Q.1 Discuss the branches of Philosophy.

Branches of philosophy
The major arms of the philosophical enterprise are:
1) Metaphysics
Metaphysics is derived from Greek word ‘meta’ meaning beyond combined with
physics or science. So, metaphysics is beyond science or physics. It explains about
the fundamental nature of beings and the world that encompasses it. Metaphysics
is further subdivided into three arms which are;
(1) Ontology- the study of being (being qua being).
(2) Cosmology- the study of the nature of the universe.
(3) Cosmogony- the study of the origin of the universe.
2) Epistemology
Epistemology can be defined as a critical evaluation of all our claims to knowledge.
It is the thorough study of knowledge and truth in all ramifications.
Etymologically, it was coined from the two Greek words “episteme” meaning
“knowledge”, and “logos” which means “theory”. Thus, they together merge to
translate as "theory of knowledge"- the etymology of epistemology.
3) Ethics
Ethics which is also known as moral philosophy is a normative and prescriptive
discipline which is concerned with the justification of the principles of morality.
This is because it is concerned with what "ought" to be the case as regards the
implementation of morality and its codes. Ethics has several definitions, but the
most accepted one is, ethics is,” the normative science of human conduct”. Its
etymology is gotten from the Greek words “Ethika”- morals; and “Ethos”- custom.
Ethics has two main branches, which are highlighted thus;
a) Meta-Ethics
This is the branch of ethics which deals with the analysis and
clarification of ethical terms such as “good”, “bad”, “virtue”, “vice”,
“justice” and so on. The major challenge in meta-ethics is the question
of "how do we come to know a good or bad action"? In this regard, four
meta-ethical theories have sprung up in order to solve this problem,
which are; Naturalism, Anti-naturalism, Emotivism, Prescriptivism.
b) Normative ethics
This branch of ethics is at its very core. This is because it basically
deals with the norms, principles and standards of human behavior.
 The major challenge in normative ethics, is the question of, "what is
the moral standard"? In this regard, eight platforms which are
assumed to be the solution (the moral standard), whether individually
or collectively, have been proposed, they are; Social custom, Law,
Revelation, Conscience, Pleasure, Universalizability, Intuition, Right
Reason.
4) Logic
It is closely connected both by knowledge and value. Final knowledge controls one’s
experiences in life. Logic comes from the state of values which is observed on facts of
experiences.
Other Branches
1) Philosophy of Education: Fairly self-explanatory. A minor branch mainly
concerned with what is the correct way to educate a person. Classic works include
Plato's Republic, Locke's Thoughts Concerning Education, and Rousseau's Emile.
2) Philosophy of History: Fairly minor branch (not as minor as education), although
highly important to Hegel and those who followed him, most notably Marx. It is the
philosophical study of history, particularly concerned with the question whether
history is progressing towards a specific end? Hegel argued that it was, as did
Marx. Classic works include Vico's New Science, and Hegel and Marx's works.
3) Philosophy of Language: Ancient branch of philosophy which gained prominence
in the last century under Wittgenstein. Basically concerned with how our
languages affect our thought. Wittgenstein famously asserted that the limits of our
languages mark the limits of our thought. Classic works include Plato's Cratylus,
Locke's Essay, and Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.
4) Philosophy of Law: Also called Jurisprudence. Study of law attempting to discern
what the best laws might be, how laws came into being in the first place,
attempting to delimit human laws from natural laws, whether we should always
obey the law, and so on. Law isn't often directly dealt with by philosophers, but
much of political philosophy obviously has a bearing on it.
5) Philosophy of Mathematics: Concerned with issues such as, the nature of the
axioms and symbols (numbers, triangle, operands) of mathematics that we use to
understand the world, do perfect mathematical forms exist in the real world, and
so on.
6) Philosophy of Mind: Study of the mind, attempting to ascertain exactly what the
mind is, how it interacts with our body, do other minds exist, how does it work,
and so on. Probably the most popular branch of philosophy right now, it has
 expanded to include issues of AI. Classic works include Plato's Republic and
Wittgenstein's Philosophical Investigations, although every major philosopher has
had some opinion at least on what the mind is and how it works.
7) Philosophy of Politics: Closely related to ethics, this is a study of government
and nations, particularly how they came about, what makes good governments,
what obligations citizens have towards their government, and so on.
8) Philosophy of Religion: Theology is concerned with the study of God,
recommending the best religious practices, how our religion should shape our life,
and so on. Philosophy of religion is concerned with much the same issues, but
where Theology uses religious works, like the Bible, as its authority, philosophy
likes to use reason as the ultimate authority.
9) Philosophy of Science: It is the Study of science concerned with whether
scientific knowledge can be said to be certain, how we obtain it, can science really
explain everything, does causation really exist, and can every event in the universe
be described in terms of physics and so on. Also popular in recent times, classic
works include Hume's Treatise on Human Nature, Kripke's Naming and Necessity,
Kuhn's Structure of Scientific Revolutions.

Q.2 Analyze the Relationship of Education and Philosophy.

Philosophy and education are two different fields of studies but they are closely linked
together, because without any rational thinking prior to education, the whole
educational process is directionless. An intimate relationship between philosophy and
education is as under.
1) Firstly, Philosophy Points out the Way, to be followed by Education:
We have already said, education means modification of the child’s native behavior.
But the problem is in which direction modification should be carried out and what
should be the standards and values, to strive for. This problem is solved by
philosophy which points out the way to be followed by the educator in the
modification of the child’s behavior. Philosophy, thus, deals with the ends and
education is a laboratory’ in which philosophic theories and speculations are
tested and made concrete. Education may, therefore, be rightly called applied
philosophy. Philosophy is wisdom; education transmits that wisdom from one
generation to the other. Philosophy is in reality the theory of education. In other
words, education is the dynamic side of philosophy, or application of the
fundamental principles of philosophy. Philosophy formulates the method,
 education its process. Philosophy gives ideals, values and principles. Education
works out those ideals, values and principles.
2) Secondly, Education is the Best Means for the Propagation of Philosophy:
A philosopher is a constant seeker of truth. He contemplates on the real nature of
the universe, the real nature of man and man’s destiny. It is only after a good deal
of contemplation and deliberation that he arrives at the truth and lays down
certain aims, ideals and values. He then tries to live in accordance with those aims
and values and also wants others to be converted to his beliefs and live according
to them. This he can achieve through education which is the best means for the
propagation of his philosophy. Ross has beautifully summed up this point, when
he says, “Philosophy and education are two sides of the same coins where the
former is the contemplative while the latter is the active side.” “Education then,”
as Sir John Adam has put it, “is the dynamic side of philosophy.” Philosophy sets
the goal of life; education provides the means for its achievement. Education
becomes more prominent than philosophy as action speaks louder than words or
belief. A belief that is vital, results in a prominent education effort.
3) Thirdly, all Great Philosophers of the World Have Also Been Great Educators:
The intimate relationship between philosophy and education is established in yet
another way. The great philosophers of all times from Plato to the present day
have also been great educators. They reflected their philosophical view on their
educational schemes. Most of the education movements of the world, owe their
origin to the philosophical school of different philosophers. The reason is that
when a philosopher wishes to spread his ideas they converted their forest homes
into schools with a view to preserve the finest results of their life-long meditation
for the coming generations. The ideals of Lord Buddha were practiced and
preached through a well-organized system of monasteries, which were also great
centers of Buddhist education. Great European philosophers like. Locke,
Rousseau and Spencer were also great educators. In modern times, Tagore and
Gandhi, the great thinkers and philosophers of India and John Dewey of America,
took keen interest in the educational problems of their respective countries and
involved new systems of education based of their own ideals.
4) Fourthly, Philosophy determines all the Broad Aspects of Education:
In fact, all the problems of education are problems of philosophy. It is philosophy
that provides aims to education. These aims determine the curriculum, the
methods of teaching, the problems of school organisation and school discipline
and also the role of the teacher in the educational process. Thus so long as we
 need aims of education, based on the ultimate goal of life (and this need will
always be there) philosophy will continue influencing and determining both the
matter and the method of education. It will continue making a unique contribution
to the development of the educational theory and practice.
5) Lastly, Modern Philosophies Have a Special Impact:
In 19th century there was the influence of the concept of mechanism of Physics.
Psychology and Economics Neo-Darwinism gave rise to the acceptance of the
principle of struggle for existence, cut-throat competition gradual process of
adaptation of the purposiveness of life, intellectualism and man’s faith in reason.
Emphasis on knowledge received universal acceptance. In 20th century, the two
world wars, and the consequent the destruction wrought by the application of
science gave rise to less of faith in mere intellect. Humanism, faith to higher
principle and values of life, character development and emotional integration
received greater impetus. There began a distrust of mere logic. So new schools of
philosophy originated trying to synthesize science and religion. The present age is
the age of re-union. The period of synthesis, both in philosophy and in education.

Q.3 Evaluate the role of following branches of philosophy in system of education:

Epistemology:
It’s important because we need to “know” through a method that is correct enough to
ensure the information or knowledge that we get from the real world. Anything that we
know as science today comes from Ontology and Epistemology. Philosophy is like what
we believe by reason and logic before every science there is a Philosophy. Even when
science exists as a gold standard method to have some certain about the world we need
take a position about the world, our life and our existence so a Philosophy is always the
west way to define our self before every action.
Biology, physics, mathematics, economy, arts, music, medicine and education have both
science and Philosophy. So if we are talking about education there is a lot of books
about Philosophy of education, but epistemology has his own position not in the way of
teaching or learning but in the way of knowing because it’s a different discussion if we
are talking about learning or teaching than we are talking about knowledge. In this case,
if we are making a reference about the position that takes a teacher, a student or a
university about how we acquire and share knowledge we are talking about epistemology
not Philosophy of education. A teacher of history, science or maths does not really need
to know anything about the theory of their discipline. They can simply get on and teach
it. Maths, science and history despite the theoretical nature of their outcomes in terms
of methodologies are practical kinds of activity. It is nevertheless important to
understand the nature of the discipline at the theoretical level when it comes to strategy
and planning. One's particular epistemological commitment inform one’s understanding
of the difference between knowledge and opinion, and therefore provides a basis for
determining what can or can't be known vs. what can or can't be placed in the category
of matters of opinion. Having this in place, one can determine the methods one can
employ to relay knowledge to others (e.g. lecturing, visual aids, one on one interaction,
multimodal sensory apparatuses, group interactions, etc). One can also judge which of
these is best, since one's epistemology had set the parameters for judging a given
educational style/model as successful or unsuccessful.
Axiology:
In axiology education is more than just about knowledge but also quality of life.
Teachers may not be that familiar with the term “axiology” but they are familiar with
values and character education. Teachers I know are committed to the while child, that
is, building values, empathy, compassion, anti-racism, and pursuing social justice.
Much of this is socially and culturally driven so teachers must be culturally and socially
conscious and appropriate. Power structures and privilege afforded to some at great cost
to others (in the present and historically) must be acknowledged and actively &
continuously challenged. One of the most important tasks of the teacher and educator is
the arrangement and contrivance for the purification of the students’ souls. Love and
reverence for the teacher are generated within the heart if the teacher is ‘good’ both in
thought and feelings. It is a common sense reality that whenever and wherever a person
sees the ‘good’ in the form of selfless love, charity, righteousness, truthfulness, sincerity,
justice, mercy and care for all creation, balanced and impractical judgment, humility,
then his or her heart is immediately attracted towards that manifestation, and love and
reverence are generated within the heart for the person whose behavior reflects those
qualities. The education can achieve man to a position in which man truly loves virtue
and goodness, enjoy the rational beauty, lives in real happiness, and become delivered
from every undue grief. The students must know why the teacher values the subject,
how the subject has transformed the teacher’s life. By the same token, the teacher must
value the students as potential friends, be vulnerable to the ways students may the
teacher’s relationship with the subject as well as be transformed.

Q.4. Discuss the main tenets of Idealism and Realism.

Tenets of Idealism
1) Idealism Believes in the Universal Mind:
 Besides the physical or material universe, there is also a spiritual universe which
is permeated by the Universal Mind of God. He is the Creator and others are the
created. Human mind is a part of the Universal Mind and is dependent of Him.
God or the Universal Mind is the source of all human values and the goal of all
human activities is the realization of this Universal Mind is one’s own self.
Upanishads provide the fundamental theme of Indian idealistic thought—the
divinity of man and the spiritual principle governing cosmos:
2) Idealism Regards Man as a Spiritual Being:
Idealism believes that man is a mere animal. He is essentially a spiritual being
whose chief aim is to develop his spiritual nature. It is this spirituality that
distinguishes man from other lower creatures. The underlying principle of the
idealistic philosophy is “Mind or spirit is the essential world stuff and that mind is
not merely brain and its activity, but is in itself a real thing.” Reality is found in
the mind of man and not in the external world. Upanishads proclaim the identity
of universal soul and the individual soul. Vedanta explains the same, and teaches
how to realize self as the ultimate. The self is to be seen. That is the ultimate goal
of life according to Hindu idealism. In the domain of spiritualism, there is no room
for competition, hypocrisy and jealously. There is only brotherhood of man and
fatherhood of God.
3) The World of Ideas and Values is more important than the world of Matter:
Idealism has full faith in eternal values which never change. They can neither be
created nor destroyed. According to Plato, the outstanding eternal values are
Truth, Goodness and Beauty. They are exactly similar to the attributes of God as
expressed by the sages and seers of ancient Indian in the words. Man cannot
create these values. He can only discover them if he tries. According to idealism,
“Everything which we truly judged to be good or beautiful is so because it partakes
of the nature of Absolute Goodness or Beauty. It is Absolute Beauty which makes
all beautiful things, beautiful. ”Shankaracharya even objects to the reality of the
physical world. To Kant and Schpenhauer the objective world does not exist apart
from the subjective thought. Matter may be a projection of mind, or even a
creation of mind.
4) Real knowledge is perceived in mind:
The knowledge which is gained through the activity of mind is more important
than the knowledge, acquired through senses.
5) Stress on the Principle of Unity of Diversity:
 Idealists stress on the Principle of Unity in Diversity. They believe that implicit in
all the diversities are an essential unity. Prof. H. N. Home says, “An idealistic
philosophy of education, then, is an account of man finding himself as an integral
part of universe mind.”
6) Importance of Personality Development:
Idealists give very importance to the ‘Self of the individual. Hence they insist upon
the fullest development of the personality of an individual. The development of
personality means achievement of perfection. According to J. S. Ross, “Thus the
grandeur and worth of human life at its best are emphasized by Idealism. Human
personality is of supreme value and constitutes the noblest work of God.”
Tenets of Realism
1) Existence of objects is independent of knowledge:
According to the naive realists objects exist irrespective of our knowledge of them.
Scientific realism accepts this notion but according to it thoughts concerning the
objects are based on the mind.
2) Qualities are inherent in known objects:
According to the naive realist the qualities that are experienced in the object are
part and parcel of the object while the scientific realist distinguishes between
primary and secondary qualities maintaining that primary qualities belong to the
objects while the secondary are attributed to the object by the mind in the process of knowing.
3) Knowledge does not affect the object or its qualities:
According to the naive realist the object or its qualities do not suffer by becoming
the subjects of knowledge but according to the scientific realist this theory does
not hold true for secondary qualities.
4) Knowledge of objects is direct:
According to the naive realist, knowledge of objects is direct and perceptual.
According to representations, this is true of simple thoughts, for in complex
thought knowledge is indirect since complex thoughts are compounded of simple ones.
5) Objects are common:
According to the naive realist objects are common while according to
representationists objects are commonly available only for the purposes of primary
or elementary thought. Scientific realism holds that the same object may be
experienced differently by different individuals.
6) Relation between object and thought:
Native realism holds that there is relation between object and its thought, but the
scientific realist rejects this theory.
 Q.5. Describe the sources of knowledge.
In epistemology, a common concern with respect to knowledge is what sources of
information are capable of giving knowledge. The following are some of the major sources
of knowledge:
1) Sensory Perception 
Senses are the gate ways of knowledge. Five senses help an individual to get
primary information regarding any object, individual or events and so forth. For
example, students can see an experiment conducted by the teacher, hear the
explanation, touch the object or product, smell the output, taste the product etc.
Through this five activity (five sense organs) or any one activity (single sense
organ) students are able to construct and verify information regarding the
experiment conducted. Hence sensory perceptions are the one important source or
means of acquiring knowledge. In the case of a researcher, the sensory
perceptions are important to them to collect information and verify the
authenticity and originality of acquired knowledge.
2) Logical Reasoning
Logical reasoning is another way of acquiring Knowledge. It is related to brainy
functioning. Ignorance and blind believes made man as a sleeping brains, later,
curiosity and search for cause and effect relationship paved the way of unfolding
natural truths and facts. People become modern and developed by the way they
approach the matters through logical reasoning. Deductive as well as inductive
reasoning are emerged by the time as methods of logical reasoning. Individuals
may infer things through deductive reasoning, abstract thinking, finding
relationship between events and variables and so forth. For example a competent
person can make valid conclusion regarding the nature and consequences of
certain events by observing behavior of individuals or analyzing chain of events,
statement and attitude of national leaders and so forth. Through the logical
reasoning a researcher can deduct and infer information regarding the research
problem.
3) Traditions 
Traditions are another important source of knowledge. Much social related
knowledge are preserved and transmitted through traditions. For example social
skills, values, social functions are entirely routed in traditions of the society.
Traditions have local as well as national impact. A researcher can get information
regarding the indigenous treatment system, folklore arts, skilled based traditional
 social class are available from social traditions. There much information which is
largely depends on traditions.
4) Experience 
Personal as well as professional experience of an individual contributes much in
his knowledge. Personal experience in family, society, and neighborhood taught
humans many lessons regarding the behavior, adjustment, social dealings,
patience and so forth. Professional experiences make an individual perfectly
professional. Knowledge of matters regarding to be performed or not to be do in
personal as well as professional situation create through experiences. Learning by
doing is also come under this category.
5) Naturalistic Inquiry 
Thirst for knowledge is the uniqueness of human being. When s/he wants to solve
a certain problem or confront a curious situation. S/he starts searching for the
solution of the problem in naturalistic way. The final solution will be found out by
getting new information regarding the problem through the inquiry. For example a
researcher felt a problem of why the students of backward areas are less enrolled
in higher education. The researcher may formulate possible reasons and
possibilities of the problem. Empirically collect information from the original
sources, she/he may go to the community location and approach the concerned
subject of the study and their social situation. Through this inquiry process the
researcher get much valuable information and thereby infer the solution of the
problem. The knowledge construction through this process can be termed as
naturalistic Inquiry.
6) Trial and Error 
Trial and error is one of the ways of acquiring new knowledge. The term trial and
error is contributed by famous psychologist E.L. Thorndike. Individuals learn more
things through trial and error process. Knowledge related to practical,
professional, skilled and semi skilled professions are largely depends on this
source of knowledge. For example knowledge of use of computer, smart phone,
driving, playing cricket, football, teaching etc can be acquired through trial and
error.
7) Scientific approach 
Knowledge can be created or accumulated through various means. Scientific
approach is very important means of knowledge acquisition. Scientific approach
ensures the reliability and rationality of the information or knowledge acquired.
The knowledge constructed through scientific approach has following features.
 1. Body of Knowledge 2. Universal application
3. Empirically proved 4. Experimental
5. Measurable 6. Observable
7. Trustworthiness 8. Objectivity
9. Validity 10. Reliability

Q.1 Critically evaluate the Plato's idea of education according to classes.

Education for Plato was one of the great things of life. Education was an attempt to
touch the evil at its source, and reform the wrong ways of living as well as one’s outlook
towards life. According to Barker, education is an attempt to cure a mental illness by a
medicine. The object of education is to turn the soul towards light. Plato once stated that
the main function of education is not to put knowledge into the soul, but to bring out
the latent talents in the soul by directing it towards the right objects. This explanation of
Plato on education highlights his object of education and guides the readers in proper
direction to unfold the ramifications of his theory of education. Plato was, in fact, the
first ancient political philosopher either to establish a university or introduce a higher
course or to speak of education as such. This emphasis on education came to the
forefront only due to the then prevailing education system in Athens. Plato was against
the practice of buying knowledge, which according to him was a heinous crime than
buying meat and drink. Plato strongly believed in a state control education system. He
held the view that without education, the individual would make no progress any more
than a patient who believed in curing himself by his own loving remedy without giving
up his luxurious mode of living. Therefore, Plato stated that education touches the evil
at the grass root and changes the whole outlook on life. It was through education that
the principle of justice was properly maintained. Education was the positive measure for
the operation of justice in the ideal state. Plato was convinced that the root of the vice
lay chiefly in ignorance, and only by proper education can one be converted into a
virtuous man. The main purpose of Plato’s theory of education was to ban individualism,
abolish incompetence and immaturity, and establish the rule of the efficient. Promotion
of common good was the primary objective of platonic education. Plato’s relevance to
modern day educators can be seen at a number of levels.
1) First, he believed, and demonstrated, that educators must have a deep care for the
well-being and future of those they work with. Educating is a moral enterprise and
it is the duty of educators to search for truth and virtue, and in so doing guide
those they have a responsibility to teach. As Charles Hummel puts it in his
excellent introductory essay, the educator, ‘must never be a mere peddler of
 materials for study and of recipes for winning disputes, nor yet for promoting a
career.
2) Second, there is the ‘Socratic teaching method’. The teacher must know his or her
subject, but as a true philosopher he or she also knows that the limits of their
knowledge. It is here that we see the power of dialogue the joint exploration of a
subject ‘knowledge will not come from teaching but from questioning’.
3) Third, there is his conceptualization of the differing educational requirements
associated with various life stages. We see in his work the classical Greek concern
for body and mind. We see the importance of exercise and discipline, of storytelling
and games. Children enter school at six where they first learn the three (reading,
writing and counting) and then engage with music and sports. Plato’s philosopher
guardians then follow an educational path until they are 50. At eighteen they are
to undergo military and physical training; at 21 they enter higher studies; at 30
they begin to study philosophy and serve the polis in the army or civil service. At
50 they are ready to rule. This is a model for what we now describe as lifelong
education. It is also a model of the ‘learning society’ the polis is serviced by
educators. It can only exist as a rational form if its members are trained – and
continue to grow.

Q.2 Discuss the education Implications of John Dewey’s philosophy.

Till the end of the 19th century the educational world was dominated by the religiously-
motivated moral aim, the disciplinary aim, and the informational aim. Dewey discarded
all these aims of education. He puts forward his aims of education in the light of the
rapid social and economic changes in the world particularly in America. Dewey does not
believe in an ultimate aim of education. He provides no fixed and final goal of education.
He always speaks of immediate or proximate aims. To him education is experience which
is subject to constant change with the changing pattern of life. The process of education
is a continuous process of adjustment. The individual has always to adjust and re-
adjust himself to the environment. Dewey agrees to the function of education as
preparation for life, if it refers to life now and the immediate future. Pupils, he said, are
not interested in the distant or remote future. Any such attempt would not stimulate
them to learn. Education should ensure adequate preparation for immediate life. This
will encourage the pupil to learn. Dewey also agrees with the aim of education as self-
realization of the individual. The pupil lives, exists, grows, develops in the present world.
He should realize all his powers now. All educational efforts should be directed to that
goal. Dewey wants that each pupil’s powers and potentialities to be developed not
according to any absolute standard but according to the pupil’s own capacities and
opportunities. The pupil’s progress is to be measured by his own best standard and not
by the standards set by others who differ in ability and temperament. Education is a
process of growth. Education, he says, “protects, sustains and directs growth.” Teacher
stimulates, fosters and strengthens this growth. The main implications are:
1) Social Efficiency: According to Dewey the development of social efficiency is one
of the aims of education. To him school is a social institution. The school should
be organized in such a way that the activities of the outer world are reflected.
2) Education is life: Dewey emphasizes that education is not a preparation for life, it
is life itself. The child lives in the present. The future is meaningless to him. Hence
it is absurd to expect him to do things for some future preparation.
3) Education is experience: Dewey favored an education by, of and for, experience.
Every new experience is education. An old experience is replaced by a new
experience. The human race he gained experience in its struggle to meet the needs
of life. This ' struggle for existence ' is a continuous process.
4) Education should combine theory & practice: The aim of education, according
to Dewey should be create a balance between theoretical and practical activities.
He has stressed equal importance to both action and thought. These two should
go hand in hand.

Q.3 Discuss Imam Al-Ghazali’s views about teaching.

Al-Ghazali clarifies his conception of the contents and methods of teaching by classifying
the subjects students may choose into three categories: Knowledge which is
praiseworthy whether in small or large amounts (knowledge of God, His attributes, His
actions, the Law which He established in His creation and His wisdom in giving pre-
eminence to the hereafter over this world). Knowledge, which is reprehensible whether
in small or large amounts (witchcraft, magic, astrology). Knowledge which is praise
worthy to a certain extent (tafsir, hadith, fiqh, kalam, linguistics, grammar, etc.). He
recommends beginning with the fundamental sciences: the Koran, followed by Sunna,
then tafsir and the Quranic sciences. These are to be followed by applied ethics—fiqh,
then the sources of fiqh, etc. In Al-Ghazali’s eyes, education is not merely a process
whereby the teacher imparts knowledge that the pupil may or may not absorb, after
which teacher and pupil each go their separate ways. Rather, it is an ‘interaction’
affecting and benefiting teacher and pupil equally, the former gaining merit for giving
instruction and the latter cultivating himself through the acquisition of knowledge. Al-
Ghazali attaches great importance to the climate in which teaching takes place, and to
the kind of relations that are desirable; in doing so, he continues and reaffirms the
Islamic traditions of education. For him, the teacher should be a model and an example,
not merely a purveyor or medium of knowledge. His work is not limited to the teaching of
a particular subject; rather, it should encompass all aspects of the personality and life of
the pupil. The pupil, in turn, has a duty to consider the teacher as a father, to whom he
owes obedience and respect. Among the principles governing the art of teaching, al-
Ghazali stresses that teaching should be linked to concrete situations and emphasizes
the need for various types of knowledge and skills. Whenever a particular knowledge or
skill is needed, it should be taught in such a way as to meet that need and be functional.
He also stresses that learning is only effective when it is put into practice, and is aimed
at inculcating the right habits rather than simply memorizing information. Al-Ghazali
comes close to the idea of ‘proficiency learning’ when he recommends that the teacher
should not move on from one subject matter to another without first ensuring that the
pupil has mastered the first subject matter, and to the concept of the ‘complementarily
of sciences’ when he advises that the teacher should pay attention to the
interconnectedness of knowledge and the relations between its various branches.
Finally, he counsels a gradual and patient approach in teaching. With respect to
religious education, al-Ghazali recommends an early introduction to the fundamentals of
religion through inculcation, memorization and repetition, and there being no need for
understanding at first. A subsequent stage involves explanation, understanding and
conscious practice. Here too, al-Ghazali continues the Islamic traditions of education, in
which the Koran was first to be memorized without being explained, the fundamentals of
religion inculcated without clarification and practice was enjoined before the emergence
of commitment rooted in conviction.

Q.4 Explain the role of contemporary philosophies in education.

Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we
come to know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or
more of the general or world philosophies just discussed. These educational
philosophical approaches are currently used in classrooms the world over. They are
Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and Reconstructionism. These educational
philosophies focus heavily on what we should teach the curriculum aspect.
(1) Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire
understandings about the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the
potential for solving problems in any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are
everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the
natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Teaching
these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their
 minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority
in a worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining
cultural literacy, stressing students' growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest
accomplishments of humankind are emphasized– the great works of literature and
art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates of this educational philosophy are
Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books program in 1963 and
Mortimer Adler, who further developed this curriculum based on 100 great books
of western civilization.
(2) Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be
transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this
conservative perspective is on intellectual and moral standards that schools
should teach. The core of the curriculum is essential knowledge and skills and
academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is similar in some ways to
Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum may change.
Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of
society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics,"
training students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools
should not try to set or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work,
respect for authority, and discipline. Teachers are to help students keep their non-
productive instincts in check, such as aggression or mindlessness. This approach
was in reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the 1920s and 30s.
William Bagley took progressivist approaches to task in the journal he formed in
1934.
(3) Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than
on the content or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students
should test ideas by active experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of
learners that arise through experiencing the world. It is active, not passive. The
learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes meaning through his or her
individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective teachers
provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is
derived from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by
progressivist educators so that students can study matter and events
systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on process-how one comes to
know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in America from the
 mid 1920s through the mid 1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent. One
of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens
through experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making,
planning of teachers with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books
are tools, rather than authority.
(4) Reconstructionism
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social
questions and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy.
Reconstructionist educators focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as
the aim of education. Theodore Brameld (1904-1987) was the founder of social
reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of World War II. He recognized
the potential for either human annihilation through technology and human cruelty
or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human
compassion. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means
of preparing people for creating this new social order. Critical theorists, like social
reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to overcome oppression
and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian whose
experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the
vehicle for social change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and
not become its victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog and critical
consciousness, the development of awareness to overcome domination and
oppression. Rather than "teaching as banking," in which the educator deposits
information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching and learning as a process of
inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world. For social
reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience
and taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international
terrorism, inflation, and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues
(particularly in social studies and literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple
perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning and bringing the world into
the classroom are also strategies.

Q.5 Describe Friedrich Froebel ‘views regarding the early childhood education.
In many ways, the modern kindergarten (in early childhood rather than primary school)
owes its existence to German educator Friedrich Froebel. In 1837, when few others were
engaged in educating pre-school aged children, Froebel created a program for young
children based on 'play and activity' and 'the nurturing of creativity' to help children
develop and grow. Froebel was the first to recognize that children experience significant
brain development in their first three years of life and his kindergartens (children's
gardens) were based on the philosophy that humans are essentially creative beings that
need to be given the opportunity to experience, learn and develop on their own terms
and in their own timeframe. "Children are like tiny flowers; they are varied and need
care, but each is beautiful alone and glorious when seen in a community of peers," is a
famous quote which captures Froebel's views. Froebel's approach, methods and thinking
influenced and inspired many of the better known early childhood education advocates
including Maria Montessori and Rudolf Steiner. Froebel believed that young children
possess unique capabilities and needs, and that adults should serve as the "gardeners"
of children's potential. Froebel asserted that young children learn best in settings that
provide a stimulating and prepared environment where they can explore and learn from
their own experiences and perspectives. Because Froebel believed that a child's
education begins in infancy he saw mothers as the best first teachers and women as the
most appropriate teachers for his kindergartens. As such, Froebel kindergartens offered
women a career option outside the home in a time when there weren’t many options available. 
Key Features of the Froebel approach to education
Froebel education stresses that parents are the first educators for children, and that
there should be close links between home and school. The main goal of a Froebel
education is to teach the whole child in all developmental areas: socially, academically,
emotionally, physically and spiritually. There are four main components of the
Froebellian Approach: motor expression, social participation, free self-expression and
creativity. The Froebel Approach stresses that:
 Play Drives Learning: Play meets the biological need to discover how things work.
Froebel education believes that play is purposeful and not idle, and that meaning
is created through hands-on play activities.
 Children can only learn what they are ready for: Children develop differently
and should be allowed to learn at their own developmental pace.
 The teacher should serve as a guide: Teachers should not be viewed as the
keepers of knowledge, but instead as guides who can help lead a child to
understanding.
 The classroom should be a prepared environment: Although Froebellian
classrooms may look like they are designed for free play, they are very carefully
prepared, presenting children with the tools and materials that are optimal for
their level of development.
 Movement is imperative for young learners: Froebellian classrooms are alive
with finger plays, songs, and all forms of movement.
Components of a Froebel early childhood education:
A unique component of a Froebel classroom is the use of the materials referred to as the
Froebel Gifts and Occupations. The Gifts are a series of sets specially designed materials
with a fixed form, which provide hands-on explorations of solids, surfaces, lines, rings
and points. The sets are comprised of blocks and balls which can be manipulated and
stacked in open ended play to help children explore principles of movement, math, and
construction. The Occupations are a set of activities designed to provide further hands-
on explorations and practice with skills like clay work, woodwork, lacing, weaving,
drawing, and cutting. Again, these materials are designed to allow children
uninterrupted periods of play where they construct their own meaning of how things
work. Another inherent aspect of the Froebellian approach is the study and appreciation
of plants and nature. Froebel thought it was important for children to grow up with an
understanding of the importance of the natural environment and can experience nature
in its many forms. The Froebel Trust, a not for profit organisation in the UK committed
to keeping Froebel's philosophies alive, summarizes the key Froebellian principles
education and care providers of children aged zero-eight need to keep in mind to
maximize development and wellbeing:
1) The integrity of childhood in its own right
2) The relationship of every child to family, community and to nature, culture and society
3) The uniqueness of every child's capacity and potential
4) The holistic nature and development of every child
5) The role of play and creativity as central integrating elements in development and learning.
6) The right of children to protection from harm or abuse and to the promotion of their overall wellbeing.