6 | Water Supply Planning and Development 1

UNIT 6: Development of water sources

6.0 Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to analyze the water sources.

6.1. Introduction

The understanding of comprehensive water resources planning and management is

becoming increasingly important as the demand for water increases and the reliability of
existing supplies decreases, not just in the Philippines, but all over the world. In this learning
packet, we will discuss the course CES 3: Water Supply Planning and Development (3-unit
subject) with the following topics, composed of 9 Learning Packets (LP):
LP 1. Importance of safe drinking water on public health.

LP 2. Common sources of water supply: Surface water, Groundwater, Mixed water

resources, Rainwater.

LP 3. Assessment of water quantity: Surface monitoring, Groundwater.

LP 4. Water characteristics and drinking water: Parameters and standards with

regards to physical, chemical, bacteriological and organoleptical properties; Water
related diseases; Factors affecting water quality; Sources of environmental
contaminants.

LP 5. Estimation of water demand: Classification of water use, Quantifying present

and future use, domestic water demand, Industrial, commercial, agricultural and
other types of water demands, Fluctuations in water use, factor of inequality low rate
patters.

LP 6. Development of water sources: Groundwater, Construction of wells,

Environmental effects and sea water intrusion, Surface water, Watershed and
reservoir management and dam siltation.

LP 7. Introduction to conventional water purification processes: Physical treatment

process, Chemical treatment processes.

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LP 8. Water transport and distribution systems: General procedure and layout of

masterplan of a distribution system, Design criteria for normal and fire demand,
Hydraulic design of branched and grid systems, Pipes, appurtenances and pipe
laying, metering, flow and pressure control.

LP 9. Introduction to water laws, codes, finance and water rates

This learning packet (LP) is a self-directed material, wherein you are going to learn on
your own. This learning packet has series of instruction, discussion, and assessment of
learning about the course content.
At the end of the lessons in this LP you need to complete the student’s task and submit
back to me by using the packaging material in this LP.

6.2 Development of water sources

6.2.1 Groundwater

A ground-water system consists of a mass of water flowing through the pores

or cracks below the Earth's surface. This mass of water is in motion. Water is
constantly added to the system by recharge from precipitation, and water is constantly
leaving the system as discharge to surface water and as evapotranspiration. Each
ground-water system is unique in that the source and amount of water flowing
through the system is dependent upon external factors such as rate of precipitation,
location of streams and other surface-water bodies, and rate of evapotranspiration.
The one common factor for all ground-water systems, however, is that the total
amount of water entering, leaving, and being stored in the system must be conserved.
An accounting of all the inflows, outflows, and changes in storage is called a water
budget.

Human activities, such as ground-water withdrawals and irrigation, change

the natural flow patterns, and these changes must be accounted for in the calculation
of the water budget. Because any water that is used must come from somewhere,

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human activities affect the amount and rate of movement of water in the system,
entering the system, and leaving the system.

6.2.1.1 Uses of Groundwater

Groundwater is used for a wide range of applications, including

provision of potable drinking water for village, town, and urban supply;
institutional supplies; agricultural supply for multiple uses; small-scale
industrial use; and emergency water supply provision for refugees. Globally,
many major cities, towns, villages, and remote communities rely on
groundwater as their primary source of water supply.

The advantages of groundwater include:

• Groundwater can often be developed in close proximity to or within a

village/town setting.

• The quality of groundwater is often superior to surface water, and

treatment requirements are generally simpler and less expensive.

• System installation costs are generally lower for groundwater well

systems.

• Installation timeframes are markedly shorter for groundwater well

systems.

• Operation & Maintenance (O&M) requirements are simpler and less

costly for groundwater well systems as compared to sources derived
from surface water.

So, how do we develop ground water sources?

Here are three comprehensive guides on how to developed ground

water resources, well constructions, and Cleaning and rehabilitating boreholes.

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Download and Read:

UNDERSTANDING GROUNDWATER & WELLS. INSTRUCTION

HANDBOOK.
https://www.unicef.org/wash/files/04.pdf

Cleaning and rehabilitating boreholes

https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/emergencies/WHO_TN_02_Cle
aning_and_disinfecting_boreholes.pdf?ua=1

Water Well Design and Construction

http://groundwater.ucdavis.edu/files/156563.pdf

6.2.2 Construction of wells

6.2.2.1 Type of Wells

There are three types of water wells.

• Dug/Bored wells are holes in the ground dug by shovel or backhoe. They are
lined (cased) with stones, brick, tile, or other material to prevent collapse. Dug
wells have a large diameter, are shallow (approximately 10 to 30 feet deep) and
are not cased continuously.

• Driven wells are constructed by driving pipe into the ground. Driven wells are
cased continuously and shallow (approximately 30 to 50 feet deep). Though
driven wells are cased, they can be contaminated easily because they draw
water from aquifers near the surface. These wells draw water from aquifers
near the surface.

• Drilled wells are constructed by percussion or rotary-drilling machines.

Drilled wells can be thousands of feet deep and require the installation of
casing. Drilled wells have a lower risk of contamination due to their depth and
use of continuous casing.

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Image adapted from courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-aquifers-and-well-potential/

6.2.2.2 Well Components

Below are descriptions of the basic components found in a private water

well.
• Well Casing is the tube-shaped structure placed in the well to maintain the well
opening from the target ground water to the surface. Along with grout, the
casing keeps dirt and excess water out of the well. This helps prevent
contaminants from less desirable groundwater from entering the well and
mixing with the drinking water. Some states and local governing agencies have
laws that require minimum lengths for casing. The most common materials for
well casing are carbon steel, plastic, and stainless steel. Local geology often
dictates what type of casing can be used.
• Well Caps are placed on top of the well casing to prevent debris, insects, or
small animals from getting into the well. Well caps are usually made of
aluminum or plastic. They include a vent to control pressure during well
pumping.

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• Well Screens are attached to the bottom of the casing to prevent too much
sediment from entering the well. The most common well screens are
continuous slot, slotted pipe, and perforated pipe.
• Pitless Adapter is a connector that allows the pipe carrying water to the surface
to remain below the frost line. It provides ensures that a sanitary and frost-
proof seal is maintained.
• Jet Pumps are the most commonly used pumps for shallow wells (depth of 25
feet or less). Jet pumps are mounted above ground and use suction to draw
water from the well.
• Submersible Pumps are the most commonly used pumps for deep private
wells. The pumping unit is placed inside the well casing and connected to a
power source on the surface.

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6.2.3 Locating Groundwater

6.2.3.1 Traditional Method

Locating Groundwater is a Science and an Art. Groundwater generally

follows the contours of the surface of the ground. We may be more successful
locating groundwater if we drill a well at the bottom of a low point, such as a
ravine, rather than at the top of a mountain.

Generally, we want to look at the lower elevations of the surrounding

topography, like in valleys, basins, or ravines, and also near rivers, streams,
lakes, or ponds. With these things in mind, here are some clues to look for and
questions to ask in locating groundwater through observation and inquiry.

1. Where are people presently getting their water? Hand dug wells found
nearby will show the depth to groundwater and the type of sediment in the
area.

2. Are there drilled wells in the area? Perhaps the village or responsible
government agency has useful information on the well, such as its depth and
the sediment or rock types encountered when the well was drilled.

3. Groundwater can often be found in sand or gravel layers in the bottom of a

valley, even if those layers are covered by layers of silt or clay. Groundwater in
valleys or low-lying areas is often closer to the surface than in steep or relatively
high areas.

4. Are there springs in the area? Groundwater can usually be found nearby. If
a spring flows all year, it is likely to come from a productive aquifer. If the
spring dries up, then it might be overflow from a perched aquifer, but still
worth exploring. Are there streams in the area? Carefully observe stream flow,
looking for sections where flow is greater and sections where flow is less.
Where it is greater, groundwater may be discharging into the stream, indicating
a good area to drill. Even dry stream beds often have shallow groundwater
underneath.

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5. Trees or shrubs that remain green in the dry season may have roots that reach
into the groundwater at a relatively shallow depth. Greener patches of grass
may reveal places where groundwater is close to the surface.

6. Pay attention to where animals go to find water. Bees and pigs are very good
at finding water.

7. Look for deposits of salt or other minerals – usually visible as a white “crust”
on the surface of the ground. These may be caused by the evaporation of
groundwater, which leaves the minerals behind. A large surface deposit might
indicate that the ground water has a very high mineral content.

8. Look for “outcrops” of tilted layers of rock on hills or ridges; groundwater

will flow downhill along the direction of tilt.

9. Some rock layers, like sandstone or limestone, have many cracks. These may
produce acceptable quantities of water.

10. Examine any outcrops of marble or limestone that are being used for
building materials. Some can be good aquifers. But remember that not all
drilling techniques can penetrate rock.

6.2.3.2 Geophysical Methods of Locating Groundwater

Geophysical methods of locating groundwater are technological ways of

determining conditions below the ground surface without actually drilling a
hole.

These techniques are most commonly used when exploring for and
locating groundwater in hard crystalline rock areas, but they can also be used
to assist in areas of unconsolidated sediments.

Each of these geophysical techniques measures a specific physical

property of the rock or sediment such as the earth’s electrical resistance,
electrical conductance, density, and magnetic properties. Changes in these
properties can be related to changes in the type of sediment or rock, potential
for aquifers, and in some cases groundwater quality.

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• Electrical Resistivity – A resistivity survey measures the electrical

resistance to a current induced into the ground. The electrical resistance of
sediment or rock depends on many factors such as particle size, porosity,
density, mineral and chemical composition, and moisture level. Resistivity
data can reveal something about these factors and the geological
composition of the area being measured.
• Seismic Refraction – A seismic refraction survey measures how fast a
“shockwave” travels through the ground. Because the waves travel at
different speeds depending upon the density of the material they pass
through, the timing of their arrival at the geophone can be interpreted to
reveal something about the density of materials at different depths.

6.2.4 Methods to Dig a Well

6.2.4.1 Manual Methods to Dig a Well

Hand-Digging. Digging a well by hand, using simple

tools like a pick and shovel, with a bucket on a rope to
remove cuttings, is the oldest and probably the most
frequently-used method of getting access to groundwater.

Manual Percussion Drilling. This form of drilling is said

to have been used by the Chinese more than 4,000 years
ago. It is still commonly practiced around the world today.
It consists of repeatedly dropping a heavy drill bit
connected to a rope or cable in a hole partially filled with
water. The bit loosens the soil, or chips off pieces of rock.
Once enough cuttings have collected in the hole, the bit is
pulled out and a bailer is lowered to collect the cuttings.
The bailer is a pipe with a one-way valve or flap at the bottom that lets cuttings into

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the pipe but not out. When brought to the

surface, the bailer is tipped up to empty the
cuttings.

There are many different ways to raise and

lower the drill bit and bailer, such as pulling on
a rope or using a flexible pole called a "spring
pole". By adding a sharpened bit and a one-
way valve at the bottom of the drill pipe,
manual percussion and sledging techniques
can be combined to get better penetration than sludging and
more efficient cuttings removal than percussion drilling, while
being safer than making a hand dug well.

Sludging. This ancient drilling method consists of raising and

lowering an open pipe in a water filled hole. During the up
stroke, the operator holds his hand over the top of the pipe. Just
as the pipe reaches the top of the stroke and is starting down,
the operator uncovers the pipe. As the pipe is rapidly pushed
down, water and cuttings are forced out the top. The pipe can
be as simple as hollowed-out bamboo or joints of PVC pipe with
a sharpened bit at the end. With a suitable
drilling pipe, a borehole can be advanced to at
least 70 meters. Beyond about 10 meters, it is
necessary to raise the pipe using a rope and a
tripod.

Drive Point. Also called a ''sand point'', this

method employs a sharpened hard steel point
at the end of a short (less than 1 meter) section
of perforated pipe. A strong steel pipe is

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screwed onto the drive point and the assembly is driven into the ground using a heavy
sledge hammer.

6.2.4.2 Mechanized Methods to Dig a Well

Most manual well drilling methods have been

adapted to use machine power instead of human
power. Also, powered methods have been developed
that can drill larger diameter boreholes much deeper
and faster than any manual method. Machines used to
drill a water well are typically called a "drill rig" or just
a "rig".

Jetting. This method employs a pump to force a flow

of water down a drill pipe and out a narrow nozzle to
make a ''jet'' of water that loosens the sediment. The
return flow of water outside the drill pipe carries
cuttings up to the surface and into a settling pit. The pump then returns the water back
down the pipe. The drill pipe is suspended from a tripod and rotated by hand to keep
the borehole straight.

Cable Tool. This is a mechanized version of manual percussion drilling. The heavy
drill bit and related parts are called the ''tools'' and they are raised and dropped on a
steel cable. Cuttings are removed with a bailer. Several meters of water must be
maintained in the borehole to keep the cuttings suspended. The machinery ranges
from a very simple skid-mounted powered winch with a tripod to a complex set of
pulleys and drums with a large mast. The larger cable tool rigs are mounted on a
trailer or the bed of a truck and use hydraulic motors to raise and lower the mast and
rotate the drums of cable.

Mud Rotary. This method used to drill a water well starts with the basic concept of
well jetting described above. Add a larger cutting bit, lengths of steel drill pipe with
threaded joints, a motor to turn and lift the drill pipe, and a sturdy mast to support

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the pipe and you have the elements of a mud rotary drill
rig. A further refinement is mixing bentonite clay or
other materials in the water to improve its ability to lift
cuttings out of the hole; this fluid is called ''drilling
mud'' or just ''mud.' There are many kinds of mud
rotary drill rigs used to drill a water well. They fall in
two basic categories; table drive, where the drill pipe is
turned by a rotating mechanism near the base of the rig,
and top-head drive, where the drill pipe is turned by a
motor attached to the upper end of the pipe.

Air Rotary. The mechanical elements of an air rotary

drill rig are similar to a mud rotary rig; table drive and top-head drive are the two
basic options for rotating the drill pipe. The principal difference is an air rotary rig
uses compressed air to remove cuttings rather than drilling mud. A type of ''foam''
can be added to the air stream to improve cuttings removal and provide some
borehole stability. An air rotary rig can use the same type of drill bits as a mud rig, but
it can also drill with a down-the-hole hammer. This type of bit uses compressed air to
break up rock and it can drill very fast. A large air rotary rig can drill a borehole 60
cm in diameter to 500 meters or more.

6.2.4.3 Test of Well Suitability

The following basic tests are needed to assess whether a well is suitable as a
source for a Level II or Level III water supply system.

1. Pumping (“Safe Yield”) Test

The well’s safe yield can be roughly determined by operating a test pump with
capacity at least equal to the system peak demand and operating it for 24 to 48 hours.
After 24 hours pumping, the drawdown should be measured at several time intervals
to determine if it has stabilized. The pumping rate at a stabilized pumping water level

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is the so-called maximum pumping level and the safe yield is about 60 - 80% of the
figure. In water where incrustation is anticipated, the safety factor should be set low.
In areas where water quality is good, with a sand and gravel aquifer and low seasonal
water table fluctuation, a higher safety factor can be considered. To measure the water
level in the well (both static and during pumping), it is best to install a water level
sounding tube together with the pump. A flow meter or orifice weir is the best
apparatus for measuring flows.

2. Water Quality Test

This is done to determine if the physical and chemical characteristics of the

groundwater meet the parameters set by Water Quality Standards.

6.2.4.4 Well Site Selection

Important factors to be considered in selecting a drilled well site are:

1. Proximity to the planned service area;

2. Local hydro geological conditions;
3. Right-of-way and site ownership issues;
4. Accessibility of the site by drilling rigs and other equipment;
5. Distance/security from potential sources of surface contamination;
6. Proximity to existing electric power lines;
7. Terrain and ground slope of the site.
A survey of existing wells in the proposed area should be done to determine:

1. Typical yields and water quality;

2. Depths and which aquifer to tap;

3. Prior drilling success rates.

A drilling contractor cannot always determine in advance the depth at which an

adequate water supply will be found. Neighboring wells offer some guidance but
not a definite assurance.

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6.2.5 Environmental effects and sea water intrusion

6.2.5.1 Groundwater Overuse

Some aquifers are overused; people pump out more water than is replaced. As the
water is pumped out, the water table slowly falls, requiring wells to be dug deeper,
which takes more money and energy. Wells may go completely dry if they are not
deep enough to reach into the lowered water table. Some of the negative effects of
groundwater depletion:

• Lowering of the Water Table. Excessive pumping can lower the

groundwater table, and cause wells to no longer be able to reach
groundwater.
• Increased Costs. As the water table lowers, the water must be pumped
farther to reach the surface, using more energy. In extreme cases, using such
a well can be cost prohibitive.
• Reduced Surface Water Supplies. Groundwater and surface water are
connected. When groundwater is overused, the lakes, streams, and rivers
connected to groundwater can also have their supply diminished.

6.2.5.2 Subsidence

Lowering the water table may cause the ground surface to sink. Subsidence
may occur beneath houses and other structures. Land subsidence occurs when there
is a loss of support below ground. This is most often caused by human activities,
mainly from the overuse of groundwater, when the soil collapses, compacts, and
drops.

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Image adapted from https://www.sjra.net/education/what-is-land-subsidence/

Over time, as more water is removed from the area, the ground drops and
creates a cone. Once the water has been removed from the sediment, it cannot be
replaced. Land subsidence can lead to many problems, including changes in elevation;
damage to structures such as storm drains, sanitary sewers, roads, railroads, canals,
levees and bridges; structural damage to public and private buildings; and damage to
wells. Most commonly, though, subsidence is known for causing an increase in the
potential for flooding.

6.2.5.3 Salt Water Intrusion

When coastal aquifers are overused, salt water from the ocean may enter the
aquifer, contaminating the aquifer and making it less useful for drinking and
irrigation.

Seawater intrusion is the movement of seawater into fresh water aquifers due
to natural processes or human activities. Seawater intrusion is caused by decreases in
groundwater levels or by rises in seawater levels. When you pump out fresh water
rapidly, you lower the height of the freshwater in the aquifer forming a cone of

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depression. The salt water rises 40 feet for every 1 foot of freshwater depression and
forms a cone of ascension.

Image adapted from https://www.lenntech.com/groundwater/

seawater-intrusions.htm#ixzz6UURCSgvh
High concentrations of chloride can make water unfit for human consumption
and for many industrial uses, but the human health-related problems have not been
carefully observed yet. However, high concentrations of sodium ion can contribute to
certain heart disease or high blood pressure, particularly in susceptible individuals.
High concentration of chlorine has bad effects on the environment as well: it can
produce leaf burn and even defoliation in sensitive crops; in lakes can increase the
presence of metals in waters and prevent the distribution of oxygen and nutrients and
thus harm aquatic life.

6.2.5.4 Anthropogenic Contamination of Groundwater

Groundwater can become contaminated by pollution at the surface (or at

depth), and there are many different anthropogenic (human-caused) sources of
contamination.

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The vulnerability of aquifers to pollution depends on several factors, including

the depth to the water table, the permeability of the material between the surface and
the aquifer, the permeability of the aquifer, the slope of the surface, and the amount
of precipitation. Confined aquifers tend to be much less vulnerable than unconfined
ones, and deeper aquifers are less vulnerable than shallow ones. Steeper slopes mean
that surface water tends to run off rather than infiltrate (and this can reduce the
possibility of contamination). Contamination risk is also less in dry areas than in areas
with heavy rainfall.

The important sources of anthropogenic groundwater contamination include

the following:

• Chemicals and animal waste related to agriculture, and chemicals applied to

golf courses and domestic gardens
• Landfills
• Industrial operations
• Mines, quarries, and other rock excavations
• Leaking fuel storage tanks (especially those at gas stations)
• Septic systems
• Runoff from roads (e.g., winter salting) or chemical spills of materials being
transported.

6.2.5.5 Landfills

In the past, domestic and commercial refuse was commonly trucked to a

“dump” (typically a hole in the ground), and when the hole was filled, it was covered
with soil and forgotten. In situations like this, rain and melting snow can easily pass
through the soil used to cover the refuse. This water passes into the waste itself, and
the resulting landfill leachate that flows from the bottom of the landfill can seriously
contaminate the surrounding groundwater and surface water. In the past few decades,
regulations around refuse disposal have been significantly strengthened, and
important steps have been taken to reduce the amount of landfill waste by diverting
recyclable and compostable materials to other locations.

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Image adapted from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-quality-of-groundwater/

6.2.6 Surface water, Watershed, and reservoir management

6.2.3.1Watershed management

What is a Watershed?

Every body of water (e.g., rivers, lakes, ponds, streams, and estuaries) has a
watershed. The watershed is the area of land that drains or sheds water into a specific
receiving waterbody, such as a lake or a river. As rainwater or melted snow runs
downhill in the watershed, it collects and transports sediment and other materials and
deposits them into the receiving waterbody.

What is Watershed Management?

Watershed management is a term used to describe the process of implementing

land use practices and water management practices to protect and improve the quality
of the water and other natural resources within a watershed by managing the use of
those land and water resources in a comprehensive manner.

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Watershed management is the study of the relevant characteristics of a

watershed aimed at the sustainable distribution of its resources and the process of
creating and implementing plans, programs and projects to sustain and enhance
watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and human communities within the
watershed boundary.

Features of a watershed that agencies seek to manage include:

• water supply,
• water quality,
• drainage,
• stormwater runoff,
• water rights and the
• overall planning and utilization of watersheds

Landowners, land use agencies, stormwater management experts,

environmental specialists, water use surveyors and communities all play an integral
part in watershed management.

Why is watershed management important?

Runoff from rainwater or snowmelt can contribute significant amounts of

pollution into the lake or river. Watershed management helps to control pollution of
the water and other natural resources in the watershed by identifying the different
kinds of pollution present in the watershed and how those pollutants are transported,
and recommending ways to reduce or eliminate those pollution sources.

All activities that occur within a watershed will somehow affect that
watershed’s natural resources and water quality. New land development, runoff from
already-developed areas, agricultural activities, and household activities such as
gardening/lawn care, septic system use/maintenance, water diversion and car
maintenance all can affect the quality of the resources within a watershed. Watershed
management planning comprehensively identifies those activities that affect the
health of the watershed and makes recommendations to properly address them so
that adverse impacts from pollution are reduced.

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Watershed management is also important because the planning process results

in a partnership among all affected parties in the watershed. That partnership is
essential to the successful management of the land and water resources in the
watershed since all partners have a stake in the health of the watershed. It is also an
efficient way to prioritize the implementation of watershed management plans in
times when resources may be limited.

Because watershed boundaries do not coincide with political boundaries, the

actions of adjacent municipalities upstream can have as much of an impact on the
downstream municipality’s land and water resources as those actions carried out
locally. Impacts from upstream sources can sometimes undermine the efforts of
downstream municipalities to control pollution. Comprehensive planning for the
resources within the entire watershed, with participation and commitment from all
municipalities in the watershed, is critical to protecting the health of the watershed’s
resources.

Controlling pollution

In agricultural systems, common practices include the use of buffer strips,

grassed waterways, the re-establishment of wetlands, and forms of sustainable
agriculture practices such as conservation tillage, crop rotation and inter-cropping.
After certain practices are installed, it is important to continuously monitor these
systems to ensure that they are working properly in terms of improving
environmental quality.

In urban settings, managing areas to prevent soil loss and control stormwater
flow are a few of the areas that receive attention. A few practices that are used to
manage stormwater before it reaches a channel are retention ponds, filtering systems
and wetlands. It is important that storm-water is given an opportunity to infiltrate so
that the soil and vegetation can act as a "filter" before the water reaches nearby streams
or lakes. In the case of soil erosion prevention, a few common practices include the

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use of silt fences, landscape fabric with grass seed and hydroseeding. The main
objective in all cases is to slow water movement to prevent soil transport.

Image adapted from slideshare.net/MADHABBEHERA3/watershed-

development-for-sustainable-resource-utilization-pdf

Key steps in watershed management

Comprehensive watershed plans should first identify the characteristics of the

watershed and inventory the watershed’s natural resources. It is important to
establish a baseline of the overall nature and quality of the watershed in order to plan
properly for the improvement of the resources in the watershed and to actually
measure those improvements.

The first steps in watershed management planning are to:

• Delineate and map the watershed’s boundaries and the smaller drainage basins
within the watershed;
• Inventory and map the resources in the watershed;

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• Inventory and map the natural and manmade drainage systems in the
watershed;
• Inventory and map land use and land cover;
• Inventory and map soils;
• Identify areas of erosion, including stream banks and construction sites;
• Identify the quality of water resources in the watershed as a baseline; and
• Inventory and map pollution sources, both point sources (such as industrial
discharge pipes) and nonpoint sources (such as municipal stormwater systems,
failing septic systems, illicit discharges).

Environmental law

Environmental laws often dictate the planning and actions that agencies take to
manage watersheds. Some laws require that planning be done, others can be used to
make a plan legally enforceable and others set out the ground rules for what can and
cannot be done in development and planning. Most countries and states have their
own laws regarding watershed management.

6.2.3.1 Reservoir management

Reservoirs are those water bodies formed or modified by human activity for
specific purposes, in order to provide a reliable and controllable resource. Their
main uses, and features that needed to be managed include:

• drinking and municipal water supply,

• industrial and cooling water supply,
• power generation,
• agricultural irrigation,
• river regulation and flood control,
• commercial and recreational fisheries,
• body contact recreation, boating, and other aesthetic recreational uses,
• navigation,
• canalization, and
• waste disposal (in some situations).

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Reservoirs are usually found in areas of water scarcity or excess, or where there
are agricultural or technological reasons to have a controlled water facility. Where
water is scarce, for example, reservoirs are mainly used to conserve available water
for use during those periods in which it is most needed for irrigation or drinking water
supply.

When excess water may be the problem, then a reservoir can be used for flood
control to prevent downstream areas from being inundated during periods of
upstream rainfall or snow-melt. Particular activities such as power generation, fish-
farming, paddy-field management or general wet-land formation, for example, are
also met by constructing reservoirs. By implication, they are also water bodies which
are potentially subject to significant human control, in addition to any other impact.
Reservoirs are, nonetheless, a considerable, frequently undervalued, water resource:
approximately 25 per cent of all waters flowing to the oceans have previously been
impounded in reservoirs (UNEP, 1991).

Reservoirs range in size from pond-like to large lakes, but in relation to natural
lakes the range of reservoir types and morphological variation is generally much
greater.

Download:
WATER CODE OF THE PHILIPPINES. Amended Implementing Rules and
Regulations
http://www.nwrb.gov.ph/images/laws/pd1067_amended.pdf
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT IN ACTION: Lessons learned from FAO field
projects
http://www.fao.org/3/a-i8087e.pdf

6.2.6 Dam Siltation

Reservoir sedimentation is a process of erosion, entrainment, transportation,

deposition and compaction of sediment carried into reservoirs formed and contained
by dams. In unregulated, mature rivers with stable catchments, sediment processes

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are relatively balanced. Construction of a dam decreases flow velocities, initiating or

accelerating sedimentation,1 resulting in progressively finer materials being
deposited.

Sediment impacts on generation

Loss of reservoir storage reduces flexibility in generation and affects the

reliability of water supply. Without storage, hydropower facilities are entirely
dependent on seasonal flows. These flows might not occur when energy is needed,
eliminating one of the key benefits that hydropower provides over other renewables.

Sediments discharged from an upstream dam in a cascade system can increase

tailwater levels, reducing power generation. This would impact the generation
potential of all plants in the cascade and increase the possibility of powerhouse
flooding.

Sediment impacts on stability

Sediment loads are commonly idealized as a static at-rest soil pressure. The U.S.
Bureau of Reclamation’s design manual for small dams suggests that sediments be
considered equivalent to a fluid with an implied pressure coefficient of about 0.39 and
an internal friction coefficient of about 37 degrees.

However, actual reservoir sediment properties can vary considerably.

Unconsolidated fine-grained sediments likely have lower shear resistance and a
higher at-rest pressure coefficient, while a reservoir filled with coarser sediments may
have a higher shear strength.

During a seismic event, it is likely that liquefied sediments would quickly

return close to their original state, resulting in a rapid dissipation of pore pressures.
Therefore, it may be questionable to automatically assign higher uplift pressures in
this case.

Commonly used design considerations can omit some plausible load cases. For
example, an underwater sediment slope failure could cause surface waves, adding
additional loading, hydro-dynamic pressure waves and an inertial loading from the

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dense fluidized soil-water mass. Another phenomenon commonly ignored relates to

turbidity currents in reservoirs. Such turbid fluid with a sediment load of 100 mg/l
could be about 6% heavier than clear water.

Sediment impacts on discharge capability

Sediments will often block low-level outlets designed to allow for reservoir
drawdown. As sedimentation continues, clogging of spillway tunnels or other
conduits may occur.

Reduction of spillway capacity can occur as a result of the loss of approach

depth when the sediment front reaches the dam. The reservoir becomes a delta-filled
valley that takes a meandering course such that a flood wave does not spread out to
allow flood routing.

Sediment impacts on the environment

Any dam will cause some degree of sediment starvation downstream. Plant
and animal species are sensitive to alteration of both the sediment supply and flow
regime. Increases in sediment concentration can create turbid waters with a smaller

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euphotic zone. This decreases plant productivity, negatively impacting fish and bird
species and causing abrasion of fish gills, thus increasing potential for disease or
mortality. Turbidity can also cause visual impairment for predatory fish, affecting
their feeding habits. Finally, sediment is a primary carrier of suspended pollutants
such as nitrogen, phosphorous and heavy metals.

Sediments released as a result of sediment management or a dam breach may

have environmental effects that can persist for decades.

6.2.6.1 Sediment management solutions

For storage hydro, sediment management strategies to extend reservoir

longevity can be classified into three categories:

• Those that divert some of the sediment through or around the reservoir;
• Those that remove or rearrange sediment that has already been deposited;
• Those that minimize the amount of sediment reaching the reservoir from
upstream.

Bypassing

On-stream sediment bypassing diverts part of the sediment-laden water

around the reservoir, typically using a weir that operates during high flows when
sediment concentrations are high. An off-stream reservoir can be used such that
only the clear water is diverted over a bypass weir. An off-stream reservoir
typically has limited capacity and can only exclude sediments carried by higher
stream flows.

Sluicing/drawdown routing

This technique involves lowering the reservoir water levels in advance of high
stream flows so that water and sediment can be routed through the spillway at
high velocities. Refill occurs during the receding limb of the flood hydrograph.

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 6 | Water Supply Planning and Development 27

Sluicing methods depend on the facility’s hydrologic characteristics and reservoir

size.

Dredging

Dredging can be efficient but it will continue for the life of the project and can
have significant cost impacts.

Flushing

Flushing involves emptying the reservoir by opening bottom outlets and

allowing the incoming streamflow to scour sediment. The effectiveness varies but,
generally, only a “core” of sediment along the original channel is flushed.
Sediments on the sides of the reservoir remain in place.

Erosion control

Many watersheds experience increased erosion rates due to land use and other
human practices. Erosion reduction techniques fall into three categories: structural
or mechanical, vegetative and operational.

6.3 Video Lessons

Click and watch the following videos:

Groundwater & Wells

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O6hae9Pxx20

Groundwater video 4: Extraction & Wells

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-KvkqMVIbrc

How a Water Well is Drilled

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8K6V450StO4

How Does a Water well work?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vwj2zKc6-80

Groundwater, Surface Water, and Watershed Video: Part 3

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 6 | Water Supply Planning and Development 28

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2BwkBBJfGMM

Types of Wells
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfDOZsC_yd8

What is Seawater Intrusion?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8zxZUSVjg10

Saltwater Intrusion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lxkiHkohrBY

Ground Water Pollution

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_nSVvFGP-hc

Reservoir Sedimentation Management: Sediment Management Alternatives

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DB_Ons5OHmA

Watershed Management
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fLThctBIeP8

Student’s Task 06

Please answer the following:

1. How would you extract water from a ground-water source? Explain
2. What is salt water intrusion? Explain.
3. What are the effects of ground water over use? Explain

Write your answers in a bond paper and submit. If you have internet, submit a
soft copy online.

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 6 | Water Supply Planning and Development 29

6.4 References

A Laymans Guide to Clean Water.2020/8/06.Retrieved from http://www.clean-water-for-

laymen.com/locating-groundwater.html
Groundwater Withdrawal.2020/8/06. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/geo/chapter/reading-groundwater-
withdrawal/
Greg Schellenberg, C. Richard Donnelly, Charles Holder and Rajib Ahsan. 2017.Dealing
with Sediment: Effects on Dams and Hydropower Generation. 2020/8/06.Retrieved
from https://www.hydroreview.com/2017/02/22/dealing-with-sediment-effects-
on-dams-and-hydropower-generation/#gref
J. Thornton, A. Steel and W. Rast. 1996. Water Quality Assessments - A Guide to Use of
Biota, Sediments and Water in Environmental Monitoring - Second Edition, Edited
by Deborah Chapman, © 1992, 1996 UNESCO/WHO/UNEP, ISBN 0 419 21590 5
Learn About Private Water Wells. 2020/8/06. Retrieved from
https://www.epa.gov/privatewells/learn-about-private-water-wells
Vincent W. Uhl, Jaclyn A. Baron, William W. Davis, Dennis B. Warner and Christopher C.
Sereme. Groundwater Development. Basic Concepts for Expanding CRS Water
Programs 2020/8/06. Retrieved from
https://www.crs.org/sites/default/files/tools-research/groundwater-
development-basic-concepts-for-expanding-crs-water-programs.pdf
Watershed Management - Overview. 2020/8/06.Retrieved from
https://portal.ct.gov/DEEP/Water/Watershed-Management/Watershed-
Management---Overview

6.5 Acknowledgment

The images, tables, figures and information contained in this module were
taken from the references cited above.

C. M. D. Hamo-ay