failed to explain certain things.

 Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths called orbits. According to
Maxwell, accelerated charged particles emit electromagnetic radiations and hence an electron revolving
around the nucleus should emit electromagnetic radiation. This radiation would carry energy from the motion
of the electron which would come at the cost of shrinking of orbits. Ultimately the electrons would collapse in
the nucleus. Calculations have shown that as per Rutherford model an electron would collapse in the
nucleus in less than 10-8 seconds. So Rutherford model was not in accordance with Maxwell’s theory
and could not explain the stability of an atom.

 One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he did not say anything about the
arrangement of electrons in an atom which made his theory incomplete.

 Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to explain certain experimental results, they
were the base for future developments in the world of quantum mechanics.
 MOLCULE OF AN ELEMENT :
A molecule of an element is
from the same kind of atom
 MOLECULE OF A COMPOUND :
Molecules of compounds have atoms of two or more different elements. For example, water (H 2O) has
three atoms, two hydrogen (H) atoms and one oxygen (O) atom. Methane (CH 4), a common greenhouse
gas, has five atoms, one of carbon (C) and four of hydrogen (H, see Fig. 

ATOMICITY : -

The number of atoms bonded in a molecule of an element is called its atomicity.

CLASSIFICATION OF MOLECULES OF ELEMENTS BY ATOMICITY : -

The number of atoms in a molecule the elements are classified as monatomic, diatomic, diatomic and
polyatomic.

MONATOMIC MOLECULES OF ELEMENTS : -

The noble gases exist in the atomic form and are stable, it’s called monatomic molecules .

Eg. Noble gases

Helium Neon Argon Krypton Xenon Redon

He Ne Ar Kr Xe Rn

eg. Metals

Potassium Sodium Calcium Magnesium Iron Copper

K Na Ca Mg Fe Cu
DIATOMIC MOLECULE :

A molecule containing two atoms is called a diatomic molecule. The atomicity of each diatomic
molecule is 2

TRIATOMIC MOLECULE :

A molecule containing three atoms is called a triatomic molecule.

POLYATOMIC MOLECULES OF ELEMENTS : -

The molecules containing four or more atoms of

the same element are called polyatomic molecules
What are Free Radicals?
A fee radical is termed to the molecular kinds which can contain an unpaired electron in their
atomic orbital and can exist independently.
All the radicals share some of the common properties due to the unpaired electron.

Example : Ammonium radical -NH+4

Carbonate radical – CO3 --

Properties of Free Radicals

 Free radicals are unique and rare species and are present only under special and limited
conditions. However, some of the free radicals are familiar to us in our lives.
 Molecular oxygen is a typical free radical a bi radical species. Standard and stable molecular
oxygen is in triplet state and the two unpaired electrons have the same spin orientation in two
orbitals respectively, having the same orbital energy based on Hund’s rule.
 Nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide are also stable, free radial species. Moreover, the
reactive species involved in immunity are oxygen free radicals, such as super oxide anion
radical and singlet molecular oxygen.
 So free radicals are very familiar to us in our lives and are very important chemicals.
 Free radicals are highly reactive and very unstable. They can donate an electron or accept an
electron from other molecules, therefore, can behave as oxidants or reactants.

Positive
Radical
RADICALS
Negetive
Radicals
Positive Radical :
- It is a Radical which behaves like as Hydrogen or a metal –In a Chemical reaction :
Ammonium radical -NH+4
Negetive radical ;
- It is a radical which behaves as a non metal in a chemical reaction .
Eg. Carbonate radical – CO3- -
IONS AND THEIR TYPES : -

Ion is a charged chemical particle. Ions are two types.

(i) Cation.

(ii) Anion.

(iii) Polyatomic ion.

CATION : -

An ion carrying positive charge is called cat ion.

ANION : -

An ion carrying negative charge is called anion. 

POLYATOMIC ION : -

A group of two or more atoms carrying charge is called polyatomic ion.

Valency
The combining capacity of an atom is known as its valency. The number of bonds that an
atom can form as part of a compound is expressed by the valency of the element.
We all know how electrons in an atom are arranged in shells/orbitals. Valence electrons are those electrons
which are present in the outermost orbit of the atom. From the Bohr-bury scheme, we can say that the
outermost shell can contain a maximum of 8 electrons. Only a little chemical activity is observed when the outermost
shell is completely filled. We can also say that it’s combining capacity becomes zero.
For example, nitrogen forms a number of compounds with hydrogen such as NH3, N2H4, N3H in which nitrogen
atoms have valencies of 3, 2 and 1/3 respectively. Thus, this concept of valency as a mere number was not clear.
Therefore, later on valency was defined as the number of chemical bonds formed by an atom in a molecule.

Concept of Valency
Noble gases have a completely filled outermost shell and that’s why they are least reactive. Other element’s
reactivity depends upon their ability to attain the noble gas configuration. In this section, we shall learn more about
the valency of an atom.

What is Valency?
If the outermost shell has 8 electrons then the element is said to have a complete octet. By gaining, sharing and
losing the electrons the atoms complete their outermost orbital and make an octet.
The capacity of an atom is described by the total number of electrons lost, gained or shared to complete its octet
and it also determines the valency of the atom.

How to Find Valency of Elements?

As we know, the number of electrons in the outermost shell of hydrogen is 1, and in  magnesium, it is 2. Therefore
the valency of hydrogen is 1 as it can easily lose 1 electron and become stable. On the other hand, that of
magnesium is 2 as it can lose 2 electrons easily and also attain stability.
Furthermore, it is not only determined when an atom loses an electron. For example, fluorine has 7 electrons in its
outermost orbital. It is hard to lose 7 electrons and so it completes its octet by gaining 1 electron. Since it gains 1
electron, its valency is 1. In the periodic table, the elements in the same group have the same valency.
For example, all the elements in group 8 have 8 electrons and completely filled orbitals, that is why the valency of all
the elements in this group is zero.

Sharing of electron between Li & F

Difference between Valency and Oxidation Number

Valency is different from the oxidation number, and it has NO SIGN. Thus, the valency of nitrogen is 3, whereas it
can have oxidation numbers from -3 to +5. The oxidation number is the hypothetical charge of an atom in a
molecule or ion, and it is a measure of its apparent capacity to gain or lose electrons within that species.

Valency of First 30 Elements 

Let us look at the valency of the first 30 elements of the periodic table.

Element Atomic Number Valency

Valency of Hydrogen 1 1
Valency of Helium 2 0
Valency of Lithium 3 1
Valency of Beryllium 4 2
Valency of Boron 5 3
Valency of Carbon 6 4
Valency of Nitrogen 7 3
Valency of Oxygen 8 2
Valency of Fluorine 9 1
Valency of Neon 10 0
Valency of Sodium (Na) 11 1
Valency of Magnesium (Mg) 12 2
Valency of Aluminium 13 3
Valency of Silicon 14 4
Valency of Phosphorus 15 3
Valency of Sulphur 16 2
Valency of Chlorine 17 1

MONOVALENT CATIONS DIVALENT CATIONS TRIVALENT CATIONS

VALENCY=+4
VALENCY = +1 VALENCY = +2 VALENCY =+3

Hydrogen H+ Magnesium Mg2+ Aluminum Al3+ Carbon C4+

Lithium Li+ Calcium Ca2+ Chromium Cr3+    

Sodium Na+ Barium Ba2+ Bismuth Bi3+    

Potassium K+ Zinc Zn2+ Antimony Sb3+    

Silver Ag+ Copper Cu2+ Ferric Fe3+    

Ammonium NH4+ Ferrous Fe2+        

RULES FOR WRITING CHEMICAL FORMULA - DEFINITION
1. Write the symbols side by side, basic radical is written first and then acidic radical.
2. Write the valency of each atom on top of its symbol.
3. Divide the valency numbers by their highest common factor. Ignore the symbols of radicals. Interchange the
valencies of the radicals.
4. Write the interchanged valency numbers to the lower right of the radicals. If the radical is a group of atoms
and has a valency more than one, enclose it within brackets. 

FORMULA OF VALENCY - FORMULA

The steps to calculate the valency are:
1. Write the electronic configuration of an element.
2. If the outermost shell has less than or equal to four electrons then the valency is the number of outermost
electrons.
3. If the outermost shell has more than four electrons then the valency is 8-(the number of outermost electrons).
CHEMICAL FORMULA OF COMPOUNDS
Once the valency of the constitutive elements of the compound
are determined, apply the SVSF system to name the compound.
S.V.S.F. stands for
 Step One: Write down the symbols of the elements or


groups involved.
Step Two: Above each symbol, write
Symbol,
its valency without the sign. In the case of ions, the
valency is the charge of the ion. Valency,
 Step Three: Swap valencies over.
 Step Four: Write the formula. Simplify numbers if Swap, and 
possible by dividing them both by the smaller of the
two numbers.  Formula.
Below are three examples of how to write the chemical formula of each compounds using the SVSF
system.
 The following diagram
shows how to write a chemical
equation. Scroll down the page for
more examples and solutions.
onversion of word equation to chemical equation

Example:

In a precipitation reaction, sodium hydroxide solution is mixed with iron(II) chloride

solution. Sodium Chloride solution and insoluble iron(II) hydroxide are produced. Write a
balanced chemical equation including the state symbols.

Solution:

Step 1: Identify reactants and products and place them in a word equation.

sodium hydroxide + iron(II) chloride → sodium chloride + iron(II) hydroxide

Step 2: Convert the chemical names into chemical formulas. Place them based on the
chemical equation and write the state symbols.

Example:

Write a balanced
chemical equation
for
Sodium(s) + hydrochloric acid(aq) → sodium chloride(aq) + hydrogen(g)

Solution:

Step 1: Convert the chemical names into chemical formulas. Place them based on the
chemical equation and write the state symbols.

How to write a balanced chemical equation from a word equation?

When compounds react, they are chemically changed into new compounds. Every chemical change
can be communicated symbolically using a chemical equation. Chemical equations combine
formulas with other symbols to show what changes takes place.

Example:
Aluminum + Iron(III) oxide → Aluminum oxide + Iron
Oxygen + Hydrogen → Water
Methane + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water
Butane + Oxygen → Carbon Dioxide + Water
THE PERIODIC TABLE :
 What Information does the Atomic Number of an Element Provide?
The atomic number of an element provides insight into the number of protons that exist inside the nuclei of the
atoms of that element and also into the number of electrons that surround these nuclei. For example, the atomic
number of sodium is 11. This implies that the nucleus of the sodium atom contains 11 protons and is surrounded by
a total of 11 electrons. Since the atomic number of an atom is equal to the number of electrons it contains,
the electronic configuration of the element can be determined just by knowing its atomic number.
It is important to note that the number of neutrons that exist in the nucleus of an atom cannot be determined by its
atomic number. Different isotopes of an element may have the same number of protons and electrons (since they
have the same atomic number), but they may have varying numbers of neutrons. For example, a sodium atom may
have 11, 12, or 13 neutrons (based on the isotope) but will always have 11 protons and 11 electrons.

Why is Potassium denoted by the symbol ‘K’ and Sodium by the symbol
‘Na’?
The symbol of potassium is ‘K’ because it is derived from the medieval Latin name for the element, which was
‘Kalium’. Similarly, the symbol for the element sodium is ‘Na’ because it is used to denote its older name ‘Natrium’.
Several other elements have symbols denoting their old names. A few such examples have been listed below.

 The symbol of iron is ‘Fe’, which denotes the Latin name ‘Ferrum’.
 The symbol of copper is ‘Cu’, which denotes the Latin name ‘Cuprum’.
 The symbol of silver is ‘Ag’, which denotes the Latin name ‘Argentum’.
 The symbol of tin is ‘Sn’, which denotes the Latin name ‘Stannum’.
 The symbol of antimony is ‘Sb’, which denotes the Latin name ‘Stibium’.
 The symbol of tungsten is ‘W’, which denotes the German name ‘Wolfram’.
 The symbol of gold is ‘Au’, which denotes the Latin name ‘Aurum’.
 The symbol of mercury is ‘Hg’, which denotes the Latin name ‘Hydrargyrum’.
 The symbol of lead is ‘Pb’, which denotes the Latin name ‘Plumbum’.
The general oxidation state of the elements of the periodic table is illustrated in the chart provided below.
 Oxidation State and Valency Chart

Valency of First 30 Elements

The valency of the first 30 elements of the periodic table is given below.

Element Atomic Number Valency

Valency of Hydrogen 1 1

Valency of Helium 2 0

Valency of Lithium 3 1

Valency of Beryllium 4 2

Valency of Boron 5 3

Valency of Carbon 6 4

Valency of Nitrogen 7 3

Valency of Oxygen 8 2
 Valency of Fluorine 9 1

Valency of Neon 10 0

Valency of Sodium (Na) 11 1

Valency of Magnesium (Mg) 12 2

Valency of Aluminium 13 3

Valency of Silicon 14 4

Valency of Phosphorus 15 3

Valency of Sulphur 16 2

Valency of Chlorine 17 1

Valency of Argon 18 0

Valency of Potassium (K) 19 1

Valency of Calcium 20 2

Valency of Scandium 21 3

Valency of Titanium 22 4

Valency of Vanadium 23 5,4

Valency of Chromium 24 2

Valency of Manganese 25 7, 4, 2

Valency of Iron (Fe) 26 2, 3

Valency of Cobalt 27 3, 2

Valency of Nickel 28 2

Valency of Copper (Cu) 29 2, 1

 Valency of Zinc 30 2

Periodic Trends in the Oxidation States of Elements

1. Variation Of Oxidation State Along a Period

While moving left to right across a period, the number of valence electrons of elements increases and varies
between 1 to 8. But the valency of elements, when combined with H or O first, increases from 1 to 4 and then it
reduces to zero. Consider two compounds containing oxygen Na2O and F2O. In F2O, the electronegativity of F is
more than oxygen. Hence, each of F atoms will attract one electron from oxygen i.e. F will show -1 oxidation state
and O will show +2 oxidation state. Whereas, in the case of Na2O, oxygen is highly electronegative than sodium
atom. So oxygen will attract two electrons from each sodium atom showing -2 oxidation state and Na will have +1
oxidation state. The oxidation state of the element represents the charge possessed by an atom due to the loss or
gain of electrons (due to the electronegativity difference between the combining atoms) in the molecule.

2. Variation Of Oxidation State within a Group

As we move down in a group the number of valence electrons does not change. Hence, all the elements of one
group have the same valency.

Guidelines for assigning the Oxidation States

 Oxidation states of elements like O2, S8, H2, P4, Fe, etc is zero.
 Oxygen has an oxidation state of -2. But in its peroxides like Na2O2  and H2O2, it has -1 as its oxidation state
 Similarly, hydrogen has +1. But in Metal Hydrides, such as NaH, LiH, etc, it has -1
 Some elements have the same oxidation states as in their compounds such as
1. Halogens have -1 except the time they form a compound with one another or Oxygen.
2. Alkali Metals such as Na, K, Rb, -Li, Cs; have +1
3. And Alkali Earth Metals have +2 such as Mg, Ca, Ba, -Be, Sr, etc