Table of Contents

Chapter One:

1.1. Introduction

Chapter Two:

2.1. What Is Atomic Structure?

2.2. Atomic Models

Chapter Three:

3.1. Dalton‟s Atomic Theory

3.1.1The postulates of dalton‟s atomic theory

3.1.2. Demerits of Dalton‟s Atomic Theory

3.2.Thomson Atomic Model

3.2.1 Rutherford‟s Structure of Atom

3.3 Rutherford Atomic Theory

3.3.1 Cathode Ray Experiment

3.4. Bohr‟s Atomic Theory

3.4.1. Limitations of Bohr‟s Atomic Theory

Chapter Four:

4.1. Subatomic Particles

4.2. Atomic Structure of Isotopes

4.3. Dual Nature of Matter

4.4. Quantum Numbers

4.5. Electronic Configuration of an Atom

Conclusion

Reference

1
 Chapter One

1.1. Introduction
An atom is a complex arrangement of negatively charged electrons arranged in defined
shells about a positively charged nucleus. This nucleus contains most of the atom's mass
and is composed of protons and neutrons (except for common hydrogen which has only
one proton). All atoms are roughly the same size. A convenient unit of length for
measuring atomic sizes is the angstrom (Å), which is defined as 1 × 10 -10 meters. The
diameter of an atom is approximately 2-3 Å.[7]

In 1897, J. J. Thomson discovered the existence of the electron, marking the beginning of
modern atomic physics. The negatively charged electrons follow a random pattern within
defined energy shells around the nucleus. Most properties of atoms are based on the
number and arrangement of their electrons. The mass of an electron is 9.1× 10-31 kg.

One of the two types of particles found in the nucleus is the proton. The existence of a
positively charged particle, a proton, in the nucleus was proved by Sir Ernest
Rutherford in 1919. The proton's charge is equal but opposite to the negative charge of the
electron. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines what kind of
chemical element it is. A proton has a mass of 1.67 × 10-27 kilograms.[7]

The neutron is the other type of particle found in the nucleus. It was discovered by a
British physicist, Sir James Chadwick. The neutron carries no electrical charge and has the
same mass as the proton. With a lack of electrical charge, the neutron is not repelled by
the cloud of electrons or by the nucleus, making it a useful tool for probing the structure
of the atom.[7]

Even the individual protons and neutrons have internal structure, called quarks. Six types
of quarks exist. These subatomic particles cannot be freed and studied in isolation. Current
research continues into the structure of the atom.[7]

2
 Chapter Two

2.1. What Is Atomic Structure?

The atomic structure of an element refers to the constitution of its nucleus and the
arrangement of the electrons around it. Primarily, the atomic structure of matter is made
up of protons, electrons and neutrons.[5]

The protons and neutrons make up the nucleus of the atom, which is surrounded by the
electrons belonging to the atom. The atomic number of an element describes the total
number of protons in its nucleus.[5]

Fig.1: Atomic structure

Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons. However, atoms may gain or
lose electrons in order to increase their stability, and the resulting charged entity is called
an ion.[5]

Atoms of different elements have different atomic structures because they contain
different numbers of protons and electrons. This is the reason for the unique
characteristics of different elements.

3
2.2. Atomic Models
In the 18th and 19th centuries, many scientists attempted to explain the structure of the
atom with the help of atomic models. Each of these models had its own merits and
demerits and was pivotal to the development of the modern atomic model. The most
notable contributions to the field were by the scientists such as John Dalton, J.J. Thomson,
Ernest Rutherford and Niels Bohr. [3]

Their ideas on the structure of the atom are discussed in this subsection.

4
 Chapter Three

3.1. Dalton’s Atomic Theory

The English chemist John Dalton suggested that all matter is made up of atoms, which
were indivisible and indestructible. He also stated that all the atoms of an element were
exactly the same, but the atoms of different elements differ in size and mass.

Chemical reactions, according to Dalton‟s atomic theory, involve a rearrangement of

atoms to form products. According to the postulates proposed by Dalton, the atomic
structure comprises atoms, the smallest particle responsible for the chemical reactions to
occur.[1]

3.1.1The postulates of dalton’s atomic theory:

Every matter is made up of atoms.

 Atoms are indivisible.

 *Specific elements have only one type of atom in them.
 Each atom has its own constant mass that varies from element to element.
 Atoms undergo rearrangement during a chemical reaction.
 Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed but can be transformed from one form
to another.[1]

Dalton‟s atomic theory successfully explained the Laws of chemical reactions, namely,
the Law of conservation of mass, the Law of constant properties, the Law of multiple
proportions and the Law of reciprocal proportions.[1]

3.1.2. Demerits of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

The theory was unable to explain the existence of isotopes. Nothing about the structure of
the atom was appropriately explained.

Later, scientists discovered particles inside the atom that proved the atoms are divisible.

The discovery of particles inside atoms led to a better understanding of chemical species;
these particles inside the atoms are called subatomic particles. [1]

5
3.2. Rutherford Atomic Theory

Rutherford, a student of J. J. Thomson, modified the atomic structure with the discovery
of another subatomic particle called “Nucleus”. His atomic model is based on the Alpha
ray scattering experiment.[8]

Alpha Ray Scattering Experiment

Construction:

A very thin gold foil of 1000 atoms thick is taken.

Alpha rays (doubly charged Helium He2+) were made to bombard the gold foil.

Zn S screen is placed behind the gold foil.

Observations:

Most of the rays just went through the gold foil, making scintillations (bright spots) in
the ZnS screen.

A few rays got reflected after hitting the gold foil.

One in 1000 rays got reflected by an angle of 180° (retraced path) after hitting the gold
foil.[8]

3.2.1 Rutherford’s Structure of Atom

Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed his own atomic
structure, which is as follows.

The nucleus is at the centre of an atom, where most of the charge and mass is
concentrated.

The atomic structure is spherical.

Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a circular orbit, similar to the way planets orbit
the sun.[8]

6
3.2.2. Limitations of the Rutherford Atomic Model

If electrons have to revolve around the nucleus, they will spend energy and that too
against the strong force of attraction from the nucleus, a lot of energy will be spent by the
electrons, and eventually, they will lose all their energy and will fall into the nucleus so
the stability of atom is not explained.

If electrons continuously revolve around the „nucleus, the type of spectrum expected is a
continuous spectrum. But in reality, what we see is a line spectrum.[6]

3.3. Thomson Atomic Model

The English chemist Sir Joseph John Thomson put forth his model describing the atomic
structure in the early 1900s.

He was later awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery of “electrons”. His work is based
on an experiment called the cathode ray experiment. [6]

3.3.1 Cathode Ray Experiment

It has a tube made of glass which has two openings, one for the vacuum pump and the
other for the inlet through which a gas is pumped in.[6]

7
The role of the vacuum pump is to maintain a “partial vacuum” inside the glass chamber.
A high-voltage power supply is connected using electrodes, i.e., cathode and anode, which
are fitted inside the glass tube.[6]

Observations:

When a high voltage power supply is switched on, there are rays emerging from the
cathode towards the anode. This was confirmed by the „Fluorescent spots‟ on the ZnS
screen used. These rays were called “Cathode Rays”.

When an external electric field is applied, the cathode rays get deflected towards the
positive electrode, but in the absence of an electric field, they travel in a straight line.

When rotor Blades are placed in the path of the cathode rays, they seem to rotate. This
proves that the cathode rays are made up of particles of a certain mass so that they have
some energy.[6]

With all this evidence, Thompson concluded that cathode rays are made of negatively
charged particles called “electrons”.

On applying the electric and magnetic field upon the cathode rays (electrons), Thomson
found the charge-to-mass ratio (e/m) of electrons. (e/m) for electron: 17588 × 1011 .

From this ratio, the charge of the electron was found by Mullikin through an oil drop
experiment. [Charge of e = 1.6 × 10-16 C and Mass of e = 9.1093 × 10-31 kg].[6]

8
3.4. Bohr’s Atomic Theory
Neils Bohr put forth his model of the atom in the year 1915. This is the most widely used
atomic model to describe the atomic structure of an element which is based on Planck‟s
theory of quantization.[4]
Postulates of the bohr’s atomic theory:
 The electrons inside atoms are placed in discrete orbits called “stationery orbits”.
 The energy levels of these shells can be represented via quantum numbers.
 Electrons can jump to higher levels by absorbing energy and move to lower energy
levels by losing or emitting their energy.
 As long as an electron stays in its own stationery, there will be no absorption or
emission of energy.
 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in these stationary orbits only.
 The energy of the stationary orbits is quantised.[4]
3.4.1. Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Theory:
Bohr‟s atomic structure works only for single electron species such as H, He+, Li2+,
Be3+, ….
When the emission spectrum of hydrogen was observed under a more accurate
spectrometer, each line spectrum was seen to be a combination of a number of smaller
discrete lines.
Both Stark and Zeeman‟s effects couldn‟t be explained using Bohr‟s theory.
Heisenberg‟s uncertainty principle: Heisenberg stated that no two conjugate physical
quantities could be measured simultaneously with 100% accuracy. There will always be
some error or uncertainty in the measurement.
Drawback: Position and momentum are two such conjugate quantities that were
measured accurately by Bohr (theoretically).
Stark effect: Phenomenon of deflection of electrons in the presence of an electric field.
Zeeman effect: Phenomenon of deflection of electrons in the presence of a magnetic
field.[4]

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 Chapter Four

4.1. Subatomic Particles

Protons

Protons are positively charged subatomic particles. The charge of a proton is 1e, which
corresponds to approximately 1.602 × 10-19

The mass of a proton is approximately 1.672 × 10-24

Protons are over 1800 times heavier than electrons.

The total number of protons in the atoms of an element is always equal to the atomic
number of the element.[2]

Neutrons

The mass of a neutron is almost the same as that of a proton, i.e., 1.674×10-24

Neutrons are electrically neutral particles and carry no charge.

Different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but vary in the number
of neutrons present in their respective nuclei.[2]

Electrons

The charge of an electron is -1e, which approximates to -1.602 × 10-19

The mass of an electron is approximately 9.1 × 10-31.

Due to the relatively negligible mass of electrons, they are ignored when calculating the
mass of an atom.[2]

10
4.2. Atomic Structure of Isotopes
Nucleons are the components of the nucleus of an atom. A nucleon can either be a proton
or a neutron. Each element has a unique number of protons in it, which is described by its
unique atomic number. However, several atomic structures of an element can exist, which
differ in the total number of nucleons.[1]

These variants of elements having a different nucleon number (also known as the mass
number) are called isotopes of the element. Therefore, the isotopes of an element have the
same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons.

The atomic structure of an isotope is described with the help of the chemical symbol of
the element, the atomic number of the element and the mass number of the isotope. For
example, there exist three known naturally occurring isotopes of hydrogen, namely,
protium, deuterium and tritium. The atomic structures of these hydrogen isotopes are
illustrated below.[1]

The isotopes of an element vary in stability. The half-lives of isotopes also differ.
However, they generally have similar chemical behaviour owing to the fact that they hold
the same electronic structures.[1]

Atomic Structures of Some Elements

The structure of an atom of an element can be simply represented via the total number of
protons, electrons and neutrons present in it. The atomic structures of a few elements are
illustrated below.[2]

11
Hydrogen

The most abundant isotope of hydrogen on the planet Earth is protium. The atomic
number and the mass number of this isotope are 1 and 1, respectively.

Structure of Hydrogen Atom: This implies that it contains one proton, one electron and no
neutrons (Total number of neutrons = Mass number – Atomic number).[3]

Carbon

Carbon has two stable isotopes – 12C and 13C. Of these isotopes, 12C has an abundance
of 98.9%. It contains 6 protons, 6 electrons and 6 neutrons.

Structure of Carbon Atom: The electrons are distributed into two shells, and the outermost
shell (valence shell) has four electrons. The tetravalency of carbon enables it to form a
variety of chemical bonds with various elements.[5]

Oxygen

There exist three stable isotopes of oxygen – 18O, 17O and 16O. However, oxygen-16 is
the most abundant isotope.

Structure of Oxygen Atom: Since the atomic number of this isotope is 8 and the mass
number is 16, it consists of 8 protons and 8 neutrons. 6 out of the 8 electrons in an oxygen
atom lie in the valence shell.[6]

4.3. Dual Nature of Matter

The electrons, which were treated to be particles, and the evidence of the photoelectric
effect show they also have a wave nature. This was proved by Thomas Young with the
help of his double-slit experiment.

De-Broglie concluded that since nature is symmetrical, so should light or any other matter
wave be.[7]

12
4.4. Quantum Numbers
Principal Quantum Number (n): It denotes the orbital number or shell number of an
electron.

Azimuthal Quantum Numbers (l): It denotes the orbital (sub-orbit) of the electron.

Magnetic Quantum Number: It denotes the number of energy states in each orbit.

Spin Quantum number(s): It denotes the direction of spin, S = -½ = Anticlockwise and

½ = Clockwise.[8]

4.5. Electronic Configuration of an Atom

The electrons have to be filled in the s, p, d and f in accordance with the following rule.

1. Aufbau’s principle: The filling of electrons should take place in accordance with the
ascending order of energy of orbitals.

Lower energy orbital should be filled first, and higher energy levels.

The energy of orbital α(p + l) value it two orbitals have the same (n + l) value, E α n

Ascending order of energy 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, . . .

2. Pauli’s exclusion principle: No two electrons can have all four quantum numbers to be
the same, or if two electrons have to be placed in an energy state, they should be placed
with opposite spies.

3. Hund’s rule of maximum multiplicity: In the case of filling degenerate (same energy)
orbitals, all the degenerate orbitals have to be singly filled first, and then, only pairing has
to happen[3]

13
Conclusions:
Based on conclusions from his cathode ray experiment, Thomson described the atomic
structure as a positively charged sphere into which negatively charged electrons were
embedded.

It is commonly referred to as the “plum pudding model” because it can be visualized as a

plum pudding dish where the pudding describes the positively charged atom and the plum
pieces describe the electrons.

Thomson‟s atomic structure described atoms as electrically neutral, i.e., the positive and
the negative charges were of equal magnitude.

Limitations of Thomson‟s Atomic Structure: Thomson‟s atomic model does not clearly
explain the stability of an atom. Also, further discoveries of other subatomic particles
couldn‟t be placed inside his atomic model.

Since most rays passed through, Rutherford concluded that most of the space inside the
atom is empty.

A few rays got reflected because of the repulsion of its positive with some other positive
charge inside the atom.

1/1000th of the rays got strongly deflected because of a very strong positive charge in the
Centre of the atom. He called this strong positive charge “nucleus”.

He said most of the charge and mass of the atom resides in the nucleus.

14
Reference:

1. "What is an atom ". NRC Web. March 19, 2020. Retrieved December
6, 2022.

2. Philip, Michael; Dong, Judy (1998). Elert, Glenn (ed.). "Size of an

Atom". The Physics Factbook. Archived from the original on January 30,
2022.

3. Ley, Brian (1999). Elert, Glenn (ed.). "Diameter of a Human Hair". The
Physics Factbook. Archived from the original on July 11, 2022.

4. "Atom Definition & Meaning". Dictionary.com. Retrieved November

28, 2022.

5. "Frederick Soddy – Biographical". NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach

AB. Retrieved August 22, 2022.

6. "Francis W. Aston – Biographical". NobelPrize.org. Nobel Prize Outreach

AB. Retrieved August 7, 2022.

7. American Chemical Society 2010, pp. 65–81.

8. Orchin, Milton; Macomber, Roger S.; Pinhas, Allan; Wilson, R. Marshall

(2005). "Atomic Orbital Theory"

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