13.

Brewster angle measurement

Brewster angle measurement
Objective:
1. Verification of Malus law
2. Measurement of reflection coefficient of a glass plate for p- and s- polarizations
3. Determination of Brewster angle
Theory:
When a monochromatic plane wave is incident on an interface between two materials, its E-
field can be decomposed into two transverse components that are in a plane normal to the
k-vector as shown in Fig. 1. The two transverse components are typically defined with respect
to the plane of incidence. The component in the plane of incidence is known as p-polarized
wave whereas the component normal to the plane of incidence is known as the s-polarized
wave.

Fig. 1: Illustration of p- and s- polarization components in relation to plane of incidence.

The amplitude or Fresnel reflection coefficients for the p and s polarization components can
be obtained using appropriate boundary conditions and are given by:
𝑛1 cos 𝜃2 − 𝑛2 cos 𝜃1 𝑛1 cos 𝜃1 − 𝑛2 cos 𝜃2
𝑟𝑝 = and 𝑟𝑠 = .
𝑛1 cos 𝜃2 + 𝑛2 cos 𝜃1 𝑛1 cos 𝜃1 + 𝑛2 cos 𝜃2

Here the angle of incidence and angle of refraction are related by the Snell’s law:
𝑛1 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑛2 sin 𝜃2 .
Using the expressions for reflection coefficients and the Snell’s law it is easy to show that
when 𝜃1 + 𝜃2 = 𝜋/2 or equivalently when 𝜃1 = 𝜃𝐵 = arctan(𝑛2 /𝑛1 ) , 𝑟𝑝 = 0. This angle of
incidence is known as the Brewster angle (𝜃𝐵 ). The reflected wave is thus purely s-polarized
whereas the transmitted wave has both polarizations. The aim of this experiment is to
measure the energy reflection coefficients at air-glass interface for both p- and s-
polarizations and for various values of incidence angle. The typical plots for energy reflection
coefficients 𝑅𝑝 = | 𝑟𝑝 |2 and 𝑅𝑠 = | 𝑟𝑠 |2 are shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2: Plot of energy reflection coefficients as a function of angle of incidence for p- and s-
polarized light. The reflection coefficient for p-polarized wave vanishes when angle of
incidence is equal to the Brewster angle.
The polarization state of light for incident unpolarised light at Brewster angle can be shown
diagrammatically as in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3: Polarization state of unpolarised light incident at Brewster angle on reflection and
transmission.
Procedure:
The experimental setup is shown in Fig. 4 below.

Fig. 4: Experimental setup for Brewster angle measurement.

1) Without the glass plate in place, first arrange the laser and the detector such that the
laser illumination falls directly on the detector pinhole and you get some photocurrent
from the detector.
2) Now insert the polarizer in laser path. Rotate the polarizer at 5-degree intervals and
note down the detector signal. Make a plot of detector intensity vs. polarizer angle.
Verify that your plot satisfies Malus law. What do you conclude about state of
polarization of the laser from this plot? Is the laser polarized?
3) Now orient the pass axis of the polarizer (shown by notch on the polarizer mount) in
vertical and horizontal directions. Verify that the detector readings for the two cases
are approximately equal. This will ensure that the laser is oriented such that its
polarization is at 45-degree angle to vertical (why?). If not, then adjust the laser mount
 by rotating the laser unit. (Approximate balancing of powers for the two polarizations
is important so that you do not have low signal on the detector for one of the
polarizations).
4) Insert the glass slide in the central mount and identify the p- and s-polarization
components with the horizontal and/or vertically polarized light states respectively.
5) Turn the polarizer such that it passes vertically polarized light. Using the goniometer
arrangement find the reflected light power as a function of incidence angle. Make a
plot of energy reflection coefficient vs. incidence angle. Use sufficient number of
incidence angle values to get a smooth curve.
6) Repeat step (5) for horizontally polarized light.
7) Determine the Brewster angle and the refractive index of glass using your plots.
8) Find log error in estimation of refractive index.

Direct power measurement for p and s polarized light with detector:

Direct detector signal for p-polarization =
Direct detector signal for s-polarization =
Representative data table for p or s polarized light:
Least count of circular scale on goniometer unit =

Angle of incidence Detector signal Energy Reflection

coefficient*

*The energy reflection coefficient can be determined from your experiment as a ratio of the
detector signals for reflected beam and the direct beam for both p and s polarizations.
9.

To determine the wavelength of

laser light using single slit diffrac-
tion pattern.

9.1 Apparatus:
Helium-Neon laser or diode laser, a single slit with adjustable
aperture width, optical detector and power meter

9.2 Theory:
It is generally assumed that light travels in a straight line but
it suffers some deviation from its straight path in passing close
to edges of opaque obstacles and narrow slits. Some of the light
does bend into the region of geometrical shadow and its inten-
sity falls off rapidly. This bending of light which is not due to
reflection/refraction is called as DIFFRACTION:

Two main classes of diffraction are:

i) Fresnel diffraction: In this case, the source of light or the
142 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

screen or both are at a finite distance from obstacle. Here no

lenses are employed for rendering the rays parallel or convergent.
Therefore the incident wave front is spherical or cylindrical in-
stead of being plane.

ii) Fraunhoffer diffraction: In this case, the source of light and

the screen are effectively at infinite distance from the obstacle
(or aperture) causing diffraction. This means that the wave front
incident on the obstacle is plane and all the secondary wavelets
at every point of aperture are in phase. This can be achieved
by placing the source on the focal plane of a convex lens and
placing the screen on the focal plane of another convex lens.
Alternatively, using a laser, this can be achieved by placing the
obstacle/aperture in the parallel beam and observing the pat-
2
tern on a screen placed at sufficiently large distance(D >> dλ ,
where D is the distance between the screen and the aperture, d
is the slit width and λ is the wavelength of light used).
Fraunhoffer diffraction due to single slit:

Let AE represents a long narrow slit of width d as shown

in fig.9.1. A plane wave front WW of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ propagating normally to the slit is incident on it.
To calculate diffraction pattern due to this slit, it is assumed
that the slit consist of a large number of equally spaced point
sources and that each point on the slit is a source of Huygen’s
secondary wavelets which interfere with the wavelets emanating
from other points. The resultant field amplitude produced by
these N sources at some arbitrary point P on the screen is given
 Single slit diffraction 143

Figure 9.1: Geometry of the single slit diffraction setup.

by
N π d sin θ


sin N −1 λ
R = a[ π d sin θ

]
sin N −1 λ
Here θ is the angle made by the line joining center of the slit
and observation point P with the direction of incident beam. In
the limiting case of N tending to infinity and distance between
two consecutive points on the slit tends to zero then we have
sin πd sin θ


R = a[ πd sinλθ
] (9.1)
Nλ

Rewriting eqn.9.1
sinα
R = A( ) (9.2)
α
Where A = N a and α = πdsinθλ .
Since the intensity at P, being proportional to square of ampli-
144 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

tude can be given by

A2 sin2 α
I =
α2
sin2 α
I = I0 2 (9.3)
α
Where I0 = A2 , is the intensity at θ = 0.

Central maximum intensity position:

For α = 0, sinα
α = 1 and I = I0 , which corresponds to the
maximum intensity. Therefore α = 0 i.e. θ = 0 is the central
maximum position.
Minimum intensity positions:

In the diffraction pattern the intensity will fall to zero where

sinα = 0, which means α = ±mπ or
d sinθm = ±mλ (9.4)
The value of m = 0 does not correspond to a minimum since
m = 0 ⇒ θ = 0, which is the central maximum.

Angular separation between consecutive minima:

From eqn.9.4,if θ is small, the angular separation between

two consecutive minima is
λ
∆θ = (9.5)
d
Thus by measuring the angular separation between two consec-
utive minima and the width of the slit one can find out the
wavelength of light.
 Single slit diffraction 145

Figure 9.2: Schematic of experimental setup

9.3 Procedure:
The laser, slit and an optical detector with a pinhole are placed
on an optical bench as shown in fig.9.2. It should be made sure
that the distance between the slit and the detector should be
2
sufficiently large (>> dλ ) to meet the Fraunhoffer diffraction
condition. The light from the laser is allowed to fall on the
slit and the diffraction pattern can be seen behind the slit. This
diffraction pattern is made to fall on optical detector by laterally
moving the position of the slit and the laser. Starting from one
end of the diffraction pattern, the intensity is scanned by moving
the pinhole detector along the entire length of the pattern. You
need to measure the intensity profile up to 2 minima on either
side of the central maximum. The corresponding power shown
in the power mater at appropriate intervals is noted down. The
plot between the position of detector and the power gives the
diffraction pattern of the slit as shown in Fig.3. The position of
the slit and that of the detector is also noted down; the differ-
ence between them gives the distance D. The slit is now observed
146 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

Figure 9.3: Typical single slit diffraction pattern observed on a screen. The
arrows indicate positions of maxima and minima to be measured.

under a traveling microscope and the width of the slit d is found

out.

Now from the plot of observed intensity vs. detector position,

the distance 2L between the first minimum on the left and the
first minimum on the right is measured. The angular separa-
tion ∆θ± between them can be calculated as follows (under the
condition θ is very small)
2L
∆θ±1 = (9.6)
D
From eqn.9.4 the angular separation between +1 and -1 order
minima can be given by
2λ
∆θ±1 = θ1 − θ−1 = (9.7)
d
Using eqs.9.6 and 9.7 the wavelength of light can be determined.

9.4 Observations:
(a)Measurement of Intensity distribution of the Diffraction pat-
tern
 Single slit diffraction 147

S. Position of the detector Power (mW)

No. (mm)
1.
2.
3.
.
.
(b) Measurement of the width of the slit

S. Reading for right edge Reading for left edge d=|a − b|

No. (a) (b)
1.
2.
3.
.
.
Important Note: Never look into the laser beam directly,
because it will damage your eyes permanently!

The main characteristics of a laser which distinguishes it from

normal source like lamp, candle e.t.c are:

1) Directionality.
2) Monochromaticity.
3) High intensity and power.
4) High degree of coherence.

EFFECT OF LASER ON HUMAN BODY

148 PYP100: First Year B.Tech. Physics Laboratory IIT Delhi

The structures which are most affected by laser light are

retina, cornea and skin. The retina can be damaged by light
from visible (0.4-0.7 µ m) and near infrared (0.7-1.4 µ m) laser.
The light from UV (< 0.4µ m) and far infrared (< 1.4µ m)
lasers does not reach retina, but can harm cornea. Skin can be
affected by lasers of any wavelength.

CLASSIFICATION OF LASERS BASED ON POWER:

1) CLASS-I: The emission of power accessible to human expo-
sure is below levels at which harmful effects are known to occur.

2) CLASS-II: Low power visible lasers belongs to this class,

its subclass II-A is for laser for which exposure for period less
than 1000 sec should not be hazardous but exposure for period
greater than this could be hazardous.

3) CLASS-III: Medium power lasers such that exposure to

direct beam can be harmful but for which diffuse reflection are
not harmful belong to this class.

4) CLASS-IV: High power lasers that can emit at levels such

that harmful effects from diffuse reflections could occur belong
to this class.