Experiment Dispersive Power Object: - Apparatus: - Theory:-: M A Sin

NAME OF LABORATORY: Engg.
Physics
LAB SUBJECT CODE: PH110
NAME OF DEPARTMENT: Engg. Physics
EXPERIMENT
DISPERSIVE POWER
Object: -To determine the dispersive power of the material of the prism using mercury light with the help of
a spectrometer.
Apparatus: -Spectrometer, prism, mercury Source and reading lens.
Theory:-
Diagram:-
Formula used: - The dispersive Power ‘’ of the material of the prism is given by the formula
v  r

 y 1
Where, v = refractive index of the material of the prism for violet colour,
r = refractive index of the material of the prism for red colour,
  r
y  v
2
The refractive index of the prism is given by
A  m
Sin( )
 2
A
Sin( )
2
Where, A = Angle of the prism,
m = Angle of minimum deviation
Page 1 of 46
NAME OF LABORATORY: Engg. Physics
Procedure:-
MEASUREMENT OF THE ANGLE OF THE PRISM
1. Determine the least count of the spectrometer.
2. Place the prism on the prism table with its refracting angle A towards the collimator and with its
refracting edge at the center. In this case some of the light failing on each face will be reflected and can
be received with the help of the telescope.
3. The telescope is moved to one side to receive the light reflected from the face AB and the cross
wire are focused on the image of the slit. The readings of the two verniers are taken.
4. The telescope is moved in other side to receive the light from the face AC and again the cross
wire are focused on the image of the slit. The readings of two vernier are noted.
5. The angle through which the telescope is moved or the difference in the two positions gives
twice the refracting angle A of the prism. Therefore, half of this angle gives the refracting angle of the
prism.
MEASUREMENT OF THE ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
1. Place the prism so that its centre coincide with the centre of the prism table and light falls on one of
the polished faces and emerges out of the other polished face, after refraction. In this position the
spectrum of light is obtained.
2. The spectrum is seen through the telescope is adjusted for minimum deviation position for a particular
colour (wavelength) in the following way: -
Setup telescope at a particular colour and rotate the prism table in one direction, of
course the telescope should be moved in such way to keep the spectral line in view. By doing so a
position will come where the spectral line recedes in the opposite direction although the rotation of the
table is continued in the same direction. The particular position where the spectral line begins to recede in
opposite direction is the minimum deviation position for that colour. Note the reading of the two verniers.
3. Remove the prism table and bring the telescope in the line of the collimeter. See the slit directly
through telescope and coincide the image of slit with vertical crosswire. Note the readings of two
verniers.
4. The difference in minimum deviation position and direct position gives the angle of minimum
deviation for that colour.
5. The same procedure is repeated to obtain the angles of minimum deviation for other colors.
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Observation Table:-
Table for angle [A] of the prism
Telescope reading for reflection from first face Telescope reading for reflection from second face
S.No. Vernier 2A= a~b Mean A deg.
deg. 2A deg.
M.S. V.S. deg. TOTAL a deg. M.S. deg. V.S. deg. TOTAL b deg.
deg.
V 1
V 2
Table for angle of minimum deviation m
Mean deviation
S.No Color Vernier (Dispersed image) Telescope in minimum deviation position Telescope reading for direct image Deviation
m deg
a~b
M.S.deg. V.S. deg. TOTAL a deg. M.S.deg. V.S. deg. TOTAL b deg.
1
V 1
Violet V 2
2
V 1
Yellow V 2
3
V 1
Red V 2
Calculation:-
A  m
Sin( )
  2
A
Sin( )
2
v   r

 y 1
Results: - The dispersive power of prism ω= …………….
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Conclusion:-
Percentage error = (Standard value ~ Observed value) x 100

Standard value
Precautions :-
1. The telescope and collimator should be individually set for parallel rays.
2. Slit should be as narrow as possible.
3. While taking observations, the telescope and prism table should be clamped with the help of
clamping screws.
4. Both verniers should be read.
5. The prism should be properly placed on the prism table for the measurement of angle of the prism
as well as for the angle of minimum deviation.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q.1 What is prism?
Ans : A transparent medium like glass bounded by two triangle and three rectangular smooth
surfaces
Q.2 Which colour in the spectrum is having maximum and minimum refractive index?
Ans : Maximum for Violet Colour and Minimum for red colour.
Q.3 What is Refractive index?
Ans : The ratio of sine of angle of incidence in the first medium to the sine of angle of refraction in the
second medium.
Q.4 What is the function of Collimator?
Ans : It will produce parallel beam of light.
Q.5 What do you mean by Angle of Prism?
Ans : Angle between two refracting surfaces of the prism.
Q.6 What is Dispersion of Light?
Ans : When the light is allowed to fall on one of the refracting surfaces of a prism , it is split into its
constituent colours. This splitting of light into its constituent colours by refraction through
prism is called Dispersion of light.
Q.7 What is the main optical action of the prism?
Ans : The main optical action of a prism is to disperse white light into its component parts.
Dispersion of light is minor optical action of prism , but main effect of a prism is to deviate a
beam of light.
Q.8 What type of material prism is used in this experiment?
Ans : Crown prism.
Q.9 What is the units of Dispersive power?
Ans : No units.
Q.10 What type of light do you use in this experiment?
Ans : White light with the help of mercury lamp.
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Further reading resources:

Book: Lab experiment related theory available in following books:
Book Name Author
1. B.Sc Practical Physics By C.L.Arora
2. Practical Physics By Kumar P. R. Sasi
3. Engineering Physics Theory And Experiments By S.K. Srivastava
Web resources:
1. http://sandeepmnit.files.wordpress.com/2012/08/new-experiment-
prism3.pdf
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dispersive_prism
3. http://www.theglobaltutors.com/theglobaltutors/Optics-Homework-
Help/Dispersive-Power-of-Grating
4. http://users.humboldt.edu/rpaselk/MuseumProject/Instruments/SpecScp-
Baker/BakerChapII/BkrSpcChpII.htm
Page 5 of 46
EXPERIMENT
PLANK’S CONSTANT
Object: - To determine Planck’s constant using light emitting diodes [LED’s] by observing the
‘reverse photo-electric effect’.
Apparatus:- Planck’s Constant kit and LED’s
Theory:- The energy of a photon is given by the equation:

E = h ……..(1)
Where E is the energy of photon  is its frequency, and h is a constant. In the case of the
photoelectric effect, an electron is emitted from a metal if the energy of the photon is greater than
the work function of the metal. If the energy of said photon is greater than the work function of a
given material then the electron emitted possesses a voltage, which equals the difference in these
energies. In the case of an LED’s the opposite is true. If an electron of sufficient voltage is passed
across a material then a photon is emitted whose energy is equivalent to the work function of that
material. The voltage at which this effect observed is the ‘turn on voltage’. This effect is not
normally observed in metals and other typical substances because the photons emitted are usually
outside the range of visible light, usually somewhere in the infrared. The energy of the
photons emitted should then be the same as the energy of a given electron. Since:
P = IV ……. (2)
Where P is power, I is current and V is the voltage of a system. The energy of one electron is the
charge of an electron (i.e. the current flow of one electron per second in amps) times the voltage.
Using this knowledge we then from the equation:
E = eV ……… (3)
Where, e = 1.6 × 10-19 C (electron charge)
We then solve equation (1) for hand replace the E term with the equivalent of E in equation (3), as
well as replace  with:
c
 …… (4)

Where c = 3×108 m/sec (speed of light)

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eV 
We then get: h …… (5)
c
Procedure:-
1. Connected the L.E.D. to the jack provided on the front panel and switch ON the unit
2. Take the different voltage and current measurement of LED (as tabulated below) for V-I
characteristic of LED.:
3. Take different LEDs and follow step 2.
4. Plot the curve on the graph paper between Voltage on X axis and current on Y axis.
Observation Table:- Table –I
Current (µA) Green (Volts) Blue (Volts) Red (Volts) Yellow (Volts)
Table - II
Wavelength Frequency (HZ) Energy (J)

S.No. L.E.D. Colour Voltage V (Volts)
λ (nm) f c/ E  eV
Green 565
Yellow 590
Blue 430
Red 627
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Calculation:-
Use the values of table II in given equation
eV 
h 
c
[ c = 3 8 m / s and e = 19 C ]
Result:-Observed value of Planck’s constant is h=…………………Js.
Conclusion:-
Percentage error: = (Standard value ~ Observed value) x 100

Standard value
Precautions :-
1. Some noise may be created in the system during Experiment which can be minimized
by immersing the diode in the Ice during Experiment [if available].
2. Connect the LED properly to Jack provided on front panel.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q.1. Define Photoelectric effect?

Ans: When light falls on metal surface, an electron is emitted from a metal if the energy of the
photon is greater than the work function of the metal.
Q.2 What is Reverse Photoelectric effect?
Ans: If an electron of sufficient voltage is passed across a material then a photon is emitted whose
energy is equivalent to the work function of that material. The voltage at which this effect
observed is the ‘turn on voltage’. In case of LED reverse photoelectric effect works.
Page 8 of 46
Q.3 Can we observe reverse photoelectric with Metal surface?

Ans : This effect is not normally observed in metals and other typical substances because the
photons emitted are usually outside the range of visible light, usually somewhere in the
infrared Range.
Q.4 What is the full form of LED?
Ans: Full form of LED is Light Emitting Diode.
Q.5 What is the standard value of h.
Ans: h= 6.6x10-34 Js.
Q.6: What is LED?
Ans: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits visible light when an
electric current passes through it.
Q.7 What is the learning outcome of this practical?
Ans: Using this practical we can find out the value of Planck constant using LED.

Book Name Author
1. Solid State Devices by B. Nair Somanathan, S. R. Deepa
2. Electrical and Electronics Reference Manual by John A. Camara,
3. Introduction to Light Emitting Diode Technology and
Applications by Gilbert Held
Web resources:
1. http://web.phys.ksu.edu/vqm/tutorials/planck/
2. http://www.physics.fsu.edu/courses/Summer13/YSP/experiments/LEDPlanckExpt.pdf
3. http://www.foothill.edu/~marasco/4dlabs/4dlab4.html
4. http://129.173.120.78/~kreplak/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2010/12/Lab-5-
Photoelectric-Effect.pdf
Page 9 of 46
EXPERIMENT
LASER DIFFRACTION
Objective:-To determine the wavelength of laser light using Diffraction Grating.
Apparatus :- Semi-Conductor Laser, a different grating, an optical bench and a screen.
Theory:-
A diffraction grating is an optical device which produces spectra to diffraction. It has a large
no. of lines grooved on it. The spectra consisting of different orders is governed by the relation-
The no. of lines on d .Sin  m. the grating is-

2.54
d
Wavelength 15000 of the laser light is –
d .Sin
Where d=  grating constant, m=1, 2,……….(Order of spectra)
m
Procedure:-
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1. Diode laser is mounted on it’s saddle.

2. A plane transmitting grating is mounted on an upright next to laser.
3. The position of x of the spot of 1st order on either side of central maxima is marked.
4. The distance D between the grating and screen.
Observation Table:-
x
S. No.
D in cm.
Order
Distance
x cm.
M e a n
x cm. x D
2 2 Sin 
x2  D2
1.
2.
3.
Calculation:-
d .Sin
Where d= grating  constant, m=1, 2,……….(Order of spectra)
Result:-
m
The wavelength of the given LASER beam is …………………
Conclusion:-
Precautions:-
1. Direct viewing of laser light should be avoided.
2. Proper alignment of the laser diode must be done.
3. Before switching any other source, switch on the laser diode.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz:-
Q1. What is the full form of laser?
Ans. Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
Q2. How laser light is different from the ordinary light
Ans. It is a monochromatic, convergent, coherent and high intense beam of light. While ordinary light is
incoherent, divergent and low intense beam of light.
Page 11 of 46
Q3. What is population inversion?

Ans. When the no. of atoms are more in higher energy state than the lower energy state, known as
population inversion. it is essential for stimulated emission.
Q4. What is pumping?
Ans. It is process to achieve population inversion.
Q5. What is laser?
Ans. It is a device which is used to convert ordinary light into laser light
Q6. What is meant by the term coherency?
Ans. When the light waves are in same phase and with all most same wavelength in light beam known as
coherent.
Q7. What is diffraction?
Ans. When the light bends or deviate from path due to obstacle known as diffraction.
Q8. Define Grating
Ans. It is an arrangement in which there is a fine quality of glass on which parallel lines are ruled
equidistant with diamond point by an automatic shifting machine. The ruled lines works as opaque and
spacing works as transparent.
Q9. What is active medium?
Ans. It may be solid, liquid, or gas which achieves population inversion.
Q10. What is the action of the optical resonator?
Ans. It is the combination of two reflecting mirror which is used to increase the intensity of laser light.

Book Name Author
1. Physics Laboratory Experiments by Jerry Wilson, Cecilia Herná ndez-Hall
2. A Complete Course in ISC Physics by V. P. Bhatnagar
3. University Physics with Modern Physics by Young
4. Engineering Physics Theory And Experiments by S.K. Srivastava
Web resources:
1. http://bacterio.uc3m.es/docencia/laboratorio/guiones_ing/bio-fisicaIII/Interference%20and
%20Diffraction.pdf
2. http://www.physics.brocku.ca/Courses/1P92/lab-manual/diffraction.pdf
Page 12 of 46
3. http://www.cmi.ac.in/~ravitej/lab/8-diff.pdf
4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction_grating
EXPERIMENT
NEWTON’S RING
Objective:- To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s Ring.

Apparatus:-A Plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature, optically arrangement for Newton’s rings, plane
glass plate, sodium lamp and traveling microscope.
eory:-
The optical arrangement for Newton’s Ring is shown in Fig.(1). A wedge shape air film in formal between
Plano-convex lens and glass plate. Interference take place between light reflected from concave surface of
lens and upper surface the plate as shown in Fig.(2). In this Experiment the Fringes are of equal thickness
i.e. why fringes are circular as shown in Fig.(3).
In this experiment path difference between reflected rays from lens and plate is  2 t . Locus of points
having the same thickness then full on a circle having. Its center at the point of contact. Thus, the thickness
of the film is the same at all points on any circle
having 0 as the center of the fringes one therefore
circular as shown in Fig.(3).
Page 13 of 46
Formula used: - The wavelength of Sodium light is given by,

Dn  p 2  Dn 2

4 pR
Where Dn+p = Diameter of (n+p) th ring.
Dn = Diameter of nth ring.
p = An integer numbers of the ring.
R = Radius of curvature of the curved face of the Plano convex lens.
Procedure: -
1. If a point source is used only then we require a convex lens otherwise using an extended source, the
convex lens is not required.
2. Before starting the experiment, the glass platesG1, G2 & the Plano convex should be thoroughly
cleaned.
3. The center of lens L2 is well illuminated by adjusting the inclination of glass plate G1 at 45 deg.
4. Focus the eyepiece on the crosswire and move the microscope in the vertical plane by means of rack
& pinion arrangement till the rings are quite distinct clamp the microscope in the vertical scale.
5. According to the theory, the center of the interference fringes should be dark but sometimes the
center appears white, this is due to the presence of dust particles between glass plate G2 and Plano
convex lens L2.in this case lens should be again cleaned.
6. More the microscope in a horizontal direction to one side of the fringes.
Fix up the cross wire tangent to the ring and note this reading. Again the microscope is moved in the
horizontal plane and the crosswire is fixed tangentially to the successive bright fringes noting the
vernier reading till the other side is reached.
Page 14 of 46
Observation Table: -
Least count of the traveling microscope = 0.001cm
Table for determination of [D2(n+p) – Dn2 ]
No of rings Diameter (a-b) D2=(a-b) 2 Dn+p2 –Dn2 Mean cm2 p
Microscope reading
Left end Right end b cm.
a cm.
Calculations:-
The wavelength of sodium light is given by-
Dn  p 2  Dn 2

4 pR
Result: - The mean wavelength of sodium light = --------------------A0
Conclusion:-
(Standard value ~ Observed Value) X 100
Percentage error =
Standard Value
Precautions: -
1. The lens used should be large radius of curvature.
2. Before measuring the diameter of rings the range of the microscope should be properly adjusted.
3. Cross wire should be focused on a bright ring tangentially.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q1. Define Interference.
Ans. Redistribution of energy is called Interference. It
Q7. What is the condition for dark central spot?
Ans. At the central spot thickness of film is zero.
Page 15 of 46
Q8. What are the uses of this experiment?

Ans. (1) To determine the refractive index of liquid,
(2)To determine the wavelength of light
(3)To determine the radius of curvature of lens.
Q9. Which type of lens is used in experiment.
Ans. Plano convex lens
Q10. What happened when experiment would be performed by white light.
Ans. A few distinct colored rings be seen

Book Name Author
1. A Textbook Of Engineering Physics For B.E.,B.Sc.(Engg.) by M.N. Avadhanulu
2. Engineerig Physics with Experimental approach by M. Sharma
3. Engineering Physics by S.L. Gupta
4. Comprehensive Physics for Engineers by Narinder Kumar
5. Engineering Physics: Fundamentals & Modern Applications by P. Khare, A. Swarup
Web resources:
1.http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/2labman_newtons8.pdf
2.http://satish0402.weebly.com/uploads/9/4/6/7/9467277/newtons_ring.pdf
3.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_rings
4.http://alllabmanuals.blogspot.in/2013/12/to-find-wavelength-of-sodium-light-by.html
Page 16 of 46
EXPERIMENT
RESOLVING POWER
Object: - To Determination of the Resolving Power of a Telescope.

Apparatus:-Reading Telescope, Attachment of resolving power of the telescope, Number of patterns on
glass with stand, Incandescent bulb 40w with house on stand, Inch tape.
Theory:-The theoretical and practical resolving powers are given by
Theoretical resolving power = λ/a
and practical resolving power = d/D
Where λ = mean wavelength of light employed,
a = width of the rectangular slit for just resolution of two objects,
d = separation between two object and
D = distance of the objects from the objective of the
telescope.
Hence λ /a = d/D
Rayleigh's criterion of resolution .According to Rayleigh's criterion, two equally bright sources can be
just resolved by any optical system when their distance apart is such that in the diffraction pattern, the
maximum due to one falls on the minimum due to the other.
Resolving power of Telescope.

The resolving power of telescope of a telescope may be defined as the inverse of the least angle
subtended at the objective by two distant point object which can be just distinguished as separate in its
focal plane.
Page 17 of 46
Let a beam of monochromatic light starting from a distant object O (not shown) be incident normally
on a
rectangular aperture AB fitted in front of the telescope objective .Let AQ represent the incident wave
front which is brought to a focus F and observed magnified by means of eyepiece. The intensity pattern
at F is shown by thick curved line.
Consider again an object O' towards to right of O whose pattern is formed towards left of the F. The
pattern is formed at F' as shown by dotted curve. The wave –front due to the
Incident light is shown by AN. According to the Rayleigh criterion, the two objects can only be resolved
when the maximum due to one falls on the minimum due to the other.
As the aperture is rectangular the minimum due to one will fall on the maximum of the other when QN
= . The angle between the two wave fronts, is,
AQ 
 
AN a
Where a is aperture and  is the angle subtended by two objects OO at the objective of telescope.
OO d 
Again   
D D a
Where d is the distance between two objects and D is their distance from the objective of telescope.
Page 18 of 46
Procedure:-
1. Focus the telescope for clear image far from the telescope.
2. Keep the incandescent bulb (in lieu of sodium lamp we have used incandescent bulb to reduce the
cost) in the front of slit pattern
3. Mount the telescope on a stand such that its axis lies horizontal and the rectangular lines in first row
marked on pattern board on stand which are vertical. Place the two stands at a suitable distance (say
about 2 meters) fig.
4. Illuminate the object with source of light. Now open the slit with the help of micrometer screw and
move the telescope in the horizontal direction such that the images of two vertical sources are in the
field of view of the eyepiece.
5. Gradually reduce the width of the slit till the two images just cease to appear as two. Note down the
reading of the micrometer. Again close the slit completely and note down the micrometer reading. The
difference of the two readings gives the width of the slit (a) just sufficient to resolve the two images.
6. Width (d) of white or black rectangular strips in the first row marked on pattern board is one mm.
7. Measure the distance between the object and the slit with the help of inch tape which gives D.
8. The experiment is repeated for different values of D.
9. Repeat the above procedure for 2nd row and 3rd row of 2 and 5 mm width (d) respectively of pattern
board.
Observations Table:- Mean value of   5000  10 8 cms. d=.05cm, .1cm, .25 cm
L.C. of screw = 0.001 cm
S l i t R e a d i n g Width of the Distance
Slit D cms.
Slit when Images Cease When Slit is Closed
S. No. d (c m ) a = (X – Y)
M.S. V.S. Total M.S. V.S. Total
X Y
1
2
3
Result:-
The theoretical and practical resolving powers of the telescope are shown in the table.
Theoretical and Practical Resolving Powers:
D is tance d cm
Theoretical (/a) Resolving Power Practical (d/D) Resolving Power
D cm
Page 19 of 46
.25
.1
.05
Precautions:-
1. The axis of telescope should be horizontal.
2. The rectangular object drawn on the pattern board should be vertical.
3. Backlash error in the micrometer screw should be avoided.
4. The plane of the slit should be parallel to the objects.
5. The minimum width of slit for resolution should be adjusted very carefully.
6. The distance D should be measured from the slit of the telescope to the pattern board.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q.1 What is meant by Resolving Power?
Ans: It is defined as the reciprocal of smallest angle subtended at the objective by two distinct lines
(objects) which can be just resolve by the telescope.
Q.2 Why are you saying just resolve?
Ans: Two point sources are resolvable only when the central maxima in diffraction pattern of one falls
over the first minimum in the diffraction pattern of the other and vice-verca.
Q.3 Define Reyleigh Criterion?
Ans: According to Reyleigh Criterion, two point sources are resolvable only when the central maxima in
diffraction pattern of one falls over the first minimum in the diffraction pattern of the other and
vice-verca.
Q.4 What do you mean by diffraction?
Ans: The bending of light wave around the sharp edge of obstacle and spreading into geometrical
shadow of obstacle in path of light is called diffraction.
Q.5 On what factor the resolving power of telescope depend?
Ans: Large value of resolving power, we must have large sized aperture a. Thus, the telescope with
large diameter of the objective has a higher resolving power.
Q.6 Write to precautions.
Ans: (a) The slit should be clean as edges and narrow.
(b) Telescope, light source and slit pattern should be properly arranged while taking the
observation.
Q.7 What is the relation between resolving power and limit of resolution?
Ans: Resolving Power = 1 / Limit of resolution
Q.8 What is the effect on resolving power, when the pattern board taken far from the telescope?
Ans: Resolving power remain same.
Q.9 Can we increased a resolving power of telescope, if yes than how?
Ans: Yes, by increasing the diameter of objective len
Q.10 Which light is used in the experiment?
Ans: Ordinary light source is used in the experiment.
Page 20 of 46

Book Name Author
1. Physics Practicals: Part-II by R. K. Agrawal
2. A Text Book of Optics by N. Subrahmanyam, Brij Lal, M.N. Avadhanulu
3. Comprehensive Physics for Engineers by Narinder Kumar
4. A Textbook Of Engineering Physics For B.E., B.Sc. (Engg.) by M.N. Avadhanulu
Web resources:
1.http://ggnindia.dronacharya.info/APSDept/Downloads/Labmanuals/Aug09-
Dec09/PhyI/exp-6_18052012.pdf
2.http://satish0402.weebly.com/uploads/9/4/6/7/9467277/resolving_power.pdf
3.http://uregina.ca/~szymanss/uglabs/p112/Experiments/112-07ResPwr08.pdf
4.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angular_resolution
EXPERIMENT
ENERGY BAND GAP
Object: - To determine the Band Gap in a Semiconductor by using a Junction Diode.

Apparatus:- Semiconductor diode kit, thermometer (0-1100C)
Theory:-
Page 21 of 46
A semi-conductor doped or intrinsic always possesses an energy gap between its conduction and valence bands.
For conduction of electricity, a certain amount of energy is to be given to the electron, so that it goes from the valence band to the
conduction band. This energy so needed is the measure of the energy gap ∆E between the top and bottom of valence and conduction
bands respectively. When a P-N junction is reverse biased as shown figure1. the current through the junction is due to minority
carriers i.e. due to electrons in P section and holes in N section. The concentration of these carriers depends upon the energy gap
∆E.
For small range of temperature relation we can put as,
log Is = Constant – 5.036 ∆E [103/T]
Obviously therefore, if a graph is plotted between log Is and 103/T, a straight line would be obtained.
Where the slope of this line = 5.036 ∆E
Here ∆E is in electron volts.
Procedure:-
1. Plug the mains lead to the nearest mains socket carrying 230V 10% at 50 Hz A.C.
2. Insert the thermometer and the diode in the holes of the oven (The hole near to the meter is for diode OA- 79).
3. Plug the two leads to the diode in the socket, Red plug in Red socket and Black plug in Black socket.
4. Make the connection as per fig.
5. Now put the power ON/OFF Switch to 'ON' position and see that the jewel light is glowing.
6. Put the 'OVEN' switch 'ON' position and allow the oven temperature T increases up to 900C.
Note: When the temperature reaches 950C Switch off the oven enabling the temperature to rise further and become stable 900C
7. When the temperature becomes stable start taking readings of current and temperature. The current reading should be
taken in steps of 5µA. The readings should be taken during the fall of temperature from 900C downwards.
8. Tabulate your readings in the form shown below:
9. Plot a graph between the readings of 103/T on x-axis. The graph should come as a straight line cutting both the x-axis and y-
axis.
10. Now determine slope of the line.
11. After determining the slope the line calculate the
Observation table:
Page 22 of 46
Reverse saturation Current in µA Is Temperature in 0 C Temperature T in 0 K 103 /T Log10Is

(absolute)
Calculation:-
Slope of line
Band Gap E  = .....................eV.
5.036
Results: -
Conclusion:-

Standard value
Precautions:-
1. The maximum temperature should not exceed 950C
2. Bulb of the thermometer should be inserted well in the oven,
3. Silicon diodes should not be used with the set up as in that case the temperature needed is 125 0C and the oven
thermometer provided will not stand to this temperature.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q.1: What is diode?
Page 23 of 46
Ans: The diode consists of two electrodes one is cathode and another is anode. The cathode emits electrons and the anode will
attracts the emitted electrons when it is supplied by positive potential.
Q.2: What is energy band gap?

Ans: The gap between the bottom of conduction band and the top of valence band is called Energy gap. To move the electrons
from the valence band to conduction band the supplied external voltage must be equal to energy band gap.
Q.3: What is valence band?

Ans: The range of energy which is possessed by valence electrons is known as valence band. Here the electrons which are
situated at outer most orbits are called valence electrons. The valence band consists of valence electrons which are having
highest energy.
Q.4: What do you mean by conduction band?

Ans: The range of energies possessed by conducting electrons is known as conduction band. The conduction electrons are
responsible for the conduction of current in a conducting material. So, these electrons are called as conduction electrons.
Q.5: Classify the solid materials on the basis of energy gap.

Ans: Based on the energy gap the solid materials are classified into 3 types they are: conductors, insulators and semi conductors.
Q.6: Define conductors, insulators and Semi conductors.

Ans: Conductors: Those substances whose atoms have their outermost orbits incomplete are known as conductors (e.g. C u, Ag,
Au etc.). In conductors, valence and conduction bands are found overlapped into each other i.e. the energy gap is zero.
Insulators: Those substances which have large energy gap between their valence and conduction band, are called insulators
(e.g. diamond, wood etc.).
Semi conductors: Those substances which have conductivity and resistivity properties in between conductors and insulators
are called semi conductors (e.g. Si, Ge). Energy gap of these semiconductors lies between 0.5 to 1.1eV (Foe Ge it is 0.5 –
0.7eV).
Q.7: How many types of semi conductors are there?

Ans: Two types of semi conductors are there (i) Intrinsic or pure semi conductors and
(ii) Extrinsic or impure semi conductors.
Q.8: Define intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductor?

Ans: Intrinsic semi conductor: A pure semiconductor is known as intrinsic semi conductor. In these semi conductors, if the
temperature increases then the conductivity is also increases. At higher temperatures due to collisions some electrons
absorb energy and raises to conduction band then in their places in valence band holes are created. In intrinsic
semiconductor number of holes is equal to number of electrons.
Extrinsic semi conductor: A pure semiconductor after doping is called extrinsic or impure semi conductor. Trivalent and
penta-valent impurities are added to form P-type and N-type semiconductors respectively.
Q.9: What do you mean by Fermi energy level?

Ans: The level upto which all the energy states are filled by electrons is known as Fermi level. The average energy of charge
carriers is calculated by Fermi energy level. In pure semi conductors Fermi energy level is at the centre of the valence and
conduction bands. In extrinsic/impure P-type (N-type) semiconductor Fermi energy level is near to the valence
(conduction) band.
Q.10: Define Doping and Dopant?

Ans: The process of adding impurities to a pure semi conductor is called doping. The material added as impurity is called as
Dopant.
Q.11: What are P-type and N-type semi conductors?

Ans: If we add trivalent impurities such as Aluminum to a pure semi conductor then the material is called P-type semi
conductor. If a pentavalent impurity such as Arsenic is added to a pure semi conductor then the material is called N-type
semi conductor
Q.12: Why P-type (N-type) semi conductor is called Acceptor (Donor)?
Page 24 of 46
Ans: In P-type material 3 electrons of trivalent atom makes covalent bonds with Semiconductors such as Si or Ge and there is a
need of one more electron to make the system stable because Si or Ge has 4 electrons in their outermost orbits. For this
reason P-type material is also known as Acceptor.
On the other hand, in case of N-type of material 4 electrons of pentavalent atom makes covalent bonds with
Semiconductors such as Si or Ge which have 4 electrons in their outermost orbits and hence there is one free or excess
electron remains present in the structure. For this reason N-type material is also known as Donor.
Q.13: What is P-N junction diode?

Ans: If P-type and N-type semi conductors are combined to each other then the resultant structure is called P-N junction diode.
This means if trivalent impurity is doped to one end of the pure semi conductor and pentavalent impurity to other end, a
P-N junction diode can be formed.
Q.14: What do you mean by Forward Biasing?

Ans: When a battery’s positive terminal is connected to P-type material and battery’s negative terminal is connected to N-type
material of a P-N junction diode, then this mode of operation is said to be in forward biasing. Here the holes of P are
repelled by the positive terminal of the battery and electrons of N are repelled by the negative terminal of the battery and
hence both holes and electrons moves towards the junction. As the applied voltage becomes large enough to destroy the
depletion barrier diode starts conducting. This Forward Biasing is also called as Low resistance connection. In this mode of
biasing the current flow is mainly due to majority charge carriers.
Q.15: What do you mean by Reverse Biasing?

Ans: When a battery’s positive terminal is connected to N-type material and battery’s negative terminal is connected to P-type
material of a P-N junction diode, then this mode of operation is said to be in forward biasing. Here the holes of P are
attracted by the negative polarity of the battery and electrons of N are attracted by the positive polarity of the battery and
hence both holes and electrons move away from the junction and then this increases the width of depletion layer. This
reverse Biasing is also called as High resistance connection. In this bias the current is mainly due to minority charge
carriers. In this mode, very small current flows across the junction.
Derivation of the formula used:
When PN junction is placed in reverse bias, the current flows through the junction due to minority charge carriers. The
concentration of these charge carriers depend on band gap E g. The saturation value Is of reverse current depends on the temperature
of junction diode and it is given by following equation
 Eg
 
I s  A N n evn  N p ev p e kT
Where, Nn (Np) is the concentration of electrons (holes) in N(P)-type region

vn and vp are the drift velocities of electrons and holes respectively
A is the area of junction, k = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K, is Boltzman’s constant and T is absolute temperature of junction.
Taking log of both the sides of above equation, we have

log e I s  log e A N n evn  N p ev p   Eg
kT
As log e x  2.3026 log10 x
Eg
Therefore, 
2.3026 log10 I s  2.3026 loge A N n evn  N p ev p   kT
Eg
Or log10 I s  C  ; where C is a constant which is equal to the first term of RHS of above equation.
2.3026kT
On substituting the value of k and converting the unit of Eg, we get
1.6  10 19 E g
log10 I s  C 
2.3026  1.38  1023 T
5.036  103 E g
log10 I s  C 
T
Page 25 of 46
103
log10 I s  C  (5.036 E g ) 
T
This represents a straight line having a negative slope (5.036Eg). Therefore, by knowing the slope of the line, E g can be determined
through following formula
Slope  5.036 E g
Eg= Slope of the graph (straight line) drawn between log10Is and (103/T)/5.036 = ......eV.

Book Name Author
1. Wide Bandgap Semiconductors by Kiyoshi Takahashi, Akihiko Yoshikawa, Adarsh

Sandhu
2. Engineering Physics with Experimental approach by M. Sharma
3. Solid State Devices and Electronics by Dr. R. K. Agarwal, Dr. Rekha Sharma
4. Modern Physics for Scientists and Engineers by Stephen Thornton, Andrew Rex
Web resources:
1.http://webphysics.davidson.edu/alumni/jocowan/exp1doc.htm
2.http://vtuphysicslab.blogspot.in/2008/08/4.html
3.http://www.kamaljeeth.net/uploaded_document_files/1329816825.pdf
4.http://www.ajur.uni.edu/v7n1/Low%20et%20al%20pp%2027-32.pdf
5.http://www.cmi.ac.in/~ravitej/lab/10-boltz.pdf
EXPERIMENT
HALL EFFECT
Objective: - To study the Hall Effect and to calculate:-

(i) The Hall Coefficient RH
(ii) The concentration of charge carrier n
Page 26 of 46
Apparatus:-Power supply for electromagnets, Gauss meter with hall probes, p type Ge semiconductor on
PCB, multimeter, electromagnets.
Theory:-A current carrying conductor (semiconductor/metal) is placed in the magnetic field perpendicular to
the direction of current; a voltage is developed across the conductor in a direction perpendicular to
both the current and magnetic field. The effect is known is as Hall Effect. This effect is very useful in
determining-
> The nature of charge carries e.g. whether semiconductor is on n-type or p-type
> Carrier concentration or the no. density of charge carries
> Mobility of charge carriers
Diagram:
Page 27 of 46
Formula:-
V  w
Hall Coefficient RH   H 
 I B
1
Carrier Concentration n 
eRH
Procedure:-
(1) Connect one pair of contact of specimen on the opposite faces to the current
source and other pair to the multimeter.
(2) Switch on the power supply of electromagnet and measure the magnetic flux
density at the centre between the pole faces by placing
(3) Place the specimen at the centre between the pole faces such that the magnetic field is perpendicular
to the strip.
(4) Pass the current (mA) from the current source through the specimen and measure the resulting hall
voltage in the multimeter / milivoltmeter.
Page 28 of 46
(5) Increase the current through the specimen gradually and measure the corresponding Hall voltages.
(6) The entire process can be repeated for different values of magnetic flux density. Find the mean of
different RH
ObservationTable:-
Width of specimen, w = 4 mm = 4 × 10-3 m
Thickness of the specimen, d = 0.5mm = 5 × 10-4 m
Current through the specimen, I = ------
Magnetic flex density, B = --------- Gauss = ………..× 10-4 Tesla
S.No. Current I Voltage HV Hall Coefficient

[mA] [mV] [RH ]
 VH w
Calculation:-Hall Coefficient RH   
 I B
Mean RH = ----------------
1
Carrier Concentration n 
eRH
Result:- Hall Coefficient RH =………………….
Carrier Concentration n=…………………….
Conclusion:-
Page 29 of 46
Precautions:-
1. Before starting the experiment, check the gauss meter is showing zero value. For this put the
prove in separate place and switch on the gauss meter, it will show zero meter.
2. Ensure that the specimen is located at the centre between the pole faces and is exactly
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
3. To measure the magnetic flux the hall probe should placed at the center the pole faces, parallel to
the crystal.
4. Check the direction of electromagnet coils so that it generates the maximum magnetic field, this
can be check by placing the soft iron near the generated magnetic field, if soft iron attracts
forcefully the magnetic field produced is strong, otherwise magnetic field is weak.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q.1 Define Hall Effect?
Ans. When a current carrying specimen is placed in a transverse magnetic field then a voltage is developed which is
perpendicular to both, direction of current and magnetic field. This phenomenon is known Hall Effect.
Q.2 What causes Hall Effect?
Ans. Whenever a charge moves in a mutually perpendicular electric and magnetic field it experiences Lorentz force due to
which it deflects from its path and Hall voltage is developed.
Q.3 What is Lorentz force?
Ans. If charge ‘q’ moves in a magnetic and electric field ‘B’ &’E’ respectively with velocity v then force on it is given by
F= qE+ Bqv.sinө
Q.4 What is Hall Coefficient?

Ans. It is the electric field developed per unit current density per unit magnetic field
Q.5 What are the uses of Hall Effect?
Ans. To determine the sign of charge carrier and charge carrier concentration
Q.6 Define Charge carrier concentration.
Ans. No. of charge carriers per unit volume.
Q.7 Why Hall voltage differ for different type of charge carrier?
Ans. Because direction of Lorentz force is different for different type of charge carrier.
Q.8 What is unit Hall coefficient?
Ans. Ohm-meter/Tesla.
Q.9 What is the unit of charge carrier concentration
Ans. Per Cubic-centimeter.
Q10 Which type of magnet is used in the experiment, temporary or permanent?
Page 30 of 46
Ans. Temporary.

Book Name Author
1. Solid State Physics by R. J. Singh

2. Hall-Effect Sensors: Theory and Application by Edward Ramsden
3. Engineering Physics with Experimental approach by M. Sharma
4.Engineering physics by S. L. Gupta
Web resources:
1.http://classes.soe.ucsc.edu/ee145/Fall04/EE145_04_Lab4.pdf
2.http://www.phys.utk.edu/labs/modphys/Hall%20Effect.pdf
3.http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~phylabs/adv/ReprintsPDF/SHE%20Reprints/18-
Experiment%2017.pdf
4.http://www.ucd.ie/t4cms/EXP20%20Hall%20Effect.pdf
Page 31 of 46
EXPERIMENT
P-N JUNCTION DIODE
Objective:-To draw the characteristic curves of a forward & reverse Biased P-N junction diode and
to determine the static resistance of the given diode.
Apparatus:- Semiconductor P-N junction diode kit and connecting wires.
Theory:-A Semiconductor diode is prepared by joining P and N sections of a semi conducting
material like germanium or silicon. The P type has excess number of holes while the N type has
excess number of electrons. Holes and electrons are respectively the charge carriers in P and N type.
They are called the majority carriers. Near about the junction, holes and electrons recombine giving
rise to a charge free space called depletion region or barrier region. In this Process, (+)ve charge gets
accumulated at the barrier of the N section, and (-)ve charge at the barrier of the P section, creating a
potential barrier. A sort of a fictitious battery with it’s (+)ve pole on the N section and (–)ve pole on
the P section is formed. It is shown in fig. 1. This barrier stops further motion of holes towards N side
and electrons towards P side.
Figure: 1
FORWARD BIASING:- When the anode of an external battery is connected to the P side and cathode to
the N side, it is called forward biasing. It is shown in fig.(2). When the applied potential is lower than
barrier potential, negligible current flow through the junction. As the applied potential higher than that of
the barrier potentials, holes would be forced to move towards N side and electrons towards P side. Thus,
current starts flowing through the junction in the external circuit. The voltage at which current start
increasing called knee voltage. The forward current is increases with the applied potential difference.
REVERSE BIASING:- When the anode of an external battery is connected to the N side and the cathode to
the P side. It is called reverse biasing. In this case the polarity of the fictitious battery is the same as that of
Page 32 of 46
the external battery, as shown fig.(3). Thus, it leads to the increase in the potential barrier, and electron in
N type and hole in P type [both majority carriers] are drawn away from the junction, and hence hardly
there is any current flowing in the external circuit. However, the small reverse current which flows
through the junction is due to minority carriers i.e. electrons in P section and holes in N section. The
minority carriers are created due to the action of light and thermal agitation.
If the potential difference in the reverse direction is increased beyond a certain critical limit, the reverse
current abruptly increases. This is known as AVALANCHE BREAK DOWN, and the maximum reverse
voltage is called Break Down. It is clear from above discussion that a diode offers a negligible resistance
when forward biased and a very high resistance when reverse biased.
FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERRISTICS
Figure: 2 Figure: 3
Page 33 of 46
Procedure:-
1. Make the circuit according to fig.(2).[ use 1V range for voltmeter and 10 mA range for ammeter]
2. By increasing the voltage across the diode in steps of 0.1 volts, note down corresponding current in the
table no.1
3. Calculation of static resistance: Using the forward bias curve, take the points on the curve beyond the
knee voltage and calculate R
R static = Potential at a point beyond the knee voltage. / Current at that point
4. Make the circuit according to fig.3 [use 10V range for voltmeter and 50 µA range for current meter.]
5. By increasing the voltage across the diode in steps of 1.0 volts, note down corresponding current in the
table no 2.
Observation Table-1: Observation Table -2:

FOR FORWARD BIASED FOR REVERSE BIASED
S. No. Voltage (vol ts ) Current in µA

S. No. Vol tage (volts ) Current in mA
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
8
8
9
9
1 0
1 0
Calculation:-
Page 34 of 46
Result:-
The I/V Characteristic of P-N Junction diode is shown in the graph and the value of static resistance
……….Ohm.
Conclusion:-
Precautions:-
1. Voltmeter and ammeter of appropriate ranges should be selected.
2. The variation in V should be done in steps of 0.1 V.
3. The battery connections of p-n junction diode should be checked and it should be ensured that p is
connected to positive and n to the negative of the battery.
4. Never cross the limits specified by the manufacturer otherwise the diode will get damaged.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q.1 What is diode?
Ans: A diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric transfer characteristic, with low (ideally
zero) resistance to current in one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the other.
Q.2 What do you understand by P-N Junction diode?
Ans: A Semiconductor diode is prepared by joining P and N sections of a semi conducting material like
germanium or silicon. The P type has excess number of holes while the N type has excess number of
electrons. Holes and electrons are respectively the charge carriers in P and N type.
Q.3. Explain forward and reverse biasing in diode?
Ans: When the anode of an external battery is connected to the P side and cathode to the N side, it is called
forward biasing. When the anode of an external battery is connected to the N side and the cathode to the P
side, It is called reverse biasing.
Q.4. What do you mean by breakdown phenomenon?
Ans: If the potential difference in the reverse direction is increased beyond a certain critical limit, the reverse
current abruptly increases. This is known as BREAK DOWN.
Q.5 What is the difference between Zener diode and P-N Junction diode?.
Ans: A P-N Junction diode will let current go in only one direction (forward bias). If current is applied in the
opposite direction (reverse bias) then we would not have current on the other end unless the voltage that
you apply to it surpasses its Breakdown Voltage, but then diode will be burn out. Zener diodes would act
Page 35 of 46
the same way as a P-N Junction diode except that in reverse bias it would allow current to pass when the
voltage surpasses its Breakdown Voltage (Zener Voltage).
Q.6 What is the static resistance?
Ans: The static resistance of diode is defined as diode resistance measure when DC voltage is applied above the
knee voltage.

Book Name Author
1.Engineerig Physics with Experimental approach by M. Sharma
2. B.Sc Practical Physics by C.L.Arora
3. BASIC ELECTRONICS: DEVICES, CIRCUITS AND IT FUNDAMENTALS by Santiram Kal
4. Electronics Engineering (U.P.TechnicalUniversity, Lucknow) by Abhishek
Yadav, Poonam Yadav, Subhash Chandra Arya
5.Engineering Physics by S.L. Gupta
Web resources:
1.http://www.srmuniv.ac.in/downloads/ec0221_ed_lab_manual.pdf
2.http://www.circuitstoday.com/pn-junction-diode-characteristics
3.http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/diode/diode_3.html
4.http://psbrahmachary.files.wordpress.com/2009/05/pn-junction- diode2.pdf
EXPERIMENT
FIBRE OPTICS
Object:-To measure the numerical aperture of the given an optical fiber.
Apparatus:- Diode Laser Source, Fiber Holders, Optical Fiber and Base with Rotational Mount, Holders
and Bases.
Theory:-
Numerical aperture is a basic descriptive characteristic of a specific fiber. It represents the size or
degree of openness of the input acceptance cone. Mathematically it is defined as the sine half angle of the
acceptance cone.
Using snell’s law, the maxima angle with in which light will be accepted into and guided through fiber
is
NA=Sin(θa)= (n12 - n22)1/2
Where θais the numerical aperture and n1 and n2 are the refractive indices of the core and the cladding.
If the incident angle θ< θa, the ray undergoes multiple internal reflections at core and cladding interface and it
is called the guided ray. If θa< θ, the ray undergoes only partial reflection at core cladding interface.
In short length of straight fiber, ideally a ray launched at angle θat the input end should come out at the
same angle θfrom output end. Therefore, the far field at the output end will also appear as a cone of semi
angle θemanating from the fiber end.
Page 36 of 46
Formula:
  D 
NA  Sin  tan 1  
  2 L 
Procedure:-
1. Mount Laser source, objective and detector on the respective holders.
2. Mount both the ends of the optical fiber on the fiber holders.
3. Align the difference objects as per the setup shown below.
4. Couple the light from the laser source onto one of the fiber ends using a microscopic objective
(provided with the kit).
5. Place the screen (sheet having circular markings) at some distance from the output end of the fiber
such that it is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber. Now move the screen towards or away from the
output end of the fiber such that circular beam emanating from the fiber end covers the (1 st or 2nd or
3rd) circle on the screen.
6. Measure the distance between the output end of optical fiber and screen. Let this be L, also measure
the diameter of the circular spot formed on the screen. (Diameter is mentioned in mm). Let it be D.
Observations Table:-
D   D 
S. No.
Diameter of Laser Spot
D (mm)
Distance between Optical Fiber and Screen
L (mm)
   tan 1   S i n θ a
2L   2 L 
Page 37 of 46
Calculation:-

1   D 
Numerical Aperture NA  Sin  tan  
 2L  
Result:-
Numerical Aperture of given optical fiber is =……………………………………
Conclusion:-
Percentage error = (Standard value ~ Observed value) x 100

Standard value
Precautions: -
1. Reading should be taken carefully.
2. Direct viewing of laser light should be avoided.

3. Laser light should be incident normally on the Screen.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q1. Define optical fiber.
Ans. It is a cable which carries optical signal.
Q2. On which phenomenon light propagation take place in optical fiber
Ans. Total internal reflection.
Q3. What is total internal reflection?
Page 38 of 46
Ans. When light travels from denser medium to rarer medium and angle of incidence is greater
than critical angle then light reflects back into same medium this phenomenon is called Total
internal reflection.
Q4. Define angle of acceptance
Ans. Angle at which light enter into optical fiber and Total Internal Reflection takes place.
Q5 What is physical significance of numerical aperture.
Ans. Light gathering ability of the fiber.
Q6. What are the types of optical fiber
Ans. There are two types of fiber (1) step index fiber (2) graded index fiber.
Q7. What is fractional refractive index?
Ans. It is the ratio of difference of the refractive indices of core and cladding to the refractive index
of core i.e.,
n1  n2

n1
Q8. Which light source is used in this experiment?
Ans. Diode Laser
Q9. LASER stands for what?
Ans. Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Q10. How many type of fiber losses are there?
Ans There are three types of fiber losses
i. Absorption
ii. Rayleigh Scattering
iii. Geometrical losses
Book Name Author
2. Engineering Physics - Gtu 2010 by Joshi
3. Optical Communications by K.V.S.S.S.S. Sairam
4.Engineering Physics by S.L. Gupta
5. Optical Communications by V.S.Bagad
Web resources:
1.http://ijiet.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/39.pdf
2.http://amrita.vlab.co.in/?sub=1&brch=189&sim=343&cnt=
3.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber
Page 39 of 46
Page 40 of 46
Page 41 of 46
EXPERIMENT
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
Objective :-To calculate dielectric constant of dielectric materials.

(1) Plywood (2) Glass Plate
Apparatus:- Dielectric Constant kit, Plywood Plate, Glass plate & gold plated discs.
Theory:-
A dielectric is a material having electrical conductivity low in comparison to that of a metal. It is
characterized by its dielectric constant. Dielectric constant is measured as the ratio of the capacitance C
of an electrical condenser filled with the dielectric to the capacitance C0 of the evacuated condenser i.e.
C
r 
C0
In this experiment an LC circuit is used to determine the capacitance of the dielectric cell and hence the
dielectric constant.
DC : Dielectric cell
SC : Standard capacitor
L : Inductor
X : Sample
The audio oscillator is incorporated inside the instrument. If Csc and C DC represent the
capacitances of the standard capacitor and dielectric cell respectively and if Vsc and V DC are the
voltages across SC and DC then
VSC 1

I C SC
I  VSC C SC
The same current I passes through the dielectric cell.

VDC 1

I C DC
1 VSC C SC VSC C SC
C DC   
VDC VDC C DC
Page 42 of 46
Fig.1
Fig. 2
By measuring Vsc & VDC and using the value of Csc we can determine the capacitance of the dielectric
cell containing the sample.
If C0 represent the capacitance of the dielectric cell without the sample and the plates separated by air
gap whose thickness is the same as the thickness of the sample then C0 is given by
0 A r2
C0   nf
d 36d
Where r represents the radius of the gold plated discs and d represents thickness of the sample in meters.
The dielectric constant of the crystal is given by
C
r 
C0
Page 43 of 46
Procedure :-
Assemble the dielectric cell as shown in fig. and connect it to the main unit
1. Switch on the unit
2. Choose the standard capacitor [with the help of switch S2] SC1 for dielectric cell – I [ with
bakelite, glass plate, plywood samples]
3. Throw S1 towards DC to measure the voltage across dielectric cell, say VDC and towards SC to
measure voltage across standard capacitor, say VSC calculated the capacitance C using
relation
VSC
C  C SC
VDC
4. Calculation the value of C0 using the relation
r2
C0  nf
36d
Determine the dielectric constant of the samples using the relation
C
r 
C0
Observations Table:-
For Plywood sample
V S C V D C VSC r2 C
C  C SC C0  nf r 
VDC 36d C0
For Glass sample
Page 44 of 46
V S C V D C VSC r2 C
C  C SC C0  nf r 
VDC 36d C0
Calculation:-The dielectric constant of the given samples

C
r 
C0
Result:-
Conclusion:-
Standard value
Precuations:-
1. The gold plate disc connecting to red terminal of DC should be kept as the bottom conductor
of the cell while the disc connecting to black connector should be kept as top conductor.
2. Both plates should be kept such that the connecting screws on both the upper plate and
bottom plate should diagrammatically (to reduce the lead capacitance).
3. Sample surface must be flat so that there is no gap between the sample and the disc.
4. Dielectric cell should be placed in insulating surface in humid weather condition.
5. Diameter of the samples should not be lesser than the gold plated discs.
Suggestions:-
Lab Quiz :-
Q.1 What are dielectric material?
Ans. Dielectrics are basically insulators in which the flow of current will not takes place
instead of this there is displacement of positive and negative ions takes place.
Page 45 of 46
Q2. How many type of dielectrics exists?

Ans. There are two types of dielectrics – (i) polar (ii) nonpolar
Q3... What is dielectric loss ?
Ans. There is restoring force try to bring the atoms in unstressed position because of this there
is loss of energy takes place known as dielectric loss.
Q4. How does the dielectric increase the capacitance of capacitor?
Ans . The induced electric field decrease the strength of net applied electric field due to it the
voltage also decreases so the capacitance increases of capacitor .
C=Q /V
Q5. What do you mean by dipole moment?
Ans. The multiplication of the magnitude of an ion dipole and the distance between them.
Q6. What is dipole?

Ans . The combination of two charges separated by finite distance.
Q7. What is electric polarization?
Ans. It is define as the electric dipole moment per unit volume.
Q9. What is di-electric constant?
Ans. It is the ratio of capacitance of condenser with di-electric to the capacitance of condenser
without dielectric .
Q10. How many type of polarization are exist?
Ans. Electronic polarization, ionic polarization, orientation polarization and space charge
polarization.
Q11. What is the dispersion of dielectric constant?
Ans. It is t he phenomenon of dependence of dielectric constant on frequency.
Book Name Author
1. Low and High Dielectric Constant Materials: Materials Science, by Rajendra Singh
3. Engineering Physics by S. L. Gupta
4. Engineering Physics by Navneet Gupta
Web resources:
1. http://www.tf.unikiel.de/matwis/amat/elmat_en/kap_3/backbone/r3_1_1.html
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_permittivity
3. http://cc.ee.ntu.edu.tw/~rbwu/course/highspeed/SI6_Dielectric.pdf
Page 46 of 46

Experiment Dispersive Power Object: - Apparatus: - Theory:-: M A Sin

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NAME OF LABORATORY: Engg.

Table for angle of minimum deviation m

Percentage error = (Standard value ~ Observed value) x 100

Further reading resources:

2. Practical Physics By Kumar P. R. Sasi

3. Engineering Physics Theory And Experiments By S.K. Srivastava

Apparatus:- Planck’s Constant kit and LED’s

Theory:- The energy of a photon is given by the equation:

Where c = 3×108 m/sec (speed of light)

Observation Table:- Table –I

Wavelength Frequency (HZ) Energy (J)

[ c = 3 8 m / s and e = 19 C ]

Result:-Observed value of Planck’s constant is h=…………………Js.

Percentage error: = (Standard value ~ Observed value) x 100

Q.1. Define Photoelectric effect?

Q.3 Can we observe reverse photoelectric with Metal surface?

Further reading resources:

The no. of lines on d .Sin  m. the grating is-

1. Diode laser is mounted on it’s saddle.

Q3. What is population inversion?

Further reading resources:

Objective:- To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s Ring.

Formula used: - The wavelength of Sodium light is given by,

Q8. What are the uses of this experiment?

Further reading resources:

Object: - To Determination of the Resolving Power of a Telescope.

Resolving power of Telescope.

Further reading resources:

Object: - To determine the Band Gap in a Semiconductor by using a Junction Diode.

log Is = Constant – 5.036 ∆E [103/T]

Reverse saturation Current in µA Is Temperature in 0 C Temperature T in 0 K 103 /T Log10Is

Percentage error: = (Standard value ~ Observed value) x 100

Q.2: What is energy band gap?

Q.3: What is valence band?

Q.4: What do you mean by conduction band?

Q.5: Classify the solid materials on the basis of energy gap.

Q.6: Define conductors, insulators and Semi conductors.

Q.7: How many types of semi conductors are there?

Q.8: Define intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductor?

Q.9: What do you mean by Fermi energy level?

Q.10: Define Doping and Dopant?

Q.11: What are P-type and N-type semi conductors?

Q.12: Why P-type (N-type) semi conductor is called Acceptor (Donor)?

Q.13: What is P-N junction diode?

Q.14: What do you mean by Forward Biasing?

Q.15: What do you mean by Reverse Biasing?

Where, Nn (Np) is the concentration of electrons (holes) in N(P)-type region

Further reading resources:

1. Wide Bandgap Semiconductors by Kiyoshi Takahashi, Akihiko Yoshikawa, Adarsh

Objective: - To study the Hall Effect and to calculate:-

S.No. Current I Voltage HV Hall Coefficient

Result:- Hall Coefficient RH =………………….

Carrier Concentration n=…………………….

Q.4 What is Hall Coefficient?

Further reading resources:

1. Solid State Physics by R. J. Singh

FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS REVERSE BIASED CHARACTERRISTICS

Observation Table-1: Observation Table -2:

S. No. Voltage (vol ts ) Current in µA