Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom Produced by Heriot-Watt University, 2018

B49CD
Separation Processes B
Heriot-Watt University
Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
Produced by Heriot-Watt University, 2018

CONTENTS
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Separation Processes B
©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Thanks are due to the members of Heriot-Watt, School of Engineering and Physical Science
who planned and generated this material.
We would like to acknowledge the assistance and contributions from colleagues across the
University and students in preparing this and support material.

CONTENTS
Contents
TOPIC 1: EVAPORATION
1.1. Introduction to Evaporation ............................................................................ 3

1.2 Indirect Heating .............................................................................................. 4
1.2.1 Natural Circulation .............................................................................. 4
1.2.2 Forced Circulation .............................................................................. 5
1.2.3 Film Type Units .................................................................................. 6
1.3 Some Important Considerations ..................................................................... 9
1.3.1 Operating Under Vacuum ................................................................... 9
1.3.2 Boiling Point Rise (BPR) ..................................................................... 9
1.3.3 Nomenclature and Basic Equations .................................................. 10
1.4 Evaporator Configurations ............................................................................ 13
1.4.1 Single Effect Evaporator ................................................................... 13
1.4.2 Multi-Effect Evaporator ..................................................................... 13
1.5 Multi-Effect Arrangements ............................................................................ 15
1.5.1 Forward Feed ................................................................................... 15
1.5.2 Backward Feed ................................................................................ 16
1.5.3 Parallel Feed .................................................................................... 16
1.5.4 Economy of Multi-Effect Arrangements ............................................ 17
1.5.5 Number of Effects............................................................................. 20
1.5.6 Condensation of Final Vapour .......................................................... 21
1.5.7 Vacuum equipment .......................................................................... 23
1.5.8 Simplified Multi-Effect Evaporation Calculations ............................... 24
1.6 Tutorial Questions Topic 1 ............................................................................ 29
1.7 Bibliography ................................................................................................. 33

CONTENTS
TOPIC 2: DRYING
2.1 Introduction to Drying of Solids ....................................................................... 3

2.2 General Principles .......................................................................................... 4
2.2.1 Equilibrium Conditions ........................................................................ 4
2.2.2 Bound and Free Moisture ................................................................... 5
2.2.3 Hysteresis .......................................................................................... 6
2.2.4 Soluble Solids .................................................................................... 6
2.2.5 Air Conditioning .................................................................................. 7
2.2.6 Drying Operations ............................................................................ 12
2.3 Batch Drying ................................................................................................. 13
2.3.1 Rate Data ......................................................................................... 13
2.4 Rate of Drying in Batch Dryers ..................................................................... 15
2.4.1 Constant Rate from w to wc .............................................................. 16
2.4.2 Linear Falling Rate Zone from wc to we ............................................. 17
2.4.3 Non-Linear Falling Rate – Graphical Procedure ............................... 18
2.4.4 Non-Linear Falling Rate – “Log Mean” Procedure ............................ 18
2.5 Continuous Rotary Dryers ............................................................................ 20
2.5.1 Indirect Heating Type ....................................................................... 20
2.5.2 Direct Heating Dryers ....................................................................... 22
2.5.3 Sizing Rotary Dryers ........................................................................ 22
2.5.4 Temperature and Moisture Profiles in Continuous Direct Heating ..... 23
2.6 Rate of Drying In Continuous Direct Heating Dryers ..................................... 24
2.6.1 Zone II Drying Modes ....................................................................... 24
2.6.2 High Temperature Zone II Drying ..................................................... 24
2.6.3 Low Temperature Zone II and III Drying ........................................... 29
2.6.4 Operating Line Expressions.............................................................. 30
2.8 Bibliography ................................................................................................. 41
TOPIC 3: PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY
3.1 Introduction to Particle Technology................................................................. 3

3.2 Particle Fluid Interaction ................................................................................. 4
3.2.1 Sphere Boundary Layer ...................................................................... 5
3.3 Terminal Velocity ............................................................................................ 7
3.3.1 Particle Diameter from Terminal Velocity .......................................... 10
3.3.2 Wall Effects ...................................................................................... 10
3.4 Particle Size Analysis ................................................................................... 11
3.4.1 Equivalent Sphere Diameter ............................................................. 13

CONTENTS
3.5 Non-Spherical Particles ................................................................................ 14

3.5.1 Drag Coefficient of Non –Spherical Particles .................................... 14
3.5.2 Shape Factor.................................................................................... 14
3.5.3 Terminal Velocity of Non-Spherical Particles .................................... 15
3.5.4 Size of Non-Spheres from Terminal Velocity .................................... 16
3.5.5 Slip Correction .................................................................................. 16
3.6 Sedimentation .............................................................................................. 17
3.6.1 Sludge Line Settling ......................................................................... 17
3.6.2 Density, Concentration and Voidage ................................................ 18
3.6.3 Apparent Velocity ............................................................................. 19
3.6.4 Suspension Viscosity ....................................................................... 20
3.6.5 Settling of Coarse Suspensions ........................................................ 20
3.6.6 Effect of Concentration on Suspension Flux ..................................... 21
3.7 Flow in Packed Beds .................................................................................... 22
3.7.1 Finding the Bed Specific Surface Area ............................................. 23
3.7.2 High Reynolds Number in Packed Beds ........................................... 23
3.7.3 Wall Effects ...................................................................................... 25
3.7.4 Effect on K........................................................................................ 25
3.8 Gas-Particle Separation ............................................................................... 26
3.8.1 Gravity Settling Chamber ................................................................. 26
3.8.2 Cyclone Separator............................................................................ 27
3.10 Bibliography ............................................................................................... 32
TOPIC 4: GLOSSARY

TOPIC 1. Evaporation 1
Topic 1
Evaporation
Contents
Evaporation ............................................................................................................ 1
1.1. Introduction to Evaporation ...............................................................................3
1.2 Indirect Heating .................................................................................................4
1.2.1 Natural Circulation .................................................................................4
1.2.2 Forced Circulation .................................................................................5
1.2.3 Film Type Units .....................................................................................6
1.3 Some Important Considerations ........................................................................9
1.3.1 Operating Under Vacuum ......................................................................9
1.3.2 Boiling Point Rise (BPR) ........................................................................9
1.3.3 Nomenclature and Basic Equations .....................................................10
1.4 Evaporator Configurations ...............................................................................13
1.4.1 Single Effect Evaporator ......................................................................13
1.4.2 Multi-Effect Evaporator ........................................................................13
1.5 Multi-Effect Arrangements ...............................................................................15
1.5.1 Forward Feed ......................................................................................15
1.5.2 Backward Feed ...................................................................................16
1.5.3 Parallel Feed .......................................................................................16
1.5.4 Economy of Multi-Effect Arrangements ...............................................17
1.5.5 Number of Effects................................................................................20
1.5.6 Condensation of Final Vapour .............................................................21
1.5.7 Vacuum Equipment .............................................................................23
1.5.8 Simplified Multi-Effect Evaporation Calculations ..................................24
1.6 Tutorial Questions Topic 1 ...............................................................................29
1.7 Bibliography ....................................................................................................33

Prerequisite knowledge
 B49CA Separation Processes A

 B48BA Process Industries C
 Engineering Mathematics
 Knowledge of how to use of charts and tables
Learning objectives
After studying this topic 1 of “Separation Process A” you should be able to:
 Understand the general principles of evaporation

 Recognise the different types of evaporators
 Understand different evaporator configurations and components
 Calculate evaporator economy
 Understand some of the design parameters for evaporators

1.1. Introduction to Evaporation
Evaporation is an operation used to remove a liquid from aqueous solutions by

boiling off some of the liquid. Evaporation is done by adding heat to the solution to
vaporise the solvent, hence it is a thermal separation process.
Evaporators are widely used in processes to concentrate solutions or slurries:
 To obtain a pure solvent

 To reduce the bulk of a solution
 To allow crystallisation to take place
 As a first stage in producing a dry solid
A wide variation of evaporator designs exists due to the use of evaporators used in
a variety of processes. Evaporators can be grouped into two types depending on the
way heat is supplied. Heating supply can be either direct or indirect. Direct heating
is represented either by solar evaporation or by submerged combustion of a fuel. In
indirect heating, the product is generally heated by the condensation of steam,
passing through the heat transfer surface of the evaporator.
The following list contains the names of the most common types of evaporators.
Direct Heating:
 Solar heating
 Submerged combustion
Indirect Heating:
 Natural circulation
 Forced circulation
 Film-type units
Indirect heating evaporations will be explained in more detail in the next section.

1.2 Indirect Heating

In almost all indirect evaporators the product is heated by steam passing through the
other side of a heat transfer surface. The movement of liquid over the heat transfer
surface affects the rate of heat transfer and evaporators are classified according to
the method of agitation or the nature of the circulation of the liquid over the heat
transfer surface.
On this basis indirect heating evaporators may be classified into three main types:
1. Natural circulation units

2. Forced circulation units
3. Film-type units.
VAPOUR
demister pad
1.2.1 Natural Circulation
In natural-circulation evaporators, circulation of the liquid is achieved by convection

FEED
currents arising from the hot liquid moving through the tubes (heat transfer surface).
This group of evaporators can be subdivided into two categories depending whether
STEAM
the tubes are horizontal with the steam inside, or vertical with the steam outside.
CONDENSATE
VAPOUR
demister pad
CONCENTRATE
FEED
STEAM Large tube (down flow)
CONDENSATE
Small tubes (up flow)
CONCENTRATE
Figure 1.1 Natural circulation evaporator

Large tube (down flow)
Small tubes (up flow)

1.2.2 Forced Circulation
In forced circulation evaporators a pump or impeller is used to increase the

circulation rate. This leads to an increase in the velocity of the flow of liquid
through the tubes which results in a significant increase in the liquid-film (boiling
side) heat transfer coefficient.
Forced circulation evaporators are advantageous if:
 Materials of construction are not too expensive

 Concentrations (hence viscosities) are high
 Liquids are fouling
Disadvantages of forced circulation evaporators are:
 Higher operating costs

 More complex than other types of evaporators
VAPOUR
CONCENTRATE
STEAM
CONDENSATE
FEED
Figure 1.2 Forced circulation flash evaporator

1.2.3 Film Type Units
In both natural circulation and forced circulation evaporators the liquid remains in the
evaporator for some considerable time. Unlike those, film type units are designed to
have low residence time (seconds rather than up to 1 hr) and the operation is usually
once through flow. Film type units are especially good for heat sensitive products as
they are kept at high temperatures for very short periods. Three different types of
film units are shown below.
a) Climbing (rising) film
In climbing film evaporators, the feed enters the bottom and steam begins to form as
it heats. The steam produced causes the liquid and vapour to flow upwards. Vapour
production increases and the product is pressed as a thin film on the walls of the
tubes, resulting the liquid to rise upwards.
VAPOUR
STEAM
CONCENTRATE
CONDENSATE
FEED
Evaporator Cyclone
Figure 1.3 Climbing film evaporator

b) Falling film
In falling film evaporators, the liquid film moves downwards. The liquid flows
downwards flow under gravitational force and a thin film forms on the inside of heated
vertical tubes. Vapour too flows downwards parallel to the liquid in the centre of the
tubes. A complete unit consists of the evaporator, a separator to separate the
vapours from the residual liquid, and a condenser.
Falling film evaporators are the most commonly used type of evaporator. They are
suitable for higher viscosities, but film is thicker and heat transfer coefficient lower.
FEED
STEAM
CONDENSATE VAPOUR
CONCENTRATE
Evaporator Cyclone
Figure 1.4 Falling film evaporator

c) Thin (scraped) film
In thin film evaporators the liquid entering the unit is picked up by the rotating blades
and thrown against the tube wall. This provides a thin film of liquid. The film flows
downwards by gravity and it becomes more concentrated as it flows down. The
concentrated liquid is removed at the bottom by a pump, and the vapour leaves at
the top of the unit.
Thin-film units consist of a vertical tube which is surrounded by a jacket which

contains the heating medium (steam). The upper part of the tube is not surrounded
by a jacket which acts as a separator. A rotor, driven by an external motor extends
nearly to the bottom of the tube. This rotor gives sufficient agitation and provides
good heat transfer which makes it suitable to very viscous liquids.
Thin film evaporators are a development of falling film with higher heat transfer rates.
FEED VAPOUR
STEAM
CONDENSATE
CONCENTRATE
Figure 1.5 Thin film evaporators

1.3 Some Important Considerations

1.3.1 Operating Under Vacuum
Operating under vacuum is particularly important when processing temperature

sensitive materials. Operating at a pressure below the vapour pressure of the liquid
leads to a lower boiling point.
Also operation under a vacuum increases the temperature difference between the
steam and boiling liquid and therefore heat transfer rates are increased (provided ΔT
< ΔTcritical).
1.3.2 Boiling Point Rise (BPR)
Boiling point of a solvent at any pressure increases with increasing solution

concentration. The difference in the boiling point temperature is known as the boiling
point rise (BPR).
For example at 1 bar, 25% solution of NaOH in water boils at 381K, BPR = 8K.
The value of the BPR cannot be directly calculated from physical data therefore often
an empirical rule known as Duhring’s rule is used to find the change in the boiling
point with pressure.
If the boiling point of the solution is plotted against the boiling point of water at the
same pressure, a straight line is obtained.
Since the pressure is fixed, if the boiling point of water is found from steam tables,
and the boiling point of the solution can be found using Duhring plot.
Figure 1.6 Duhring plot

1.3.3 Nomenclature and Basic Equations
VAPOUR: WV, T1
FEED: WF, TF
STEAM: WS, TS, PS

CONDENSATE: WS, TS
CONCENTRATE: WC, T1
Figure 1.7 Simplified evaporator
Where,
TF = Temperature of the feed
TS = Temperature of the steam
T1 = Temperature inside the unit
WF = Flow rate of the feed
WV = Flow rate of the vapour
WS = Flow rate of the steam
WC = Flow rate of the concentrate
PS = Pressure of the steam
P1 = Pressure of evaporator
Assumptions:
 Boiling liquid is well mixed at the evaporator temperature, T1, the concentrate
and the vapour will also be at T1
 There are no heat losses
 Steam gives up latent heat only (if the steam is saturated)
 Condensate is a saturated liquid
 The vapour is water vapour.

Heat transfer rate equation:
Q  U A ΔT …………………………………………………………………...(1.1)
ΔT  TS  T1
Where,
Q = Heat transferred per unit time
U = Overall coefficient of heat transfer
A = Heat transfer surface
Heat balance equations:
WS λS  WV λ V  WF Cp T1  TF  ………………………………………...(1.2)
Material balance equations:
WF  WV  WC …………………………………………………………......(1.3)
Where,
Cp = Specific heat capacity of the feed
λS = Latent heat of condensation of steam
λV = Latent heat of vaporisation of water
The Economy of the evaporator is defined as the kilograms vaporised per kilogram
of steam fed to the unit.
Example 1.1:
Problem:
10,000 kg/hr of dilute NaOH (5 wt%) is to be concentrated by evaporation to 20 wt%.
The feed temperature is 20°C. The evaporator will operate at 1 bar, at which pressure
a 20 wt% solution boils at 105°C. (CpF = 4.2 kJ/kg-K, λV = 2240 kJ/kg).
Dry saturated steam is available at 2.5 bara. (TS = 127.4°C, λS = 2181 kJ/kg).
The evaporator should provide an overall heat transfer coefficient of 2300 W/m2-K.
a) How much steam is required?

b) What heat transfer area is required?
c) What is the steam economy (i.e. kg vapour / kg steam)?

Solution:
Material balance (Basis 1 hr):
Feed (5% NaOH) Concentrate (20% NaOH) Vapour (0% NaOH)

NaOH 500 500 0
Water 9500 2000 7500
Total 10,000 2500 7500
a) Heat balance:
Heat, Q, supplied to process fluid

= WV λV + W FCp(T1-TF)
= 7500 x 2240 + 10000 x 4.2 x (105 – 20)
= 20.37x106 kJ/hr
= Heat given up by condensing steam

= WS λS
WS = 20.37x106 / 2181
WS = 9340 kg/hr
b) Heat transfer
Using equation 1.1
Q = Heat transferred across heat transfer surface
Q = U A (TS – T1)
A = Q / (U (TS – T1))
A = (20.37x106 x 1000) / (2300 x (127.4 – 105) x 3600)
A = 110 m2
c) Steam economy
Economy = vapour produced / steam used
Economy = 7500 / 9340

Economy = 0.8 kg/kg steam

1.4 Evaporator Configurations
1.4.1 Single Effect Evaporator
Evaporators are classified by the number of effects. In a single-effect evaporator,

steam provides energy for vaporisation and the liquid product is removed from the
system as condensate.
Single effect units can be operated either in batch or continuously. Single-effect

evaporators are used when the required capacity is low and/or cheap steam is
available. However, for large-capacity operations, using more than one effect will
reduce steam costs.
Figure 1.8 Simplified diagram of single effect evaporator
1.4.2 Multi-Effect Evaporator
In multi-effect evaporation two or more evaporators are connected in series. Vapour

from one effect is used as the heating medium for the next. The first effect is the one
to which the raw steam is fed.
The pressure difference between the steam and the condenser is spread across two
or more effects in the multiple-effect system. Pressure in the vapour space is highest
in the first effect. In the last effect vapour space pressure is minimum.

Figure 1.9 Multi effect evaporation
Where
T1, T2 = Temperatures of two effects (respectively)
P1, P2 = Pressures of two effects (respectively)
WF = Flow rate of the feed
WV1, W V2 = Flow rates of the vapour from the two effects (respectively)
WS1, W S2 = Flow rates of the steam from the two effects (respectively)
WC1, W C2 = Flow rates of the concentrate from the two effects (respectively)
Mass balance:
WF  WC2  WS2  WV2

WF  WC2  WV1  WV2
Total vapour produced  WV1  WV2
Economy 
WV1  WV2  …………………………………………….....……(1.4)
WS1
Extending to any number (i) of effects:
n
Total vapour produced = W
i1
Vi
n
Economy = W
i1
Vi WS1 ……………………………………………………...….(1.5)

1.5 Multi-Effect Arrangements

Multi-effect evaporators can be categorised depending on the method of feeding.
1.5.1 Forward Feed
Figure 1.10 Forward feed
The most common method is using a pump for introducing the feed into the first
effect. Forward feed units require a single feed pump. There is no need of using
pumps between effects as the flow happens in the same direction as the pressure
drop between effects. This arrangement reduces economy and operating costs. If
the feed is cold then its temperature must be raised to the operating temperature.
Forward feed units tend to have most concentrated liquour (most viscous) in the
lowest temperature effects (difficulties in achieving good overall heat transfer
coefficient).

1.5.2 Backward Feed
Figure 1.11 Backward Feed
In backward feed units feed is fed to the last effect. It requires multiple pumps to work
against the pressure drop between effects. In this arrangement, the feed is gradually
heated (resulting in better economies). Reduces viscosity differences are observed
through the system, therefore backward-feed is better suited for viscous solutions.
1.5.3 Parallel Feed
Figure 1.12 Parallel feed
In parallel feed units there is no transfer of liquid from effect to effect. This
arrangement is primarily used when feed is saturated and the product is solid. It is
most common in crystallising evaporators where the product is likely to be a slurry.
All effects may operate at the desired concentration or at different concentrations
and blended together later.

1.5.4 Economy of Multi-Effect Arrangements
The economy of the system increases with the number of effects.
For example, suppose that in a 2 effect system:
Economy of effect 1 = 0.8

Economy of effect 2 = 0.9
1st Effect:
WV1 WS2
0.8  
WS1 WS1
WV1  WS2  0.8 WS1
2nd Effect:
WV2 WV2
0.9  
WV1 0.8WS1
WV2  0.72WS1
Overall economy = (Total vaporisation) / (Fresh steam)
Overall economy = (W V1 + WV2) / W S1
Overall economy = (0.8W S1 + 0.72W S2) / W S1

Overall economy = 1.52 kg/kg steam
Remembering that for a multi-effect system to operate:
P1 > P2 > P3 > …. > PN
(Otherwise there is no ∆T in 2nd or subsequent effects, TS1 > T1 > T2 > T3 > .... > TN)
The method of feeding has an effect on the economy as well. Economies of forward
feed and backward feeds at different temperatures is compared in the graph below
(figure 1.13).
In general, if the feed is cold, then the backward-feed system is more economical.
However, the forward-feed system is the more common, mostly because it is simpler
to operate as backward-feed requires the use of pumps between each effect.

Figure 1.13 Economy vs. feed temperature of evaporators
The use of multi-effect evaporation provides increase in economy but at the cost of
reduced capacity.
Consider the temperatures in a 3 effect system (assuming negligible BPR):
Effect Boiling Steam ΔT for Heat

Temperature Temperature Transfer
1 T1 TS1 ∆T1 = TS1 – T1
2 T2 T1 ∆T2 = T1 – T2
3 T3 T2 ∆T3 = T2 – T3
Capacity: QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
QT = U1 A1 ∆T1 + U2 A2 ∆T2 + U3 A3 ∆T3
Assuming:
A1 = A2 = A3 = A
U1 = U2 = U3 = U
Capacity can be written as:
3
QT  U A  ΔT
i1
i
QT  U A TS1  T3 
QT  U A ΔTTotal ……………………………………………………………….(1.6)
A single effect evaporator carrying out the same duty between the same
temperatures would have approximately the same area as each effect of the multi
effect system.

Example 1.2:
Problem:
A triple-effect evaporator is concentrating a liquid that has no appreciable elevation

in the boiling point. The temperature of the steam to the first effect is 108°C, the
boiling point of the solution in the last effect is 52°C. The overall heat-transfer
coefficients, in W/m2, are 2500 in the first effect, 2000 in the second effect and 1000
in the third effect. At what temperature will the liquid boil in the first and second
effect?
Solution:
The total temperature drop, ΔTT, = 108 – 52 = 56°C.
The temperature drops in the effects will be approximately inversely proportional to

the coefficients1:
1
U1
ΔT1  ΔTT
1  1  1
U1 U2 U3
1
ΔT1  2500 56
1  1 
2500 2000 1000
1
ΔT1  11.8C
ΔT1  TS1  T1
T1  TS1 - ΔT1
ΔT1  108 - 11.8  96.2C
Second effect: 81.5 °C
1This is a first approximation which makes it possible to solve the problem in an approximate
way. For a precise solution, the approximate values can be used to get the exact temperature.
Please see 1.5.8

1.5.5 Number of Effects
There is economic balance between the steam cost and the capital cost so optimum
number of effects can be selected. Assuming there are no other costs, then the
capital cost and the steam costs together give the total cost.
Figure 1.14 Capital cost vs number of effects
As the number of effect increases capital cost will be more.
Figure 1.15 Steam cost vs. number of effects
Steam costs will be lower as the number of effects decrease.
When the two graphs (figure 1.14 and 1.15) are combined, they give the relationship
which links the total cost with number of effects:
Figure 1.16 Costs vs number of effects

1.5.6 Condensation of Final Vapour
In evaporators a condenser is required to remove the bulk of the volume of the

vapour leaving the last effect of a multiple-effect unit. Through the condenser, vapour
condenses into a liquid which often proceeds to a vacuum pump.
Condensation is either done by using a conventional heat exchanger or water jet

condenser.
a) Conventional heat exchangers
Conventional heat exchangers provide sufficient heat transfer surface such as pipe
surface. Through the heat transfer surface, condensing vapour transfers latent heat
of vaporisation to cooling water flowing through the pipes.
b) Water jet condenser
In a jet condenser, cooling water is sprayed from the upper part of the unit to
condense the vapour; cooling water and vapour are drawn out of the condenser from
the base of the unit.
Figure 1.17 Water jet condenser

Example 1.3:
Problem:
Calculate how much water at an inlet temperature of 20°C, is required to condense

1 kg of water vapour (dry saturated at 50 kN/m2). Assume that the water exits at
30°C.
Solution:
Enthalpy balance:
In = Steam + Water
In = (MS x hS) + (MW1 x hW1)

In = (1 x 2646) + (M x 83.9)
Out = Water
Out = (MW2 x hW2)

Out = (1 + M) x 125.7
(1 x 2646) + (M x 83.9) = (1 + M) x 125.7
M = 60.3 kg / kg steam

1.5.7 Vacuum Equipment
In order to maintain a vacuum, it is necessary to continuously remove non-

condensable gases from:
 Evaporation
 Cooling water (if using a jet condenser)
 Inward leakage
The most convenient way of obtaining a vacuum is usually by using a steam jet
ejector.
Figure 1.18 Steam jet ejector
Where:
a) Converging – diverging steam nozzle (high velocity steam jet)
b) Converging section – steam entrains gases
c) Diffuser section – part of kinetic energy is transformed to pressure energy
Steam is fed through the nozzle and some of its momentum is transferred to the gas
entering the ejector and the mixture is then compressed in the converging section.
Key design features of steam jet ejectors are the steam nozzle and the diffuser. If
they are well designed, ejector will have a good performance.
Typical “compression” ratios are 5-6: 1. Therefore, a single-stage ejector will remove
air from a system at a pressure of 17 kN/m2 to 102 kN/m2 and a two stage will from
3 kN/m2 to 108 kN/m2.

1.5.8 Simplified Multi-Effect Evaporation Calculations
An example of simplified multi effect evaporation calculation is given below.
Example 1.4:
Problem:
4 kg/s (14.4 t/hr) of liquor containing 10% solids in water is fed at 21°C to the 1st
effect of a triple effect system (Cp constant at 4.18 kJ/kg-K). The produced
concentrate contains 50% solids from 3rd effect, operated at 0.13 bar.
Steam: As supplied to 1st effect – dry saturated at 2.05 bara.
Determine:
 Heat transfer areas

 Temperatures and pressures through the 3 effects
 Steam economy
Solution (method 1):
Assuming:
 All 3 units have the same area

 Negligible boiling point rise
 Overall heat transfer coefficients (based on experience)

o U1 = 3.1 kW/m2-K
o U2 = 2.0 kW/m2-K
o U3 = 1.1 kW/m2-K
Material Balance (kg/s)
Feed Concentrate Total Vapour

Water 3.6 0.4 3.2
Solids 0.4 0.4 0
Total 4 0.8 3.2

End temperatures (from steam tables)
Steam at 1st effect, TS1 = 121°C

Temperature in 3rd effect, T3 = 51°C
Intermediate temperatures
Iterate (T1 and T2 in this case) to find values that satisfy all conditions in our
specification. To get 1st estimates of these temperatures assume that sensible heat
terms in the energy balances for each effect are negligible.
Therefore:
U1∆T1 – U2∆T2 = 0
U2∆T2 – U3∆T3 = 0
U1∆T1 = U2∆T2 = U3∆T3
Also know:
∆T1 + ∆T2 + ∆T3 = TS1 – T3
Giving 3 simultaneous equations and 3 unknowns:
∆T1 + ∆T2 + ∆T3 = 70

3.1 ∆T1 – 2.0∆T2 = 0
2.1 ∆T2 – 1.1∆T3 =0
Solve to give: ∆T1 = 13, ∆T2 = 20, ∆T3 = 37
Due to the cold feed, the 1st effect will have substantial sensible heat term in its heat
balance, so we increase ∆T1 at the expense of the others to give:
∆T1 = 18, ∆T2 = 17, ∆T3 = 35
Temperature (°C) Heat of vaporisation

(kJ/kg)
Steam TS1 121 2200
Effect 1 T1 121 – 18 = 103 2249
Effect 2 T2 103 – 17 = 86 2294
Effect 3 T3 86 – 35 = 51 2381
Heat balances (for each effect)
Heat supplied from steam = Sensible heat ‘gain’ of liquor + Latent heat of vapour
formed

Effect 1:
WS1λS1 = W FCp(T1-TF) + WV1λV1
Effect 2:
WV1λV1 = W C1Cp(T2-T1) + WV2λV2 WC1 = 4 – W V1
Effect 3:
WV2λV2 = W C2Cp(T3-T2) + WV3λV3 WC2 = 4 – W V1 – W V2
Overall material balance
WV1 + W V2 + W V3 = W F – WC3 = 3.2
Solve these equations to give:
WV1 = 0.991 kg/s

WV2 = 1.064 kg/s
WV3 = 1.145 kg/s
WS1 = 1.635 kg/s
(Remember total vapour produced should equal 3.2 kg/s).
Economy = 3.2 / 1.635 = 1.96 kg / kg steam
Areas
For effect 1:
Q1 = U1A1∆T1 = W S1λS1
A1 = W S1λS1 / U1∆T1 = (1.635 x 2200) / (3.1 x 18) = 64.5 m2
For effect 2:
Q2 = U2A2∆T2 = W V1λV1
A2 = W V1λV1 / U2∆T2 = (0.991 x 2249) / (2.0 x 17) = 65.6 m2
For effect 3:
Q3 = U3A3∆T3 = W V2λV2
A3 = W V2λV2 / U3∆T3 = (1.064 x 2294) / (1.1 x 35) = 63.4 m2
Since the calculated areas are so close, the assumed ∆Ts are approximately correct.
(Otherwise ∆Ts can be adjusted until the areas matched).

Complete Material Balance (kg/s)
Feed V1 C1 V2 C2 V3 C3
Water 3.600 0.991 2.609 1.064 1.545 1.145 0.400
Solid 0.400 - 0.400 - 0.400 - 0.400
Total 4.000 0.991 3.009 1.064 1.945 1.145 0.800
% Solids 10 - 13.3 - 20.6 - 50.0
P (bar) 1.13 0.60 0.13
Solution (method 2):
Assumptions:
 All those for the first method

 Neglect sensible heat terms:
o Preheating of feed
o Sensible heat change between effects
This time, since negligible sensible heat effects will be assumed throughout the
calculation, there is no need to make any adjustments to ∆T1 for the cold feed:
Temperature (°C) Heat of vaporisation

(kJ/kg)
Steam TS1 121 2200
Effect 1 T1 121 – 13 = 108 2236
Effect 2 T2 108 – 20 = 88 2288
Effect 3 T3 88 – 37 = 51 2381
Heat balances (for each effect)
Heat supplied from steam = Latent heat of vapour formed

Effect 1:
WS1λS1 = W V1λV1
Effect 2:
WV1λV1 = W V2λV2
Effect 3:
WV2λV2 = W V3λV3
Overall material balance
WV1 + W V2 + W V3 = W F – WC3 = 3.2
Solve these equations to give:

WV1 = 1.097 kg/s
WV2 = 1.072 kg/s
WV3 = 1.030 kg/s
WS1 = 1.115 kg/s
(Remember total vapour produced should equal 3.2 kg/s).
Economy = 3.2 / 1.115 = 2.87 kg / kg steam
Areas
For any effect:
Qi = UiAi∆Ti = W ViλVi
Ai = WViλVi / Ui∆Ti = (1.097 x 2236) / (3.1 x 13) = 60.9 m2
Complete Material Balance (kg/s)
Feed V1 C1 V2 C2 V3 C3
Water 3.600 1.097 2.503 1.072 1.431 1.130 0.401
Solid 0.400 - 0.400 - 0.400 - 0.400
Total 4.000 1.097 2.903 1.072 1.831 1.130 0.801
% Solids 10 - 13.8 - 21.8 - 49.9
P (bar) 1.34 0.65 0.13

1.6 Tutorial Questions Topic 1
Single Effects:
1. A small evaporator (2 m2 surface area) operates at an absolute pressure of

0.1bar. The overall heat transfer coefficient for the unit is 1300 W/m2-K and
400 kg/hr of feed material evaporating from 10 to 20% dissolved solids are to
be processed.
What is the minimum feed temperature at which the above unit will operate
satisfactorily? How much steam is required?
Assume that the feed has the properties of water and that the steam used for
heating is at 1 bar absolute and 90% dry.
2. 6000 kg/hr of dilute wort at 2 mass% solids concentration is to be evaporated

to 6.66% concentration. The operation is carried out in a single effect
evaporator operating under vacuum.
Feed liquid temperature: 20 °C

Pressure in the evaporator: 0.1 bar absolute
Temperature of boiling wort, at this pressure: 46 °C
Heat capacity of liquid: 4.0 kJ/kg-K
Latent heat vapour at 46oC: 2390 kJ/kg
Steam available at: 2.0 bar absolute
Steam temperature at this pressure: 120 °C
Latent heat of steam: 2190 kJ/kg
Heat transfer area: 120m2
Find:
a) The overall heat transfer coefficient
b) The steam economy

3. A solution of organic colloids in water is to be concentrated from 8 to 45%

solids in a single effect evaporator. Steam is available at 1.03 atm gauge (120.5
°C). A pressure of 102 mmHg is to be maintained in the vapour space. The
feed rate to the evaporator is 20,000kg/hr. The overall heat transfer coefficient
can be taken as 2800 W/m2-K.
The solution has negligible boiling point elevation. The specific heat of the feed
solution is 3.77kJ/kg-K and the heat of vaporisation of the solution may be
taken to equal that of water. For a feed temperature of:
a) 51.7 °C
b) 21.2 °C
c) 93.3 °C
Calculate:
i. Steam consumption
ii. Economy
iii. Heating surface required
4. A single effect evaporator with 80 m2 surface area has an estimated heat

transfer coefficient of 2400 W/m2-K. Dry saturated steam is supplied at 2 bar
and the effect cannot exceed 51 °C. If a minimum economy of 0.8 kg/kg steam
is required calculate the minimum amount of vapour that can be produced.

Multiple Effects:
5. 5000 kg/hr of an aqueous solution containing 2 mass% dissolved solid is

concentrated in a single-effect evaporator to 3.3 mass% dissolved solids. The
feed is supplied at 45 °C. This evaporator, operating at 0.5 bar absolute, is
heated by dry saturated steam at 1.2 bar absolute. The heat capacity of the
feed and concentrate streams is 4.2 kJ/kg-K. Boiling point rise may be
assumed negligible.
a) If the evaporator’s heat transfer area is 55m2, calculate its overall heat
transfer coefficient and its steam economy.
It is proposed that a second, identically sized, evaporator be installed,

operating in forward-fed mode along with the existing unit, to provide further
concentration of the solution.
An overall heat transfer coefficient of 850 W/m2-K is anticipated for the second
effect.
b) Assuming that the operating conditions of the first effect remain
unchanged, calculate the flowrate and composition of the final
concentrate.
c) Is the direction of variation of the two overall heat transfer coefficients

that which you would expect for a forward-fed system? Explain your
answer.
6. As question 2 but the plant is a 2 effect system. The feed enters Effect 1 at 20
°C; the boiling temperature in Effect 1 is recorded at 82 °C; the boiling
temperature in Effect 2 is 46 °C.
Latent heat of vapour at 82 °C: 2300 kJ/kg
Heat transfer area of each effect: 120m2
Find:
o The overall heat transfer coefficient for each effect
o The steam economy

7. A forward feed triple-effect evaporator is used to concentrate 35,000 kg/hr of a

17% solution of dissolved solids to 38%. The feed enters at 60°C (Cp = 3.93
kJ/kg-K) and dry steam is supplied at 1.5 atm and the 3rd effect is operated at
0.2 atm, both absolute. Heat transfer coefficients may be taken as 3970, 2840
and 2270 W/m2-K. If all three effects are to have the same area, determine:
a) Steam required
b) Economy
c) Heating surface per effect
Question 8 is an optional question for students who want to challenge their

knowledge:
8. A triple-effect evaporator is fed with a feed liquor which is to be concentrated

from 10 mass% to 30 mass% solids. The unit is forward fed and each effect
had 20m2 of heat transfer area. The overall heat transfer coefficients in each
of the three effects are 2200, 2000 and 1600 W/m2-K respectively. Dry
saturated steam is supplied to the first effect at 2 bar absolute and the final
effect operates at 0.1 bar absolute.
Assuming negligible boiling point rise and neglecting sensible heat effects and
heat losses, determine the feed liquor rate with which the unit can cope.

1.7 Bibliography
Richardson, J.F. Harker, J.H. Backhurst, J.R.. (2013). Coulson and Richardson's
Chemical Engineering Volume 2 - Particle Technology and Separation Processes
(5th Edition). Elsevier
Sinnott, R.K.. (2009). Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering Volume 6 -

Chemical Engineering Design (5th Edition).Elsevier
Schweitzer, P.A. (1988). Handbook of Separation Techniques for Chemical

Engineers, (2nd Edition), McGraw-Hill
McCabe, W.L. Smith, J. C. Harriott, P..(2005). Unit Operations of Chemical

Engineering, (7th Edition), McGraw-Hill


TOPIC 2. Drying 1
Topic 2
Drying
Contents
Drying..................................................................................................................... 1
2.1 Introduction to Drying of Solids ..........................................................................3
2.2 General Principles .............................................................................................4
2.2.1 Equilibrium Conditions ...........................................................................4
2.2.2 Bound and Free Moisture ......................................................................5
2.2.3 Hysteresis .............................................................................................6
2.2.4 Soluble Solids .......................................................................................6
2.2.5 Air Conditioning .....................................................................................7
2.2.6 Drying Operations ...............................................................................12
2.3 Batch Drying ....................................................................................................13
2.3.1 Rate Data ............................................................................................13
2.4 Rate of Drying in Batch Dryers ........................................................................15
2.4.1 Constant Rate from w to wc .................................................................16
2.4.2 Linear Falling Rate Zone from wc to we ................................................17
2.4.3 Non-Linear Falling Rate – Graphical Procedure ..................................18
2.4.4 Non-Linear Falling Rate – “Log Mean” Procedure ...............................18
2.5 Continuous Rotary Dryers ...............................................................................20
2.5.1 Indirect Heating Type ..........................................................................20
2.5.2 Direct Heating Dryers ..........................................................................22
2.5.3 Sizing Rotary Dryers ...........................................................................22
2.5.4 Temperature and Moisture Profiles in Continuous Direct Heating
Drying ......................................................................................................23
2.6 Rate of Drying In Continuous Direct Heating Dryers ........................................24
2.6.1 Zone II Drying Modes ..........................................................................24
2.6.2 High Temperature Zone II Drying ........................................................24

TOPIC 2. Drying 2
2.6.3 Low Temperature Zone II and III Drying ..............................................29

2.6.4 Operating Line Expressions.................................................................30
2.8 Bibliography ....................................................................................................41

 Evaporation
Learning objectives
After studying this Topic 2 of “Separation Processes B” you should be able to:
 Understand the general principles of drying

 Understand the drying of solid material in batch and continuous mode
 Recognise the difference between indirect and direct heating and different
types of dryers
 Understand some of the design parameters for the drying equipment
 Calculate the drying rate in both batch and continuous dryers

TOPIC 2. Drying 3
2.1 Introduction to Drying of Solids

Drying refers to the removal of water or another liquid solute. In simple terms, drying
of solids is achieved by passing hot dry gas over the solid. Moisture is then
evaporated from the solid into the gas and carried away.
Figure 2.1 Drying of solids
Variables which affect the drying process include:
1. Gas Flowrate - Increasing the gas flowrate reduces the resistance to mass
transfer
2. Gas Temperature - Driving force, which causes evaporation of moisture, will
be affected by the gas-solid temperature difference
3. Moisture Content - The amount of water in the solid
4. Transport Properties of the Solid - How effectively the moisture can be
transported to the solid surface for evaporation
5. Surface Area – The amount of solid effectively exposed to the drying agent
6. Required Product Form - A high drying rate may radically alter the
characteristics of dried solid
7. Value of the Evaporated Moisture - High solvent cost will necessitate
recovery and hence will influence the equipment design
8. Temperature Sensitivity - Some products can be damaged by heating, by
being exposed to high temperatures for long periods.
Drying is often a part of the manufacturing process. Uses of typical drying processes
include manufacture of soap, dried milk, timber, clay, ceramics, penicillin, food
concentrates, paper, textiles and pigments.

TOPIC 2. Drying 4
2.2 General Principles

Drying is the removal of moisture from a substance; drying usually does not give any
reference to the specific drying process and to the amount of water that is retained
in a solid. Indeed there is a question over the limit when a solid is considered dry.
In the following, a few basic principles are reviewed first.
2.2.1 Equilibrium Conditions
In considering if a solid is dry, the condition of the surrounding air must be

considered. Moisture in the solid will exert a vapour pressure in proportion to the
mass of moisture present and the temperature.
a) If the solid is exposed to a gas free from water, the moisture will
evaporate into the gas stream until equilibrium is established when the
vapour pressure exerts from the water within the solid equals the partial
pressure of water in the gas stream.
b) Likewise, if the gas stream contains water, moisture might be

transferred from the gas into the solid depending on the conditions at
which the system is and on the moisture content in the solid.
Figure 2.2 Equilibrium moisture content of different materials
Equilibrium conditions depend on the type of solid and the gas humidity, the
particle size and the surface area if the solid can physically absorb moisture.

TOPIC 2. Drying 5
2.2.2 Bound and Free Moisture
Moisture can exist in two forms, depending on the proximity to the equilibrium
conditions:
Bound Moisture - This is water contained within small capillaries and moisture
adsorbed onto the solids surface. Typically, this is water which exerts a vapour
pressure lower than pure water at the same temperature.
Un-Bound Moisture - Here the water exerts a vapour pressure equal to that of
pure water at the same temperature.
Free Moisture - This is any moisture present above the condition of equilibrium.
The extent at which the bound and free moisture occur therefore depends on the
relative humidity of the gas.
Figure 2.3 Bound and free moisture
Note that the definition of moisture content (w) on a dry weight basis is :
Total mass of moisture

w
Total mass of dry solid
And
f  w  w e …………………………………………………….(2.1)
Where,
w e  Equilibrium moisture content(kg/kg dry solid)
f  Free Moisturecontent

TOPIC 2. Drying 6
2.2.3 Hysteresis
Many solids exhibit different characteristic behaviour depending on whether the

moisture is added or removed.
Figure 2.4 Change of equilibrium moisture content in two directions, adsorption and
desorption
2.2.4 Soluble Solids
So far, the discussion applies to insoluble solids. Soluble solids usually have very
low, if not insignificant, equilibrium moisture content.
For dilute solutions, the water will evaporate until only the residual solid remains.
Crystal formation produces different equilibrium curves since different hydrate
forms can exist.
Figure 2.5 Solubility of solids

TOPIC 2. Drying 7
2.2.5 Air Conditioning
By far the commonest drying agent will be hot air, and it is useful, at this stage, to
review humidity and the use of psychrometric charts.
Humidity
The humidity H, is defined as the mass of water per unit mass of dry air.
Mass of Water Vapour  kg water 

H kg dry gas
Mass of Dry Gas  
In the hypotheses that the gas is considered to behave ideally:
Mole of Water Vapour Pw


Moles of Dry Air PT  Pw
18  Pw 
H   ……………………………………………………………..(2.2)
29  PT  Pw 
Where,
Pw = Partial pressure of water vapour
PT =Total pressure
Humidity of Saturated Air (H0)

Saturation humidity is the humidity of air when it is saturated with water vapour.
The air is then in equilibrium with the water at the given temperature and pressure.
Percentage Humidity
 H 
%H     100 ……………………………………………………….…….(2.3)
 H0 
Where
H = Humidity of air
H0 = Humidity of saturated air
%H = Percentage Humidity
Relative Humidity
The relative humidity, HR, is the humidity calculated in relation to the saturated
humidity.
H
HR  ………………………………………………………………..…...(2.4)
H0
Where HR is the relative humidity.

TOPIC 2. Drying 8
Enthalpy
The enthalpy (h) of the humid air is considered to be made up of the enthalpy of the
dry gas added to the heat required to vaporise the water from the base (reference)
temperature.
h  hdry gas  m  hw aterin gas …………………………………………….….(2.6)
Each term is made from:

Tg

hdrygas  Cp dt
T0
Tb Tg
h w aterin gas  C
T0
p liquiddt λ C
T0
p vapourdt
Where
h = Enthalpy of the humid air
m =Humidity ratio
Cp= Specific heat capacity
λ = Latent heat of vaporisation
Tg = Dry bulb temperature
Tb =Boiling temperature
T0 = Initial temperature
Humid Heat
This is the heat required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of gas and its
associated water vapour by 1 degree at constant pressure.
Humid Heat is
Cs  Cp gas  Y Cp w ater in kJ/kg dry gas –K……………………………..…(2.7)
Enthalpy is then
 
h  Cs Tg  T0  λY in kJ/kg dry gas
Where
Y = Absolute humidity in kg water / kg dry air.
Or for water and air:
Cs  1.00  1.88 H …………………………………………………………...(2.8)

TOPIC 2. Drying 9
Where
Cs = Humid heat
Here it is assumed that the gas and liquid heat capacities are constant over the
desired temperature range.
Humid Volume
This is the volume of a mass of dry gas and its associated water vapour.
The volume of an ideal gas or vapour at 273 K and 1 atm is 22.4 m3/kg mol.
Since molecular weight of air is 29 and water is 18 for air and water, assuming ideal
gas behaviour:
22.4  T  22.4 H  T 
Humid volume      …………...……………………...(2.9)
29  273  18  273 
Where
T is temperature (K)
Humid volume is in m3/kg
Dew Point
This is the temperature at which a vapour-gas mixture will become saturated, where
the liquid will condense out as the gas can no longer support the vapour. Note the
term gas is separated from the term vapour.
Dry Bulb Temperature
This is the normal temperature as measured by a usual thermometer immersed into

the gas.

TOPIC 2. Drying 10
Wet Bulb Temperature
Used for determining the humidity, this thermometer gives lower values than a dry
bulb thermometer. It essentially measures the steady state temperature reached by
a small liquid drop evaporating into a large volume of unsaturated gas.
Liquid Drop Gas film

Tw
Dry Bulb temperature
Tg
Tw
Temperature
Ps
Partial Pressure
Pw
Figure 2.6 Small liquid drop evaporating into a large volume of gas
Where
Tw = Wet bulb temperature
Ps = Vapour pressure of the liquid at the drop surface
Pw = Partial pressure of vapour in the gas stream
If the liquid is at a higher temperature than the gas dew point then:
a) The vapour pressure of the liquid at the drop surface will be higher than the
partial pressure of vapour in the gas stream
b) Liquid will evaporate so that vapour pressure = partial pressure
c) Drop temperature will fall as heat is removed to cause evaporation
d) Once the drop temperature falls below the dry bulb temperature, heat will
flow from the gas into the drop to continue the evaporation
e) Eventually steady state will be reached where the heat transfer from the gas
phase equals the heat required for evaporation
f) Temperature of the liquid drop will remain constant.
Wet bulb thermometers are essentially normal thermometers with their bulbs
covered with liquid supplied from a wick. If the dry gas stream is unsaturated, the
wet bulb temperature will be lower than the dry bulb temperature.

TOPIC 2. Drying 11
Analysing the heat flow to and from the water drop:

Rate of heat transfer from gas to drop  hg A Tg  Tw 
Where
hg = Gas film heat transfer coefficient
A = Surface area of drop
Tg-Tw = Driving force
Tw = Wet bulb temperature

Rate of mass transfer of vapour from the surface  kg A Yw  Yg 
Where
kg = Gas film mass transfer coefficient
Yw-Yg = Driving force
Yw = Saturation humidity, at the drop surface
Yg = Gas humidity
Thus:
  
kg A Yw  Yg λ  hg A Tg  Tw 
Where
λ = latent heat of vaporisation of unit mass of water
A = Surface area of drop
Hence:
Tg  Y
 Tw 
w
hg

 Yg λ
………………………………………………………(2.10)
kg
The ratio hg/kg is the psychrometric ratio and is constant for a particular liquid-gas
system.

TOPIC 2. Drying 12
2.2.6 Drying Operations
Drying equipment and their associated design equations depend on the operating
mode, the heating source and the nature of the material to be dried.
Operating Mode
Either batch or semi-batch where a dryer is charged with stationary solid which
remains until the moisture content has fallen. Batches may then be passed into other
dryers operating at higher temperatures until the moisture content falls to the desired
level.
In continuous mode, the wet solid is passed through a heating source and can be
thought as formed of small batches passing into a series of units where the driving
force continually changes.
Heating Supply
a) Direct Heating: Where heat comes from a hot gas. Moisture is evaporated
from the solid into the flowing gas stream. Generally less costly that indirect
methods and easier to control, direct heating unfortunately has a low
efficiency due to the energy lost in the exhaust gas.
b) Indirect Heating: Where heat is supplied indirectly of the gas used to remove
the moisture. Microwave ovens are forms of indirect heating.
Nature of the Solid
Moisture loss from some solids may cause structural changes. How these changes
affect the product may dictate the type of dryer used, e.g., cracking may lead to a
fine powder with handling difficulties or warping which occurs in large timber sheets.
Often the structural changes are influenced by the rate of drying.

TOPIC 2. Drying 13
2.3 Batch Drying

Typically used for small scale operations or when labour is not a concern, batch
dryers are usually large boxes in which trays of moist solid are placed. Hot air is
either circulated or is passed once across each tray removing moisture from the
solid. If the cabinet is totally sealed, then gases other than air, such as superheated
steam, can be used (since it is superheated, the steam can uptake additional
moisture and has a larger heat capacity than air). Granular material can be placed
on mesh grids to enhance the hot gas flow.
Design data for batch dryers usually involves deciding on the length of time needed
to reach specified moisture content, given the surface area exposed to the gas. The
most important data for any dryer is the rate of drying, usually determined under
constant gas humidity conditions.
2.3.1 Rate Data

This a curve reporting the variation of solid moisture content with time. The conditions
under which the curve is obtained are as follows:
a) The ratio of the drying surface to the volume of solid is the same in the
experiment as in the full dryer
b) Support frame is of the same material and geometry
c) Conditions for radiant heat transfer are the same
d) Temperature, humidity and drying gas velocity are the same as the full scale
unit.
Drying rate data is usually of the form:
Figure 2.7: Drying rate data

Where
X is the moisture content1
X* is the equilibrium moisture content.
1 Please note that X and w are used interchangeably for moisture content.

TOPIC 2. Drying 14
Figure 2.8 Drying curve for estimating time of drying
Various drying zone can be observed and their characteristics are as flows:
A-B Initially, the solid surface is cooler than the gas so the drying rate will
increase as the solid heats up.
B-C This is the constant rate zone where drying takes place by
evaporation of the free moisture surrounding the solid grains. The
drying rate can be expressed by the mass transfer of moisture from
the solid into the vapour as : N  kY  Y *
Where
N = Rate of drying
k = Mass transfer coefficient
(Y-Y*)= Change in the humidity
Solid moisture content will continue to fall until dry spots appear on
the solid surface. At this point the solid will not be in equilibrium with
the gas stream- this is defined as the critical moisture content (Xc).
C-D Although the rate of drying per unit area of wet surface remains
constant, the overall drying rate falls as the number of dry spots
increases. This is the start of the falling rate zone. Solid surface can
change its structural properties at this stage.
D-E Moisture film surrounding the solid has been removed and further
drying depends on the rate at which moisture will move internally in
the solid phase. At point E, the drying rate falls to 0 as the equilibrium
is reached between the drying gas and the moist solid.

TOPIC 2. Drying 15
2.4 Rate of Drying in Batch Dryers
During the drying period, drying is assumed to take place from a saturated solid
surface and, for constant conditions, most materials exhibit similar drying rates:
Material Rate of evaporation

kg/m2-hr
Water 2.7
Clays 2.3-2.7
Fine sand 2.0-2.4
Since drying is a mass transfer process, problem can be seen from either changes
in the gas or the solid moisture content.
In terms of gas changes the drying rate, N, is:
N  k g APs  Pw  ……………………………………………………….….(2.11)
Where
Ps = Vapour pressure of the water (i.e. on the solid)
Pw = Partial pressure of water vapour in the gas stream
N = Rate of drying expressed as a flux (kg moisture/s-m2)
For the constant rate period:
h A T
 k g A Ps  Pw  
dw
N
dt λ
………………………...…………..….(2.12)
Where
kg = Mass transfer coefficient
A = Interface area
h = Heat transfer coefficient
ΔT = Temperature difference between air and surface
λ = Latent heat of vaporisation per unit mass
w = Moisture content

TOPIC 2. Drying 16
The normal expression for drying time comes from looking at changes in solids
moisture content:
1 dw
N ………………………………………………………….……..(2.13)
A s dt
Where,
N = Drying rate, kg moisture/ s.m2
As = Surface area for drying,m2
t = time
The total time taken for drying from moisture content w1 to w2, is obtained by
integrating the expression:
t w2 w1
1 dw 1 dw ………………………………..(2.14)

0
dt  
w
As N
→ t
As 
w2
N
1
The exact for of this integral depends on the region in which the moisture changes.
2.4.1 Constant Rate from w to wc
Figure 2.8 can be approximated by the graph below:
Figure 2.9 Rate of drying curve (simplified)
During the drying from the initial moisture content w1 to the critical moisture content
wc, the drying rate is constant so the integral is simply:
1 w1  w c 
t cr  ……………………………………………….………….….(2.15)
As Nc
Where
tcr = Time of drying in the constant rate period
Nc = Rate of drying per unit area in the constant rate period

TOPIC 2. Drying 17
2.4.2 Linear Falling Rate Zone from wc to we
During this period the rate of drying is, approximately, proportional to the free
moisture content (w – we):
(w – we) = f
 1  dw
    m w  we   m f
 
A s dt
w
1 dw
  t
m As w w - we f
c
1  wc - w e 
In t
mA s  w - we  f
Then
1  fc 
tf  In  ……………………………………………………..………(2.16)
mA s  f 
Where
fc = (w – we)
m = Ratio of rate of drying per unit area to moisture content
As = Surface area for drying
tf = Time of drying in falling rate period
Total drying time
The total time, t, of drying from w1 to generic w is given by t = tcr + tf
The rate of drying, Nc, over the constant rate period, is equal to the initial rate of
drying in the falling rate period; therefore Nc = m fc.
The total drying time is given by:

1 w1 - w c 1 f 
t  In  c 
A s m fc m As  f 
1  f1  fc  f 
t   In  c  …………………………………………………..(2.17)
mA s  fc  f 
Where: f1 = (w1 – we)

TOPIC 2. Drying 18
2.4.3 Non-Linear Falling Rate – Graphical Procedure
Plotting 1/N against moisture content gives:
Figure 2.10 1/N against moisture content
The area under the curve can then be used to estimate the time for drying.
X1
dX …………………………………………………………………....(2.18)
t 
X2
N
Where t is time for drying and X is the moisture content.
2.4.4 Non-Linear Falling Rate – “Log Mean” Procedure
For a slightly non-linear falling rate zone, a log mean approach can be adopted:
1  Nc  Nc  Ne
tf  In  m
mA s  Ne 
and
wc  we
1  w c  w e   Nc 
tf    In 
A s  Nc  Ne   Ne 
Replacing by a log mean gives:
1 w c  w e  …………………………………………………………..(2.19)
tf 
A s Nlogmean
Where
Nc = Rate of drying per unit area in the constant rate period
Ne = Rate of drying per unit area in the falling rate period

TOPIC 2. Drying 19
Example 2.1:
Problem:
A wet solid is dried from 25% to 10% moisture (dry weight basis) under constant
drying conditions in 4.17 hr. If the critical and equilibrium moisture contents are
15% and 5% respectively, how long will it take to dry the solid from 30% to 8%
moisture under the same conditions?
Solution:
For the first operation:
w1 = 0.25 kg/kg, w = 0.10 kg/kg, wc = 0.15 kg/kg and we = 0.05 kg/kg
f1 = (w1 – we) = 0.25 – 0.05 = 0.20 kg/kg

fc = (wc – we) = 0.15 – 0.05 = 0.10 kg/kg
f = (w – we) = 0.10 – 0.05 = 0.05 kg/kg
1  0.20 - 0.10  0.10 

4.17   In 
mA s  0.10  0.05 
mA s  0.406
For the second operation:
w1 = 0.30 kg/kg, w = 0.08 kg/kg, wc = 0.15 kg/kg and we = 0.05 kg/kg
f1 = (w1 – we) = 0.30 – 0.05 = 0.25 kg/kg

fc = (wc – we) = 0.15 – 0.05 = 0.10 kg/kg
f = (w – we) = 0.08 – 0.05 = 0.03 kg/kg
Since the solid is the same and the same drying conditions are kept, then mAs
1  0.25- 0.10  0.10 

t  In 
0.406  0.10  0.03 
t  6.7 hr

TOPIC 2. Drying 20
2.5 Continuous Rotary Dryers
There are many types of continuous dryers and the one adopted is selected
principally on the basis of its suitability in relation to the materials being dried, e.g.:
 Will the solids agglomerate into larger particles?

 Is the material fragile and does it break into smaller particles?
 What is the temperature sensitivity of the material?
 Etc..
Continuous dryers fall into the two categories of direct and indirect heating.
2.5.1 Indirect Heating Type
Indirect heating dryers include:
a) Drum Dryers
In drum dryers the material to be dried is sprayed or poured over a rotating drum.
The drum is heated from inside usually by steam fed in via flexible couplings.
Condensate must be collected from the drum and removed.
The dry product, adhering to the outside surface, will be scrapped off by contact with
some knife edge. The moisture evaporated from the solids may be sucked away by
some kind of vent system. The moisture in this case might not be water and its
release into the general environment should be controlled.
Figure 2.11: Drum Dryers
The drying ability is controlled by the drum diameter and the dryability of the material.
Figure 2.12 applies to 7 barg steam and shows a wide variation in the evaporation
rate. (Lengths of drums can be anything from 0.5m to 6m.)

TOPIC 2. Drying 21
60
50
Evaporation kg/ hr m2
40
30
20
Easy to dry
Difficult to dry
10
0
0 250 500 750 1000 1250 1500
Drum Diameter mm
Figure 2.12 Drum diameter vs. evaporation
b) Tubular Dryers
Unlike the drum dryer, these dryers have wet solids poured over a tube bundle which
is heated, usually by steam, from the tube inside.
Typical applications include:
 Brewing and Distilling – Drying spent grain from 65% moisture to 10%
moisture. (A pre de-watering screw press may be used to dry solids from
80% moisture to 65% moisture.)
 Flour and Starch – To prepare special flours in food production
Figure 2.13 Example of a tubular dryer used in flour production
 Confectionery
 Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals
 Cereals

TOPIC 2. Drying 22
2.5.2 Direct Heating Dryers
In these types of dryers, the air (or the hot gas providing the heating) is used to
remove the moisture. This is perhaps the more common form or drying. There is only
one main type of dryer in this category, namely– the rotary dryer. However several
forms of rotary dryers exist.
a) Cascade Rotary Dryers
In this type of equipment, drying, roasting or general heat processing is achieved by

passing the material through a rotating drum along with hot gas.
The drum is fitted with a series of spiral blades which break-up the solids and help
transport the material along the dryer. Usually the whole system is on an incline and
the solids slowly move to the other end of the equipment. Hot gas can be either co-
or counter-current. Co-current is the more common type of operation. Counter-
current operations are more efficient but expose the solids to quite high
temperatures. Typical drying temperatures are from just below 100°C to 700°C.
Exhaust gas from the dryer will contain particulate solids and might need cleaning
before disposal. Moisture can also be condensed out and recovered if desired. In
any event, some kind of waste heat recovery system can be installed without
affecting the product.
Diameters of this kind of dryers range from 1m to 3.5m, their length from 1m to 14m.
b) Rotary Louvre Dryers
These dryers are used where very low moisture contents are required without high
air temperatures.
In this case, instead of passing down through the rotary section, hot air can be
passed through the sides of the drum and into past the solids via a series of louvre
shutters. The immediate contact between the air and solids increases the drying
efficiency.
2.5.3 Sizing Rotary Dryers
There are two relevant parameters for the design/sizing of these dryers. One is the
diameter of the dryer, which is related to the velocity at which the hot gas is passed
through the unit. The second parameter is the length of the dryer, which is related to
the time required to assure the heat transfer from the drying air to the material being
processed. The length is also related to the time required for the mass transfer of the
water evaporated from the solids into the air. This combined heat and mass transfer
problem is very common in separation processes.

TOPIC 2. Drying 23
2.5.4 Temperature and Moisture Profiles in Continuous Direct

Heating Drying
In continuous drying, the moisture content, the gas humidity and the temperature
vary throughout the dryer:
Figure 2.14 Continuous drying
Three distinct zones appear in a co-current continuous dryer:
Zone I: The preheat zone where the solid is heated until evaporation
starts. Air temperature will fall since no additional heating is supplied
Zone II: Solid is at a constant temperature while un-bound moisture is

removed until the critical moisture content is reached for the given gas humidity
Zone III: Solid is in its falling rate zone when surface dry spots appear.
Drying rate will fall and the temperature will rise.
Similar arguments apply to counter-current dryers.

TOPIC 2. Drying 24
2.6 Rate of Drying In Continuous Direct Heating

Dryers
Given the various forms of continuous dryers, it is not possible to cover the design
principles for all. In all cases the process that controls the moisture removal is
dictated by the actual temperature - low of high temperature drying. The basic design
variable is the length of the drying region.
2.6.1 Zone II Drying Modes
In continuous drying, it is possible changing the heating mode along the length of the
dryer, which influences the driving force.
Adiabatic Drying: Solids remain at the wet bulb temperature, since the layer of water
surrounding the solid is at the wet bulb temperature of the drying gas.
Heat Addition: Additional heat is added which increases the enthalpy of the gas
stream. Heat addition at constant moisture content is also possible by removing the
air through an external exchanger and hence raising the gas temperature.
Heat Loss: Heat is lost by poor insulation which causes the enthalpy of the gas to
fall; hence the saturation conditions change. The driving force for mass transfer and
heat transfer reduce.
Constant Temperature: Can only be achieved by heat addition to maintain the dry
bulb temperature. In this drying mode the wet bulb conditions of the gas increase,
increasing the driving force.
2.6.2 High Temperature Zone II Drying
This method applies to the constant rate zone which constitutes the major part of any
dryer. (ΔT=40°C+)
Figure 2.15 High Temperature Zone II Drying (ΔT=40°C+)

TOPIC 2. Drying 25
Since the temperature controls this process, a heat balance over a small “slice” of
the dryer gives2:
Heat loss from the gas = heat gained by the solids + any heat losses
Ignoring heat losses and noting that:
Heat gain by solid is:
 
dq s  aU Tg  Ts dZ …………………………………………………….……(2.20)
Where
qs = Heat gained
a = Area of solid available for drying per unit length of dryer
U = Heat transfer coefficient
Tg = Temperature of gas
Ts = Temperature of solid
Heat loss from gas is:
dqg  GCs dTg …………………………………………………………...….(2.21)
Where
qg = Heat loss
G = Gas flowrate
Cs = Humid heat
dTg = Change in gas temperature over the length dZ
Equating the two heat terms (ignoring the additional losses):
 
aU Tg  Ts dZ  GmCs dTg
'
Integrating gives:
Tg1 '
Gm Cs dTg
Z 
Tg2

aU Tg  Ts 
Where
'
Gm = Dry gas flowrate
Tg1, Tg2 = Gas inlet and outlet temperatures respectively
Ts1, Ts2 = Solid inlet and outlet temperatures respectively
2 Notice that the changes are assumed to happen along the length only, and consequently
the balance is done over a volume of length “dZ”.

TOPIC 2. Drying 26
As with absorption columns, this expression can be simplified into a number of drying
units:
' Tg1
Gm Cs dTg
Z
aU Tg2
 T
g  Ts 
………………………………………………………(2.22)
Where
Z = (length of a drying unit) x (number of drying units) = LTU x NTU
The integral can be solved by methods such as the log mean method, the simplified
integral method, etc.
Similarly to the gas absorption process, the continuous drying process is a rate
determined process.
Provided that U and Cs are constant a further comparison can be made with the
absorption process by splitting the total length of the dryer into two parts:
Tg1
dTg
Number of Transfer Units (NTU):
 T
Tg2 g  Ts 
…………………………...(2.23)
'
Gm Cs
Length of a Transfer Unit (LTU): …………………………..……...(2.24)
aU
Number of Transfer Units (NTU)
To solve the integral representing NTU, Tg has to be related to Ts, (as humidity (Y)
is related to equilibrium moisture content (Xe) in absorption). Same simplifications,
as the ones attempted in absorption columns, can be made, depending on the
heating mode in the dryer.
Tg1
dTg
 T
Tg2 g  Ts 
The simplest case is to assume adiabatic operation. So in Zone II, T s is always the
wet bulb temperature of the gas stream, i.e. the free moisture surrounding the solid
particles is at the wet bulb temperature and the heat supplied from the gas phase is
purely used to evaporate this free moisture. Consequently, Ts can be considered
independent of Tg.
In terms of a log mean driving force, LTU can be written as:
Tg1
dTg Tg1  Tg 2
 T
Tg2 g  Ts  T
=
g  Ts LOGMEA N

TOPIC 2. Drying 27
T  Ts  
Tg1 
 Ts1  Tg 2  Ts 2 
g LOGMEAN
 Tg1  Ts1 
Ln 
 Tg2  Ts2 
 
Since it is assumed that the solid will always be at the wet bulb temperature:
Ts1=Twb = Ts2=Twb
Therefore for Zone II:

T  Ts  
T g1  Tg 2 
g LOGMEAN
 Tg1  Tw b 
Ln 
 Tg2  Tw b 
 
Hence
Tg1
dTg  T T 

Tg2
Tg  Ts 
= Ln g1 w b  ………………………………………………...(2.25)
 Tg2  Tw b 
 
The difficulty here is that Tg2, the gas exit temperature, is a function of the amount of
water evaporated from the solid, hence it depends on the gas flowrate.
In the actual design procedure, and in first approximation, a rule of thumb can be
used. Such procedure assumes that:
NTU=1.5
Consequently, the actual design procedure would follow the steps described below:
1) Assume NTU=1.5
Tg1  Tw b
2) Work out the gas exit temperature from :  e1.5
Tg2  Tw b
3) Locate this temperature on the psychrometric chart and hence find the gas
exit humidity
4) Work out how much moisture is removed from the solid and hence
calculate the gas mass flowrate
5) Calculate the length and diameter of the unit
6) Check the exit temperature by a heat balance. The heat requirements
should balance implying that the heat load required needs to be calculated
by knowing how much water is removed: this will make it possible to
calculate heat lost by the dry gas. Such calculation will give the gas exit
temperature for the selected gas flowrate.
7) Reset the exit temperature (step 2) until the heat balance is satisfied.

TOPIC 2. Drying 28
Length of a Transfer Unit (LTU)
Two forms are often quoted, either by correlating LTU directly with gas mass velocity,
or by expressing the overall heat transfer coefficient as a function of dry gas mass
velocity G’m, humid heat, Cs and diameter.
𝐺́𝑚 𝐶𝑠
𝐿𝑇𝑈 =
𝑎𝑈
Typically, the aU term will depend on the gas rate and is often expressed as:
Gb
aU  k ………………………………………………………………….(2.26)
Dc
Where
G = Gas mass velocity (may be dry or wet gas) kg/m2.s

D = Diameter of dryer, m
b,c = constants found empirically by experiment
k = constant which depends on parameters such as the rotation speed
of a rotary dryer
The gas rate G is usually a maximum gas rate to prevent dust. A high gas velocity
will lift smaller dried particles into the gas stream which may then represent a hazard
for dust explosions. To reduce entrainment of the solid, a maximum velocity will
usually be specified.
For direct contact an empirical equation can also be used to find the total length:
Q
L …………………………………………………(2.27)
0.0625π D G'0.67 ΔTm
Where
L = Length of the dryer, m
Q = Rate of heat transfer, kJ/s
D = Diameter of the dryer, m
G’ = Mass velocity of the gas, kg/m2.s
ΔTm = log mean of the temperature difference, K
Note this equation is for METRIC units. For imperial units the constant (0.0625) will
change.

TOPIC 2. Drying 29
2.6.3 Low Temperature Zone II and III Drying
In low temperature (ΔT<6°C) drying, the process is controlled by mass transfer:
Figure 2.16 Low temperature zone II and III drying
Where
Y1, Y2 = kg water / kg dry gas inlet and outlet respectively
X1, X2 = kg water / kg dry solids inlet and outlet respectively
Tg1, Tg2 = Gas inlet and outlet temperatures respectively
TS1, TS2 = Solid inlet and outlet temperatures respectively
The boundary between the two drying zones is given by the critical moisture content
which corresponds to a specific gas humidity. Since the drying rate will be constant
in Zone II and reduces in Zone III, there are two sets of relations which apply in each
zone.
Design information in this dryer requires an operating line and a residence time (a
hold up time for the solid in the dryer for a given gas flowrate).

TOPIC 2. Drying 30
2.6.4 Operating Line Expressions
A mass balance over the dryer gives operating lines for both zones:
a) Zone II :
- Sm' Xc  X1   Gm' Yc  Y1  …………………………………………..…….……(2.28)
b) Zone III :
- Sm' X2  Xc   Gm' Y2  Yc  ………………………………………..…………....(2.29)
Where
Gm' = Dry gas rate, kg/hr
Sm' = Dry solid rate, kg/hr
A hold up calculation yields a general expression for the residence time of the solids
in the dryer:
Figure 2.17 Residence time of the solids in the dryer
Moisture lost from solid across element:= X  dX  XSm' =  Sm

'
dX ……........…(2.30)
Thus moisture lost from rate of drying: a N dm  Sm' dX …………………………...(2.31)
Where,
dm = Element of dry solid (kg)
dX = Change in moisture content of this solid element (kg/kg)
N = Drying rate (kg moisture/s-m2)
a = Area of drying per unit mass of dry solid (m2/kg)
Hence
X 2
a dX
 
MT
'
dm  
0 Sm X1
N

TOPIC 2. Drying 31
2 X
a MT dX
'
Sm

X1
N 
The residence time of solid in the dryer is given by:
MT
Θ ………………………………………………………………..………(2.32)
Sm'
Where
MT = Total mass of dry solid material in the dryer (kg)
Θ = Residence time (hr)
Giving:
X
1 1 dX
Θ
aX N
2
Breaking this down for the two regions gives the total residence time as:
X 
1  1 dX dX 
Xc
Θ  

a X N X N   ………………………………………………………(2.33)
 c 
 II III 
2
The drying rate will differ in each drying zone.
Zone II
The drying is not taking place under constant gas humidity conditions; therefore the
drying rate will change. The drying rate can be related to changes in gas humidity by
a mass transfer expression:
N=k(Ywb-Y)
It is assumed the solids will be at the wet bulb temperature of the air.
Where
N= Drying rate
YWb =Humidity at this wet bulb temperature
Y = Humidity

TOPIC 2. Drying 32
From a mass balance around the control element:
Sm' X  Gm' Y  Sm' X  dX  Gm' Y  dY
Sm' dX  Gm' dY
Then
Y '
1 1 Gm dY
Θ 
a Y SmkYw b  Y
'
c
Y1
G' dY
Θ  m'
aSm  kY
Yc w b  Y
…………………………………………….…...….(2.34)
To progress this further, Ys must be found. This depends on the exact way of drying.
a) Adiabatic
Here, Ywb is constant and the integral can be solved fairly simply:
'
Gm  Y Y 
Θ In w b 1  ………………………………………………….….(2.35)
aSmk  Yw b  Yc 
'
b) Constant Temperature
In this case, the gas temperature is held constant in the dryer and some form of
numerical integration is required:
i) Select a value for X

ii) Calculate Y from the operating line
iii) Find Ys from the psychrometric chart at Y
iv) Continue for several values of X
v) Plot the integral term and find the area under the curve.

TOPIC 2. Drying 33
Zone III – Rising Temperature Zone
Here, the drying rate will be falling. The drying rate can be related to the solids
moisture content as before:
N  m(X  Xe )
Where
Xe is the equilibrium moisture content at a particular stage in the dryer (gas
humidity is changing so Xe will change)
m is the ratio of rate of drying per unit area to moisture content
From experiments, it is known that there will be a relationship between the

equilibrium moisture content and the gas humidity. If this were linear, it can be said:
Y= m Xe
Where m is the gradient of the linear relationship of the equilibrium moisture content
and the gas humidity. Gradient m should be determined, experimentally in the first
instance.
At the end of zone II, the solids moisture content will come down to some
critical value, as would happen in batch drying where all the un-bound moisture is
removed. Hence a condition that gives critical drying rate (Nc) can be found:
NC=m(Xc-Xe)
It can also be said that: Nc=k(Ywb-Y), writing the critical rate as a function of the gas
humidity.
m(Xc-Xe) = k(Ywb-Y)
Where
Xc = Critical moisture content
YWb =Humidity at this wet bulb temperature
Y = Humidity
Hence :
k(Yw b  Y)
m , then
(Xc  X e )
X X
1 c dX 1 c dX
Θ   
a X N a X m(X  Xe )
2 2
1
Xc (Xc  X e )dX
Θ 
a X k(Yw b  Y)(X X e )
…………………………………………….….(2.36)
2
There is no other way to reduce this integral further and solution should rely
on numerical procedures.

TOPIC 2. Drying 34
Example 2.2:
Problem:
Design a co-current adiabatic tunnel dryer to handle 2000 kg/hr of wet sand from a
moisture content of 1 to 0.1 kg water/kg dry sand. The equilibrium moisture content
for the sand is negligible.
The air available for drying has wet and dry bulb temperatures of 34°C and 93°C
respectively. The air leaves the dryer at 38°C and the solid leaves at 34°C. A series
of preliminary tests under design conditions showed that the critical moisture
content of the sand was 0.5 kg water/kg dry sand and that the rate of drying above
this value was 1.0 kg water/m2.hr. Below the critical moisture content, the drying
rate fell linearly to zero at zero moisture content.
If the effective area of drying is 0.3 m2/kg dry solid and, neglecting shrinkage,
calculate the length of dryer required if 20 kg of dry material per m length is held.
Solution:
In
2000 kg/hr wet sand 1000 kg/hr dry sand 1000 kg/hr water X=1
Out
1000 kg/hr dry sand 100 kg/hr water 1100 kg wet sand X=0.1
Critical Point
1000 kg/hr dry sand 500 kg/hr water 1500 kg total X=0.5
Equilibrium Point
1000 kg/hr dry sand 0 kg/hr water 1000 kg/hr total X=0
Humidity In = 0.009 kg water/kg dry air

Humidity Out = 0.0325 kg water/kg dry air
Air flow rate =

1000  100  38298kg dry air/hr
0.0325  0.009

TOPIC 2. Drying 35
Constant Rate period
GSY1 GSY2
Y
LPX1 LPX2
X
Mass balance across left side gives:
Water lost from solid = Water gained by gas

Lp X1  X  Gs Y  Y1
Rearranging gives:
L
Y  p X1  X  Y1
Gs
Where
Lp = Flow rate of water (kg hr)
Gs = Flow rate of water (kg hr)
Applying this for X=XC gives Y=YC =
1000
1 0.5  0.009  0.02206
38298
YS = 0.035 from humidity chart
NC  kYS  Y
Assuming that this applies at the critical moisture content

NC = 1 kg/m2.hr; YS = 0.035; YC = 0.02206
k  1/0.035  0.02206   77.28kg/m3.hr
Using equation 2.22
'
Gm  Y Y 
Θ In w b 1 
aSmk  Yw b  Yc 
'
38298  0.035  0.009 

 In   1.153 hr
1000  0.3  77.28  0.035  0.02206

TOPIC 2. Drying 36
Falling Rate period
GSY1 GSY2
Y
LPX1 LPX2
X
Mass balance across RHS gives:
Water lost from solid = Water gained by gas

Lp X  X2   Gs Y2  Y
Rearranging gives:
Lp
Y  Y2  X  X2 
Gs
1 c Xc  X *
X
θ 
a k X Ys  YX - X *
dX
2
Xc  X *
X Y X* YS Ys  YX - X * Average of integral
(previous column)
0.1 0.0325 0 0.035 2000
0.2 0.0299 0 0.035 490.2 1245.1 124.5
0.3 0.0273 0 0.035 216.3 353.8 35.3

0.4 0.0247 0 0.035 121.4 169 16.9
0.5 0.02206 0 0.035 77.3 99.4 9.9
Total 186.6
1 c
X
Xc  X * dX  186.6  8.05hr
θ 
a k X Ys  YX - X * 0.3  77.28
2
Total residence time = 9.20 hr

Flow rate of dry solid = 1000 kg/hr
Holdup in dryer = 9200 kg
There are 20 kg /m length

Length of dryer = 460 m

TOPIC 2. Drying 37

Batch Drying:
1. A wet solid containing 35 wt% moisture on a wet basis (kg water / kg wet solid)
is dried in 6 hr to 10 wt%. The equilibrium and critical moisture contents were
determined as 4 wt% and 14% respectively, again on a wet basis. How long
would it take for the same solid to be dried to 6 wt%?
2. A porous solid is dried in a batch dryer under constant drying conditions. Seven
hours are required to reduce the moisture content from 35 to 10 percent. The
critical moisture content was found to be 20% and the equilibrium 4%. How
long should it take to dry a sample of the same solid from 35 to 5 percent under
the same drying conditions? All moisture contents given are dry weight basis.
3. Filter cake was found to have a negligible equilibrium moisture content and a
critical moisture content of 9 wt%. To dry from 20 wt% to 10 wt% took 2.64hr.
A second filter cake of the same material was found to have an initial moisture
content of 40 wt%. How long would it take to dry this second cake to the same
10 wt%? All moisture contents given are dry weight basis.
4. Wet chalk was found to dry from 35wt% to 0.6wt% in 10 hours. Critical moisture
content and equilibrium content were known to be 16wt% and 0.2wt%
respectively. If a maximum drying time of 15 hours is available determine the
wt% of the driest chalk possible from a 35wt% mixture.

TOPIC 2. Drying 38
5. A 100 kg batch of granular solids containing 30% moisture (wet weight basis)
is to be dried in a tray dryer to 15.5% moisture by passing a current of air at
350K tangentially across its surface at a velocity of 1.8m/s. If the constant rate
of drying under these conditions is 0.0007 kg/s.m2 and the critical moisture
content is 15% (wet weight basis), calculate the approximate drying time.
Assume the drying surface to be 0.03 m2/kg dry mass.
6. The following data was obtained when drying sand in superheated steam. The
sample was 50mm thick and weighted 16.02kg when dry. It was dried in steam
at 340kPa superheated by 11K, and following at 1.36 kg/s.m2. Drying was from
the top face only, and this face measured 203.2mm by 736.6mm.
Determine:
o The critical moisture content
o The drying rate during the constant rate period
Extra bonus question:

o The heat transfer coefficient observed during the constant rate period
Drying time (hr) Sample weight (kg) Drying time(hr) Sample weight (kg)
0.0 19.11 6.0 17.07
0.5 18.99 6.5 16.91
1.0 18.84 7.0 16.78
1.5 18.68 7.5 16.69
2.0 18.50 8.0 16.62
2.5 18.32 8.5 16.52
3.0 18.13 9.0 16.46
3.5 17.96 9.5 16.42
4.0 17.78 10.0 16.37
4.5 17.59 11.0 16.31
5.0 17.41 11.5 16.30
5.5 17.23 12.0 16.29

TOPIC 2. Drying 39
Continuous Drying:
7. A granular material containing 50% moisture (dry weight basis) is fed to a

counter-current rotary dryer at a temperature of 295K. The material degrades
above 310K and is required to have a final moisture content of 5% (dry weight
basis). The air supplied has a humidity of 0.002 kg/kg, enters at 385K and
leaves at 315K. Dry air flowrate is 3 kg/s.
Assuming radiation losses amount to 15 kJ/kg dry air, determine the mass
flowrate of dry solids supplied to the dryer and the humidity of the exit air.
Water vapour latent heat at 295K= 2449 kJ/kg, solid heat capacity = 1.2 kJ/kg-
K, dry air heat capacity = 1.00 kJ/kg-K, water vapour heat capacity = 2.01
kJ/kg-K.
8. 900 kg/h of wet slurry containing 5 wt% water (wet basis) is to be dried to 0.1
wt% (wet basis) in a rotary co-current dryer. The air available would be supplied
at a temperature of 90°C and a wet bulb temperature of 30°C. Assuming that
the dryer operates adiabatically, that the solids leave the dryer at the wet bulb
temperature and that the pre-heat zone can be neglected, calculate the
following:
a. The temperature of the air leaving the dryer

b. The dry gas flowrate
c. The diameter and length of the dryer
The maximum mass velocity is 0.5 kg dry air/s.m2 and the humid heat of the
air can be taken as 1.5kJ/kg.K. The length of a transfer unit is given by: LTU =
6.12CsGv0.84, where Cs is the humid heat (kJ/kg.K), Gv is the gas mass velocity
(kg/s.m2).
9. Calculate the diameter and length of an adiabatic rotary dryer to dry 1270 kg/hr
of a heat sensitive solid from an initial moisture content of 15% to a final
moisture content of 0.5%, both dry basis. The solids have a specific heat of
2.18 kJ/kg,K they enter at 26.7°C and must not be heated to a temperature
above 51.7°C. Heating air is available at 126.7°C and a humidity of 0.01 kg/kg
dry air. The maximum allowable mass velocity of the air is 3420 kg/m2.h.

TOPIC 2. Drying 40
Questions 10 and 11 are optional questions for students who want to challenge their
knowledge:
10. The table below shows the time taken to dry a wet solid. Using the data,
calculate the critical and equilibrium moisture contents.
Take mA = 0.400.
Starting moisture (kg/kg) End moisture (kg/kg) Time (hr)

0.25 0.1 4.17
0.3 0.08 6.65
11. A co-current adiabatic tunnel dryer is required to handle 2000kg/hr of wet sand
from a moisture content of 1 to 0.1 kg water / kg dry sand. The air available for
drying has wet and dry bulb temperatures of 25°C and 54°C, respectively. The
air leaves the dryer at 32°C and the solid leaves at 25°C.
A series of preliminary batch tests, under design conditions, showed that the
critical moisture content of the sand was 0.5 kg water / kg dry sand and the
rate of drying above this value was 1.0 kg water /m2.h. Below the critical
moisture content, the drying rate fell till the equilibrium moisture content of 0
was reached. The effective area for drying is 0.3 m2/kg dry solid and, neglecting
shrinkage, calculate the length of the dryer required if it holds 20 kg of dry
material per m length.

TOPIC 2. Drying 41
2.8 Bibliography
Sinnott, R.K.. (2009). Coulson and Richardson's Chemical Engineering Volume 6 -

Chemical Engineering Design (5th Edition).Elsevier

TOPIC 2. Drying 42

TOPIC 3. Particle Technology 1
Topic 3
Particle Technology
Contents
Particle Technology ................................................................................................ 1
3.1 Introduction to Particle Technology....................................................................3
3.2 Particle Fluid Interaction ....................................................................................4
3.2.1 Sphere Boundary Layer.........................................................................5
3.3 Terminal Velocity ...............................................................................................7
3.3.1 Particle Diameter from Terminal Velocity .............................................10
3.3.2 Wall Effects .........................................................................................10
3.4 Particle Size Analysis ......................................................................................11
3.4.1 Equivalent Sphere Diameter ................................................................13
3.5 Non-Spherical Particles ...................................................................................14
3.5.1 Drag Coefficient of Non –Spherical Particles .......................................14
3.5.2 Shape Factor.......................................................................................14
3.5.3 Terminal Velocity of Non-Spherical Particles .......................................15
3.5.4 Size of Non-Spheres from Terminal Velocity .......................................16
3.5.5 Slip Correction .....................................................................................16
3.6 Sedimentation .................................................................................................17
3.6.1 Sludge Line Settling ............................................................................17
3.6.2 Density, Concentration and Voidage ...................................................18
3.6.3 Apparent Velocity ................................................................................19
3.6.4 Suspension Viscosity ..........................................................................20
3.6.5 Settling of Coarse Suspensions ...........................................................20
3.6.6 Effect of Concentration on Suspension Flux ........................................21
3.7 Flow in Packed Beds .......................................................................................22
3.7.1 Finding the Bed Specific Surface Area ................................................23
3.7.2 High Reynolds Number in Packed Beds ..............................................23

3.7.3 Wall Effects .........................................................................................25

3.7.4 Effect on K...........................................................................................25
3.8 Gas-Particle Separation ..................................................................................26
3.8.1 Gravity Settling Chamber ....................................................................26
3.8.2 Cyclone Separator...............................................................................27
3.10 Bibliography ..................................................................................................32

Learning objectives
After studying this Topic 3 of “Separation Processes B” you should be able to:
 Understand the importance of particle technology

 Understand the concept of drag force
 Understand the effect of particle size and shape on the particle properties
 Calculate/estimate the terminal velocity and drag coefficient for both
spherical and non-spherical particles
 Understand the concept of sedimentation
 Calculate different properties for flow in packed beds
 Understand the principles of solid-fluid separation

3.1 Introduction to Particle Technology
The term Particle Technology is used to refer to the science and technology related
to the handling and processing of particles and powders. It is also sometimes
referred to as powder technology, particle or powder science. Particles and powders
are usually referred to as particulate solids and bulk solids. Particle technology
includes the study of liquid drops, emulsions and bubbles, slurries, etc. Particles and
powders are commonly referred as bulk solids, particulate solids and granular solids.
Materials in particulate form are encountered in many industrial processes and in

everyday life. Most of the industrial processes deal with particles in their final
products (e.g. tones, detergents, pigments, food etc.) or deal with them in the course
of operation (e.g. catalysis, packing, drying etc.).Therefore, understanding particle
technology is essential to ensuring successful process design and operation.
Particle behaviour is not often as well predictable as it is the behaviour of gases and
liquids. A material in particulate form can have dramatically different properties and
behaviour depending on mean particle size, size distribution and surface topography.
For most materials, particle size and size distribution have a key role in determining
the bulk properties of the material. The size and the distribution of the particles can
be characterised if they were sphere shaped and had all the same size. However
real particles come in a range of sizes and shapes and it is not straight forward to
characterise them.

3.2 Particle Fluid Interaction

Normally, systems involve many particles in a fluid. Focusing at a single solid particle
in fluids would help to get a better understanding of the motion of a single particle.
Looking at a single particle in infinite fluid:
Figure 3.1 Single particle in fluid
When fluid moves relative to a particle, the particle experiences a drag force, F, in
the direction of fluid motion. The fluid also experiences the same force acting in the
opposite direction.
U is velocity of the fluid relative to the particle.
Drag Coefficient
The non-dimensionalised drag force is:

F
CD  …………………………………………......……………..……(3.1)
1 ρU2 A
2
Where
 = Fluid density
U = Fluid/Particle relative velocity
A = Particle projected area normal to U
F = Drag Force
CD = Drag coefficient
Reynolds Number for a particle
Ud
Re  …………………………………………………………………….(3.2)

Where
d = Particle diameter (or other length)
µ = Fluid viscosity.
For steady, incompressible flow of an ideal fluid past an isolated rigid particle, CD
depends on Re only.

3.2.1 Sphere Boundary Layer
Experiments give the relationship between the drag coefficient and the particle
Reynolds number. This relationship can be presented in a standard drag curve
(Figure 3.2).
Varying the Reynolds number ranges, the drag coefficient correlations can be
summarised as:
 At low Re, flow is practically inviscid (frictionless, zero viscosity). Flow

patterns on upstream and downstream sides are identical. This is the Stokes’
Law regime.
 At higher Re, flow detaches from the downstream particle surface. As Re
increases more, detachment point moves towards the front.
 At Re > 500, the flow pattern is settled as fully developed laminar flow.
 At Re  2105, there is a sudden transition to turbulent flow.

104
103
102
CD
101
100
10-1 -3
10 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105
Re
Figure 3.2 Standard drag curve
 Stokes’ Law
At Re < 0.2, the drag on a sphere is:
F  3 Ud …………………………………………………………………….(3.3)
Hence
24
CD  ……………………………………………………………………….(3.4)
Re

 Laminar Flow
For 500 < Re < 2105:
CD  0.44
 Developing Laminar Flow
For 0.2 < Re < 103, the empirical Schiller & Naumann expression can be used:
CD 
24
Re
 
1  0.15Re0.687 ……………………………………………...…….(3.5)
 Computer Formula
For all Re < 2.6105:
CD 
24
Re

1 0.1806Re0.6459  0.4251
1 6880.95
…………………………………...(3.6)
Re
Limitations of using standard drag curve:
 Steady flow. It assumes no acceleration

 Incompressible. The flow has a low Mach number
 Isothermal flow. It only applies to conditions of constant fluid and particle
temperature.
 Ideal fluid. In this case d», where  represents the mean free path of the
fluid.
 Isolated particle. It is assumed that there are no obstructions within 5d
 Rigid particle. There is no particle deformation by fluid forces.

3.3 Terminal Velocity

A particle released into a static fluid will experience three forces:
1. weight
2. buoyancy
3. drag
The particle will accelerate until these forces reach equilibrium:
d3
g(ρp  ρ)  F  0 …………………………………………………….…….(3.7)
6
Where
p = Particle density
 = Fluid density
F = Drag force.
d = Particle diameter
g = Acceleration due to gravity
 Stokes’ Regime
For Re0 < 0.2, the Stokes’ Law applies:
F=3   U0 d
Where
U0 = Terminal falling velocity
Re0 = Terminal Re
µ = Fluid viscosity.
d3
g(p  )  F  0
6 (Equation 3.7)
d3
g(p  )  3U0 d  0
6
d2 g(ρp  ρ)
U0  ………………………………………………………..…….(3.8)
18μ

 Laminar Flow
For 500 < Re0 < 2105, then CD=0.44:
F=CD ½ ¼d2………………………………………………………………..(3.9)
So:
4dg p  
U0  ………………………………………………………..…..(3.10)
3CD
The previous expression can be used also for turbulent flow, Re>2105, but with
CD=0.1
 Transition Region
Re0 is unknown initially, hence CD cannot be calculated. A dimensionless group

which does not depend on U0 can be constructed and that can be used to to find Re0.
The group CDRe 02 is independent of U0:
2
F  U0 d 
CD Re02   
1 U2 1 d2    ……………………………………….......(3.11)
2 0 4  
gp  
d3
F
6
and
gp    …………………………………………….…....(3.12)
4 d3
CD Re 02 
3 2

 All Regions
R’ is the force per unit projected area of particle in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of motion. For example for a sphere, the projected area would be of a
circle of the same diameter as the sphere.
R’/ρU2 is a form of the drag coefficient which can be denoted by C’D. The drag
1 R
coefficient CD is defined as the ratio of R’ to .
2 U2
Hence:
2 R
CD  2C'D 
U2
CD Re02 can be calculated from particle and fluid properties without knowing in
which regions CDRe02 applies (flow properties).
A graph of CDRe02 against Re0 can be constructed to hence find Re0 by knowing
CDRe02.1
R CD Re02
Re0 
2
……………………………………………………..…..(3.13)
U02 2
Against Re0 for 10-2 < Re0 < 104.
 Computer Formula
For Re0 < 2.6105:

1
1.214
 g ρp  ρ  3  18 0.824  0.3210.412 
U0      2     ………………..…(3.14)
 ρ2   Ar 3   Ar 3  
1
Where Ar (Archimedes number) is defined as:
d3 g p  
Ar  3
CD Re02  …………………………………………..….(3.15)
4
2
1 (Coulson & Richardson’s Volume 2 (5th Edition), p158)

3.3.1 Particle Diameter from Terminal Velocity
Knowing the terminal velocity, the particle size can be easily found in the Stokes’
Regime or in the fully developed Laminar Flow.
In the Transition Region to determine the particle size from its terminal velocity is
more difficult, however a parameter which is independent of the diameter can be
constructed and then used to find Re0.
The dimensionless group:
CD 4g p   
 …………………………………………………………(3.16)
Re 0 3 2U30
Eliminates diameter (d).
A chart of CD Re 0 against Re0 would allow for the diameter to be determined.2
3.3.2 Wall Effects
When a particle is within about 5d of solid boundaries or other particles, the flow
pattern is altered sufficiently to affect its terminal velocity.
For the Stokes’ Law region, the terminal velocity near a wall is given by:
U0
U0W  …………………………………………………………….….(3.17)
1  2.4
Where
d

D
Where
d = Particle diameter (or other length)
U0W = Terminal velocity near a wall
β = Diameter ratio
D= Diameter of the equipment where the particle is flowing (e.g., diameter
of the pipe)

3.4 Particle Size Analysis
In many powder and processing operations, particle size and distribution play a key
role in determining the bulk properties of the powder. Describing the size distribution
of the particles making up a powder is central in characterising the powder.
In many industrial operations, one single number is required to characterise the

particle size of the powder which is only accurate for mono-sized distribution of
spheres or cubes.
 Regular-shaped particles can be accurately described by:

o the shape
o the number of characteristic dimensions
 Irregular-shaped particles (this is a branch of science in itself)

o No single physical dimensions can adequately describe the size of an
irregularly shaped particle (as for cylinders, cuboid, etc.)
The dimension to be used in practice depends on:

o The property or dimension of the particle that is possible to measure.
o The relevant dimension for the specific issue under scrutiny.
Common diameters used in microscope analysis are statistical diameters, such as:
 Equivalent circle diameter –circle with area equivalent to the projected area
of the particle.
Figure 3.3 Equivalent circle diameter

 Martin’s diameter –length of the line that equally divides the projected area.
Figure 3.4 Martin’s diameter
 Feret’s diameter –distance between two parallel tangents on the opposite

sides of the particle.
Figure 3.5 Feret’s diameter
 Shear diameter –particle width obtained using an image shearing device.
Figure 3.6 Shear diameter

The orientation of the particle on the microscope slide will affect the projected image;
this affects the measured equivalent sphere diameter.
If a sieve is used to measure the particle size, an equivalent sphere diameter is

obtained (the diameter of a sphere passing through the sieve aperture).
If a sedimentation technique is used to measure the particle size, then the size is
defined as the diameter of a sphere having the same sedimentation velocity under
the same conditions.
3.4.1 Equivalent Sphere Diameter
 Equal volume sphere diameter is the diameter of the sphere having the same
volume as that of the particle.
 Volume equivalent is commonly the equivalent sphere diameter (used in the

Coulter counter size measurement techniques)
 Equivalent volume sphere diameter is the diameter of a sphere of the same

volume of the particle
 Surface-volume diameter is the diameter measured when using

permeametry to measure size
SA
Surface-volume diameter =
V
Where
SA = Surface area of the particle
V = Volume of the particle

3.5 Non-Spherical Particles
Some particles, e.g. liquid drops and condensed fumes, are approximately spherical;
many are not, e.g. crystals and milled products. Orientation of the particle affects its
non-spherical properties.
3.5.1 Drag Coefficient of Non –Spherical Particles
The drag coefficient for non-spheres is similar to that for a sphere.
 At low Re, Stokes Law applies and CD=K/Re. Longest particle dimension
along the flow direction.
(K is the constant for given shape and orientation of particle.
 Transition to Laminar flow covers smaller range of Re for non-spheres.

Orientation is unstable.
 In fully developed laminar flow, the drag coefficient is constant. Orientation is

with the maximum cross section across the flow direction.
3.5.2 Shape Factor
Since the sphere behaviour is well understood and easily described, we approximate
the behaviour of non-spheres in terms of an equivalent spherical particle.
Non-spheres’ behaviour can be described approximately in terms of the behaviour

of a sphere of Equivalent Diameter, de. However, different properties can be
considered to define various equivalents:
Equivalent Diameter Formula
Volume dv V=dv³/6
Surface ds S=ds²
Projected area dA A=¼dA²
Drag dD F=CDA½U², CDA=f(dD)

3.5.3 Terminal Velocity of Non-Spherical Particles
The terminal velocity (U0) of non-spherical particles is estimated by referring to the

behaviour of an equivalent sphere. Heywood’s method and using a computer formula
are some the methods developed to estimate this.
Heywood’s Method
1. Find dA, the particle’s projected area diameter when lying at its most stable
orientation and viewed from above
V
2. Calculate the Shape Factor k 
d3A
Where
V = Particle’s volume
k = A constant whose value depends on the shape of the particle
3. Calculate the terminal velocity of the sphere (U0sph) from Re0 using
8k d3A
CD Re02  g p   
 2 …………………………………………………(3.18)
4. Apply the correction factor3
U0=U0sphCorrection
Computer Formula
For Re0 < 2.5104 (d* < 2103) and >½,
1
 18 2.3348  1.7439 
U*   2  1


 d* d* 2 
1
 4 Re0 
1
3  2  3
U*     U0  
 3CD   g p   
 
1
3 
1
 g p    3
 dv  
3
d*   CD Re02 
4    2 
  ……………………………………(3.19)

d2v
And the Shape factor is: 
S
Where
dv = Volume equivalent diameter
S = Particle’s surface area
 = Shape factor
3.5.4 Size of Non-Spheres from Terminal Velocity
There is a similar method to find size of a non-sphere from terminal velocity (U0).
CD 8 k g p   
1. Calculate  ……………………………………….(3.20)
Re 0   2U30
CD
2. Find Re0 for a sphere from graph of against Re0
Re0
3. Apply the correction factor4
dA = Re0  Correction  /(.U0)
These techniques are approximations since they assume that the behaviour of a
particle of any shape can be described in terms of its shape factor and size only.
3.5.5 Slip Correction
For very small particles, the fluid no longer appears like a continuum to the particle.
If the particle is similar in size to the mean free path () of the gas, it can slip between
the molecules and have a higher settling velocity than estimated.
Applying the Cunningham Slip Factor:

 0.785 
d
C  1 1.764  0.562e 
d  
 …………………………………………..(3.21)
Corrected velocities based on the continuum assumption e.g.

U0 = C.U0continuum is appropriate only for d>.
Where
 = Mean free path
4 (Coulson & Richardson’s Volume 2, p167)

3.6 Sedimentation
For high concentration of suspensions there is significant interaction between the
particles. Therefore the frictional force exerted at a given velocity of the particles may
be greatly increased. This would lead to modifications of the flow pattern and cause
particles to settle slower; hindered settling takes place.
Several mechanisms affect settling in concentrated suspensions:
1. The effective density and viscosity of the continuous phase as ‘seen’ by

a particle are altered by the presence of other particles
2. Fluid is displaced upward as particles descend. The apparent particle

velocity is less than the relative velocity
3. The fluid velocity field around a particle is altered by other nearby particles
4. Small particles tend to be entrained in the wake of larger particles. The

entire suspension settles at the same rate if the range of sizes is <~6:1.
3.6.1 Sludge Line Settling

Consider a settling suspension of particles in a liquid.
Height
Time
Clear Liquid
Suspension
Sediment
Compressed
sediment
Figure 3.7 Sludge line setting

After a short time for acceleration, all the particles in the suspension will move at the
same speed, leaving behind a clear liquid layer and a depositing sediment. This is
referred as “sludge line settling”.
The sediment layer at the bottom becomes compressed. The sludge line separating
the clear liquid from the suspension descends at a constant rate for most of the
process.
Assuming that the Stokes’ law applies, the relative velocity between particles and
fluid is:
d2gp  s 
Ur 
18s …………………………………………………………….(3.22)
Where
 = Fluid density
μ = Fluid viscosity
The subscript “s” refers to suspension properties.
3.6.2 Density, Concentration and Voidage
Fluid Volume
 The voidage is defined as: =
Mixture Volume
 The volumetric concentration is: c = 1-
 The suspension density is: s    p 1 
So:
p  s  p  ……………………………………………………….…..(3.23)

3.6.3 Apparent Velocity
For an apparent settling velocity Ua, the volumetric flow rate of particles is:

Vp  Ua 1 A ………………………………………………………..……..(3.24)
In a batch sedimentation vessel of cross section A.
There must be an equal liquid volume flowing in the opposite direction in the voids
between particles, with area  A.
The upward fluid velocity of the liquid is:
Uf 
Vp
 Ua
1  ……….……………………………….……………….(3.25)
A 
The relative velocity between the fluid and the particles is:
Ua
Ur  Uf  Ua 
 …………………………………………………...……….(3.26)
The apparent settling velocity, which is readily measured, is thus:
2d2gp  
Ua  …………………………………………………………...(3.27)
18s
Where

V p = Volumetric flow rate of particles
Ua = Apparent settling velocity
Uf = Upward fluid velocity
Ur = Relative velocity between fluid and particles
ε = Voidage
A = Vessel of cross section A
 = Fluid density
F = Drag force.
µ = Viscosity of suspension

3.6.4 Suspension Viscosity
Empirical formulas are available to calculate the suspension viscosity.
For high voidage,  > 0.98, use:
s= (1+k(1-))………………………………………………………...……..(3.28)
Where k=2.5 for spheres.
At higher suspension concentration, use

 k1  
 s   exp  ………………………………………………………(3.29)
 1  a  a 
Where a is a shape-dependent constant; a  39 for spheres.
64
Cautions
1. Flocculation. Suspensions form large, loose groups of particles (flocs) of
uncertain size and density.
2. Viscosity. Prediction is unreliable. Suspension can be non-Newtonian. Gentle

stirring can reduce viscosity significantly.
3.6.5 Settling of Coarse Suspensions
Coarse particles have a much lower specific surface and interactions between
particles have a much less significance than in fine particle systems. Stokes’ Law
does not apply for large particles (>~100mm) and effective viscosity is inappropriate.
From experiments, the apparent velocity is:
Ua  U0 ε n ……………………………………………………………….……(3.30)
Where
U0 Terminal velocity of isolated sphere

Ua Apparent velocity
ε Voidage
n Richardson-Zaki index
n depends on the flow regime Re0, and on d/D, the particle/vessel diameter.

The table below shows the values of n as a function of Re0.
Re0 n
<0.2  d
 4.6 + 20 
 D 
0.2-1  d
 4.4 + 18  Re 0.03
0
 D 
1-200  d
 4.4 + 18  Re0.1
0
 D 
200-500 4.4 Re0.1
0
500-2x 2.4
3.6.6 Effect of Concentration on Suspension Flux
As the suspension concentration increases, the apparent settling velocity, Ua,

reduces. But the higher concentration may result in increased volumetric flux of
sediment.

 Ua 1  ε  ……………………………………………………..….(3.31)
Vp
A

 ε n 1  ε 
Vp
A U0 …………………………………………………..……(3.32)
Analytically, this indicates a maximum flux of sediment at ε ≈ 82% for fine particles
or ≈ 71% for coarse particles.
In practice, mainly because of flocculation, maximum flux may be observed at

ε ≈ 98%.
Figure 3.8: Flux-voidage curve

3.7 Flow in Packed Beds

There are some expressions developed to predict the pressure drop across beds of
particles due to the resistance caused by the presence of the particles.
 Darcy Law
Flow is often laminar as pores are small and velocity is low.

Pressure loss is proportional to viscosity, superficial velocity and bed thickness.
U Lμ
P  …………………………………………………………………....(3.33)
B
Where
µ = Viscosity
U = Superficial velocity
L = Bed thickness
B = Bed permeability (units m2)
 Kozeny Equation
For laminar flow in a pipe or a pore of diameter dp, length Lp, velocity Up:
32 μ UpL p
P  …………………………………………………......….…...(3.34)
dp2
Consider a cube of side X in the packed bed. The free volume in the cube is εX3.
The cross sectional area available for the flow is εX3/X=εX2.
By continuity, U X2=Up ε X2 so:
U
Up 
ε
And:
Void Volume ε
dp   ………………………………………………....(3.35)
Wetted Surface Sb
Where Sb is the specific surface area of the bed.

3.7.1 Finding the Bed Specific Surface Area
Sb is obtained from S, the specific surface area of the Bed Packing:
WettedSurface
Sb 
Bed Volume
Wetted Surface PackingVolume

Sb  
PackingVolume Bed Volume
Sb  S  (1 ) ………………………………………………………….…..(3.36)
So the Kozeny pore diameter is:

ε
dp 
S(1- )
Assuming that the pore length is proportional to the bed depth L:
KS2 (1- )2

P  UL …………………………………………………..…..(3.37)
ε3
Equation 3.37 is the Kozeny equation. K is the Kozeny’s constant, K≈5.
3.7.2 High Reynolds Number in Packed Beds
Define Re for flow through a pore:
Up dp U
Rep   …………………………………………………(3.38)
  S (1  )
Similarly, define the pore friction factor:
P dp P  3
fp   ……………………………………………...….(3.39)
L Up2 L S 1  U2
Unlike pipe flow, transition to turbulent flow does not occur suddenly. Each pore is
different so transition in each pore occurs independently.

Experimental data have been correlated using the parameters Rep and fp.
Rep = Re for flow through a pore

fp = Pore friction factor
ε = Voidage
S = Surface area per unit volume of particle or packing
ΔP = Pressure drop
 = Fluid density
µ = Viscosity
L = Bed thickness
 Carman Equation
For flow in randomly packed beds of solid shapes:
5 0.4
fp   0.1 ………………………………………………………..…..(3.40)
Re p Re p
 Sawistowski Equation
For ring type packing:
5 1
fp   0.1 …………………………………………………………….(3.41)
Re p Re p
 Ergun Equation
For saddle type packing with high specific surface at low voidage:
4.17
fp   0.29 ……………………………………………………………..(3.42)
Rep

3.7.3 Wall Effects
Particles cannot pack closely near the wall.
Figure 3.9: Particles near the wall
The voidage is higher near the wall. Overall, the flow resistance is reduced by the
wall correction factor:
2
 S 
f w  1  21 c  ……………………………………………………………..(3.43)
 S 
Where:
Sc is the wetted surface area of the container per unit bed volume
fw is the wall correction factor.
The pressure drop is:
P
P  …………………………………………………………………....(3.44)
fw
3.7.4 Effect on K
K is a constant depending on the physical properties of the bed and fluid. These
properties that have an effect on K are:
 Particle Size
For a narrow range of size, K=4.8±0.3. But if the range exceeds 5:1, voidage is
low and K is reduced.
 Particle Shape
Provided 0.3<ε<0.8 then 4<K<5.5 except for thin plate shapes, for which 3<K<6.
 High Voidage
Voidage is limited to ε<0.6 for approximately isometric shapes. But some ring
packings can achieve very high ε. Use the Sawistowski equation for 0.8<ε<0.9.

3.8 Gas-Particle Separation

Small particles may be retained in suspension by a gas stream over long time or
distance. Separation of gas from particles is important due to:
 Health issues: Metallic and siliceous dusts with 0.5μm<d<3μm are most
damaging
 Safety reasons: Fine powders can form explosive mixtures with air
 Product Collection: e.g., Spray Dryers, Pneumatic Conveying
 Cleaning: e.g., Removal of catalyst from FCC product
Various separation mechanisms can be used for gas-particle separation, these are:
 Gravity
 Inertia/Centrifugal force
 Filtration
 Electrostatics
 Wet Scrubbing
Separation Stages generally involve the following stage:
1. Deposit of particles on a collecting surface

2. Retaining of particles on collecting surface
3. Controlled removal from collecting surface
3.8.1 Gravity Settling Chamber
Gas flows through long vessels at low speed U. Particles descend at U0. Small
particles settle at a lower rate therefore they are carried further forward before they
reach the bottom of the chamber. The very small particles are carried away in the
fluid overflow.
Figure 3.10: Gravity settling chamber
L
The residence time of the suspension in the vessel is t 
U

U0L
Particle falls a distance h, given by: h  U0 t  in time t
U
Particles entering below h are collected; those above are not. Consequently, the
collection efficiency is given by:
h U0L
η  ……………………………………………………………..…(3.45)
H UH
This separation process is suited for separation of large particles, i.e. d>100μm; a
very low pressure drop, ~50N/m2is usually involved. Velocity has to be less than
3m/s to prevent re-entrainment. The process requires dust hopper and e.g. rotary
valves to control discharge of particles.
3.8.2 Cyclone Separator
In this type of separators, the centrifugal force is much greater than weight so small
particles (~10μm) can be separated using smaller equipment than settling
chambers. However the pressure loss is greater (250-1000 N/m2) than that needed
in settling chambers.
Figure 3.11: Cyclone Separator
Gas spirals with high tangential velocity and lower radial and axial velocity
components inward and initially downward. Near the centre, the axial velocity
changes direction, toward the gas outlet. This is the Central Core.

Gas Velocity
1. Tangential Velocity
The tangential velocity is inversely proportional to the √radius outside the central
core:
D
UtD  Ut …………………………………………………………………(3.46)
2r
Where
UtD = Inlet gas velocity
Ut = Tangential Velocity
D = Cyclone inside diameter.
2. Radial Velocity
The radial velocity is given by the volumetric flow rate divided by cylindrical surface
area at r:
G
Ur  …………………………………………………………….....(3.47)
2 r Zρ
Where
G = Mass flow rate of gas of density ρ into the cyclone
Ur = Radial Velocity
Z = Depth of the separator
Particle Force Balance
The tangential velocity causes a centrifugal force. The radial gas velocity causes a
drag force. For a given particle, these forces are in equilibrium at a particular
radius:
mU2t
 3  μ Ur d
r
Then:
 d2U2tDDZp 
r
18 μ G
Provided that r is outside the central core of diameter x.D0 (x~0.4), particles are
retained within the cyclone at radius r, and gradually migrating to the particle exit
down the conical wall.

The inlet velocity is:
G
UtD  for an inlet area of Ai
Ai 
So the cut-off particle diameter is:
9 x D0  A i2 
dcrit  ……………………………………………………….(3.48)
 GD Z p
Collection Efficiency in Practice
There is not a sharp cut-off between collected and unseparated particle sizes.
There is a range of sizes over which removal is partial.
Figure 3.12: Efficiency-particle diameter curve
Theoretical cut-off generally corresponds to efficiency η~80%.

1. Using simple spherical particle drag theory, estimate the force required to
overcome air drag on:
a) Cyclist travelling at 7 mph

b) Car travelling at 100 mph
2. 6000 Calculate the terminal falling velocity of a 1 mm diameter glass (density

2600 kg/m3) sphere in water at room temperature.
3. Estimate the time taken for a 5 mm spherical water drop to fall 100m in still air.
Neglect mass transfer and internal circulation effects.
4. Square mica plates 0.08 cm thick by 0.065 cm2 area are falling through oil,
density 880 kg/m3 and viscosity 0.015 Ns/m2. What is the terminal velocity?
Specific gravity of mica is 3.0.
5. A finely ground mixture of 20% by mass galena with limestone is subject to

elutriation (separation by difference in terminal velocity) in an upward water
stream flowing at 5 mm/s. Assuming that the size distribution of each material
is as shown in the table, estimate the fraction of galena in the elutriated stream
and in the material left behind. Specific gravities: galena 7.5, limestone 2.7.
Diameter (μm) 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
Mass % undersize 15 28 48 54 64 72 78 88

6. Estimate the time taken by air bubbles injected at a depth of 10 m to reach the
top of a water tank if the initial bubble diameter is 2mm.
7. A Calculate the diameter of a spherical catalyst particle of density 1284 kg/m3

if its terminal velocity if 0.15m/s in water. What is the apparent settling velocity
of a suspension of such particles if the voidage is 0.66?
8. Calculate the apparent settling velocity of 1.55 mm diameter spherical particles

of density 1260 kg/m3 in water if the suspension contained 45% solids by
weight. What is the relative velocity between water and particles?
9. A core sample of porous sandstone is 15 mm diameter by 25 mm long. What

is its permeability if there is a pressure drop of 2.75 bar across the sample at
an axial water flow rate of 1.5 ml/s? Estimate the specific surface bed if the
voidage is 0.3.

3.10 Bibliography
Rhodes, M.. (2008) Introduction to Particle Technology (2nd Edition) Wiley

GLOSSARY 1
Topic 4
GLOSSARY
Adiabatic
A thermodynamic process which takes place without heat transfer to or from an

external source.
Agglomeration
The process of gathering fine particles together into larger particles to form coarser
particles.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy is defined as the tendency of a body to float or rise when submerged in a

fluid. The resulting force acting on a submerged body by the fluid is called the
buoyant force.
Continuum assumption
The assumption requires that a fluid is treated as a continuous distribution of matter,

or a continuum, where properties, velocities, etc. may vary point-by-point.
Critical moisture content
The moisture content of a body at the time during drying when the constant rate
drying period changes to the falling rate drying period. It is also used to represent
the point between bound and unbound moisture content.
Condensate
When steam condenses to a liquid, then the liquid water is generally at high pressure
and temperature – liquid water formed in this way is often referred to as
“condensate”.

GLOSSARY 2
Correlation
A correlation is a mathematical expression that expresses the dependency between

different variables.
Dispersion
It is a system where fine particles of one substance are scattered throughout another
substance.
Dühring’s Rule
Dühring's rule states that the ratio of the temperatures at which two solutions (one of
which can be pure water) exert the same vapour pressure is constant.
If the vapour pressure/temperature relation of a reference liquid is selected, and if
two points on the vapour pressure-temperature curve of the solution are known, the
boiling points of the solution to be evaporated at various pressures can be read off
from the diagram called a Duhring plot.
The Duhring plot will give the boiling point of solutions of various concentrations by
interpolation, and at various pressures by proceeding along a line of constant
composition.
Empirical
Empirical data is a source of knowledge obtained from observation or

experimentation.
Entrainment
Entrainment is the liquid carried by vapour up to the tray above and is caused by
high vapour flow rates. It reduced the tray and could also contaminate the distillate.
Fouling
During operation with most liquids and some gases a dirt film gradually builds up on
the heat-transfer surface. The deposit is referred to as fouling.
Hydrate
A hydrate is a compound formed by the combination if certain chemical compounds

by water.

GLOSSARY 3
Inviscid
A fluid that assumed to have no viscosity.
Mach Number
The Mach Number is a dimensionless value used for analysing problems related to
fluid dynamics where compressibility is a significant factor.
Surface topography
Surface topography is the nature of a surface. The topography of a surface is known

to substantially affect the bulk properties of a material.

GLOSSARY 4

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Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom

Produced by Heriot-Watt University, 2018

Copyright © 2018 Heriot-Watt University

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This material is prepared to support the degree programmes in Chemical

Distributed by Heriot-Watt University

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©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

1.1. Introduction to Evaporation ............................................................................ 3

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

2.1 Introduction to Drying of Solids ....................................................................... 3

TOPIC 3: PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY

3.1 Introduction to Particle Technology................................................................. 3

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

3.5 Non-Spherical Particles ................................................................................ 14

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

 B49CA Separation Processes A

 Understand the general principles of evaporation

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

1.1. Introduction to Evaporation

Evaporation is an operation used to remove a liquid from aqueous solutions by

Evaporators are widely used in processes to concentrate solutions or slurries:

 To obtain a pure solvent

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

1.2 Indirect Heating

1. Natural circulation units

In natural-circulation evaporators, circulation of the liquid is achieved by convection

STEAM Large tube (down flow)

Small tubes (up flow)

Figure 1.1 Natural circulation evaporator

Small tubes (up flow)

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

1.2.2 Forced Circulation

In forced circulation evaporators a pump or impeller is used to increase the

Forced circulation evaporators are advantageous if:

 Materials of construction are not too expensive

Disadvantages of forced circulation evaporators are:

 Higher operating costs

Figure 1.2 Forced circulation flash evaporator

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

1.2.3 Film Type Units

a) Climbing (rising) film

Figure 1.3 Climbing film evaporator

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

Figure 1.4 Falling film evaporator

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

c) Thin (scraped) film

Thin-film units consist of a vertical tube which is surrounded by a jacket which

Figure 1.5 Thin film evaporators

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

1.3 Some Important Considerations

Operating under vacuum is particularly important when processing temperature

1.3.2 Boiling Point Rise (BPR)

Boiling point of a solvent at any pressure increases with increasing solution

Figure 1.6 Duhring plot

©HERIOT-W ATT UNIVERSITY B49CD January 2018 v4

1.3.3 Nomenclature and Basic Equations