THE NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY

BEHAVIOR AS THE CONCERN OF PSYCHOLOGY

Psychology, is a study about how and why people behave, feel, or think the way they
do. A lively discussion of this terse statement by Hilgard regarding what psychology
is all about includes an uninhibited sharing of behavior problems from a bright class
of freshman students in one college. Those that are commonly mentioned have been
noted and grouped under the headings below. Which of these are your own problems,
too?

Some Behavior Problems of Young

College Students

Problems Regarding Oneself and Family:

Why am I nervous during examinations and interviews? How can I avoid sleeping
early at night and getting p early with difficulty? Why do I feel inse
cure in the presence of strangers? Why am I stubborn to my parents? Why do parents
insist what they wan on their children? Why are many mothers talkative? Why are
there "Papa's girls and Mama's boys"? Why do some parents neglect their children?
What will I do now in the face of economic difficulties? What is my role in the
presence of various ideologies?

Problems Regarding College Life and Friends:

Why do some students cheat in examinations? Why do some cut classes? What do
students gain from smoking and drinking? Why are many teenagers shy at sixteen?
What makes some people difficult to deal with? Why do some people give more
importance to physical appearance rather than to good attitudes in the choice of
friends? Why are many adolescents stubborn? Why do some people have tantrums?
Why can many students not face their problems squarely? How can they develop a
close approximation of reality? Why do boys enjoy having many girl friends? When
is the right time for falling in love?

Problems Observed In and Out of One's Social

Environment:

Why do drug abusers increase in number? Why do some people commit suicide when
they are frustrated? Why are there many broken homes? Why are there more
homosexuals now than there were in the past? Why are there men who are sex
maniacs? Why are there unfaithful wives when their husbands are abroad? Why are
cases of "live-ins," abortion, separation, and divorce increasing?

Problems of Intellectual Curiosity:

Why do some men select priesthood, not marriage? Why are men in general more
aggressive than women? Why are women more patient than men? Why are men
stronger than women? What internal organs are involved in anger? Why do many
women become old maids? Why do children always want to play? Why do many
first-born children manifest jealousy upon the arrival of a second baby in their family?
Little do these students who submitted these problems, nor you, know that a good
number of these problems have been or are being studied and investigated by
professional psychologists, or by graduate students as well as undergraduate students
of psychology. The results of their studies are generally reported in standard written
forms known as theses (thesis singular); or published in journals for the information
or utilization of other researchers as references for related investigations that might be
conducted later. Indeed, behavior problems are the concern of anyone in the field of
psychology. Such studies are a great aid in explaining the causes of much of the
behavior of our fellowmen, thus leading to greater understanding, more harmonious
relationship among one another and more happiness for everyone.

Something for you to do-

A profitable beginning research activity for young students like you, is to visit your
college library and browse
over a number of these studies or theses. Each thesis or investigation has been
conducted by its researcher in partial fulfillment of a graduate course. A careful
reading of the title of the thesis will enable you to identify the behavior
problem that is the object of the research study. Skim the contents and find out the
background of the study, the
research methods used, the results of the study and their interpretation, and finally, the
conclusign and recommendations presented by the researcher. The foregoing expe
rience will give you an idea about how you may conduct your own future
investigation of the problem behavior you may have in mind.

Some Issues and Problems That Concern

Psychologists

For your intellectual curiosity, examples of the issues and complex problems of
behavior which the more experienced psychologists are concerned with are presented
below as gathered by recent writers of this science. Included here are those cited by
Marx, Hilgard, and Silverman.

Why does a mother often sleep through all sorts of distracting noise, only to awaken
to the much softer cry of her baby? What is the best treatment for drug addiction or
for obesity? How can people be persuaded to give up smoking? What is the most
effective method for teaching children to read? Can a blind person be given artificial
sight? What is the effect of violent TV programs on children? What is the function of
the brain and the nervous system in what we think and do? How do we retain what we
learn? What roles do heredity and environment play in the growth and development of
the individual? What objections against a fully controlled society have been
advocated by some psychologists whose overall objective is the happiness of all
people?

The very wide range of topics which contemporary psychology is concerned with as
reflected in the above example brings about considerable difficulty in presenting a
single standard definition of psychology.
DEFINITIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY AND
MEANINGS OF TERMS

The definitions compiled in the following pages represent the more modern and
generally accepted concepts of the discipline as well as the earlier changing
definitions that reflect the beginning trend and brief history of psychology.

Hilgard (1979) pointed out that early psychologists defined their field as the "study of
mental activity. With the development of behaviorism at the beginning of this century
and its concern for studying those phenomena
that could be objectively measured, psychology was redefined as the study of
behavior." This definition usually
included the investigation of animal as well as human behavior on the assumptions
that: (1) information obtained from experiments with subhuman/species could be
generalized to the human organism; and (2) animal behavior was of interest in its own
right.

From the 1930's through the 1960's, most psychology textbooks used this definition.

Hilgard's own definition of psychology as "the science that studies behavior and
mental processes reflected psychology's concern with an objective study of
observable behavior while still recognizing the importance of under.
standing mental processes that cannot be directly observed but must be inferred from
behavioral and physiological
data.

Morgan (1977) explained three important words in his definition of psychology as

"the science of human and animal behavior": science, animal, and behavior.

Is psychology, a science? A science is a body of systematized knowledge gathered by

carefully observing and
measuring events, sometimes, but not necessarily, in experiments set up by the
scientist to produce the events
being studied. The things and events observed are systematized in various ways,
mainly by classifying them
into categories and establishing general laws or principles that describe and predict
them as accurately as possible.
The efforts of many research workers over the last century have provided a body of
knowledge and of scientific principles which, it seems, is the best foundation for
developing an understanding of behavior. Thus, science is stressed in the definition of
psychology.

Why "behavior" rather than "mind, thought, or feeling"? Over fifty years ago, the
word "behavior was strict
interpreted as the movements of the body (including speech) that could be seen or
heard. In the recent years, however, the interpretation has been broadened to include
everything a person does that can be measured in some way. Thus, behavior includes
feelings, attitudes, and mental
processes (all internal events that cannot be directly observed), for ways had been
found to measure these processes through what people report and how they react to
certain problems and situations.

What has animal behavior to do with psychology? Just as the zoologist studies the
form and function of all
members of the animal kingdom, the psychologist systematically observes animal as
well as human behavior. There are many similarities between animal and human
behavior.
In fact, animals, either naturally or after they have been taught in the laboratory,
display in more rudimentary forms some of the kinds of behavior which humans
display. A study of animal behavior i8 therefore a great aid to the psychologist in his
understanding of human behavior. We can do many important experiments with
animals that we cannot possibly do with people, because human beings cannot be
treated like guinea pigs. For instance, we do not "manipulate" humans as this is
against ethics (in fact the term itself, manipulate, connotes a negative meaning) and
because they cannot be kept in laboratories for further
observation of changes, if ever, in their behavior. While we cannot be confident that
the findings on animal behavior
will be applicable to human behavior, the basic principles evolved and refined in
studies of other animals can often
be generalized to human beings.

Marx (1976) described the nature of psychology instead of defining it. He identified
what psychologists were
investigating - experience and behavior He explained that the former was centered
around the subjective experience of man - his thoughts, perceptions, feelings, and the
like. The other central concern, a more contemporary one, was the behavior of
organisms, lower animals as well as man. Investigation of mental phenomena or
private experiences is difficult because they are essentially covert (hidden to outside
observers). Overt behavior, on the other hand, is directly observable by an outside
observer and so it can be more readily and objectively studied. The relationship
between these two seemingly dissimilar topics has long been a major problem of
psychology.

Silverman (1979) defined psychology as the study of human beings- how they behave,
how they feel, how they
think, how they adjust or fail to adjust, how they get along with one another, and how
they become the individuals
that they are.

He explains that compared to mathematics, physics, biology, and chemistry,

psychology is a relatively young science, having developed only during the past 100
years. He emphasizes that psychologists today realize that, while they are observing
one form of behavior, or other forms of it may be occurring at the same time inn the
same person. Therefore, one should be cautious about
forming conclusions based only on observations of individual's behavior.

Munn (1974) considered psychology as a bio social science. He explained that in

studying human capacities one examines the physical nature of the responding
organism - his neural mechanisms, senses, musculature, and other aspects of his
biological nature which play a fundamental role in human experience. In this sense,
psychology is a biological science. Psychologists focus on the behavior of organisms
and their adjustment to the world around them.

On the other hand, one can also study man turning to his outer environment, to the
world in which he lives. Man is a social, as well as a biological organism. Social
interaction is one of man's most obvious traits; it is fundamental to human existence.
The behavior of man is
modified by and in turn modifies the behavior of others. Human infants are dependent
upon others for survival
and during this dependence, their ways of behaving, wholly or in part, are influenced
by their elders.

For the foregoing reasons, psychology is a social as well as a biological science and is
often referred to as a bio-social science.

Schlesinger (1976) preferred to present the more refined definition of psychology

according to the American Psychological Association (APA), a professional society to
which most American psychologists belong: Psychology is a scholarly discipline, a
science, and a profession, APA further explained.

As a scholarly discipline, psychology represents a major field of study in academic

settings, with emphasis on the communication and explanation of principles and
theories of behavior.

As a science, it i18 a focus of research through which investigators collect, quantify,

analyze, and interpret data
describing animal and human behavior, thus shedding light on the causes and
dynamics of behavior patterns.

As a profession, psychology involves the practical application of knowledge, skills,

and techniques for the solution or the prevention of individual or social problems; this
professional role also provides an opportunity for the psychologist to develop further
his understanding of human behavior and thus contributes to the science of
psychology.

A careful analysis of the foregoing definitions of psychology reveals a number of

points that are common among them:

1. Psychology is a scientific study of the behavior of living organisms with emphasis

on that of the
human organism.

2. The term "behavior" should not be restricted merely to man's physical reactions or
observable
behavior.
3. Thoughts, feelings, attitudes, values, and the like are also included when referring
to the term "behavior."

RELATION OF PSYCHOLOGY TO
OTHER SCIENCES

Psychology draws upon the accumulated knowledge of several other sciences and is
conversely drawn upon by them. Eagle and Snellgrove (1974) present a few
representative sciences and their important relations to psychology:

Psychology and Anthropology

Anthropology is becoming more and more concerned with the behavior of so-called
civilized as well as so-called primitive peoples. Through his studies of widely
divergent cultures, the anthropologist assists the psychologist in
understanding the influences of environment on the benavior of individuals.

Psychology and Biology

Biology contributes much to psychology. For instance, in the study of emotions, a

knowledge of the activity of the glands and parts of the brain and functions of each is
required.

Psychology and Chemistry

Some forms of behavior disorders that were formerly spoken of as sickness of the
mind can now be explained in terms of body chemistry. We are learning much
through psychopharmacology, the study. of the effects of drugs and poisons on
psychological functions. Pharmaceutical houses today are devoting much research
effort to problems of the nervous system, developing such aids as the ataractic
(tranquilizing) drugs and others.

Psychology and Psychiatry

The fields of psychology and psychiatry often overlap; psychologists and psychiatrists
frequently cooperate with
one another such as by working together in clinics. Psychiatrists are physicians who
specialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of mild and severe mental
disorders. They hold an M.D. degree from some university school of medicine.
Psychologists, with rare exceptions, do
not hold an M.D. degree. They are not licensed to prescribe drugs, perform surgery, or
use treatment that is restricted to medical men by law.

Psychology and Sociology

Data from sociological studies in such areas as growth and shifts of population, urban
and rural living, voting trends, delinquency, and crime contribute to understanding the
behavior of the individual. In some areas, as in the
study of families and other small groups, sociology is very close to the branch of
psychology called social psychology.
The distinction is that the psychologist focuses primarily on the individual, while the
sociologist focuses primarily on the group.

Psychology as a Behavioral or us a Social Science

Psychology may be referred to as a behavioral science when the discussion

emphasizes the individual, and as a
social science when the emphasis is on groups of individuals in interaction. Thus, a
sub field of psychology, like social
psychology, tends to be viewed as part of the social sciences because it focuses on
social phenomena. Physiological psychology, on the other hand, is thought of as
behavioral science because it studies the biological bases of the behavior of individual
organisms, Educational psychology, when studying how an individual child learns to
read or do arithmetic, can be labeled as a behavioral science; but in its study of group
interactions in the classroom, it is a social science.

The Place of Psychology Among the Sciences

Psychologists seek to provide a basic science of human thinking, learning, skills,

motives, conduct, and so on, that will serve all the sciences of man such as
anthropology, sociology, political science, and law in much the same way that biology
now serves the agricultural and medical sciences.

GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY

Numerous authors are unanimous in their statement of the psychologist's goals in

studying behavior. These are usually much like those of other people. Wrightsman
(1979) summarizes these goals as follows:

1. To describe behavior

2. To identify factors that help predict behavior

3. To understand or explain behavior by identifying causes that bring about certain

effects

4. To control or change behavior

By describing behavior, psychologists can share a particular phenomenon accurately

with other scientists. A portion of the description of sexual behavior in rats, taken
from Schlesinger and Groves (1976) is presented here as an example of description in
psychology:

When a male rat is placed with a female rat in heat, sexual behavior may or may not
occur. If it does occur, the usual sequence of events is as follows: First, the two rats
explore each other by sniffing and licking. Then the male attempts to mount the
female. If
she is receptive, she arches her back, raises her head high and moves her tail to one
side. This behavior is called a lordosis"response. The male then mounts and
penetrates her (achieves intromission) and makes a series of pelvic thrusts at regular
intervals. After the male dismounts, he tends to groom himself for a time. He then
mounts the female again, and the entire sequence is repeated over and over again until
he ejaculates. He then clasps the female with his fore-paws; sometimes he falls to his
side carrying the female
with him. In rats, multiple intromissions are necessary to prepare the female for
pregnancy."

To predict behavior, the psychologist can rely on a variety of techniques. One method
of predicting future behavior is by using past performance as a basis. For
example, we can use a student's high school grades to predict, what his college grades
will be . However- because other factors such as motivation that may influence
college grades, we should not be surprised if the student's grades do not perfectly
predict his performance in college.

Psychologists also use tests and correlational techniques (a mathematical expression

for the fact that certain variables tend to change together systematically) to predict
behaviors. For instance, we would expect that an individual who expresses
satisfaction with his job would also express strong interest in it. We could test this
assumption by giving an interest test to all those recently hired in a certain profession
and subsequently ask them
to rate themselves in terms of their job satisfaction. If, as expected, those who rate
high on job satisfaction tend to
have high scores in the interest test, we can say the two factors are positively
correlated.

A major goal of psychology is to explain and under stand behavior. Understanding

involves assembling the known facts about behavior, gaining insights into the
relationships among observable behaviors, and deriving principles and, models that
will explain behavior. These principles can then be organized into more
comprehensive frameworks called theories. In science, theories serve many functions.
They are explanatory tools; they serve to integrate and systematize knowledge; and
they make possible the formulation of new assumptions or hypotheses which
can be tested experimentally. However, while theories are useful tools for
understanding behavior, they are always subject to change. As new facts are
discovered, a theory must either be modified to incorporate them or else be
discarded altogether and replaced by a new theory.

Control of behavior goes hand-in-hand with prediction. If, for example, psychologists
can predict the occurrence of a mental disorder by using a psychological test, it will
be logical for them to try to prevent the disorder from occurring. In general, if we can
predict the occurrence of a phenomenon because certain conditions exist, then we
prevent (or control) its occurrence by changing the conditions. Conversely, if we can
predict the occurrence of a behavior because certain conditions exist, then we can
produce the behavior by creating the necessary conditions. For example, a girl who is
observed to be friendly to people who have intellectual interests but very cold to those
who seem more interested in physical looks and appearance may be variably treated
so as to make her change her attitude. If you probably fit into the latter description,
you can turn the focus of your conversation with her on philosophy and art to be able
to notice her friendly attitude.
Psychologists often apply their understanding of human behavior to solution of real
problems reducing the crime rate, improving educational techniques, or even treating
persons with mental disorders or emotional problems.

VALUES AND APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY

The psychologist's realization of his goals in research is an achievement from which

all of society can benefit. What other personal benefits could be derived by the
psychologist from his tedious and fruitful endeavor?

Wrightsman summarizes what a study of psychology can bring to the individual: It

can -

1. contribute to his liberal education;

2. aid him in everyday decision-making;

3. lead him to a career in psychology; and

4. help him adjust and respond to rapid change.

Psychology as a Part of Liberal Education

The theory behind liberal education is that human beings should know and appreciate
both their cultural heritage and their current environment. Psychology in the past
seventy years has become a firmly established part of our cultural heritage. As an
advancing scientific discipline, psychology is a significant factor in present-day
society. Thus, courses in psychology, like those in other subjects, contribute to the
liberal education of students.

Careers in Psychology

A practical reason for studying psychology is the possibility of finding a professional

career as a psychologist. The diversity of psychologists' professional as well as
scientific endeavors can be seen from the discussions that follow regarding areas of
specialization or fields of study in psychology.

How do you become a psychologist? You can start by majoring in psychology as an

undergraduate student although it is not always necessary to do so. Usually, graduates
of a four-year course in psychology, either AB or BS, are employed as researchers,
psychometrcians, guidance counselors, and teachers, among others. Graduate training
leading to a Ph.D with a majorship in psychology generally takes four or more years.
An internship is not
necessary if the student plans to become a researcher and/or a teacher. A Ph.D. degree
is necessary for employment as a psychotherapist. An M.A. in psychology qualifies a
person to work as a school psychologist, psychometrician in large establishments,
personnel worker, guidance counselor, instructor at a junior college or community
college, and so forth.
Psychology and Rapid Social Change

A knowledge of psychology can contribute to our understanding of strong demands of

students, handicapped people, changing notions of respect for the law, evils brought
about by modern technology, or changes in standards of behavior. Psychology in itself
is not the key to the solution of all societal problems. But psychological knowledge
can help us cope with our problems and the demands of our constantly changing
world. The possibilities that it can help us improve ourselves and our world are
numerous.

AREAS OF SPECIALIZATION IN PSYCHOLOGY

As knowledge increases, psychologists concentrate their work on particular fields of

human behavior. Identify these fields or areas will enable one to gain a considerably
better idea of the work psychologists do.

Silverman (1979) describes some of the areas of specialization in this discipline as

follows:

Clinical Psychology

This includes the study and treatment of personality disorders as well as breakdown in
behavior. Clinical psychologists should not be confused with psychiatrists who are
medical doctors and may, therefore, prescribe drugs for their patients.

Community Psychology

The focus of this specialization is on mental health in the community rather than on
the individual patient. lt deals with problems of the aged, drugs and rehabilitation, and
treatment of prisoners.

Counseling Psychology

This is an outgrowth of clinical psychology. The counseling psychologist deals with

such problems as choosing
a career, parent-child relationships, love ard marriage, and others.

Developmental Psychology

This used to be called child psychology but it has now expanded to cover the
development of the individual from
conception to old age. It studies all aspects of development including learning,
sensation and perception, language, and emotion, among other behavior processes.

Educational or School Psychology

This involves the study of development and the motivational and emotional aspects of
children's behavior with the end in view of knowing how learning takes place. Aside
from the study and application of learning principles, educational or school
psychologists are mostly concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of learning
problems as well as the counseling of youngsters in school.

Experimental Psychology

This specializes in the investigation and experimentation of the physiological aspects

of behavior, sensation, perception, learning, emotion, memory, motivation, and
language and is concerned with finding the relationships of certain kinds of events
with one another through precise measurements and special instruments. The work of
experimental psychologists has also advanced the study of personality, social
psychology, and behavior pathology.

Industrial Psychology

Industrial psychologists apply psychological knowledge to the problems of business

and industry. They concentrate on helping to find the right people for the right jobs, or
on improving employer-employee relationships.
Human engineering, a sub field of industrial psychology, is concerned with
man-machine relations. The human engineers
concentrate in designing safer and more efficient work equipment. Industrial
psychologists who function like applied social psychologists engage in studying the
attitudes of consumers.

Personality Psychology

This is concerned with examination of variables that explain how individuals develop
and maintain their individual characteristics. Personality research is concerned with
the personality characteristics of individuals that may lead us to understand their
behavior.

Psychometric Psychology

This is a field that involves measurement and evaluation of individual as well as

group behavior and the application of mathematical procedures to psychological
problems.

Social Psychology

This field is concerned with how people in groups interact with one another. Social
psychologists study ways to measure and change people's attitudes and beliefs
because these can determine
how people will deal with others. Likewise, they study how man relates with the
family and the larger social institutions.

Other career opportunities/possibilities in psychology as mentioned by Hilgard (1979)

are presented below:
Computer Science

Psychologists who specialize in this area plan the design and data analysis of
experiments that require the kind of complex calculations that can only be done with
ease on a computer. They may also work in the area of artificial intelligence which
uses computers to perform the kind of intellectual tasks that are considered
characteristic of the human thought.

Forensic Psychology

This area involves work within the legal, judicial, and correctional systems in a
variety of ways. For example, the forensic psychologist consults with police
departments and probation officers to increase their understanding
of the human problems which they must deal with. He may work with prison inmates
and their families, participate in decisions about whether an accused person is
mentally competent to stand trial, and prepare psychological reports to help judges
decide on the most appropriate course of action for a convicted criminal.

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDY

How do psychologists conduct research and make practical application of their

knowledge? What methods do they use to achieve their goals? Morgan (1977)
categorizes these methods into three major headings: descriptive, experimental, and
statistical. The categories may overlap, of course. For instance, the experimental
method
employs statistical procedures.

Descriptive Methods

These provide a description of the behavior of the person or the animal being studied.
The description may
consist of just a few words, or it may be numerical, such as an IQ score assigned to a
person; or it may be a combination f of both words and numbers. The following fall
under descriptive methods (Morgan, 1974):

Naturalistic Observation

To obtain a detailed description of how a boy behaves at a certain age, 8everal

observers, working in shifts, can
watch and record everything he does from morning till night. This method 1s
time-consuming and therefore,
unsystematic, in the sense that the observers simply record what they see and hear
without selecting some events and ignoring others.

Systematic Observation

Usually, the psychologist is interested in the answer to some specific questions and
for this purpose he utilizes
the systematic observation method. For example, in finding out how self-concepts of
men and, women differ, he may apply the adjective checklist technique of self-rating.
Here the checklist is given to large groups or men and women ages 15 to 64, who
check the adjectives that they feel best describe them.

Systematic observation is made more precise and even more systematic with the use
of tests, scales, inventories.
and questionnaires. Instruments have been devised for measuring some aspects of a
person's behavior such as his abilities, aptitudes, interests, traits, opinions, or attitudes.

Clinical Method

People with problems come or are taken to a clinical psychologist for some help; for
example, a man who just cannot get along well with his wife, a girl who is depressed
because she does not obtain the grades her sister does, a boy who suffers from an
emotional trauma, and so on. A combination of descriptive methods may be employed
to
make a diagnosis of the problem: interview with the person and his associates and
investigation of his social background and environment by a social worker (a sort of
naturalistic observation). The psychologist may also use tests of various types, such as
a a test of emotional maturity, an interest test a personality test, etc. (methods of
systematic observation). These procedures can facilitate decision as regards the steps
to be taken to remedy the problem.

The clinical method is valuable in the treatment of individual cases and may
contribute indirectly to our basic
knowledge when some factors are observed to be specially
important.

Experimental Method

The experimental method is considered the basis or foundation of all, scientific

research. Some experiments require elaborate equipment and are conducted in the
laboratory; many worthwhile experiments, however, can be carried out in the
classroom or even in out-of-school situation with the aid of simple apparatuses.
Method, rather
than apparatus, determines the value of the work although the accuracy ot the
equipment influences the ultimate results.

An experiment usually begins with a statement of the hypothesis, a, tentative

assumption or proposition that is
to be tested. One of the oldest ways of stating a hypothesis is the "if-then" method.
For example, the fo!lowing might be a hypothesis: "If the sleep of students is limited
the night before an examination, then their examination grades would be lower than
they would be otherwise.

In an experiment, there must be at least two variables,or conditions that can change in
amount or quality: an independent variable, the factor that produces the effects being
examined in the experiment, and the dependent
variable, the changed condition that is considered to be a consequence of, or to
depend on, the independent variable.

The independent variable is manipulated and controlled by the experimenter in some

systematic, predetermined manner.
It is usually the stimulus that acts upon
the organism in the experiment. A stimulus is any object, event, or situation that
causes an organism to respond. The dependent variable inn an experiment, on the
other hand, is generally the response of the organism, which is caused by the action of
the stimulus.

Procedure Used in an Experiment

Suppose the psychologist who has put forth his hypothesis regarding the effect of a
limited amount of sleep on students' examination grades conducts his experiment.
For him to know that low grades are not caused by factors other than insufficient
sleep, for example - by differences
in age, sex, amount of study, or intellectual ability, he must control or eliminate the
possible influential variables other than insufficient sleep that might cause low
examination grades, One way of doing this is by matching two groups of students
carefully. For each group, there should be an equal number of students who are or the
same age, sex, socioeconomic status, and intellectual ability. Members of both groups
should spend the same specified amount of time studying for the examination.

The psychologist might then instruct one group of students to get at least eight hours
of sleep the night before the examination. To the other group, he might give
instructions that it should get only four hours of sleep prior to the examination. The
experiment would thus investigate the effect of a particular condition (a limited
amount of sleep the night before the exam). Psychologists call the group in which the
condition under study is present in this case, the group that gets little amount of sleep)
the experimental group while the group in which the condition is not present, the
control group.

Since the amount of sleep is the factor being manipulated and is the stimulus acting
upon the students, amount
of sleep is the independent variable in the experiment.
Examination grades are the dependent variable, since low examination grades are,
according to the hypothesis, a
consequence of insufficient sleep and a response to the stimulus.

After giving the experimental and control groups identical examinations, the
psychologist studies the grades
and compares the performance of the two groups. If the students in the experimental
group earn lower grades
than those in the control group the psychologist's hypothesis is supported. He then
brings together, summarizes,
and evaluates his experimental evidence before preparing a written report of his work.

The experimental method is basic to modern psychology as it illustrates fundamental

principles and provides useful research.
Statistical Method

The data obtained from experiments and from administration of standardized

measures or instruments of evaluation are usually quantitative data; they need
to be classified in order to give meaning to the data; they need to be interpreted
according to statistical procedures. You can have a clearer understanding of some
basic statistical concepts necessary for the proper interpretation of test results and
other data that have significance as a means of evaluation in your statistical course.

Measures of Central Tendency

To find the average score and thus, to describe the central tendency of a group of
scores, either the arithmetic mean or the median is used. The mean is the average of a
set of scores arrived at by adding all the scores and dividing them by their number.
The median is the score that is midway between the highest and the lowest scores. It
is found by listing the scores in order, either from highest to lowest or vice versa,
counting them, and when there is an odd number of scores, the median is the average
of the two middlemost scores.

Correlation

The degree of the relationship between two variables is called correlation. When we
say, for example, that the IQ scores of identical twins raised in the same home are
highly correlated, this means that if one twin has a high score, the other twin has a
high score, too.

When high scores in one variable correspond with high scores in another variable, the
correlation is positive.
For example, the size of one's vocabulary and the ability to express one's thoughts in
writing may be positively correlated. When low scores in one variable correspond
with high scores in another variable, the correlation is
negative. For example, body weight and the ability to run fast are negatively
correlated.

The relationship between two sets of scores or characteristics is expressed as a

decimal number called the correlation coefficient, usually represented by r. An r of
+1.00 indicates a perfect positive correlation and an r of .00 indicates a perfect
negative correlation. An r of .00
1dlcates that there is no relationship between the two sets of scores. Perfect
correlations in psychology are very few, if any. A correlation coefficient of .80 is
considered

very high and generally indicates a high degree of relationship. This 18 especially true
if it has been obtained from a sample of 30 or more individuals. Highly correlated
variables allow us to make a prediction about one variable
on the basis of the other.
Psychometric techniques, which simply mean test, naturalistic observation, and
clinical methods of observation are used in psychological research for measuring the
correlation or relationship between two variables.

Reliability and Validity

Correlations are also used in psychology to assess the usefulness of our measuring
devices which are usually
tests. This assessment involves first, determining the reliability, then, the validity of
the device.

Reliability and Validity

Correlations are also used in psychology to assess the usefulness of our measuring
devices which are usually tests. This assessment involves first, determining the
reliability, then, the validity of the device.

Reliability refers essentially to repeatability. A test is said to be reliable if it yields

similar results each time it is used. For example, after splitting a test into two parts
and obtaining scores for each part, the two sets of scores
are correlated. The resulting correlation coefficient is known as split-half reliability. If
after using a correlation formula the correlation is high, we say that the test has high
reliability. That is, it measures rather accurately, what.
ever it is measuring. Reliabilities in the neighborhood of .90 for tests of intelligence,
for example, mean that they
are rather accurate as psychological tests.

Validity refers to the extent with which a test measures what it is supposed to measure.
It is established by
correlating a test with some outside criterion that represents what we would like the
test to measure. The Scholastic Aptitude Test, for example, is supposed to measure
aptitude for college-level study. Hence, to assess the validity of that test, it is
correlated with how students actually perform in college. We have to prove validity
by establishing a criterion or standard against which we correlate the test. Only when
this correlation turns out to be significant and reasonably high can we say that such
test is valid. There are other measures of validity, however.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE OF PSYCHOLOGY

This brief history of the discipline has been gathered from several recent books in
psychology.

Modern psychology reflects the work of pioneer psychologists as will be noted in the
presentation of methods of studying human behavior in the past and how these
developed into the present science of psychology.

Psychology as a discipline is said to have a long past but a very short history. This
means that concern with the thinking about psychological problems dates back to
antiquity. Since the time of the early Greeks, medicine has wrestled with the problems
of mental illness and epilepsy. Since the early nineteenth century, biologists have
studied issues which we would consider today to be within the domain of psychology.
Charles Darwin, for example, was concerned with questions about the relation of
behavior to adaptation and survival.

Authors of textbooks in psychology set the year 1879 as the year of its birth. It was
during this year that Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) established the first psychological
laboratory for research at the University of Leipzig in Germany.

The Schools of Psychology

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt and his student, Edward B. Titchener, developed the "school of
psychology" known as Structuralism in 1879. However, it was only in1898 that the
school got its name structuralism

Wundt and the leaders after him were called structuralists because their main concern
was the study of what made up consciousness. They argued that simple
mental states built up .Complex mental experiences and that the primary task of the
psychologist was to evolve laws that governed the formation of these elements.

Introspective analysis (the examination of one's own thoughts, sensation, etc.) was
thought to be the necessary tool.

The three basic elements of consciousness from the introspective observations of

Wundt and later, of Titchener were sensations, images, and feelings, which they
believed to be basic and incapable of lending themselves to further analytic reduction.
Ideas consisted of images, perceptions,
and sensations. Images differed from sensations in that they were less vivid, less
intense, and sometimes less
prolonged.

Titchener's system was a refinement of his mentor's (Wundt's) work. His was a more
exaggerated experimentalism: he not only held that psychology ought to be
experimental; he held that it must also be pure. Thus, to him, applied science seemed
a contradiction because the scientist, as he thought, must not concern himself with the
practical value of what he is doing.

Structuralism's major contributions to psychology need not be overemphasized: 1. It

gave psychology a great scientific impetus, getting the name psychology attached to it
for the first time and clearly separated from its main parental fields, physiology and
philosophy; 2. It provided
an extensive test of the introspective analysis as the only method for a "complete"
psychology; and 3. It led to the formation of functional, psychoanalytic, behavioristic,
and gestalt forces that organized their resistance against orthodoxy.
Functionalism

As a formal school, Functionalism began at the University of Chicago with John

Dewey and James Angell who both started it in 1894 although its development started
with William James. Harvey Carr and Robert S.
Woodworth were responsible for the maturation and further elaboration of the school,
which has never been a highly
differentiated systematic position. To wit, according to Woodworth: "A psychology
that attempts to give an accurate and systemic answer to the questions,
"What do men do?" and "Why do they do it?' is called a functional psychology."
Instead of asking "What is consciousness?" as did the structuralists, the functionalists,
asked "What is consciousness for?" Hence, because these psychologists wanted to
study the function of the organism's behavior and consciousness in his adaptation to
his environment, they
were called functionalists and their school, functionalism.

William James, a talented and extremely influential writer, was the leading American
antecedent of functionalism. He contributed to the grow th and development of
psychology through his exceptional ability to synthesize psychological principles and
to make shrewd intuitive assumptions that filled many gaps in psychological
knowledge. Moreover, he developed an extensive
positive program for psychology with emphasis on pragmatism, which calls for the
validation of knowledge in terms of its consequences, values, or utility. James
believed that useful knowledge for psychology would come from a study of behavior
as well as consciousness, of individual differences as well as generalized principles,
of emotions, non-rational impulses, and intellectual
abilities.

John Dewey, on the other hand, made an influential contribution to psychology in a

written work, The Reflex
Arc Concept in Psychology, which became a classic and was considered as the most
significant landmark in the beginning of the functionalist movement. Dewey felt that
the psychologist, in his complex task of studying behavior, must consider behavior as
it functions (which marked the advent of functional psychology) and that molar units
of analysis should be used to avoid too much elementaristic
analysis (a gestalt point made twenty years before gestalt psychology came into
existence). More than anyone else,
Dewey was responsible for application of pragmatism to education -- the belief that
education is life, learning
is doing, and teaching should be student-centred rather
than subject-centered.

The functionalists, who focused their study on the adaptive 'value of behavior (in this
they were profoundly influenced by Charles Darwin's Theory of Evolution) did not
reject the emphasis which structuralists had placed on consciousness nor their method
of introspection. Instead they proposed that there exists obvious connections be
tween the mind and behavior and that the adaptive values of the mind (its functions)
should be studied. An example of the functionalists' "biological" interests is William
James
Theory of Emotions which concerns the question of how the nervous system controls
the activity of the other bodily
organs and behavior.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis was developed in Vienna, Austria by Sigmund Freud (1858-1939),

and his influence, direct or indirect, is now so pervasive that those who know nothing
else about psychology have at least a nodding acquaintance with him. One may say, in
addition, that it is difficult to treat Freud's influence briefly because it is both
profound and exceedingly complex. Freud was a Viennese physician who developed
the methods of personality analysis
and treatment known as psychoanalysis.

If we are to single out any one of Freud's theories for consideration along within
behaviorism and gestalt no psychology, it is his interpretation of the unconscious, as
follows: Basic but unacceptable (forbidden, punished) wishes of
childhood get driven out of awareness. They become part of the active unconscious
where, while out of awareness they remain influential. The active unconscious presses
to find the expression in dreams, slips of speech, unconscious mannerisms, as well as
such socially approved behavior as
artistic, literary, or scientific activity. The method of psychoanalysis- free association
under the guidance of the
analyst- is itself a way of helping unconscious wishes find verbal expression. In
classical Freudian theory the unconscious wishes were almost exclusively sexual.
This emphasis upon childhood sexuality was one of the barriers to the acceptance of
Freudian theories by the medical and psychological professions. But consequences of
his emphasis upon early childhood have been the encouragement of numerous studies
of the effects of child-rearing practices
and a new emphasis upon the motives or drives that initiate or regulate behavior.

Psychoanalysis as a discipline began with the study of neurosis through the techniques
of hypnosis, dream analysis, and free association and is more an art, a philosophy and
a practice than a science.

Among its solid contributions to psychology are the opening up of new areas of
investigation such as the
unconscious and sex, its impetus on motivational research and its stress on childhood
and genetic factors in personality, and defense mechanisms.

Behaviorism

The development of behav1orism was due primarily to one man-John B. Watson

(1878-1958) who argued that
the "private mental life of human beings, into which introspection provided a window,
could never be studied
objectively. The only things which could be objectively analyzed and quantitatively
measured, according to him and the other behaviorists, are overt responses emitted by
organisms. Responses, accordingly to this point of view, are elicited by stimuli; hence,
behaviorism also became
known as S-R psychology.

Watson was functionally trained but later turned behaviorist. He was the leading
exponent of behaviorism
(80-called because of its emphasis on the "prediction and control of behavior").

By stimulus, Watson meant any object in the general environment or any change in
the tissues themselves due to the physiological condition of the animal such as the
change we get when we keep an animal from sex activity,
from feeding, or from nest-building. By response, he meant anything the animal does
such as turning toward or away
from light, jumping at a sound, and more highly complex

and organized activities such as building a skyscraper drawing plans, writing a book,
and the like.

Watson's real contribution was the consistency and extremity of his basic viewpoint;
he simplified and made
objective the study of psychology by denying the scientific usefulness of mind and
consciousness. He espoused
metaphysics to go with methodology and felt it necessary to deny the existence as
well as the utility of consciousness, or to regard it as a phenomenon with no causal
effects on behavior. His methodological point is
still widely accepted either wittingly or unwittingly, by all experimental psychologists.
Most other psychologists
are also methodological behaviorists and the indication at present is that unanimity is
increasing rather than decreasing.

Behaviorism also had three other important characteristics: emphasis on conditioned

reflexes as the building
blocks of behavior, emphasis on learned behavior, and emphasis on animal behavior.
Behaviorism denied the
existence of instincts or of inborn tendencies.

Gestalt

Although the "behavioristic revolution" has been most influential in the development
of psychology, it is by no
means the only systematic position. Gestalt psychology, a school and a system of
psychology originating in Germany emphasizes the organization, the quality of
wholeness, that inheres in both behavior and experience. For example, below are
twelve dots, but more likely, you will first perceive them as the corners of three
squares rather than as twelve separate dots.

Another example 18 an experience which you are probably very familiar with but
have not actually analyzed. When you are viewing a movie, you are actually seeing a
rapidly presented series of still pictures in which all objects and persons are stationary.
Despite this, you see movement in the screen as you look at it. Why does one organize
the twelve dots into three squares and why does one see
movement when none actually exists? These are the kinds of questions raised by the
Gestalt psychologists. They have
taught us much about the organized nature of behavior in sensation and perception,
and have investigated similar problems in learning, thinking, emotions, personality,
and social psychology

Gestalt psychology was born with Max Wertheimer's (1880-1943) paper on apparent
movement (phi phenomenon) which was a report of work along with Wolfgang
Kohler (1887-1942), and Kurt Lewin (1886-1941), the co-founders of the school.

The German word "gestalt" is most properly translated as "form," organization," or

"configuration." We might call this psychology, then, "form psychology" or
"configuration psychology."

Unlike the Behaviorists, the Gestaltists did not protest against the concept of
conscious experience and introspection in any form. Instead, they objected to the idea
of metal chemistry," that complex conscious experience could be broken down by
introspective observation into its component elements. Once this is done, they
maintained, the unity of the phenomenon being studied is destroyed.

For example, just as a square is more than four straight lines, all objects and processes
are more than the sum total of all their parts. In like manner, as we change one aspect
of an object, we entirely change the "wholeness" of that object. The former maintains
that the simple combination of elements is inadequate to produce the features
of the whole while the latter indicates that any change in an element changes the
whole.

Meanwhile, individual differences in behavior interested Francis Galton (1822-1911)

and Alfred Binet (1858-1911) who studied and measured these differences, Galton led
in the development of a branch of psychology which came to be known as behavioral
genetics, whereas Binet laid the foundations of the mental testing movement, the
development of intelligence tests, personality tests, and tests of all types.

Table 1.l taken from Wrightsman's (1979) book brings out a comparison of the
subject matter, basic questions, and methods of studying behavior characterizing the
basic schools of psychology.

Transpersonal Psychology

Today's important trends in psychology emphasize transpersonal psychology and its

practical usefulness and application in educational psychology.

Humanistic psychology gave rise to "transpersonal psychology". While humanistic

psychology was the first to acknowledge the value of a person's inner life as a source
of truth, transpersonal psychology attends to the whole person, body, mind, and spirit
and sees self-transcendence as the way to truth. This view inspired a new trend in
creative and transformative education which addresses the whole of a person: sense,
thoughts, emotions, aspirations, words, and actions.
Roberts and Clark (1975) explain that Transpersonal Psychology offers a more
inclusive vision of human potential, suggesting both a new image of the human
person and a new world view. An underlying assumption of transpersonal psychology
is that physical, emotional, intellectual, and spiritual growth are interrelated, and the
optimal educational environment stimulates and nurtures the intuitive as well as the
rational, the imaginative as well as the practical, and the creative as well as the
receptive functions of each individual. Transpersonal psychology focuses attention on
the human capacity for self-transcendence as well as self-realization and is concerned
with the optimum development of consciousness. (This should not be confused with
terms such as political consciousness or
social consciousness.)

Most topics being investigated by transpersonal psychologists, according to Roberts

and Clark, consist of the psychological aspects of at least one of the following: a new
image of the human person and a new world view, altered states of consciousness
(including meditation, dreams) impulses toward higher states such as peak
experience), self-realization and self-transcendence, subjective experience and inner
states, spiritual growth, parapsychology and psychic phenomena, other cultures and
their psychologies (especially Eastern psychologies), newly discovered forms of
energy, recent physiological research (such as voluntary control of internal states),
and evolving consciousness.

Transpersonal psychology has been very useful in the development of a more

comprehensive theoretical framework in educational psychology. There are areas of
human experiences related to learning which have been previously ignored by
traditional schools like the Freudian, behavioral, and humanistic psychologies.

Current classroom applications of transpersonal psychology begin in the learner's

recognition of important conditions affecting his or her own inner states. Education
has been employing learning strategies such as: relaxation and concentration, guided
fantasy, daydreaming, self-hypnosis, dream diaries, and subjective dream
interpretations, meditation, centering and focusing, ESP and other simple
parapsychology techniques, and spirituality enhancement techniques among others.

Researches in transpersonal educational psychology show considerable promise.

Descriptive and exploratory research by teachers indicated increased content learned,
student enthusiasm, student self-control, excitement in self-exploration and other
positive results enhancing human development.