Chapter 3:

1. Hydrostatic forces on submerged plane surface:

General equation:

𝐹𝑅 = (𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃)𝐴 = (𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ𝑐 )𝐴 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴

(the product of the pressure at geometrical center and the plane area)
𝐼𝑥𝑥,𝐶
Center of pressure: 𝑦𝑃 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝑦𝐶 𝐴

Normally, we will work on some regular geometries:

And we will mainly work on the special cases:

(1) Tilted submerged rectangular plate

𝑏
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴 = (𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔(𝑠 + )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃) 𝑎𝑏
2

𝑏
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 ℎ = (𝑠 + )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
2

(2) Vertical submerged rectangular plate

𝑏
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴 = (𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔(𝑠 + )) 𝑎𝑏
2

𝑏
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 ℎ=𝑠+
2

2
𝑦𝑃 = 𝑠 + 𝑏
3
𝑏 2
𝐼𝑓 𝑠 = 0, 𝐹𝑅 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴 = (𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔 ) 𝑎𝑏 𝑦𝑃 = 𝑏
2 3

(3) Horizontal submerged rectangular plate

𝐹𝑅 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴 = (𝑃0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ)𝑎𝑏
(4) When can we subtract the Patm for simplicity when calculating the hydrostatic forces?
when Patm acts on both sides of the structure

d
a
1/2b
C

1/2b

side view

If the side wall is a rectangular shape, then the resultant force FR at the side wall is

𝑏 𝑏
𝐹𝑅 = 𝑃𝑐 𝐴 = (𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 𝜌𝑔 ) 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 ∙ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝜌𝑔 ∙ 𝑎𝑏
2 2
2
𝑦𝑝 = 𝑏 + 𝑑 （distance from the free surface)
3

(5) For plane in other than rectangle, like triangle and circle, you need to identify the h
(center of the shape) and A (area of the shape)

Example 3-8
2. Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces

The calculation of the force on the curved surface can be converted into the calculation of
the hydrostatic forces on the plane surface by dividing the force into two components:
 The horizontal component of the FR is applied on the vertical projection plane of the
curved surface
 The vertical component of the FR is applied on the horizontal projection plane of the
curved surface (need to consider the weight of the fluid (W))

𝐹𝐻 = 𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑣 = 𝐹𝑦 ± 𝑊 𝐹𝑅 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 = 𝐹𝑉 /𝐹𝐻

Example 3-9

3. Buoyancy

𝐹𝐵 = 𝐹𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑝 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔(𝑠 + ℎ)𝐴 − 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑠𝐴 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔ℎ𝐴 = 𝜌𝑓 𝑔𝑉

Features of buoyant force:

 The upward force a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it
 The buoyant force acting on the plate is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by
the plate (Archimedes’principle).
 For a fluid with constant density, the buoyant force is independent of the distance
of the body from the free surface.
 It is also independent of the density of the solid body
Use buoyancy to evaluate the stability of the body immersed into or floating on the fluid
Stability of an immersed body: depend on the relative locations of the center of gravity G
of the body and the center of buoyancy B
 Stable: The body is bottom-heavy and thus point G is directly below point B
 Unstable: An immersed body whose center of gravity G is directly above point B
 Neutrally stable: A body for which G and B coincide (at the same position)
Chapter 4:

1. Lagrangian description and Eulerian description

 Lagrangian description: follow the path of individual fluid particle (or fluid element)
 Eulerian description: a control volume (a finite space or region) is defined, through
which fluid flows in and out. Study the properties of the fluid at certain position in the
region.

2. Materials derivative

Transformation between Lagrangian and Eulerian

𝐷 𝑑 𝜕
= ⃗ ∙ ⃗∇)
= + (𝑉
𝐷𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑡

Velocity profile (one- or two- or three-dimensional, steady or unsteady)

⃗
⃗ = (𝑢, 𝑣, 𝑤) = 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑖 + 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑗 + 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)𝑘
𝑉
Material acceleration
⃗
𝐷𝑉 ⃗
𝜕𝑉
𝑎(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡) = = ⃗ ∙ ⃗∇)𝑉
+ (V ⃗
𝐷𝑡 𝜕𝑡
⃗
𝜕𝑉
 : local acceleration (V change with time), non-zero only for unsteady flow, zero for
𝜕𝑡
steady flow

 ⃗ ∙∇
(V ⃗ )𝑉
⃗ : advective acceleration (convective acceleration, V change with location),

non-zero even for steady flow

The components of the acceleration vector are (developed from material

acceleration)

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢
𝑎𝑥 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣
𝑎𝑦 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑤
𝑎𝑧 = +𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Example 4-3
3. Streamline, streakline, pathline

 Streamlines: a curve that is everywhere tangent to the instantaneous local velocity

vector - instantaneous flow pattern and do not change with time for steady flow.

 Pathlines: the actual path traveled by an individual fluid particle over some time period
(red line).
 Streaklines: the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially through a
prescribed point in the flow (blue line - the lines made by the traces of dye).

Streamlines, pathlines, and streaklines are identical when the flow is steady

4. Kinematic properties

(1) Rate of translation vector (velocity):

⃗ = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑤𝑘⃗
𝑉

(2) Rate of rotation (angular velocity):

In two dimension,

𝑑 𝛼𝑎 + 𝛼𝑏 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔= ( )= ( − )
𝑑𝑡 2 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

In three dimension

1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜔
⃗ = ( − )𝑖 + ( − ) 𝑗 + ( − ) 𝑘⃗
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
(3) Linear strain rate:
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜀𝑥𝑥 = 𝜀𝑦𝑦 = 𝜀𝑧𝑧 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

Volumetric strain rate:

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜀𝑥𝑥 + 𝜀𝑦𝑦 + 𝜀𝑧𝑧 = + + volumetric strain rate is zero for incompressible flow
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

(4) Shear strain rate:

1 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 1 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑢 1 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
𝜀𝑥𝑦 = ( + ) 𝜀𝑧𝑥 = ( + ) 𝜀𝑦𝑧 = ( + )
2 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦

(5) Strain rate tensor: 9 components

Example 4-6

5. Vorticity
𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑤 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜁 = 2𝜔 ⃗ ×𝑉
⃗ =∇ ⃗ =( − )𝑖 + ( − ) 𝑗 + ( − ) 𝑘⃗
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

For two-dimensional flow in xy-plane,

𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢
𝜁 = 2𝜔𝑘⃗ = ( − ) 𝑘⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Example 4-7

6. Reynolds transport theorem (RTT)

 B is the extensive property, such mass (m), momentum (linear: mV, angular: I𝜔), total
energy (me)
 b = B/m is the intensive property of B (per unit mass)
 The conservation of mass (continuity equation) can be developed from the RTT

General RTT equation for fixed CV,

𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑑𝐵𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠

= − 𝐵̇𝑖𝑛 + 𝐵̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤:
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝐵̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐵̇𝑖𝑛
General RTT equation for fixed CV when using the average values for inlet and outlet,

𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠 𝑑
= ∫ 𝜌𝑏 𝑑𝑉 + ∑ 𝑚̇𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑣𝑔 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶𝑉
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛
For steady flow,
𝑑𝐵𝑠𝑦𝑠
= ∑ 𝑚̇𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑣𝑔 − ∑ 𝑚̇𝑟 𝑏𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

Chapter 5

1. Conservation of mass
𝑑𝑚𝐶𝑉
Conservation of mass (continuity equation): 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝐸
Conservation of energy: 𝐸̇𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑑𝑡

Mass flow rate: 𝑚̇ = 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐴𝑐 (𝑘𝑔/𝑠)

Mass balance for steady flow: 𝑚̇1 = 𝑚̇2 𝜌1 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝜌2 𝑉2 𝐴2

For incompressible flow: 𝑉1̇ = 𝑉̇2 𝑉1 𝐴1 = 𝑉2 𝐴2

Mechanical energy:
𝑃 𝑉2
𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2
The maximum power generated:

𝑊̇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑚̇∆𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ

2. Efficiency

Mechanical efficiency of a device

Pump efficiency
Turbine efficiency

Motor efficiency

Generator efficiency

Pump-motor efficiency

Turbine-generator efficiency

Example 5-3

3. Bernoulli equation:

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦, 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

The conditions to use the Bernoulli equation:

1. Steady, incompressible flow
2. Frictional effects are negligible
3. For inviscid regions
4. Do not involve any conversion between mechanical energy and thermal energy
5. Flow along a streamline
6. No shaft work: no applicable when the flow section involves pump, turbine, and fan
(PPT page 18-19)
𝑉2
Pressure form: 𝑃 + 𝜌 2
+ 𝜌𝑔𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

𝑉2 𝑉2
Stagnation pressure: 𝑃𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔 = 𝑃 + 𝜌 2
Dynamic pressure: 𝜌 2

𝑃 𝑉2
Head form: 𝐻 = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Mechanical energy balance (considering mechanical devices and frictional loss):

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
𝑚̇ ( + 𝛼1 + 𝑔𝑧1 ) + 𝑊̇𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 = 𝑚̇ ( + 𝛼2 + 𝑔𝑧2 ) + 𝑊̇𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 + 𝐸̇𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌 2 𝜌 2

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝛼1 + 𝑧1 + ℎ𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝,𝑢 = + 𝛼2 + 𝑧2 + ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒,𝑒 + ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

Example 5-6

Chapter 6
⃗
𝑑𝑉 ⃗)
𝑑(𝑚𝑉
Newton’s second law: 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 = ⃗
Linear momentum: 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑉
𝑑𝑡

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ) ⃗
⃗⃗ = 𝐼𝛼 = 𝐼 𝑑𝜔
Moment (or torque): 𝑀 =
𝑑(𝐼𝜔
=
𝑑𝐻
(Angular momentum equation)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⃗ = 𝐼𝜔
Angular momentum: 𝐻 ⃗
𝑑𝜔𝑥 𝑑𝐻𝑥
Moment about x-axis: 𝑀𝑥 = 𝐼𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝑚𝑉
The moment of momentum: 𝐻 ⃗

⃗⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝐹 and the magnitude is 𝑀 = 𝑟 ∙ 𝐹 ∙ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

The moment (torque) of force: 𝑀

Linear momentum equations:

𝑑
∑𝐹 = ∫ 𝜌𝑉⃗ 𝑑 V + ∑ 𝛽𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉
⃗ 𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − ∑ 𝛽𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 𝑉
⃗ 𝑖𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑔
𝑑𝑡 CV
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

(𝛃 = 1 for the case of uniform flow over an inlet or outlet)

Linear momentum equations for steady flow, one inlet and one outlet:

⃗ 2 − 𝛽1 𝑉
∑ 𝐹 = 𝑚̇(𝛽2 𝑉 ⃗ 1)

(𝛃 = 1 for the case of uniform flow over an inlet or outlet)

Angular velocity and acceleration:

𝑑𝜃 𝑑(𝑙/𝑟) 1 𝑑𝑙 𝑉
𝜔= = = = 𝑉 = 𝑟𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑟

𝑑𝜔 𝑑 2 𝜃 1 𝑑𝑉 𝑎𝑡
𝛼= = 2= = 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑟𝛼
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑟 𝑑𝑡 𝑟
Angular momentum equation for steady flow where all the significant forces and
momentum flows are in the same plane

⃗⃗ = ∑ 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑚̇𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡,𝑎𝑣𝑔 − ∑ 𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑚̇𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛,𝑎𝑣𝑔

∑𝑀
𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛

Example 6-8

Chapter 8

1. Laminar and turbulent flow

Reynolds number:
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = = =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝜈 𝜇

Hydraulic diameter:
4𝐴𝐶
𝐷ℎ =
𝑝

𝑅𝑒 ≲ 2300 𝑙𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

2300 ≲ 𝑅𝑒 ≲ 10000 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤
𝑅𝑒 ≳ 10000 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤

Velocity profile of fully developed laminar flow in the horizontal circular pipe

𝑟2 𝑅2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢(𝑟) = 2𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 (1 − 𝑅2 ) 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 = − 8𝜇 (𝑑𝑥 )
Pressure loss for all types of fully developed internal flows:

2
𝐿 𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
∆𝑃𝐿 = 𝑓
𝐷 2
Darcy friction factor:
8𝜏𝑤
𝑓= 2
𝜌𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔

Friction factor for circular pipe, laminar flow:

64𝜇 64
𝑓= =
𝜌𝐷𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔 𝑅𝑒
Head loss:
2
∆𝑃𝐿 𝐿 𝑉𝑎𝑣𝑔
ℎ𝐿 = =𝑓
𝜌𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔

Colebrook equation (friction factor for turbulent flow):

1 𝜀/𝐷 2.51
= −2.0 log ( + )
√𝑓 3.7 𝑅𝑒√𝑓
Minor loss:
𝑉2
ℎ𝐿 = 𝐾𝐿
2𝑔
Total head loss (general):

𝐿𝑖 𝑉𝑖2 𝑉𝑗2
ℎ𝐿,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ℎ𝐿,𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 + ℎ𝐿,𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑟 = ∑ 𝑓𝑖 + ∑ 𝐾𝐿,𝑗
𝐷𝑖 2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑖 𝑗

If the entire piping system being analyzed has a constant diameter:

𝐿 𝑉2
ℎ𝐿,𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (𝑓 + ∑ 𝐾𝐿 )
𝐷 2𝑔

Loss coefficient for sudden expansion:

2
𝐴𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝐾𝐿 = 𝛼 (1 − )
𝐴𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
 Moody chart:
 if you know the Re and relative roughness, you can use Moody chart to find the friction
factor f, especially when the flow is turbulent.
 You can find the roughness of the pipe in the Moody chart based on the materials and
use it to calculate the relative roughness.

Example 8-1, 8-2

Example 8-3
2. Piping networks and pump selection

Series Parallel

Parallel pipes: The pressure drop (or head loss) in each individual pipe connected in
parallel must be the same since 𝛥𝑃 = 𝑃𝐴 − 𝑃𝐵 and the junction pressures 𝑃𝐴 and 𝑃𝐵
are the same for all the individual pipes.

Example 8-8

3. Flow rate and velocity measurement

(1) Pitot and Pitot-static probes

(2) Ultrasonic flowmeters (acoustic flowmeters)

Ultrasonic (or acoustic) flowmeters operate by generating sound waves with a transducer
and measuring the propagation of those waves through a flowing fluid.

 There are two basic kinds of ultrasonic flowmeters:

 Transit time
 Doppler-effect (or frequency shift)

 Ultrasonic flowmeters have the following advantages:

 Easy and quick to install by clamping them outside the pipes
 Noninstrusive
 No pressure drop
 No direct contact with the fluid
 Suitable for a wide range of fluids
 No moving parts
 Can also measure flow quantities in reverse flow
 Accuracies are 1 - 2%

补充：

1. Viscosity
𝑑𝑢
Shear stress: 𝜏 = 𝜇 𝑑𝑦

𝜏 𝜇
Dynamic viscosity (𝝁): 𝜇 = 𝑑𝑉/𝑑𝑦 (𝑃𝑎 ∙ 𝑠) Kinematic viscosity (𝝂): 𝜈 = 𝜌
2. Specific gravity
𝜌
Specific gravity (SG): 𝑆𝐺 =
𝜌 𝐻2 𝑂

SG: the ratio of the density of a substance to the density of some standard substance at a
specified temperature (usually water at 4ºC, for which 𝜌𝐻2 𝑂 = 1000 kg/m3)

Example 2-1