Shu2013 PDF
Shu2013 PDF
Shu2013 PDF
a r t i c l e i n f o abstract
Article history: Different types of waste heat recovery technologies available onboard ships have been discussed from
Received 12 July 2012 the perspective of technical principle and application feasibility. Study of basic principle, novel
Accepted 12 November 2012 methods, existing designs, theoretical and experimental analyses, economics and feasibility are
Available online 12 December 2012
discussed in this paper. The primary focus of this paper is to provide a better understanding of the
Keywords: options available for waste heat recovery and using in various applications onboard ocean-going ships
WHR to improve fuel economy and environmental compliance.
Ship & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Refrigeration
Desalination
Turbocharger
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
2. Main technical methods of WHR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
2.1. Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
2.1.1. Turbocharger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
2.1.2. Power turbine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
2.2. Refrigeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
2.2.1. Absorption refrigeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
2.2.2. Adsorption refrigeration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
2.3. Thermoelectric generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
2.3.1. Principle and theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
2.3.2. Studies and performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
2.3.3. Economics and feasibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
2.4. Rankine cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
2.4.1. Principle and theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
2.4.2. Studies and performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
2.4.3. Feasibility and economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
2.5. Desalination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
2.5.1. MSF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
2.5.2. MED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
3. Combined cycle systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
4. Conclusion and future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Abbreviations: WHR, waste heat recovery; HCCI, homogeneous charge compression ignition; MW, megawatt; SMCR, specified maximum continuous rating; kW, kilowatt; CO2,
carbon dioxide; TEG, thermoelectric generation; MED, multiple effect distillation; MSF, multi-stage flash; VTG, variable turbine geometry; VGT, variable geometry turbocharger;
MIMO, multi-input multi-output; VTA, variable turbine area; SFOC, specific fuel oil consumption; LP, low pressure; HP, high pressure; COP, coefficient of performance; SCP,
specific cooling power; PEPG, piezoelectric power generation; ORC, organic Rankine cycle; HRSG, heat recovery steam generator; MD, membrane distillation; HDH,
humidification/dehumidification; TCS, turbo compound system; PTG, power turbine generator; TEU, twenty equivalent unit; CFD, computational fluid dynamics
n
Corresponding author. Tel./fax: þ 86 22 27891 285.
E-mail addresses: whq@tju.edu.cn, HaiqiaoWei@163.com (H. Wei).
1364-0321/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2012.11.034
386 G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401
range. An important number of solutions have been proposed to cylinder during exhaust stroke. An optimized thermal efficiency
generate power, electricity and heating from the waste heat can be achieved only when an appropriate turbo compression
sources. As the flow rate of waste heat source aboard ships is in ratio is selected [34].
a large amount, the potential for waste heat recovery is particu- A turbocharger consists of a turbine and a compressor on a
larly promising. shared shaft. It converts the heat energy from the exhaust to
This paper is devoted to the WHR technologies that are available power, which then drives the compressor to compress ambient
to convert low grade waste heat to useful forms or that have been air [24]. Normally, the air heated by the compression passes
already used aboard ships. The waste thermal energy on ships has through a cooler which reduces its temperature and increases its
been proposed to be used for space heating [17], heavy diesel fuel density, and then is delivered to the air intake manifold of the
heating [18] and ballast water heating [19]. However, if the WHR engine at higher pressure. Thus, the amount of air entering the
system produces more other useful forms needed onboard than engine cylinders is greater, allowing more fuel to be burnt. As a
direct heating, fuel consumption and the sailing cost will achieve a consequence, the engine produces more power without increas-
further reduction. Whether a new technology is utilized in reality or ing the engine size. Fig. 2 shows typical arrangement for a 4-sroke
not is mainly based on both performance and its economics. We take engine with turbo charging. Normally, the turbocharger used on
working principle, performance and economics into account for each 4-stroke engine is mainly radial type. However, axial type
recovery technology in this paper. Although Striling cycle engines turbocharger is used on the 2-stroke engines for its high power
have proven their capabilities to operate with waste heat, the output. The schematic diagram of a 2-stroke with and without
complicated mechanical arrangement [20] and its transient response scavenging air pump are both shown in Fig. 3.
time [21] will be the practical barriers that hinder the development
and adoption of Striling engines. Therefore, the heat-recovery possi- 2.1.1.2. Studies and performance. Turbo charging has played a vital
bilities taken into account in this paper are turbocharger/power role in the development of the diesel engine. The idea of supplying
turbine, fresh water obtained by using MED or MSF desalination air at higher pressure to a diesel engine was proposed by Dr. Rudolf
technology, electricity/power obtained from Rankine cycle, air- Diesel as early as 1896. And the use of a turbocharger of this
conditioning and ice-making obtained by using sorption refrigera- purpose was the result of work by a Swiss, Alfred Buchi, whose
tion, and combined WHR systems. All the technologies mentioned idea was to use the exhaust gases of a diesel engine to drive a
above are cost-effective ways to extract energy from the waste heat. compressor via a turbine.
In recent years, the existing researches are mainly focused on
the performance of turbocharger and benefits on diesel engines.
2. Main technical methods of WHR
Baines et al. [25] analyzed the heat energy transfer in automotive
turbochargers and the results showed that the external heat
At present, only a few of the ocean-going ships have already
transfer from the turbine accounts for approximately 70 of the
used WHR systems for direct thermal use, which use only a few
total turbine heat transfer, and that the fraction of internal
portion of the waste heat energy. Energy crisis and the soaring
transfer to the lubrication oil is roughly 25, the remainder (about
fuel oil price have taken the concern of technologies to convert
5) to the compressor respectively. The recovered energy from
waste heat into useful energy.
turbine that drives the compressor is little and most is lost in
An example of WHR would be that the high temperature stage
atmosphere. Karabektas [26] compared the performance and
was used for electric production or mechanical power, and the
exhaust emission characteristics in diesel engine for cases of
low temperature stage for process feed water heating or space
naturally aspirated and turbocharged conditions and came to a
heating. Due to the different characteristics and applied tempera-
conclusion that application of turbocharger can improve both
ture ranges, different techniques must be selected according to
thermal efficiency and CO emission. Theotokatos [27] presented a
both the heat source and the daily life requirements aboard ships.
mathematical model of MAN B&W 6L60 engine and calculated the
Technologies available to recover waste heat and to be served for
conservation of the turbo charging system, and derived an
daily needs aboard ships are discussed and studied as the
important result about the variation of the parameters of turbo-
following. Turbine, refrigeration, thermoelectric generation, desa-
charger. Weerasinghe [23] developed a mathematical model of
lination and Rankine cycle will be introduced in order.
turbo compounding. The simulation result showed that recover
2.1. Turbine
2.1.1. Turbocharger
Fig. 3. Arrangements for turbocharged 2-stroke engine without and with scavenging air pump.
charging, the original purpose of turbocharger is to increase the It has to be mentioned that the output of gas power turbine
mass flow of air into the cylinder to improve the combustion by depends to a large extent on the exhaust mass flow rate the
using the energy in the exhaust gas. From the aspect of turbocharger needed, which is a main influence factor of the
performance, taking the diesel engine as an open thermal cycle, turbocharger’s efficiency. For partial loads, the exhaust gas flow
the turbo charging method is available to reduce the energy in the from the main engine may not be sufficient to secure the
outlet and increase the overall efficiency. For example, a case additional operation of the power turbine [2]. Before the applica-
study was presented in MAN Diesel & Turbo’s own publication tion of power turbine, we must calculate and find out how much
[30] and the fuel saving lead by VTA reached 150 t per year for exhaust gas is needed to satisfy the turbocharger, to ensure the
tanker Stena President with 6S46MC-C engine of 7860 kW. gain in reclaimed energy more than a compensation for the loss in
Assuming that the price of heavy fuel oil is $700/t, the returns efficiency from the higher fuel consumption. Therefore, the
will be over $100,000 per year. It reduces the operation and control of the exhaust distribution between turbocharger and
maintenance cost significantly for the ship owners and brings power turbine is a main problem we have to solve. Although the
them an appreciable interest. In addition, the investment of power turbine has no adverse influence on the turbocharger, it
marine auxiliaries can be ignored. increases the complexity of the control strategy.
Stena President with 6S46MC-C engine of 7860 kW for example. absorbent (H2O–LiBr) are the most popular ones in application.
According to literature [37], the recovery ratio of PTG only is 3–5. Lithium bromide–water systems are fairly well developed and
Assuming that the ship was operated at SMCR for 300 days have already been in use for many years but water–ammonia
per year, 1,697,760 kW of electricity would be generated by PTG. systems have a considerable scope for improvement and applica-
According to the internet, the price of electricity in America is tions in many countries. Research results have shown the feasi-
about $0.1674 per kWh, the annual saving of US$284,205 would be bility of employing a gas-to-thermal fluid heat recovery system to
attainable. As PTG does not need additional energy except for the power a NH3–H2O absorption refrigeration system for the use in
exhaust gas, the M&O cost is low and the main contribution of the trawler chiller fishing vessels [38].
cost is the installation investment. Manzela [39] described an absorption refrigeration system
driven by means of engine exhaust gas. Srikhirin et al. [45]
2.2. Refrigeration reviewed a number of research options of absorption refrigeration
technology and compared various types of absorption refrigera-
Refrigeration devices are of significance to meet the needs for tion systems. Another recent research is the work of Fernandez-
cooling requirements such as air-conditioning, ice-making and Seara [41], who tried to control the exhaust gas flow rate by
medical or food preservation. As the conventional mechanical means of a bypass valve. For this system, the liquid-to-solution
refrigeration consumes the precious fuel or needs electricity to heat exchanger acts as a generator and the gas-to-liquid heat
achieve either air conditioning or ice making, the utilization of exchangers as an economizer. This prototype can save from 2 to 4
waste heat energy as heat source is promising for the refrigera- of the total ship fuel consumption. An experiment research by
tion process. At present, some effort has been devoted to the Kececiler et al. [40] showed that when the mass flow rate of hot
utilization of the vast amount of the waste energy of diesel engine water from the Hot Spring at 60 1C is 12.5 kg/s, it is sufficient for
aboard ships for refrigeration. the absorption refrigeration System operating on water–lithium
There are several types of refrigeration technology being used on bromide to produce 225.57 kW cooling effect. The result of this
marine ship, including compression refrigeration, sorption refrigera- research provides the information that the jacket water of marine
tion and injection refrigeration. These technologies are not only used engine is sufficient to satisfy the requirement of this water–
for air conditioning in summer, but are also used as icemaker for lithium bromide cooling system.
fishing vessels. However, it needs extra energy to drive the compres- In order to enhance the value of coefficient of performance
sion refrigeration system and injection refrigeration system, which (COP), various new absorption cycles have been developed based
leads to the increase of fuel consumption of ships. Sorption refrigera- on the basic absorption system. For the purpose of extracting
tion system is driven by thermal energy and needs little electricity, 1 kW of energy from a waste heat stream at a nominal 120 1C,
which can utilize the waste heat of the engine and improve the Little and Garimella [46] investigated and compared 5 different
energy converted efficiency. Therefore, considerable fuel can be saved systems that generate cooling, higher-grade heating, or mechan-
and the mileage of the ship will increase. Another attractive feature is ical work. The simulation results showed that the absorption
that a sorption refrigeration system is almost noise-free and virtually cooling cycle works with much higher COPs ( 4 0.7). Combined
maintenance-free [38]. Both absorption refrigeration and adsorption ejector–absorption refrigeration cycles [47,48] were proposed to
refrigeration belong to the sorption refrigeration. improve the performance of the absorption refrigeration cycle.
These cycles have a higher COP than that of the conventional
2.2.1. Absorption refrigeration single-effect cycle when the temperature of heat source is higher
than 130 1C.
2.2.1.1. Principle and theory. The technology to produce a chilled For the purpose of further reduction of electricity or power, a
effect from heat sources, which is called absorption chiller, is novel system (Fig. 6) with an expander–compressor proposed by
based on two fluids (refrigerant and absorbent), mixed and Hong et al. [49] showed that the COP is higher than that of the
separated continuously. The heat source transfers energy to the conventional single effect cycle even when the conventional two
strong solution and separates refrigerant and absorbent, while the stage cycle operates at most conditions due to the higher
refrigerant uptakes the heat from external environment during absorption pressure of new cycle without pump work input.
evaporation and makes the temperature of environment lower. A schematic of the cascaded absorption/vapor-compression cycle
is shown in Fig. 7 [50]. This system model was powered by
exhaust heat, and characterized by its two cycles in order to meet
2.2.1.2. Studies and performance. Absorption refrigeration was different cooling purposes, Libr–H2O absorption cooling cycle for
discovered by Nairn in 1777, though the first commercial medium-temperature coolant ( 5 1C), CO2 vapor compression
refrigerator was only built and patented in 1823 by Ferdinand system for low-temperature ( 40 1C). Compared to an equivalent
Carré [39]. Many recent efforts have focused on the development vapor-compression system, the cascaded absorption/vapor-com-
of absorption cycles for their applicability to low grade heat pression cycle avoids up to 31 electricity demand.
source. Kececiler et al. [40] proposed that the heat source of
temperature from 50 1C to 200 1C is economically attractive for
absorption Refrigeration Systems. Fernandez-Seara et al. [41] 2.2.1.3. Economics and feasibility. Misra et al. [51] and Kizilkan
carried out an investigation on an ammonia–water absorption et al. [52] applied thermoeconomic theory to evaluate the
refrigeration plant for onboard cooling production, which required economic cost of LiBr absorption refrigeration system, and
a heat power range from 100 to 150 1C. Examples of current investigated how to make a thermoeconomic optimization. An
installed systems include those that use source temperature of economic model of LiBr–H2O absorption refrigeration system was
149 1C [42] and 143 1C [43], or even lower temperature of 68–93 1C developed by Rubio-Maya et al. [53] to optimize the annual
from geothermal and solar application [44]. These studies indicate operating cost. The values of annual cost of operation and
that waste heat sources aboard ship, such as exhaust gas, scavenge investment were $14,993 per year and $41,718 respectively,
air and jacket cooling water, are all potential to drive an absorption which were decreased in about $150 per year and $19,012
refrigeration plant. respectively compared with the earlier reference [54]. A case of
Among all the working fluids, ammonia refrigerant–water Misra et al. [54] proposed that unit cost of input exergy is
absorbent (NH3–H2O) and water refrigerant–lithium bromide 0.03785 $/kWh for a system with cooling capacity of 201.29 kW.
G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401 391
Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the novel absorption refrigeration cycle with an expander–compressor [49].
For the absorption systems driven by waste heat on ships, $0.1674 per kWh and 18 h per day respectively, $104,633 can be
assuming the energy of power output and exhaust to be 45 and 25 saved in a month.
respectively when they are operating at the rated condition, a
two-stroke engine of 10 MW work output contains 5.56 MW
2.2.2. Adsorption refrigeration
energy in exhaust gas. Supposing that the energy available to be
recovered is 50, and the COP of the system is also 50 (according to
[46], the COP is about 0.5 if a heat source temperature is higher 2.2.2.1. Principle and theory. There are two main materials in an
than 150 1C), the cooling capacity reaches 1389 kW and it is adsorption refrigeration system, adsorbent and adsorbate.
available to provide air conditioning for more than 9000 m2 if Adsorbents having special affinity with polar substances like
the requirement of air conditioning is 150 W/ m2. Assuming the water are termed ‘‘hydrophilic’’. These include Silica gel, Zeolites
price of the electricity and time of refrigeration process were and porous or active Alumina. Non-polar adsorbents, termed
392 G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401
‘‘hydrophobic’’, have more affinity for oils and gases than for and Critoph [72] presented the description of a laboratory proto-
water [55]. As explained by Ruthven [56] and Suzuki [57], type of an adsorption cooling machine, which used an activated
adsorption occurs at the surface interface of two phases, monolithic Carbon–Ammonia pair and the steam boiler producing
heating–desorption–condensation phase in which the adsorbate steam from 100 1C to 150 1C as the heat source.
was desorpted from the absorbent then condensed liquid Several researches [60,63,73] have been done in the study of
adsorbate was transferred into the evaporator, and cooling– adsorption air conditioning powered by the waste heat energy, of
adsorption–evaporation phase in which the liquid adsorbate which most system used Zeolite–water as working pair. Gener-
evaporates and makes cooling effect. Compared with an ally, the temperature of diesel engine exhaust gas is higher than
absorption system, the adsorption cooling system has the 250 1C, which can satisfy the requirement of heat source for an
advantages of mechanical simplicity and high reliability [58]. adsorption refrigeration plant. The condenser can be chilled by
the seawater, the temperature of which is about 5 1C. In Lu et al.‘s
2.2.2.2. Studies and performance. As shown in Tables 1–3, several research [73], an adsorption driven by exhaust gas from a diesel
refrigeration applications [59–63] have been studied using various locomotive system, which incorporates one adsorbent bed and
adsorbent and adsorbate pairs. Zeolite and activated Carbon get utilizes Zeolite–water as the working pair, is feasible to be applied
rapid development and have become the most popular adsorbent for space conditioning of the locomotive driver’s cab. Another
in most systems. The typical adsorption refrigeration cycles include experiment done by Lu et al. [64] with Zeolite–water as the
basic cycle, continuous heat recovery cycle [64], mass recovery working pair showed that the COP of the system was 0.38, which
cycle, thermal wave cycle [65], convective thermal wave cycle [66], could meet the demand for a practical automobile waste heat
cascade multi-effect cycle [67], hybrid heating and cooling cycle. adsorption cooling system (mobile), and the SCP was 25.7 W/kg.
Recently, many investigations about simulations of adsorption The main obstacle of the development of adsorption refrigera-
cycles [68–70] have been reported, and different models have tion technology is its low coefficient of performance. Researches
been developed to evaluate the thermal performance of the on how to improve the performance of adsorption cooling
adsorption cooling systems in terms of the coefficient of perfor- systems have been investigated and a way to enhance the
mance (COP) and specific cooling power (SCP). Simulation study parameters in terms of COP and SCP was found. The refrigeration
also provides a theoretical basis for the development of adsorp- performance can be improved by improving the mass transfer
tion cooling systems. Y. Liu and K.C. Leong [69] present a new
transient two-dimensional model to study the effect of mass flow Table 3
rate of jacket water on system performance. Performance of different systems [37].
Some experiments of adsorption refrigeration have also been
done. In Wang et al.‘s literature [71], an adsorption system with Waste heat recovery system recovery ratios
activated Carbon and Methanol as working pairs was developed for Configuration Efficiency as of main-engine SMCR
ice production. As the heat source needed for the activated (depending on size)
Carbon–Methanol system is about 80–110 1C, the jacket water PTG 3–5
can satisfy this temperature requirement. When the temperature is Single steam pressure-STG 4–7
Dual steam pressure-STG 6–9
100 1C, the refrigerator achieves a refrigeration power density of
Dual steam pressure steam and 9–12
more than 2.6 kg ice per day per kg activated carbon with a COP of power turbine unit
0.13, for air conditioning with a COP of about 0.4. Tamainot-Telto
Table 1
Several studies about adsorption refrigeration.
Table 2
Comparisons of MSF and MED.
Feature Bulk liquid boiling The steam generated in one stage is used to heat the salt solution
in the next stage
Temperature Around 100 1C[102] 55–90 1C [110,117]
Production [108] 23–528 103 m3/day 91–320 103 m3/day
Energy consumption [112] 18 kWh/m3 15 kWh/m3
Capital cost [108] 0.52–1.01 $/m3 0.52–1.75/m3
Capacity Al-Jubail in Saudi Arabia, the biggest MSF plant in the world, with He Umm al Nar MED plant with a unit capacity of 15, 911 m3/day;
a capacity of 815,120 m3/day; Shuweiat plant, with a capacity of Sharjah plant, with a unit capacity of 22,730 m3/day; another
75,700 m3/day [104] example, in 2000 in Las Palmas Spain, with a capacity of
17,500 m3/day [111]; Reliance Refinery (India)—4 MED
12,000 m3/day [110]
G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401 393
performance and reasonable design [74]. A research of Li et al. thermoelectric figure-of-merit of the thermocouple material Z
[75] proposed a combined double-way cycle, which could
2
improve COP by 167 and 60 when compared with conventional Z¼
adsorption cycle and resorption cycle respectively.
where 2 is referred to as the electrical power factor, with the
Seebeck coefficient, the electrical conductivity and the total
2.2.2.3. Economics and feasibility. Adsorption technologies for
thermal conductivity.
refrigeration using waste heat source is only researched in the
Thermoelectric phenomena result from the diffusion of elec-
current decade. Although the solid–vapor adsorption systems are
trons and phonons along a temperature gradient in electrically
still in the experiment state, researches have shown that it has a
conducting solids. These diffusion currents are determined by the
promising potential for competing with conventional vapor-
concentration of these particles, and their interaction with each
compression technologies. An estimation of the cost of an
other as well as with impurities and defects.
adsorption air conditioning system using Zeolite and water is
about 5000US$ [73]. The average refrigeration power for this
system is 3.75 kW, the installation cost of which is about 1335US$ 2.3.2. Studies and performance
per kW cooling power. As the heat energy from internal engine is Several studies on TEG in locomotive engines [76] and industry
free, the total cost of cooling will be the cost of both adsorption [77,78] applications have shown promising results. This property
chiller and the operation cost of the pump. Certainly, the makes it possible to produce direct current electricity on board a
installation cost of such a system, which is still in testing phase, ship by applying waste heat of exhaust gas on one side of a TE
will achieve a significant reduction in commercial production. material, while exposing the other side to lower temperature sea
Both absorption and adsorption cooling systems have their water. It has no moving components, and is silent, totally scalable
own characteristics and advantage, and both can be powered by and extremely reliable.
waste heat energy. However, the work to increase the COP The use of TEGs in heat recovery applications has been a major
becomes the priority for the further development and application theme in the development of the field since the 1990s [76,77].
in future. Kajikawa [79] reviewed the development TEG and gave an over-
view on the R&D of the thermoelectric systems. In mid-1993,
2.3. Thermoelectric generation tests of the 1 kW generators started in the Diesel engine test cell
at Golden West College [80]. An example of thermoelectric
2.3.1. Principle and theory generator powered by waste heat was mentioned in David’s
Thermoelectric modules are solid-state devices that directly paper [81]. The generator converts about 5 of the input heat to
convert thermal energy into electrical energy. This process is electrical power, the remainder of 95 transfers to the hot water
based on the ‘‘Seebeck effect’’, which is the appearance of an exchanger. It can generate 50 W when operated at hot and cold
electrical voltage caused by a temperature gradient across a side temperatures of 550 1C and 50 1C. The authors of literature
material. The simplest TEG consists of a thermocouple consisting [82] mentioned that the resources with temperature lower than
of n-type (materials with excess electrons) and p-type (materials 300 1F is not suitable for TEG energy recovery. However, new TE
with deficit electrons) elements connected electrically in series materials potentially provide conversion efficiencies of 15–25
and thermally in parallel. Heat is input on one side and rejected when operating at hot-side temperatures of 450–750 1C.
from the other side, generating a voltage across the TE couple. Conclusively, the conversion efficiency of TEG is low. However,
A simple TEG package block diagram is presented in Fig. 8. TEG can be applied when coupled with ORC and it cools down
The efficiency can be expressed as a function of the tempera- exhaust temperature to ensure that the organic working fluid is
ture over which it is operated and so called ‘goodness factor’ or under its decomposition temperature [83].
T
Hot side heat
exchanger
Ceramic plate QH
T
Thermal conduction
means thermo-elements are
connected electrically in Peltier effect
Electric gross output
series
Conducting strip T
2.3.3. Economics and feasibility of internal engine on automobile works as a heat source, which is
The performance of the thermoelectric materials has a sig- higher than that of on the ship we investigate. The configuration
nificant effect on the cost of TEG recovery system. Early study on of exhaust gas only and the configuration of exhaust gas plus
the cost of TEG carried out by Haidar and Ghojel [84] proposed coolant have both been analyzed by BMW Group [87]. The
that a full TEG WHR system was still prohibitive in 2001 due to its simulation results showed that water would be a preferable
current price of US$175 per module for small orders despite the working fluid for the configuration of exhaust gas only. If a low
fact that the energy source is free and 2–5 of fuel consumption by temperature heat source is used in addition, alcohol (e.g. Ethanol)
vehicle can be saved with corresponding decrease in all pollutants would be more promising. Therefore, the selection of working
including greenhouse gases. However, the development of mate- fluid is based on the heat resource at a great extent. Parametric
rials has led to a significant reduction in the TEG cost. A cost analysis of efficiency should be carried out before selecting the
analysis based on WATT-100 was carried out by David [85] which system configuration and working fluid.
pointed out that the payback time is around 2 years for improved The organic Rankine cycle (ORC) uses an organic fluid such as
modules developed at Cardiff, where the consumer’s purchase n-pentane or toluene in place of water and steam. Organic fluid
price of electricity is around £0.068 per kWh. has gained more attention because it allows the use of lower-
As the conversion efficiency is relatively low, the system can temperature heat sources. Hung et al. [88] analyzed efficiencies of
only become cost effective and more competitive when lower cost ORCs using different fluids and came to a conclusion that
of TG modules and higher value of figure-of-merit can be isentropic fluids are the most suitable for recovering low-
achieved. Furthermore, it is more feasible for the combination of temperature waste heat. Bombarda et al. [89] make a comparison
TEG and ORC. Due to the special environment on ships which can of Kalina and ORC cycles and found that the adoption of ORC
provide seawater as the cold resource, utilization of TEG is more cycles is superior to Kalina due to its simpler plant scheme,
potential on vehicles. smaller surface heat exchangers and lower pressure to obtain the
same electric power.
2.4. Rankine cycle In summary, the selection of the working fluid and system
configuration is critical to achieve high thermal efficiencies as
2.4.1. Principle and theory well as optimum utilization of the available heat source. The
Rankine cycle is a cycle that converts heat into work. As shown temperature of exhaust gas aboard is about 200–500 1C, and
in Fig. 9, there are four main components in a basic Rankine cycle, 70–90 1C for jacket water. Both available resources for WHR are
steam turbine, condenser, circulation pump and evaporator. The moderate and of low grade energy. In order to prevent the
working fluid usually circulates in a closed cycle. Firstly, working corrosion problem due to the low evaporation temperature of
fluid from the outlet of the condenser is pumped into an water–steam, it is worthwhile employing organic fluid in WHR for
evaporator. The exhaust gas waste heat is used to heat up steam low-temperature heat sources, which would evaporate at a lower
for a turbo generator, in which energy is transferred from the temperature than water–steam phase change. In an Organic
boiler to the turbine through high pressure steam. The power Rankine cycle, less heat is required to vaporize the working fluid.
produced by steam turbine will be transferred to the electric Another main reason explained by Larjola [90] is that the best
generator or output shaft. At last, the steam from the turbine efficiency and the highest power output are usually obtained by
outlet is condensed into fluid again in the condenser and a new using a suitable organic fluid instead of water in the Rankine cycle
cycle begins. by recovering energy from moderate temperature heat sources.
Although water or steam is still the main working fluid of RC
systems on ships, application of organic fluid possesses a great
2.4.2. Studies and performance potential in the future.
Researches of RC began in the 1970s and its rapid development
was obtained in recent years because of energy crisis and
environment concerns. The current investigation on RC is con- 2.4.3. Feasibility and economics
cerned with how to improve the recovery efficiency by comparing The evaluation of cost of the RC system must take both the
different configurations and working fluid. Wang et al. [86] investment and maintenance cost into consideration. Moreover,
presented a review about thermal exhaust heat recovery of the RC system should be evaluated by its net output power, the
Rankine cycle, including effect of different system configurations, value that the power produced by the turbine subtracts the power
working fluids and components on the efficiency. The exhaust gas consumed by the fluid pump. An evaluation method of the RC
system was introduced by Gewald [91]. Economic analyses of
steam turbine power plants with a power turbine topping cycle
was carried out by Ringler et al. [87], the results revealed that
significant fuel savings justify the capital investment. Leibowitz
et al. [93] carried out a review of possibility to produce power
output at the range of 20–50 kW by reusing low grade heat
sources. The utilization of screw expander instead of turbines is
better as the installation cost becomes lower than that of the
conventional ORC systems, in the range of $1200–2000/kW of net
power output.
Waste-heat-driven steam power plants are often not economical
for capacities below 5 MW and for low-temperature waste-heat
streams. For this reason, Brasz et al. [94] proposed that the utilization
of ORC power plant hardware derived from air-conditioning equip-
ment overcomes high cost problem since air-conditioning hardware
has a cost structure almost an order of magnitude smaller than that
of traditional power generating equipment. For example, the cost of
Fig. 9. Schematic of a basic Rankine cycle driven by exhaust of engine. air-conditioning is available at a cost of around $200–300 per kW.
G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401 395
However, the equipment cost of multi-megawatt conventional time. This process requires an external steam supply, normally at a
power generation equipment is about $1200–1500 per kW generator temperature around 100 1C. The maximum temperature is limited
output or even higher for smaller power generation equipment. by the salt concentration to avoid scaling and this maximum
Many researches [95–97] have turned out that organic fluids temperature limits the performance of the process. A key design
have large potential to be used as working fluid in WHR systems. feature of MSF systems is bulk liquid boiling. This alleviates
If the leakage problem can be solved thoroughly, the development problems with scale formation on heat transfer tubes.
and application of organic working fluid will be popular in WHR
system aboard ship. 2.5.1.2. Studies and performance. MSF plants have been built since
the 1950s [101]. A great amount of research and development has
2.5. Desalination been carried out in recent years. Khawaji et al. [98] reviewed
current status, practices and advances based on MSF distillation
As a ship sailing in sea, large quantities of fresh water are and RO process, and outlined future prospects for different
required to meet everyday life demand. If the ship carried all the desalination technologies. An example of MSF desalination unit
water they needed, it would take a lot of space and reduce the using waste heat onboard was introduced in Ghirardo et al.‘s
load of the cargo. So it is advisable to take appropriate action to investigation [102]. The temperature of evaporator was operated
utilize seawater for fresh water production. There are many at 90 1C for double-effect units, and 50 1C for single-effect units.
methods of abstracting fresh water from salt water such as The production of fresh water for a single-effect unit would be
thermal distillation, reverse osmosis, freezing and electrolysis 7.1 m3/day when the inlet temperature of heat source was 60 1C,
[98]. All the desalination processes above consume energy. For in which about 212 kW of heat was available, whereas that for a
the special environment on ships, the most accessible access is to double-effect unit would be about 10 m3/day under the hot
reclaim waste heat of the main engine for fresh water production. source temperature of 100 1C, in which about 184 kW was
Therefore, among all types of technology, thermal distillation that available. The weight of such a desalination plant was estimated
applied the waste heat from the exhaust gas and jacket water has to be between 156 and 320 kg and volume was between 0.45 and
been proposed. Both multi-stage flash (MSF) and multiple effect 0.96 m3 for the single-effect unit producing 7.1 m3/day. So the
distillation (MED) belong to heat-operated type units. specific evaporator heat consumption was 717 kWh/m3 for
single-effect desalination units and 442 kWh/m3 for double-effect
2.5.1. MSF desalination units. Another similar investigation [103] showed that
Although other distillation processes start to find their way in the weight of a 9084 m3/day plant was about 1000 t whereas that
the market, the Multistage Flash Desalination technology is still of a 36,336 m3/day plant was 2500 t.
considered as the workhorse of the desalination industry. MSF has Many countries especially middle east countries that are short of
a market share of over 60 of the worldwide desalination market, fresh water attach great importance to the development of desalina-
and in the Middle East Area this share jumps to almost 80 [99]. tion technology. Therefore, desalination technology gains rapid devel-
The reason for such a strong position is the great reliability and opment and some large MSF units have been built in these countries.
proof of such a mature technology. For example, the Shuweiat plant located in the United Arab Emirates
is the largest MSF unit, with a capacity of 75,700 m3/day [104].
2.5.1.1. Principle and theory. As shown in Fig. 10, the MSF principle
is based on raising the temperature so that the seawater flashes 2.5.1.3. Economics and feasibility. It has to be mentioned that for
when subjected to a sudden pressure drop in the first stage of the economic consideration, a wide range of technical parameters
plant. The flashed water vapor is then cooled and condensed by must be evaluated including seawater characteristics, product
colder seawater flowing in tubes of the condenser to produce water quality, source of energy and consumption, plant size, plant
distillate. The unflashed brine passes from one stage to the next reliability, concentrate disposal, space requirements, operation
and transfers heat during this process so that the seawater can be and maintenance aspects, etc. [104]. The total production cost
evaporated repeatedly without adding more heat. The MSF operates was also given by Al-Juwayhel et al. [105] in 1992, $1.86/m3 for
from a positive pressure in the first stage to a high vacuum in the MSF process. Borsani and Rebagliati [106] presented comparisons
last stage [100]. One of the advantages for MSF is simple layout, of some past examples with most recent installations both in
which can save a lot of space for other cargoes. Furthermore, its terms of technical requirements and installation costs and the
significant reliable performance guarantees its popularity for a long analysis results showed that the water cost produced by MSF
Fig. 10. Principle of operation of the multi-stage flash (MSF) system [116].
396 G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401
plants is almost in line with other technologies. Despite a cost of the initial cost and the corresponding maintenance and
increase in raw materials of more than 40 and a labor cost operation (M&O) cost. Ophir and Lokiec [110] described the
increase of more than 100 in the past 20 years, the price of advantages of MED plants and analyzed how the advantages
selling MSF desalination plant showed a reduction of about 50. influence on the economics of the installation by reducing both
Another example [107] about a MSF process of capacity capital and operation costs, increasing the availability and
528,000 m3/day produces desalinated water at a cost of $0.42/ extending the life expectancy of the plant. Research on
m3. The desalination cost can be reduced by 15 if the MSF unit is economics of MED was also carried out by Morin [112] and the
combined with a RO unit for the same production capacity. results showed that the total production cost was $1.49/m3 for
Another review carried out by Eltawil et al. [108] showed that the MED process in 1992. Since the development of technology
for a MSF plant with a capacity of 7.13 million gallons/day, the and larger capacity of MED plant, the capital cost and operation
capital cost is about 0.292 $Cent/gallon for the dual purpose, and cost have been reduced significantly.
0.621 $Cent/gallon for the single purpose. Vlachos and Kaldellis [113] estimated the cost and fresh water
In summary, the reduction of capital cost makes the MSF plant production of a thermal desalination plant by using the exhaust
of more potential for future use. The technical development will gas of a gas turbine with a rated power of 43.3 MW. The annual
be the main factor which plays a significant role in its application production capacity of the desalination plant analyzed surpasses
and popularity in future market. the 2,500,000 m3 of potable water. The calculation results showed
that the water production cost varies between 0.3 h/m3 and
2.5.2. MED 0.37 h/m3 if the operation time is 5 years, whereas the corre-
sponding value for the 15-years operation is between 0.18 h/m3
and 0.25 h/m3. The estimated price is much lower than the
2.5.2.1. Principle and theory. MED is also called multi-effect
market mean price of 0.53 h/m3. Another study [114] presented
evaporation (MEE). As shown in Fig. 11, heating steam is fed to
the analysis on the cost of MED plant. When using a dual-purpose
the first effect. This would result in the formation of a small amount
type, the cost is $ 0.33 Cent/gallon for the capacity of 6 million
of water vapor, which is used to heat the second effect. The vapor
gallons. However, the cost is $ 0.739 Cent/gallon for a single-
would release its latent heat and condense. The released latent heat
purpose type of the same capacity, which overpasses twice
would result in the formation of a smaller amount of vapor in the
compared with dual-purpose type.
second effect. This process is repeated in subsequent effects, until
In summary, comparison of cost between MSF and MED was
the vapor temperature becomes close to the feed sea water
presented in the following. According to Morin’s literature [112],
temperature. It is necessary to increase the feed temperature to
the MSF process needs about half the heat transfer surface area as
saturation temperature of each effect. MED limits the heat transfer
much as that required for the MED process. The MED process
process to release the latent heat from the heating vapor and the
offers a recovery of almost 50 higher than the MSF process for
latent heat gained from the formed vapor. Therefore, a high energy
equal performance ratio. The total production cost was also given
can be reclaimed and the brine is rejected at a very low temperature.
in Al-Juwayhel’s paper [105], $1.86/m3 for MSF process and $1.49/
m3 for the MED system. Good economics in construction, civil
2.5.2.2. Studies and performance. The first multiple effect des- work and seawater intake result in costs 35 less than for MSF
alination unit was installed in 1960. The main feature of the plants. Moreover, the MED desalination system is more efficient
MED process is that it operates at a low top brine temperature than the predominant MSF desalination system, from a thermo-
between 60 and 70 1C [109], and even at a lower temperature of dynamic and heat-transfer point of view. From these points, MED
55 1C. All of the waste heat sources aboard ships are capable to seems to be superior to MSF.
power a MED unit. By utilizing the waste heat energy from diesel
engine, the only prime energy consumption is estimated to be
2.0 kWh/t used for the water pumps [110]. 3. Combined cycle systems
Ophir [110] studied some MED plants with the capacity
20,000–200,000 t/day and different features had been presented. The waste heat recovery technologies mentioned above are all
Study on energy consumption was carried out by Ettouney [111] available aboard ships. In order to make full use of the waste
and Eltawil [108]. There was a significant difference in the energy energy emitted from the engines, combination of two or more
consumption value due to the difference of the plant capacities these technologies proves to be more attractive to ship owners.
and different base analysis parameters. As the needed temperatures are different from each other, technology
selection needs to be taken into consideration. In order to achieve
2.5.2.3. Economics and feasibility. The numerical value of the an optimum strategy of recovering waste heat aboard ships, the
proposed desalination plant investment cost is a combination optimum or just simple specific technology combination must be
G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401 397
Exhaust Gas
Intercooler
LP Drum Cooling Water
Jacket Water
Steam
Turbine Generator=2150kW
Compressor
Gland Condenser Water Tank
Condenser
Feed Water Pump Expander
Exhaust Gas
Intercooler
LP Drum Cooling Water
Economizer
Generator=4000kW
Compressor
Gland Condenser Water Tank
Condenser
Feed Water Pump Expander
Exhaust Gas
Intercooler
LP Drum Cooling Water
Economizer
Generator=5610kW
Compressor
Power Gland Condenser Water Tank
Turbine
Condenser
Feed Water Pump Expander
Fig. 12. (a) Dural pressure boiler, (b) System diagram with exhaust gas bypass and (c) System diagram with power turbine.
398 G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401
studied in connection to various local parameters such as capacity of the exhaust gas at the inlet of economizer is 309 1C, compared
and type of energy available in low cost, WHR plant size and seawater to 248.5 1C which is obtained without the bypass design. The
temperature. Furthermore, the optimum design depends much on the energy recovered by the steam turbine generator is higher,
type of vessel and its main operating conditions. 4000 kW compared to 2150 kW.
MAN, ABB, Mitsubishi heavy industries, Wartsila and Cummins An additional power turbine is introduced in this configura-
have investigated various combined CHP (combined heat and tion. As shown in Fig. 12 (c), the exhaust gas bypass is used to
power) systems on ships. Some CHP systems that have been drive a power turbine and then mix this exhaust gas with that
already used on ships will be introduced in the following. These from the turbocharger outlet. In this system, the output power of
CHP systems are all improved and get their rapid development power turbine and steam turbine is 2450 kW and 3160 kW
based on the basic turbo compound system (TCS) configuration. respectively. Both of them drive a generator, of which the total
Comparison of generated output for different CHP systems was electricity of which reaches 5610 kW. The overall efficiency will
carried out by Mitsubishi heavy industries Ltd. This investigation increase by 8.03.
is based on 12K98ME-C type engine of 69,900 kW. These three different systems give an optimization process.
Fig. 12(a) presents a basic compound WHR system with a It is evident that the last one is the most promising system and
turbocharger and a dual pressure multi-stage turbine. Exhaust gas gives the highest efficiency compared to the others. However, we
from turbochargers outlet is 588,800 kg/h 248.5 1C, which then can find that the hot steam from the outlet of steam turbine is
flows into the exhaust boiler. The steam turbine consists of both directly connected to a condenser, in which a huge amount of
high pressure (HP¼7.5 kPa) and low pressure (LP¼ 4.0 kPa). Heat energy is wasted. There is still potential for alternative technol-
is also recovered from the jacket cooling water and scavenging air ogies such as fresh water generation to recover more of the waste
cooler to preheat feed water before it enters into the boiler. Steam heat. If the hot steam gets further utilized before the condenser, a
for the turbo generator is evaporated and superheated in two higher overall efficiency will be reached.
pressure stages. Each stage comprises a forced circulation eva- MAN Diesel & Turbo Corporation [37] also investigates appli-
porator, a steam separation drum, and a super-heater. The steam cation of WHR systems on ships. It was shown that different
output is boosted by preheating the feed water in two stages by recovery ratios were presented in the WHR system configura-
means of other main engine waste heat sources, namely jacket tions. MAN proposed that turbo compound system with power
water and scavenging air. It is worth mentioning that the operat- turbine and generation (TCS-PTG) shuts down below 50 engine
ing pressure of the LP section is selected and adjusted suitably load. Both power turbine and turbocharger utilize the energy
high to avoid condensation of sulfuric acid that would immedi- taken from the main engine exhaust gas. The maximum power
ately create excessive fouling problems and also corrosion output of WHR system can reach 10 and the overall efficiency can
damages on a longer term. reach 55 when both power turbine and steam turbine are applied
Due to the high efficiency of the turbocharger, the energy simultaneously [105].
reclaimed from the turbine surpasses the requirement of com- The Emma Maersk’s Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-C turbocharged
pressor and will be wasted if all the exhaust gas goes through the two-stroke diesel ship engine is the most powerful and the most
turbocharger. Therefore, the design of an exhaust gas bypass efficient prime-mover of super ships in the world today. Compar-
protects the energy from waste in the condition of fulfilling the isons of energy flux and fuel consumption between engine with
power of the turbocharger as shown in Fig. 12 (b). The exhaust gas and without the WHR system are shown in Fig. 13. For a
bypass remains at the same temperature with that of the mani- combined system whose main engine is Wartsila-Sulzer RTA96-
fold outlet (assumed to have no energy loss), which will mix with C, the use of the power turbine increases the power produced by
that from the expander of the turbocharger. The temperature the system by 2211 kW, i.e. by 4.77 for the 90 main engine load,
Fig. 13. Comparisons of energy flux and fuel consumption between engine with and without WHR system [115].
G. Shu et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013) 385–401 399
Generator of
Exhaust Gas
refrigeration System
Intercooler
LP Drum Cooling Water
Economizer
HP Drum
Steam
Turbine
Jacket Water
Generator
Compressor
Power Saline Water Tank
Turbine
Flesh Water
Condenser
Vapor
Brine Feed Water Pump Expander
and decreases the specific fuel consumption by 4.6, as compared fulfill requirement of sorption refrigeration as heat source. The
to the classical propulsion system. Introducing a steam turbine to schematic of a new WHR combined system is shown. As the
the combined system increases its power by 11.4 and decreases corrosion problem is usually caused by condensation during the
its specific fuel consumption by 10.2. The efficiency of the expansion process in steam turbine, the low pressure steam from
combined propulsion system increases from 49.3 to 55.49 the exhaust economizer is utilized for adsorption refrigeration
[2,115]. The annual operating cost for the main auxiliary engines rather than that flowing into the steam turbine. The performance
would be US$19.54 million without a WHR plant and US$17.29 of this system will be investigated in the future work.
million with a high-efficiency WHR plant. There would be annual This paper will be useful for the researchers in WHR technol-
saving of US$2.25 million. As the complete high-efficiency WHR ogies to make effective decisions and generate more ideas. Thus
plant and its installation would call for an investment cost of the paper explicitly points out WHR technologies available on
about US$9.5 million, this would have an expected payback time ships where there is potential for future research.
of less than five years. Therefore, WHR plants can lead to
considerable financial benefits over a ship’s life especially for
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