SEMINAR

FRICTION VS FRICTIONLESS MECHANICS

SEEMA DENTAL COLLEGE & HOSPITAL, RISHIKESH

DEPARTMENT OF ORTHODONTICS & DENTOFACIAL

ORTHOPAEDICS

Presented by:

Dr. Shubham Sharan

Post-graduate Student

Department of Orthodontics

&DentofacialOrthopaedics
CONTENTS

 Introduction

• Friction Mechanics

Factor affecting Frictional resistance

Concept of friction

Advantages and disadvantages

Force Delivery systems

• Frictionless

• Mechanics

Major & Minor Canine Retraction

Canine retraction in different anchorage situations

T- loop

Basic concept of loops

• References

Introduction

Space closure is one of the most important steps in treatment after extraction.
The strategy of space closure should be based on a careful diagnosis and
treatment plan made according to the specific needs of the individual.
Methods of Space Closure

FRICTIONAL MECHANICS

When two objects in contact are forced to move on each other, the resistant
force that occurs at the contact surface opposite the direction of movement is
friction. (Nanda)

The frictional force is proportional to force with which the contacting surfaces
are pressed together and is affected by the nature of the surface at the interface
(rough or smooth, chemically reactive or passive, modified by lubricants, etc.)
(Proffit)

When two solid surfaces are pressed together or one slides over the other, real
contact occurs only at a limited number of small spots, called asperities. They
carry all the load between two surface.

FRICTIONAL SYSTEM

STATIC FRICTIONAL FORCE

DYNAMIC FRICTIONAL FORCE

Friction that exists before one of the objects starts to move is called static
frictional force.

It is the amount of force necessary to start movement of an object in a static

state.

Kinetic friction (or dynamic friction) is the friction that exists during the
movement of the object. It is the amount of force that the object must overcome
to continue moving.
orthodontic tooth movement is a slow process, wire and bracket relationship can
exhibit both static and kinetic forms of sliding friction.

Application of force starts with a complex biomechanical relationship between

the wire, bracket, ligature, tooth, periodontium and the alveolar bone.

When teeth slide along an arch wire, force is needed for two purposes

 To overcome frictional resistance

 Create the bone remodeling needed for tooth movement.

lf two materials of different hardness slide past each other (eg : a metal wire in a
ceramic bracket)

Coefficient of friction is mainly determined by the shear strength and yield

pressure of the softer material

When a soft material slides past a harder one (eg: a metal wire in a ceramic
bracket)

small fragments of the soft material adhere to the hard one leading to "plowing"
of asperities.

• Two other factors can affect the resistance to Sliding

Interlocking of surface irregularities

Becomes more important when asperities are large or pointed

 Extent to which asperities on a harder material plow into the surface of a
softer one

Total frictional resistance is sum of-

• Force necessary to shear all junctions

• Resistance caused by the interlocking of roughness.

• Plowing component of the total friction force

Friction has an important impact on efficiency of orthodontic mechanics

because approximately 40% to 50% of the force used for tooth movement is lost
to friction.

Friction, or binding, which prevents the wire from sliding through the bracket
slots, can delay and even halt tooth movement.

FACTORS AFFECTING FRICTIONAL RESISTANCE DURING

TOOTH MOVEMENT

• Bracket

Material

Width

Design and manufacturing technique

• Arch wire

Material

Size

• Ligature

Material

Use of self ligating bracket

 Tightness

• Force

Magnitude

Point of application

• Angulation

Bracket wire angulation

• Biological factor

Saliva

1. (a) BRACKET MATERIAL

Greatest friction occurs in plastic (polycarbonate) and ceramic brackets-

Polycrystalline ceramic=Considerably rougher and hard surface, single crystal
bracket=Quite smooth but hard

Lowest in Stainless steel brackets

• Titanium Brackets are coming into use, primarily because they

eliminate the chance of allergic response to nickel in stainless steel.

• At best, surface properties of these bracket are like those of titanium wire
and polishing of the inner surface of bracket is difficult enough that these
critical areas may be rougher than the wire.

• Recently, ceramic bracket with metal slot have been introduced.

• Advantage-

Esthetics

Better surface properties than ceramic brackets

• Disadvantage-

Difficult fabrication
1.(b) Bracket manufacturing technique

Friction from milled brackets higher than that from cast and sintered brackets.
Milled brackets have sharp burs on edges of their slots that may affect
frictional resistance. Edges of cast bracket slots are rougher than those of
sintered ones.

1. (c) Bracket width

Within the bracket

Torquing
Control of facially or Necessary
root position lingually
1

Key moment
dimensionsisare
Is needed those of archwire
generated
Two circumstances
Mesiodistal Across the bracket
root
movement in
closing Bracket width
extraction determines the length
sites of moment arm

• The wider the bracket, all other things being equal, the easier it is to
generate the moment needed to bring root together at the extraction site.

•
 • Wider bracket reduce force needed to generate the moment and the
contact angle and thus advantageous for space closure by sliding.

• Despite their advantage when space are to be closed by sliding

mechanics, wide bracket have a partially offsetting disadvantage.

decreased
Wider the smaller inter- springiness and
bracket bracket span range of action
of archwire.

• The maximum practical width of a bracket is about half the width of a

tooth.

Effect of Bracket slot size in Edgewise system

• The use of rectangular bracket in rectangular slot was introduced by E.

Angle in the late 1920s.

• The original appliance was designed for use with

gold archwire,

22x28 mil slot size

to accommodate rectangular archwire of the same dimension.

Angle’s Concept-sliding of teeth to close space was simply unnecessary

because extractions were simply not done.

Torquing movement on the other hand, were important, and a major goal of
appliance deign was efficient torque.

The appliance was engineered to produce appropriate force and a reasonable

range of action in torsion when gold archwire of 22x28 dimension were used
with narrow brackets.

When Steel archwire replaced gold

• Angle’s original calculation were no longer valid because of increased

stiffness of steel wire

• Alternative- Redesign the edgewise appliance

 • Reduction in slot size from 22 to 18 mil

• Good torque is possible with steel wire in 18 mil slot.

On the other hand-

• Using undersized archwire in edgewise bracket is a way to reduce the

frictional component of resistance to sliding (an important consideration
at the time when steel replaced gold)

• As a practical matter, for sliding, 2 mil of clearance Is required and even

more is desirable.

• Greater strength of 18 mil wire w.r.t. 16 mil is advantageous in sliding.

• The original 022 slot bracket therefore would have some advantage
during space closure but would be a definite disadvantage when torque is
needed.

• If only steel wire were to be used, the 18 mil slot system has considerable
advantage over the larger bracket bracket size.

• With their excellent springback and resistance to permanent

deformation, A-NiTi wire overcome some of the alignment
limitation of steel wire in wide 022 mil slot.

• While rectangular NiTi and Beta Ti wire offer advantage over steel
for finishing phase of treatment and torque control.

• In short- NiTi wire greatly help overcome the major problem

associated with continued use of original edgewise slot.

2. (a)Wire material

The most commonly used wires, listed from lowest to highest in terms of their
surface roughness

SS< chrome-cobalt< NiTi < beta-titanium

When NiTi wire were first introduced, they were marketed as inherently slick
surface compared with steel , so that all other factors being equal, there would
be less interlocking of asperities and thereby less frictional resistance to sliding.
This is erroneous-the surface of NiTi is rougher (because of surface defect and
not the quality of polishing) than that of Beta Ti, which in turn is rougher than
steel. More importantly, however, there is little or no correlation between
Coefficient of friction and surface roughness.(interlocking and ploughing are
not significant component of friction)

Although NiTi has greater surface roughness, the beta Ti has greater frictional
resistance.

This is due to the increased titanium content which increases surface reactivity,
which Is a major influence. (cold weld itself to steel bracket which make sliding
all but impossible)

By alteration of the surface of the titanium wires by implantation of ions into

the surface. Ion implantation (with nitrogen, carbon, and other materials) has
been done successfully with beta-Ti and ha been shown to improve the
characteristics of beta Ti-Hip Implant.

In clinical orthodontic, however, Implanted NiTi and Beta NiTi have failed to
hoe Improved performance in initial alignment .

NiTi wire, despite its high surface roughness, can "creep" through the bracket
slots and tubes, causing soft tissue irritation.

This is probably because of its high flexibility and the fact that it moves easily
from the effects of chewing cycles and brushing.

2. (b) wire size and cross-section

For same bracket and wire material, frictional forces increases as wire size
increases

Rectangular wires cause higher friction than round wires

These values are higher for rectangular NiTi and beta-titanium wires, which
have rougher surfaces than SS and chrome-cobalt wires.

Factors related to interbracket distance

 More wire deflects,
Interbracket distance For a given force, an
more the tooth tips; thus, Binding and higher
increases, stiffness of the elastic wire deflects more
angle between wire and friction
wire decreases than a stiffer one
bracket increases.

3. Ligature

Wire ligatures cause less friction than elastic ligatures. Ligature is tight enough
to control tooth movement yet loose enough to allow sliding

4. Force

If line of action of force does not pass through the center of resistance, tooth
tips distally and causes friction between bracket and wire.

reducing amount of tipping (reducing the force), friction can be reduced

force can be applied to a power hook rather than at bracket level

5. Wire-bracket angle
 A flexible
higher the
wire engaged
angle, the High friction
in excessively high moments
greater the or binding.
tipped
friction
brackets

Elastic binding and resistance to sliding

• When a wire shaped to an archform fits through multiple brackets,

contact with the base of the bracket and/ or bracket wall is inevitable.

• If a tooth is pulled along the archwire, the resistance to sliding will be

only friction until the tooth tips enough to bring the corners of the bracket
into contact with the wire.

This happens after a very small movement of tooth and a moment is generated
that opposes tipping.

This is elastic binding which is different from friction.

The greater the angle, the greater the force between the wire and bracket-there is
a greater resistance to sliding with narrow bracket.

Inelastic Binding and resistance to sliding-

 • Siding a wire through bracket causes surprising amount of distortion to
wire surface. This results in notching and indentations on the wire
surface.

• When a notch encounters the edge of bracket, tooth movement stops until
displacement of the tooth during function release the notch (by
masticatory function).

• Component of resistance attributed to friction and binding

6. SALIVA

Lubrication by saliva

Andreasen and Quevedou used human saliva in their study on frictional

resistance and found no difference with or without saliva

Kusy et al tested the use of human saliva in their experiments on frictional They
reported that saliva only decreased friction with (beta-titanium and nickel-
titanium (NiTi) archwires.

The levels registered for SS and chrome-cobalt wires were higher than those
obtained in dry state.
 Force Delivery
system

Elastomeric Coil spring

Elastic
Elastomeric Stainless steel Niti closed
modules with
Chain coil spring coil spring
ligature

NiTi Close Coil spring

 Optimal force for space closure is 150 gm when using nickel titanium coil
springs
 Nickel titanium springs produce more consistent space closure than
elastomeric modules
 Springs should not be expanded beyond the manufacturers
recommendations (22 mm for the 9 mm springs, and 36 mm for the 12
mm springs).
 If spaces are closed too rapidly, incisor torque can be lost, and requires
several months to regain at the end of space closure.

Elastic chain

 Elastic chain is not recommended for closure of large spaces, because of

force level issues.
 400 gm of force in upper arch & 350 gm of force in lower arch.
 This places them in the force range just below closing loops and steel
Pletcher coil springs.
 Elastic chain is useful for dealing with one or two minor spaces towards
the end of treatment and light chain can be helpful in preventing spaces
from opening late in the treatment, when finishing .014 wires are placed.
Alternative mechanics for spaces resistant to closure

 Hycon@ device from Edenta was developed by Dr Winfried Schutz, a

German orthodontist

 Device consists of a centimeter segment of 21 x 25 rectangular wire, to

which is soldered a 7 mm screw device.

• small screwdriver be used twice per week to turn the screw one full turn
(1/8 mm) in a clockwise direction. Thus, approximately 1 mm of space
closure is accomplished per month .

• This device provides a very short-acting but strong force that essentially
overcomes any frictional concerns.

• Rectangular segment is placed in the double or triple tube on the molar,

and bent over distally.

• screw is provided with a large head, to which a ligature wire can be

loosely connected. The ligature wire is then extended forwards and tied to
the archwire hook.

• small screwdriver be used twice per week to turn the screw one full turn
(1/8 mm) in a clockwise direction. Thus, approximately 1 mm of space
closure is accomplished per month .

• This device provides a very short-acting but strong force that essentially
overcomes any frictional concerns.

METHODS OF SPACE CLOSURE according to MBT

 Sliding mechanics with heavy forces .

 Sliding mechanics with light continuous forces .

Sliding mechanics with heavy (ex-edgewise) forces

force levels (500-600

gm)

Unfavourable torque in upper and lower molars

When Too
these heavy
rapid forces
incisor were
& molar used for
retraction canspace
leave closure, there
incisors with was therefore
inadequate torque a
need for extra tip, rotation control, and torque control.

This additional control could be achieved by designing extra tip, rotation, and
torque into the brackets...

This was used in 'extraction series' or 'translation series' brackets developed by

Andrews.

Sliding mechanics with light forces

Passive
Type I-Distal
Tie Back
module
Active
Type II-Mesial
Module

Passive Tie-Backs
 • At the time of placement of rectangular.019x.025 steel wires for at least 1
month to allow torque changes to occur on individual teeth.

• Later active tie-backs are used for space closure.

TYPE I ACTIVE TIE_BACK (distal module)

Before placing the type I active tie-back, .019x.025 rectangular steel archwire is
placed with elastomeric modules or ligatures on all brackets.

Completed Type I active tie-back. Module is stretched to twice its original size.

TYPE II ACTIVE TIE_BACK (mesial module)

• Elastomeric module is attached to soldered hook of archwire.

Final elastomeric module is placed after the archwire & tie-back.

It stabilizes the tieback wire & helps to direct it away from the soft tissue.
Active tie-back using NiTi coil spring-

– If large spaces need to be closed

– Or if there are infrequent adjustment opportunities.

Samuels et al-produce more consistent forces than elastomerics

 Use of light closed coil NiTi spring gives a force of 150gm

 They shouldn’t be expanded beyond manufacturer

recommendations

Nattras et al-Force decay with elastomerics is rapid in 1st 24 hours and is

affected by environment & temperature.

• Canine Retraction

Niti coil spring

Steel coil spring

Elastics

Elastomeric chain

Advantages of the frictional system

• Straight wires are easy to apply, thus requiring less chair time.

• Patient discomfort (hygiene problems, soft tissue irritation) is less

common compared with looped wires.

• The whole dental arch can be controlled with only one archwire.

• Leveling can be performed easily with highly flexible NiTi wires.

When force is applied via E-chain or elastic module

The resulting instantaneous moment-to-force ratio (M/F) determines the initial

displacement of the tooth (or teeth) within its viscoelastic constraining
periodontal ligament (PDL).
That initial displacement causes a stress- strain distribution within the PDL,
which triggers the bone remodelling processes that yield the desired direction of
tooth movement.

As the tooth moves, the applied force decreases (elastomerics are further subject
to force decay with time). The applied moment can increase or decrease,
dependent on the arch wire configuration.

Therefore, the M/F changes as the tooth moves, and the tooth responds,
typically progressing from controlled tipping (center of rotation at the root
apex) to translation to root movement.

Such progression may not produce the most efficient or the least traumatic tooth
movement.

Wire-bracket friction is a variable factor as the moving teeth displace along the
arch wire with this approach, making it difficult to accurately predict M/F.

Disadvantages of the frictional system

• Unpredictable Mechanics-Any interaction between wire, brackets, and

ligatures causes friction-anchorage loss is more likely to occur .

• Occlusal plane inclination and interocclusal relationships may need to be

controlled by intermaxillary elastics, microimplants, or headgear

• Canine distalization along flexible archwires or excessive force

application may cause extrusion of incisors, resulting in anterior deep bite
.

• En masse retraction is difficult without headgear, which requires

considerable patient cooperation.

FRICTIONLESS MECHANICS

• Continuous arch: non broken archwire formed around the dental arch,
connects one bracket or tube with the bracket on an adjacent tooth.

• Example, closing loop bent on the main archwire

 • Segmented arch: arch is split into two segments. The anterior segment
consists of the incisors and canines, and the posterior segment contains
premolars and molars.

Philosophy of Segmented Arch

• All movements are converted into a format of relationships between two

teeth, thereby simplifying force systems and providing a predetermined
and more controlled mechanism.

• Loops used in frictionless mechanics- retraction loops (springs)

Ideal loop design

• Deliver relatively low, nearly constant forces

• Accommodate large activation

• Comforatable to the patient

• Easy to fabricate

• During activation of loop, an external load application causes its

deformation.

• The deformed spring produces a force during deactivation as it tries to

regain its original form, based on springback ability.

• Magnitude of force applied to a segment can be measured by

dynamometer, thus, moment can be easily calculated by measuring the
distance between two attachments.

• Presently, pre-caliberated wires are used to make results more

predictable.

• Long inter-bracket distance makes it possible to apply light and long

range forces.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF LOOPS

wire material

Low load/deflection

archwire cross-section

interbracket distance & configuration

position of the loop

Moment-to-force ratio

PRIMARY CHARACTERISTICS

moment-to-force ratio (M/F) - This which determines the center of rotation

of the tooth during its movement

Force-to-deflection rate (F/Δ) - Defines the force/unit activation or the rate

of decay of force in a retraction spring

MOMENT TO FORCE RATIO

This is the most important characteristic of a retraction spring, since it is this

ratio that determines the position to which the tooth will move (that is,
whether the tooth will translate or tip).

• A vertical loop, 6 mm. high,

• 0.16 inch stainless steel wire
• yield strength of 400,000 psi,
• centered between the canine
and second premolar
brackets on the lower left
side

Two equal and opposite forces of 485 Gm. are required to activate the standard
vertical loop up to the point of yield; in other words, this spring could
potentially deliver 485 Gm. of force.
If only forces were applied to the loop, the horizontal arms would rotate and not
be parallel to the bracket.

In order to maintain bracket engagement, equal and opposite moments must be

placed on the vertical loop at the canine and premolar brackets. The moment at
yield on the wire at each bracket is 1,060 Gm.-mm.

This is significantly less than the moment generated at the critical section at the
apex of the loop, which is 1,860 gm-mm. The deflection at yield is 1.4 mm.

Any activation over 1.4 mm. would produce permanent deformation.

Since common activations of a vertical loop are approximately 1 mm., it can be

seen that the force values for a 0.016 inch round loop are very large.

A force acting at the center of resistance (CR) of a tooth

will translate the tooth.

A couple [moment) and a force (white arrows) acting at the

bracket can produce the same effect.

The equivalent force system at the bracket is 200 Gm. and 2,000 Gm.-mm. The
moment-to-force ratio at the bracket is, therefore, 10 to 1.

Moment- to-force ratios for translation are variable, depending upon root length
and bracket placement, but usually must be greater than 8 for an incisor or
canine to translate.
the moment-to-force ratio being constant throughout the range of activation of
any given retraction spring is most useful, even though slight variation will
occur with some springs that have large activations.

The derived M/Fs vary from 7.1 to 10.2 mm for individual teeth.
 The derived M/Fs vary from 8.0 to 9.1 mm for groups of teeth

Vertical
Height

Factors
affecting
M:F ratio
of Loop
Loop Horizontal
Diameter Length

Vertical Height
 – the higher the loop, the greater the moment-to-force ratio and the
better control the orthodontist would have over the root apex in
preventing it from displacement forward during retraction.

Values of force and moments in situations where the vertical height is altered and other

design variables remain constant.

• A 4 mm vertical loop can be activated 0.7 mm. without permanent

deformation, and a 10 mm loop can be activated at 3.3 mm.

• Thus, the vertical height is important in increasing the amount of

activation possible.

Horizontal Length
 – determined by the interbracket distance and, hence, the position of
the teeth.

– There are ways, however, of altering the horizontal length if one

were to combine relatively rigid wires with the lighter ones used
for the loop (segmentation ) .

– Keeping all other variables constant as one increases the horizontal

length of the loop, the M:F ratio decreases.

– The horizontal length of the loop can be a factor in spring

properties, but its effect on the M:F ratio is not as great as a change
in the height of the loop.

Loop Thickness
 – As the diameter (D) of the vertical loop increases, there will also be
an increase in the moment-to-force ratio

• operator cannot practically determine horizontal lengths within 0.3 mm.,

it is unlikely to have the M:F ratio that he desires. As the tooth moves, the
M:F ratio will radically change for a small amount of tooth displacement;

• as a canine is retracted, a constant center of rotation would not be found.

canine would “wiggle” back and forth until it reaches its final position.

• The critical nature of the horizontal length of the loop has inherent
disadvantages in applying angulation to a vertical loop

M:F Ratio & Angulation (Gable Bends)

By trial and error, the clinician has learned that the placement of a gable bend in
the horizontal legs of a vertical loop could increase the M:F ratio.

A large enough increase theoretically could translate a canine distally. There are
some inherent problems in using angulation for controlling canine or anterior
retraction.

To achieve net translation, orthodontists have had to add residual moments to

the closing loop arch wire-
 • with gable bends anterior and posterior to the loop,

• a posterior gable bend and angulations within the loop, or

• a posterior gable bend and anterior wire-bracket twist (anterior root

torque).

Adding these residual moments has several disadvantages:

The correct
residual
moments are
difficult to The teeth must cycle
achieve through controlled tipping
precisely in to translation to root
linear materials movement to achieve net
translation (lower Young's
Modulus materials go
through fewer of these
cycles for a given distance
of space closure).

A standard vertical loop is constructed that fits passively

between the two brackets and a scratch mark is placed at
the distal aspect of the canine bracket (A) and the mesial
aspect of the premolar bracket (P)

If such a loop is tied in place, with the scratch marks at

the proximals of the brackets, no force would be
present.
If two equal and opposite couples are placed at either end of the loop to insert it
in the brackets, the loop will tend to cross.

At this neutral activation where no force will be exerted,

the scratch marks (A2, P2) on the horizontal legs of the loop will now be a total
of 2.0 mm short of the brackets.

If the loop is tied in so that the scratch marks line up with the brackets, 2.0 mm.
of activation would exist.

Since a neutral activation with a 40° angulation produces 1,860 Gm.mm. in the
spring, it is not possible to have any significant horizontal activation before
permanent deformation would occur.
• Keeping the angulation constant, the clinician could vary the horizontal
length of the loop (L1) to produce the desired M:F ratio.

• Unfortunately, as shown by the graph, small differences in the horizontal

length of the loop produce large changes in the M:F ratio. Erring 0.3 mm.
would make the difference between tipping at the apex and root
movement of an incisor.

• Angulation tends to increase the amount of force produced by a retraction

spring beyond what the clinician might expect using the common clinical
techniques of activation.

• If one of the objectives of treatment is to assure that the change in M/F

rates is minimal for every millimeter of retraction, the angulation
principle can be used, provided that the F/Δ rate is low.

LOAD DISPLACEMENT RATIO

• If F/D is large, stress levels traumatic to the PDL, alveolar bone, and
roots can be delivered at very small loop activations that are difficult to
deliver precisely.

• Also, large F/D, requiring small activations, deactivate after small tooth
movements; if the M/F is not constant, the PDL stress distributions
 change rapidly as the tooth cycles from con- trolled tipping to translation
to root movement.

• Most closing loop designs offered to date optimize for low F/D at the
expense of M/F.

• M:F and load-deflection rate are plotted for a series of 8 mm tall T loops.

• The effect of adding horizontal wire lengths gingivally is much greater

upon the load-deflection rate than upon the M:F ratio and that the M:F
ratio approaches 8 but never quite reaches it.

LOOP STIFFNESS

High loop with any number of turns at the top, and formula for calculating its
stiffness.

Greater the number of turns, lesser will be the stiffness of the loop and lighter
forces are delivered
LOOP POSITION

If the closing loop is placed off - centered

between the anterior and posterior units,
the shorter section creates greater
moments, encouraging root tipping
(increasing anchorage), while the longer
section creates smaller moments,
encouraging translation.

For canine retraction, it is common to

place the loop closer to the canine to allow
for a longer range of activation without,
having to remake a retraction section.

Furthermore, with greater eccentricity at one of the brackets. a larger M:F ratio
could be produced than would occur in a symmetrically placed loop.
significant extrusive or intrusive force can be produced at either end of a
vertical loop if it is placed off center. As the loop approaches the canine,
vertical eruptive forces increase.

ROLE OF HELIX

• primarily influences the load-deflection rate and not the M:F ratio.

There are no significant differences in the moment-to-force ratios. However, the

additional wire lowers the load-deflection rate dramatically.

A standard vertical loop gives greater control over displacing an apex of the
canine mesially than a single force applied to a canine by a wire or an elastic.
 Limitation of
standard vertical
loop

The load-
Very little M:F
deflection rates
ratio (2.2)
are very high

not capable of producing translation or even Difficult to use optimal force magnitudes
controlled tipping with the centre of rotation since calibration is difficult and the decay
at the apex of forces is high.

T- LOOP

• Data on the vertical loop retraction spring suggest that additional wire
placed apically at the loop would have the effect of raising the M:F ratio
while simultaneously reducing the load-deflection rate.

• With this in mind, an experiment was carried out in which added wire
was placed gingivally, forming a T loop.

With a horizontal length (G)

of 50 mm., the moment-to-
force ratio is 5.3.
• Inference

– the M:F ratio can never be higher than the vertical length of the
loop that is used. Thus, if a higher M:F ratio is required, it is
necessary to use a greater vertical height.

– At the same time, a very dramatic lowering of the load-deflection

rate can be obtained.

Advantages of Frictionless System

• Offers more predictable mechanics in which amount of force and

moments are measurable.

• Selective mechanics such as incisor intrusion and molar uprighting are

easier to perform.

• Effectively increases moment to force ratios by means of loops. This

allows for torque control of anterior teeth during space closure.

• Lengthens the distance between points of force application, thereby

reducing the wire’s load/deflection rate and increasing the working
range.

Disadvantages of Frictionless System

• Loop bends require significant chair time

• Loops can be uncomfortable for the patient and may cause hygiene
problems

• Transverse control of canine during distalization is reduced compared

with sliding mechanics.
 Major vs Minor Cuspid Retraction

Minor Cuspid Major Cuspid

retraction Retraction
Can be done while
Not done until a heavy
preliminary bracket buccal stabilizing
alignment is occuring in the
buccal segment segment is placed
Distal force of < 250 gm Distal force of > 250
gm
Good cuspid axial
Cuspid is mesioangular
inclination

Uncontrolled tipping of ~1 to Controlled tipping of

2 mm is needed translation > 3 mm is needed

Anchorage Classification

with Group A arches-Minor Cuspid retraction is indicated since the distal force
has to be kept comparatively low, below 250 gm.

In group Band C anchorage- Major cuspid retraction aids in protracting the

buccal segments. They don’t tip forward so well under the lower distal force
generally used in uncontrolled tipping.

Research has shown that about 300 gm appear to be about a threshold value
over which buccal segment slippage readily occur.

All effort are made to keep the distal force 300 gm or below in group A
anchorage. In group C anchorage distal force of up to 500 gm is not uncommon.
 • Major Cuspid Retraction

Desired Criteria-

• Control of first order position (rotation and labio-lingual position).

• Crot at the root apex (controlled tipping) or at infinity (Translation)

• Optimal rate of tooth movement (1 mm or more per month)

• Minimal discomfort to the patient.

T-Loop recommended

• Easily fabricated

• Resistant to deformation

• Adequate M:F ratio

• Easily adjustable M:F

Closure of Extraction Sites

For translation, a single force is needed

through the Center of Resistance of each
segment.

Since forces and moments are applied at

the bracket level, which is about 11mm
away from the CRes of each segment an
equivalent force system at the bracket level
must have a moment-to-force ratio (M/F)
of 11/1
Upper and lower 0.036in. Lingual arches (LA) should be in place before space
closure begins

(in the upper arch, either a transpalatal or a horseshoe-shaped lingual arch)

each segment of teeth should be consolidated

The upper 0.019 in. ×0.025 in. steel archwire can

then be cut into three sections

• a right and left steel buccal

nd
segment wire connecting the 2
st nd
premolar 1 and 2 molars and
• an anterior segment of wire with
tubes crimped and eyelets formed
(T&E)

Position of loop
• The exact location of the titanium T-loop retraction spring (TTLRS)
varies according to the anchorage classification.

Group A Group B Group C

closer to posterior teeth, i.e. These segments will be The posterior teeth will be
in “beta”(β)position moved equally moved more than the
Posterior anchorage Is So the spring is best placed anterior teeth.
enhanced midway between the two Thus, the spring is best
segments, in the positioned close to the
“mu”(μ)position. anterior teeth, in the α
position.
Anterior anchorage is
enhanced.

Group A- loop closer to canine. Gable bend added nearer the molar,
larger 40° β moment, increases posterior anchorage

Group B- Loop midway between posterior and anterior segment

Group C- loop closer to posterior segment, 20° β moment

Recommended beta activation for A, B and C anchorages are 40°, 30°

and 20°, respectively (according to Nanda)

• For this mu position, the length of the alpha leg [Lα] can be calculated by
the formula:

• Lα = (IBD–A)/2,

• where

– IBD=distance between the molar auxiliary tube and the crimpable

crisscross tube

– A=activation (7mm for 350g).

Fabrication and Pre-activation of the Titanium T - Loop Retraction Spring

• 0.017 in. ×0.025 in. TMA wire is used to fabricate the titanium T - loop
retraction spring (TTLRS)

• approximately 10mm long and 6mm high.

• The beta leg is slid into the molar auxiliary tube and the alpha leg is bent
90° to fit into the crimped criss-cross tube on the anterior segment of
wire.

WHY PRE-ACTIVATION BENDS

• Loop made according to this deign and dimension is incapable of

generating the moment needed for higher M/F ratio, Unless pre-
activation bends are given
Neutral Position

Accuracy of pre-activation bends is judged by what is called neutral

position.

Burstone defined it as position of activation wherein the spring delivers no

horizontal force but creates only moments at the two ends.

These moments are called residual moments.

The Trial Activation

• A trial activation should be done on any orthodontic spring before it is

placed into the mouth.

• The trial activation mimics the actual use of the spring, and one can
see the activation remaining after the trial activation, for this is what
is actually present to move the teeth.

• Laboratory testing have shown that a 4000gm-mm moment and a 350g

distal force can be used to approximate the B anchorage segments by
translation (M/F~11/1).

• With the 0.017 in. ×0.025 in. TTLRS, 180° of moment pre-activation
will produce about a 4000gm-mm moment, and 7mm of distal
activation will produce about a 350gm distal force.
Activation of Loop

• The beta leg is pulled out of the molar auxiliary tube with a pair of
straight Howe pliers until 5mm is seen between the short vertical legs of
the TTLRS.

• The beta leg is then “cinched,” i.e. bent gingivally and cut with the distal
end cutter.

• Space closure can be monitored by measuring the distance between the

short vertical legs of the TTLRS.
Ideally, about 1–1.5 mm space closure occurs monthly and,

after 2–3mm of space closure has occurred, the TTLRS can be reactivated until
there is again 5mm between its short vertical legs.

Reactivation

• If necessary, further reactivation can be done on the alpha leg to regain

the 5mm between the TTLRSʼ short vertical legs.

• During the entire space closing procedure, a mirror handle can be used to
monitor the translation.

• The segments should be seen to approximate each other without any

tipping, and the cusp tips should be in the same relationship as when the
procedure commenced.

Summary of translation
 •

Extraction Site Closure with Group A Anchorage

2 scenarios

Poor Headgear cooperation

(anchorage preservation by
Good Headgear
resolving the retraction
Cooperation
procedure into two separate
procedures)

anchorage will be
maintained by - distal i) controlled tipping of the ii)root retraction of these
headgear pull, through the anterior teeth, same teeth
CRes of the upper jaw
“Where is this CRes?”

• depends on two factors:

– the number of teeth within the segment and/or

– the number of teeth in the arch.

• With the teeth aligned in the pre-retraction stage and a continuous arch
wire cinched from the second molar to the second molar, a combination
headgear can be placed with the distal pull being about 5 mm superior
to the roots of the upper molar teeth.

• The overbite is carefully measured, e.g.“Upper incisal edges are at the

level of the lower incisor bracket slot.”

• At the next appointment, assuming that the patient has been cooperative
in his or her headgear use-

orthodontist can
again examine the
overbite
relationship.

Upper incisal edge the upper incisal incisal edges of the

edges are upper incisors are
are at the level of superior to the
lower bracket slot inferior to the lower
bracket slot lower bracket slots

the pull is at the the pull is below the distal pull of the
CRes of the maxilla CRes of the maxilla headgear is superior
to the CRes of the
maxilla
Patients Who Will Not Provide Good Headgear Cooperation

• anchorage preservation is accomplished by resolving the retraction

procedure into two separate procedures:

– a first stage of en-masse, controlled tipping of the anterior teeth,

and

– a second stage of en-masse root retraction of these same teeth.

• Success with this procedure hinges on the distal force in both

procedures remaining at 300g or less.

First Stage: Controlled Tipping of the Six Anterior Teeth

• Either a 0.036 in. transpalatal lingual or a horseshoe-shaped upper lingual
arch is required for this procedure.

• The lingual arch does not influence the AP anchorage, only the
rotational integrity of the buccal teeth.

• At the end of the initial stage of treatment, a mirror handle is placed

across the level of the natural plane of occlusion.

• A 0.017×0.025 in. TTLRS is placed in the alpha position (closer to the

criss-cross vertical tube).

• The short alpha leg is bent right under the anterior corner of the TTLRS.

• A 45°beta pre-activation bend is placed.

• There are no pre-activation bends made on the T-loop itself.

• The spring will be used passively, and the activation moment that
develops as the spring is activated provides a M/F ratio of about 8/1
anteriorly.

• The 45° beta bend provides a M/F ratio of about 11/1 posteriorly.
• Since the load–deflection rate of the TTLRS is about 50g/mm, 5mm of
distal activation will provide a distal force of about 250g.

• Controlled tipping of the anterior segment will be pitted against the

translation of the posterior segment; i.e, the controlled tipping distally
should be completed before the posterior teeth are significantly translated
mesially.

• With the CRot being at the incisor apices, the canines are seen to lift up off
the monitoring mirror handle while the incisal edges stay in contact with
the mirror handle.

• The extraction site should not be completely closed. Rather, about 0.5–
1.0mm is left so that the canines can be brought down during the stage of
root retraction.
CUSPID ROOT MOVEMENT

If canine has been retracted via translation, its axial inclination should be good.

This can be confirmed clinically or by taking right and left 45° oblique
headfilms (panelipse radiograph).

If canine has been retracted with a controlled tipping movement, a separate

stage of cuspid root movement may be required.
 • For each side, then, the canine root retraction is pitted against mesial root
protraction of the three teeth in the buccal segment.

• Thus each buccal segment of teeth is rigidly connected with a 0.019 x

0.025 inch and right and left side are connected with 0.036 inch lingual
archwire.

“Cuspid Root Retraction Spring

• The cuspid root spring can be made from stainless steel wire, usually
0.018x 0.025 inch.

• This wire requires helices in both alpha and beta positions in order for it
to receive sufficient moment pre-activation bends without permanently
deforming.
After the α leg has been tied to the canine bracket with regular ligature
wire, the excess ligature wire can be passed through the alpha helix and
tied. This will preclude any displacement of root spring.

The activation of 45° is sufficient to retract the canine root (3000 g-mm).
• Double strand (0.009 inch) ligature wire. Depending on the magnitude of
the applied moment (2000 to 5500 g-mm), the tie back , if not rigid, will
allow space to open up distal to canine. This can be avoided by tightening
the ligature as much as possible.

• But this has one disadvantage-

• If rotation is to occur the bracket must rotate within the tie-back. As the
ligature is wrapped around the canine bracket rotation of bracket within
the rigid tie back is unlikely.

Alternative-
 • Bonding a rounded button to crown on canine.

• The heavy ligature tie should be tight enough so that space doesn’t open
up. This rigid tie acts as if it were a distal force preventing the mesial
displacement of the crown.

This distal force is about 4-5mm labial to Cres and

produces a moment tending to rotate the canine distal in, mesial out.

• The newer alloys like TMA don’t require the use of helices, the bends can
be made directly into the wire, but the welded stop must be used to secure
the root spring in place.

• About 70° of activation should be required to produce the 3000g-mm for

root retraction.

Closure of Extraction Sites with Group C Anchorage

• In Group C anchorage situations, extraction of the second bicuspids is

preferred over extraction of the first bicuspids.

• This alone helps with buccal segment protraction, as it is much easier to

protract two molars than two molars and one premolar.

• The objective is, then, to protract the buccal segment of teeth more than
half the extraction site while maintaining the position of the anterior
segment of teeth.

• The rationale- is that

  an eight-tooth anterior segment can be made to translate, while

 the two-tooth posterior segments can be made,

first, to tip about their apices(controlled tipping) and,

second, to undergo root uprighting.

• The necessary M/F ratio delivered to the anterior teeth is 11/1 (for
translation), while, on the posterior teeth, it is 8/1 (for controlled tipping).

• Because the alpha moment is greater than the beta moment, vertical
forces exist for equilibrium.

• The eruptive force on the anterior segment is spread out over eight teeth
while the intrusive force on the buccal segment places the center of
rotation at the apices of the first and second molars.

• The appliance of choice is the 0.017 in. ×0.025 in. tTTLRS, which will be
placed in the beta position (5mm anterior to the molar auxiliary tube).

• The TTLRS will first be made to fit passively in the molar auxiliary tube
and the crisscross tube crimped onto the anterior segment of wire.

• A 45° pre-activation bend is placed in the alpha leg.

• When activated, the passive TTLRS to the molar segment will deliver a
force system with a M/F ratio of 8/1(controlled tipping).
 • When activated, the pre-activated alpha leg of the TTLRS will deliver a
force system with a M/F ratio of 11/1 (for translation) to the anterior
segment.

First Stage: Controlled Tipping

• A upper transpalatal lingual arch is placed in to the lingual sheaths of the

permanent first molars to control the widths of the buccal segments of
teeth during their protraction.

• As the segments are protracted, they will come to occupy a narrower

position on the arch form so the inter-molar widths must be constricted
with this transpalatal lingual arch.

• 0.019 in. ×0.025 in. stainless-steel wire segments are placed posteriorly
between the first and second molars and anteriorly from the first premolar
around to the other first premolar.

• 0.018×0.025 in. tubes are crimped onto the anterior segment of wire
between the canine and lateral incisor brackets.
 • The alpha leg of the TTLRS is held over the vertical tube until the
T-loop is 5mm anterior to the molar auxiliary tube.

• The position of the vertical tube is marked on the alpha leg, and the
vertical leg is bent at this position.

• The alpha leg of the TTLRS is then pre-activated with a 45°bend

• TTLRS is inserted into the molar auxiliary tube and the alpha leg is
inserted into the vertical tube and cinched

Activation

• The TTLRS is activated by cinching the spring distally out of the molar
auxiliary tube until 4–5mm exists between the vertical legs of the TTLRS
(~200g).
 • Once the extraction site has closed 2–3 mm, the TTLRS can be
reactivated either distally out of the molar auxiliary tube or anteriorly in
the alpha position.

• If the TTLRS is reactivated in the alpha position, the alpha leg must be
un-crimped and removed from the vertical tube.

• It is then straightened, and a mark is made 4mm distal from the vertical
tube. The new alpha leg can be formed at this mark.

• One will see that the mesiobuccal cusp of the permanent first molar will
start to lift up off the plane of occlusion (mirror handle).

• 1–2mm of the extraction site will be closed, and one will notice further
elevation of the mesiobuccal cusp of the permanent first molar as the
extraction site closes.

• The distal cusp of the second molar should remain on the plane of
occlusion (mirror handle) during this retraction.

• The buccal segment of teeth continues to protract, rotating about its

apices.

• When the distance between the vertical legs of the TTLRS has decreased
2–3mm, reactivation is necessary.

• This can be done by using a band pusher to push the alpha leg down in
the vertical tube until the free end is sticking out about a millimeter.

• Using flat-beaked pliers, like the Howe pliers, the bent end is straightened

• so that it can be pushed or pulled out of the vertical tube.

Intraoral Reactivation of TTLRS

 – When the alpha leg is out of the vertical tube, it can be straightened
out by using the loop-forming plier and finger pressure to remove
the 45° bend in the wire.

• Then the 90° bend for the alpha leg is “unbent” in the same manner

• The alpha leg of the TTLRS looks like

• A mark is placed 4mm distal to the vertical tube, and a 90° bend can be
made at that mark using a small, round beak of the loop-forming plier

• Again using the opposing turret of the loop-forming plier (for a large-
diameter bend), the alpha leg can be pre-activated approximately 45°

• The TTLRS is re-activated when placing the alpha leg back into the
crimpable vertical tube and cinched
Class III elastics can be used on the buccal segments in the upper jaw (Class III
elastics if in the lower jaw) to increase the mesial force for buccal protraction.

Sometimes, the distobuccal cusp tip of the upper second molar falls below the
plane of occlusion and a prematurity develops with subsequent potential TMJ
pain and dysfunction.

In this case, the alpha leg must be removed, and the alpha moment pre-
activation bend must be increased to increase the intrusive force to the posterior
teeth.

While the buccal teeth are tipping about their apices, the extraction site should
not be closed completely. About 0.5mm of the extraction site should left open,
which will allow the mesial aspect of the first molar to descend during the stage
of root uprighting.

Second Stage: Uprighting Buccal Segment

– After the posterior teeth have been protracted by controlled tipping,

the teeth must undergo root uprighting.

– The necessary force system is a crown distal–root mesial moment

(positive) and an eruptive force for a CRot at the distal marginal
ridge of the second molar.

• In order to prevent the segment from moving distally, a mesial force is

also necessary.

• The equilibrium diagram of this force system is-

 • This force system can be delivered by an 0.018×0.025in. Stainless steel
double helix spring

• With a heavy ligature tie (0.012in.) providing the necessary mesial force

The double helix spring fits into the molar auxiliary tube and the crisscross
vertical tube crimped onto the 0.018 in. ×0.025 in. steel anterior segment.

The double helix spring receives an asymmetric pre activation: a high beta–low
alpha or about a 45° beta pre-activation and a 15° alpha pre-activation.
Anti-curvature bends are also placed in the straight wire portion between the
helices to negate the curvature of the wire due to the activation of the helices.
More curvature is placed in the beta section than in the alpha section.

Typically, when beta is greater than alpha or when alpha is greater than beta,
45° and 15° are used. So, here, β=45° and α=15°.

When sufficient anti-curvature bends are placed, the wire section between the
helices is seen to be straight during activation of the helices.

One can now have confidence that, indeed, 45° of beta activation and 15° of
alpha activation are being delivered. The activation force system will produce
an eruptive tendency in the alpha position and an intrusive tendency in the beta
position.

In the deactivation force system, just the reverse is seen: the alpha position
tends to intrude while the beta position tends to extrude.

Once the segment has been uprighted,

A continuous wire can be placed from second molar to second molar and
finishing procedures can be initiated.

CONCLUSION

Because of anatomic limitations in the oral cavity, it is not usually possible to

devise an intraoral mechanism to deliver a force whose line of action passes
through a tooth's centre of resistance.

Equivalent force systems, comprised of forces and moments, are instead applied
to brackets bonded to the tooth's crown to achieve translatory movement.

The first approach involves supplying the appropriate moments to the teeth via
a continuous arch wire that passes through orthodontic brackets (delivering the
moments via couples, equal and opposite non-collinear vertical forces, at the
mesial and distal bracket extremities); the appropriate force is applied via
elastomeric modules or coil springs.

The second approach involves bending arch wire loops of various

configurations, sectionally (to deliver the desired M/F to an individual tooth) or
segmentally or in a continuous arch wire (to deliver the desired M/F to several
teeth).

An essential characteristic of closing loops for orthodontic space closure is that

they are free of friction as they act. Groups of teeth can therefore be moved
with more accurately defined force systems for more precise anchorage
control to achieve treatment goals more readily than methods in which friction
plays a role.

References

• Raymond E. Siatkowski, Continuous arch wire closing loop design,

optimization and verification. Part I; American Journal of Orthodontics
and Dentofacial Orthopedics October 1997

• Raymond E. Siatkowski, Continuous arch wire closing loop design,

optimization and verification. Part II; American Journal of Orthodontics
and Dentofacial Orthopedics October 1997

• Donald c. Haack; the science of mechanics and its importance to analysis

and research in the field of orthodontics; AJO 1963

• Weinstein et al; theoretical mechanics and practical orthodontics; AJO

July 1959