D1.

2
State-of-he-art Flightpath 2050 goals

30-09-2019

www.pareproject.eu

This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation programme under grant agreement No 769220. This publication
About this document
[communication] reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be
held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.

This is a formal deliverable under WP1 of the PARE project financed by the Horizon 2020 of the
European Commission (Grant agreement N° 769220). The following document aims to present and
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evaluate the “State-of-the-art” regarding the evolution of aviation in Europe towards the 23 goals
stablished in the Flightpath 2050. The report concerns (i) the state-of-the-art relative to the Flightpath
2050 goals, (ii) the gap remaining and (iii) the progress being made until now in research programs
in Europe. It has been prepared on month 18 with inputs for the Second year reports in the form of
deliverable D1.2.

Dissemination level
The following dissemination level is set for this report/deliverable in accordance with the contract with
the Commission Services: PU - Public.

PU -Public

PP -Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Services)

RE - Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Commission Services)

Revisions
REVISION DATE AUTHOR
0.0 30.08.2019 All Partners
0.1 30.09.2019 Rosa Arnaldo, Fernando
Gómez - UPM

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Table of Contents

Summary ........................................................................................................................... 13
1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 31
1.1 Objective and scope of the document ................................................................................................ 31
1.2 Flightpath 2050 Europe’s Vision for Aviation: 5 challenges and 23 goals .................................... 31
1.3 Approach followed. ............................................................................................................................... 33

2 Meeting Societal and Market Needs ......................................................................... 40

2.1 Air Traffic Capacity ................................................................................................................................ 40
2.1.1 Terminal Area Airways Capacity ..................................................................................................................................................... 41
KEY TOPIC T2.1 – EVOLUTION OF THE AIR TRAFFIC CAPACITY ....................................................................................................................................... 41

KEY TOPIC T2.2 – RELATION OF ATM WITH CAPACITY ....................................................................................................................................................... 50

2.2 Ground infrastructure and multimodal transport ............................................................................ 52

KEY TOPIC T2.3 – GROUND AND AIR OPERATIONS.............................................................................................................................................................. 53

2.3 Choice of most efficient mobility solutions ....................................................................................... 76

KEY TOPIC T2.4 – MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT ......................................................................................................................................................................... 76

2.4 Overall ground plus air travel time ..................................................................................................... 93

KEY TOPIC T2.5 – AIR TRANSPORT AND OTHER MOBILITY CHOICES .......................................................................................................................... 93

KEY TOPIC T2.6 – OVERALL GROUND PLUS AIR TRAVEL TIME ......................................................................................................................................102

KEY TOPIC T2.7 – FACTORS IN OVERALL AIR TRAVEL TIME ............................................................................................................................................114

2.5 Air Traffic Management (ATM) and weather .................................................................................. 117

KEY TOPIC T2.8 – WEATHER EFFECTS ON AIR TRAFFIC .....................................................................................................................................................117

3 Maintaining and extending industrial leadership .................................................. 124

3.1 Retaining and strengthening market share ..................................................................................... 124
KEY TOPIC T3.1 - COLLABORATION STRUCTURE OF AEROSPACE FIELD BASED ON WEB OF SCIENCE DATABASE .............................124

3.2 Cutting-edge at the full range of technologies .............................................................................. 128

KEY TOPIC T3.2 – CUTTING-EDGE AT THE FULL RANGE OF TECHNOLOGIES .........................................................................................................129

KEY TOPIC T3.3 – MAPPING PATENTS IN AVIATION TECHNOLOGIES........................................................................................................................141

3.3 Efficient development and life-cycle management ........................................................................ 155

KEY TOPIC T3.4 – AIRLINER DEVELOPMENT TIME AND COST .......................................................................................................................................155

KEY TOPIC T3.5 – EFFICIENT DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE-CYCLE MANAGEMENT OF BATTERIES......................................................................163

4 Protecting the environment and the energy supply .............................................. 171

4.1 Reduction of Noise and Emissions .................................................................................................... 172
4.1.1 Engine Noise for Turbofans and Propfans ............................................................................................................................. 175
4.1.2 Aerodynamic Noise and Operating Procedures.................................................................................................................. 207
4.1.3 Local Emissions of CO2 and NOx................................................................................................................................................. 212

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 4.1.4 Cruise efficiency and global emissions .................................................................................................................................... 240
KEY TOPIC T4.1 – LITERATURE ON THE ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL TARGETS OF AVIATION.......................................................248

4.2 Emissions Free Taxying at Airports ................................................................................................... 254

KEY TOPIC T4.2 – AIRCRAFT MOVEMENTS ARE EMISSIONS FREE WHEN TAXING ...............................................................................................254

4.3 Design and manufacture bearing in mind recycling ...................................................................... 261

KEY TOPIC T4.3 – Batteries for the More Electric Aircraft (MEA) ....................................................................................................................................261

4.4 Sustainable Alternative Fuel Sources ................................................................................................ 270

KEY TOPIC T4.4 – Sustainable Alternative Fuel Sources .....................................................................................................................................................270

4.5 Atmospheric Research, Weather and the Environment ................................................................. 281

KEY TOPIC T4.5 – USE AVIATION TO BETTER MONITOR THE ATMOSPHERE ..........................................................................................................282

5 Ensuring Safety and Security ................................................................................... 289

5.1 Ultra-low accident rate in commercial flight ................................................................................... 289
5.2 Weather hazards and risk mitigation................................................................................................ 301
5.3 Integrating drones in manned airspace............................................................................................ 306
5.4 Comprehensive and unobtrusive security measures ...................................................................... 312
5.5 Resilience to external and internal threats ...................................................................................... 318
5.6 High-bandwidth data resilient to cyberattacks .............................................................................. 322
5.6.1 KEY TOPICS RELATED TO SAFETY AND SECURITY ................................................................................................................... 327
KEY TOPIC T5.1 – EVALUATION AND MITIGATION OF WEATHER AND OTHER HAZARDS ..............................................................................327

KEY TOPIC T5.2 - INTEGRATION OF UNMANNED AIRCRAFT IN MANNED AIRSPACE ........................................................................................339

KEY TOPIC T5.3 – COMPREHENSIVE AND UNOBSTRUCTIVE SECURITY MEASURES ............................................................................................352

KEY TOPIC 5.4 - HIGH-BANDWIDTH DATA RESILIENT TO CYBERATTACKS .............................................................................................................359

KEY TOPIC 5.4 – GUIDELINES FOR CYBER PROTECTION AND SECURITY ..................................................................................................................373

KEY TOPIC T5.5 – THE BLOCKCHAIN PROCESS AS AN EXAMPLE OF CYBERSECURITY .......................................................................................384

6 Prioritizing Research, Testing Capabilities and Education .................................... 390

6.1 European Research and Innovation Agenda .................................................................................... 390
6.2 Industry- Research-Academia clusters ............................................................................................. 393
KEY TOPIC T6.1 – EU AERONAUTICS PROGRAMS SINCE FP2 .........................................................................................................................................394

6.3 Test, Simulation and Development Facilities................................................................................... 399

6.4 Young Talent and Women in Aviation ............................................................................................. 400
KEY TOPIC T6.2 – HUMAN RESOURCES NEEDED BY THE AERONAUTICAL SECTOR IN EUROPE ...................................................................401

KEY TOPIC T6.3 – EMPLOYMENT IN THE AERONAUTICAL SECTOR .............................................................................................................................408

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Steps to be followed by PARE for the Flightpath 2050 goals ........................................................... 34
Figure 2: 90% of departures come from the largest 250 airports (Eurocontrol). ......................................... 42
Figure 3: Average daily IFR flights in the top 20 en route area control centers (Eurocontrol,2015). .... 45
Figure 4: Technological, operational and societal/human dimension of goal 1 Benchmarks. ................ 46
Figure 5: Traffic complexity score in 2010. (Eurocontrol, 2010). ......................................................................... 47
Figure 6: Most congested ACC in Europe in 2010. (Eurocontrol, 2010). .......................................................... 48
Figure 7: Actual airport throughput vs declared capacity 2015 .......................................................................... 49
Figure 8: Weather conditions at the main 34 airports (2015). ............................................................................. 49
Figure 9: Percent change in time during IMC at the main 34 airports. (2015). ............................................. 50
Figure 10: En route ATFM delay (RP1-RP2) (min/flight)......................................................................................... 51
Figure 11: The map of Europe with the marked airports....................................................................................... 56
Figure 12: EU-28 growth in total passenger air transport by Member State, 2015-2016 (Eurostat). ... 56
Figure 13: Overview of EU-28 air passenger transport in 2016 (Eurostat). ..................................................... 57
Figure 14: Typical six segment net flight path. (EASA,2017). ............................................................................... 60
Figure 15: NOx emission by source groups (Fleuti, 2014). .................................................................................... 61
Figure 16: Characterization of GSE (Fleuti, 2014)...................................................................................................... 61
Figure 17: High-speed rail network mostly develops in Western Europe (Eurocontrol, 2013). .............. 66
Figure 18: Airport Capacity Constraints. ...................................................................................................................... 67
Figure 19: Increasing number of airports with summer delay (in minutes/flight). ...................................... 74
Figure 20:Main Delay Causes at the Top 10 Affected Departure Airports (Eurocontrol, 2017). ............. 75
Figure 21: Main Delay Causes at the Top 10 Affected Arrival Airports (Eurocontrol, 2017). ................... 75
Figure 22: Great-circle distance flown by departures from the biggest 528 airports in Europe.
(Eurocontrol)........................................................................................................................................................................... 77
Figure 23: Figure 24 Departures grouped by airport size. (Eurocontrol). ........................................................ 78
Figure 24: Technological, operational, societal/human and network dimension of goal 2 Benchmarks.
..................................................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Figure 25: Evolution of airport departure delays in 2010. (Eurocontrol, 2010). ............................................ 82
Figure 26: Average delay per movement (all causes) for Arrivals. (Eurocontrol, 2010). ............................. 82
Figure 27: Primary and reactionary all-cause delay, by IATA code (%). (Eurocontrol, 2010). .................. 83
Figure 28: Drivers of departure delays (2007-2010). (Eurocontrol, 2010). ...................................................... 84
Figure 29: EUROPE map of existing & planned rail connections to airports. (ACI, 2012). ........................ 90
Figure 30: Example of "veliport" concept designed by UBER .............................................................................. 95
Figure 31: "Vahana" VTOL concept by Airbus............................................................................................................ 95
Figure 32: NASA’s concept for a possible UTM system. ........................................................................................ 96
Figure 33: Applications of small UAS. ........................................................................................................................... 96
Figure 34: Complete UTM architecture. ....................................................................................................................... 97
Figure 35: Madrid-Barajas Airport in 1998 and in 2008, respectively. .............................................................. 99
Figure 36: Self-bag drop at Hong Kong Airport. ................................................................................................... 100
Figure 37: Different processes in Aruba Happy Flow. .......................................................................................... 102
Figure 38: Flight forecast details for 2017 (EUROCONTROL, 2016)................................................................ 104
Figure 39: Distribution of the European airport pairs distances (Brusow et al., 2007) ............................ 105
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Figure 40: Cumulative distribution function of the city distance to the nearest airport (Brusow et al.,
2007). ...................................................................................................................................................................................... 106
Figure 41: Cumulative distribution function of the population within catchment’s areas of airports
and landing facilities (Brusow et al., 2007) ............................................................................................................... 111
Figure 42: Budapest 60, 90 120 and 180 minute drive time. ............................................................................. 111
Figure 43: Primary Delay Causes 2015 vs. 2016 (EUROCONTROL, 2017). .................................................... 113
Figure 44: Breakdown of the Average Delay per Delay Q3 2016 vs.Q3 2017 (EUROCONTROL, 2017)
.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 114
Figure 45: US Weather’s Share of National Aviation System (NAS) Delays in the period. (2015). ...... 119
Figure 46: Impact of weather conditions on flight operations in the US and Europe. (2015) .............. 120
Figure 47: Impact of visibility conditions on runway throughput. (2015). ................................................... 121
Figure 48: Causes of weather-related airport ATFM delays in the period 2008-2015. ........................... 122
Figure 49: International Collaboration Networks with Document Frequency ............................................ 125
Figure 50: Institutional Collaboration Network ...................................................................................................... 126
Figure 51: Collaboration Networks Based on Web of Science Categories .................................................. 127
Figure 52: Structure of the Clean Sky 2 Programme (CS2, 2015) .................................................................... 130
Figure 53: Typical Patent Analysis Steps ................................................................................................................... 143
Figure 54: Number of patents in aviation per year ............................................................................................... 144
Figure 55: IPC subclasses year chart ........................................................................................................................... 145
Figure 56: Macro Classes ................................................................................................................................................ 145
Figure 57: Medium Classes ............................................................................................................................................ 146
Figure 58: Micro Classes.................................................................................................................................................. 146
Figure 59: Sunburst diagram for general and a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h subclasses............................................... 146
Figure 60: World map distribution .............................................................................................................................. 149
Figure 61: Evolution in the number of patents....................................................................................................... 149
Figure 62: Aviation patents per country.................................................................................................................... 150
Figure 63: Top Ten Firms by patent number ........................................................................................................... 152
Figure 64: Number of patents per holder ................................................................................................................ 152
Figure 65: Patents in areas relevant to aeronautics .............................................................................................. 153
Figure 66: Patents per subject ...................................................................................................................................... 154
Figure 67: Typical Direct Operating Cost Breakdown Fuel Price………………………………………………………156
Figure 68: Cost of aviation fuel since the year 2000………………………………………………………………………...157
Figure 69: ACARE environmental targets…………………………………………………………………………………………157
Figure 69.2: Position of Genus in diverse aircraft conceptual design………………………………………………159
Figure 69.3: Three view design of the E5 Neutrino Supersonic Jet…………………………………………………..160
Figure 69.4: Airbus A350…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..161
Figure 69.5: Airbus-Rolls-Royce 'E-Thrust' project…………………………………………………………………………...162
Figure 68: LCA framework for electric vehicles [Source: TLKthermos, Institut für Werkzeugmaschinen
und Fertigungstechik] ...................................................................................................................................................... 164
Figure 69: Battery pack as BEV power system. [Courtesy of Prof. Doron Aurbach, Bar IIan University,
Tel Aviv, Israel] .................................................................................................................................................................... 166
Figure 70: General operational loop for EV battery saving................................................................................ 167
Figure 71: Typical lithium battery recycling flow sheet ....................................................................................... 169
Figure 73: Main Sources of engine and airframe noise……………………………………………………………………172

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Figure 74: Improvement in aircraft efficency……………………………………………………………………………………173
Figure 75: Chevron nozzle made of shape memori material……………………………………………………………177
Figure 76: Engine noise reduction technologies………………………………………………………………………………177
Figure 77: Chevron nozzle, type T-fan……………………………………………………………………………………………..178
Figure 78: Pylon with blowing of gas to the stream………………………………………………………………………...179
Figure 79: ACARE SRA 1: Noise Goals for Fixed-Wing Aircraft......................................................................... 180
Figure 80: Technology Readiness Level Classification (TRL) used for solutions assessment ................ 181
Figure 81: Expected advances on noise reduction with NRT1 and NRT2, as well as the Noise
Abatement Procedure...................................................................................................................................................... 182
Figure 82: Roadmap of EU Aircraft Noise Research Projects vs Key Technical Areas (Generation 1 and
2 solutions - NRT1 and NRT2 performances – were achieved by results of the projects shown and
classified in accordance with priority acoustic sources) ..............................¡Error! Marcador no definido.
Figure 83: Roadmap of EU Aircraft Noise Research Projects vs Key Technical Areas (Generation 1 and
2 solutions - NRT1 and NRT2 performances – were achieved by results of the projects shown and
classified in accordance with priority acoustic sources)…………………………………………………………………..183
Figure 84: Noise Reduction Technologies Development & Validation ..¡Error! Marcador no definido.
Figure 85: Sources of aircraft acoustic emission during take-off…………………………………………………… 184
Figure 86: Sources of acoustic emission during landing………………………………………………………………….184
Figure 87: The compliance of Rolls-Royce engines with modern ICAO requirements…………………….185
Figure 88: Rolls Royce noise reduction technologies………………………………………………………………………186
Figure 89: Rolls Royce for the future engine……………………………………………………………………………………187

Figure 90: Programme Level & EPNL reduction for aircraft noise due to technology improvements
.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 194
Figure 91: Design of silent Aircraft SAX-40 involving key technologies of noise abatement…………..194
Figure 92: Non-standard aircraft layouts…………………………………………………………………………………………195
Figure 93: Built-in PP layouts with spaced ducts……………………………………………………………………………..196
Figure 94: Elements of numerical simulation……………………………………………………………………………………197
Figure 95: Advantages of an open-rotor engine……………………………………………………………………………...200
Figure 96: Effectiveness of methods for reducing the noise level in the fan: In Figure the numbers
indicate the positions: 1 - sweep of the rotor wheel blades; 2 - sweep and inclination of the fan
stator blades; 3 - optimization of the rotor wheel circumferential speed; 4 – variable-area fan nozzle;
5 – stator blades with SAS; 6 – rotor wheel with noise silencer; 7 – rotor wheel and stator blades with
active influence; 8 - hubless fan……………………………………………………………………………………………………….205
Figure 97: Effectiveness of methods for reducing the level of jet stream noise: In Figure the numbers
indicate the positions: 9 - chevron nozzle; 10 - microjets; 11 - plasmatic actuators; 12 - multitubular
nozzle; 13 - mesh screen; 14 - screening of jet stream noise by secondary gas flow; 15 - ejector
noise-suppression nozzle with a multi-element outlet; 16 - acoustic impact; 17 - noise screening..206
Figure 98: Airbus views on a futuristic design for 2030 - future noise reduction technologies with
contribution of engine/airframe installation effects ............................................................................................ 209
Figure 99: Departure and approach noise abatement procedures ................................................................ 210
Figure 100: Overview of most important non-acoustic factors contributing to aircraft noise
annoyance (Collin D) ........................................................................................................................................................ 212

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Figure 101: Schematic presentation of emissions, dispersion, concentrations and impacts with their
interaction at airport level (Miake-Lye R) ................................................................................................................. 213
Figure 102: Contribution of pollution sources in emissions in international airport Beijing in
2015…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………215
Figure 103: Annual CO2 emissions from civil air vehicles in China within the period 1960-2009……216
Figure 104: Historical ICAO certification Standards together with the 2006 MT & LT goals................ 219
Figure 105: Improving average NOx margin to CAEP/6 limit for in‑production engines shown in
successive versions of the ICAO EEDB ....................................................................................................................... 220
Figure 106: Illustration of ICAO emissions certification procedure in the LTO cycle. .............................. 220
Figure 107: 2009 Review data with RQL combustors in grey and new mid-OPR engines. Generation
staged DLI combustors in red. Note these data points area mixture of certificated engines and high
TRL developments ............................................................................................................................................................. 222
Figure 108: Concept of TAPS dilution section………………………………………………………………………………….224
Figure 109: Combustion chamber 5-sectional sector………………………………………………………………………225
Figure 110: Three-sectional sector of low-emission combustion chamber at NASA ASCR bench (Pratt
& Whitney)……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….226
Figure 111: Goodrich multi-zone multi-stage LDI concept……………………………………………………………...227
Figure 112: Woodward LDI package in 5-sectional sector……………………………………………………………….228
Figure 113: LDI Woodward package undergoes tests with lean mixture…………………………………………228
Figure 114: Conceptual implementation of 3-zone module…………………………………………………………….229
Figure 115: Spary test using Parker 3-zone probe…………………………………………………………………………...229
Figure 116: Advanced Airbus Technologies……………………………………………………………………………………..233
Figure 117: СО2 emissions with prediction after 2014 considering different scenarios…………………..234
Figure 118: NOx emissions with predictions after 2014 considering different scenarios………………...234
Figure 119: The framework and development phases of the CO2 Standard.............................................. 237
Figure 120: The CO2 Standard regulatory limits for the aircraft ..................................................................... 238
Figure 121: Estimated excess CO2 emissions per flight are decreasing in taxi, take-off, climb/descent
and en route phases ......................................................................................................................................................... 239
Figure 122: ACARE CO2 & NOx goals calendar (using CAEP6 margin for NOx) (FORUM-AE) ............ 239
Figure 123: Noise and emissions forecast to grow slower than passenger kilometres .......................... 242
Figure 124: Updated schematic of the principal emissions from aviation operations and the
relationship of emissions to climate change and impacts. The terminology, ΔX, indicates a change in
component X. The term, Δclouds, represents contrail induced cloudiness and aerosol-cloud
interactions. (From Brasseur et al., 2015).................................................................................................................. 243
Figure 125: After remaining stable between 2005 and 2014, aircraft CO2 emissions are likely to
increase further................................................................................................................................................................... 244
Figure 126: NOX emissions are likely to increase in the future, but advanced engine combustor
technology could help mitigate their growth ......................................................................................................... 245
Figure 127: Global aviation CO2 forecast with ACARE assumption ............................................................... 245
Figure 128: - Timeline Demonstration of Noise Related Scholarly Publication ........................................ 253
Figure 129: Specification sheet for the Panasonic NRC 18650......................................................................... 258
Figure 130: Specification of the Panasonic NRC1865 battery .......................................................................... 261

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Figure 130: Boeing-787 relaunched the Li-ion battery system with the new design, adding an extra
weight of 68kg to the weight of the airplane. ........................................................................................................ 266
Figure 131: Use of batteries in a typical aircraft..................................................................................................... 267
Figure 132: Batteries in the cabin of an airliner ..................................................................................................... 268
Figure 133: Cargo with batteries that can cause safety risks ............................................................................ 269
Figure 134: Results of investigations to the Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX) program
[NASA/TM–2011-217059]………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..274
Figure 135: The results of investigations to the Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX)
program [NASA/TM–2011-217059]…………………………………………………………………………………………………275
Figure 136: The results of strict policy investigations to the Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment
(AAFEX) program [NASA/TM–2011-217059]……………………………………………………………………………………276
Figure 137: Possible pathways to obtain ATJ biofuel. Source “2 million tons per year: A performing
biofuels supply chain for EU aviation ....................................................................................................................... 278
Figure 138: NYSERDA (TRL/CRL) Calculator results for analysis and assessment of ACARE Challenge 3
Goal 12 “Sustainable Alternative Fuel Sources”……………………………………………………………………………….280

Figure 139: Benchmarks for goal 13. .......................................................................................................................... 284

Figure 140: CAT aeroplane fatal accident rate per million departures worldwide vs EASA MS .......... 290
Figure 141: Commercial Air Transport by EU-28-registered aircraft, number of persons killed in air
transport accidents ........................................................................................................................................................... 290
Figure 142: Persons killed in air accidents on the territory of the EU, involving aircraft registered in
EU-28 countries, 2015, by aviation category ......................................................................................................... 291
Figure 143: Worldwide Fatal Accidents and Fatalities - 2007 to 2016 .......................................................... 292
Figure 144: CAT aeroplane accidents and serious incidents by operation .................................................. 292
Figure 145: EASA MS Operator Accidents and Serious Incidents by Key Risk Area –average 2007 to
2015 compared with 2016 ............................................................................................................................................. 293
Figure 146: The causal and contributory factors behind the Accidents and Serious Incidents involving
EASA Member State Operators between 2007 and 2016 .................................................................................. 294
Figure 147: Fatal accident rate of scheduled passenger and cargo fatal accidents per 10 million
flights, by region of the world, using the regions defined by the ECCAIRS taxonomy from 2004 to
2013 ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 295
Figure 148: The Seven-Step Approach to Safety Assessment Process.......................................................... 298
Figure 149: Benefits of Risk-based Oversight implementation in aviation sector .................................... 301
Figure 150: Hazard encounter risk management model .................................................................................... 303
Figure 151: Risk indicators in the Temperate Central region for aviation passenger’s transport due to
extreme weather events .................................................................................................................................................. 304
Figure 152: Risk indicators for delays in EU ............................................................................................................. 305
Figure 153: Costs (mill. €) for road accidents’ fatalities (red; socio-economic costs) and aviation
cancellations (black; operators’ costs) and aviation delays (blue; passenger time costs) by climate
regions .................................................................................................................................................................................. 306
Figure 154: UAS Safety Management System ........................................................................................................ 307
Figure 155: RPAS occurrences per year – 2010 to 31 May 2016 ..................................................................... 308
Figure 156: Responses to the question on “Main Perceived Risks”................................................................ 308
Figure 157: UAS Occurrences 2010- May 2016 - Safety Events ...................................................................... 309

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Figure 158: UAS Airborne Conflict occurrences per state. Time period 2010-May2016 ........................ 309
Figure 159: UAS Occurrences in Relation to Airspace by Flight Phase. Time period 2010-May2016 310
Figure 160: Control Strategies for UAS safety management ............................................................................ 312
Figure 161: Key themes, under which GASeP specific goals and targets could be pursued ............... 316
Figure 162: Aviation Security Threat Sources, Tactics, and Targets................................................................ 320
Figure 163: Resilience cycle depicting possible actions associated with the different phases ............ 321
Figure 164: Recommendations and goals for future aviation security concepts ..................................... 322
Figure 165: Interconnection of the air transport system: Arrows indicate the interfaces for
information exchange and, thus, represent risks for contagion effects in the case of false or missing
information .......................................................................................................................................................................... 324
Figure 166: Horizontal scenario space illustration: Both key process steps in the lifetime of an aircraft
and each of the scenario spaces are depicted. Own illustration, based on EATMA ............................... 326
Figure 167: Risk Management for cyber security .................................................................................................. 327
Figure 168: Effects of icing on an aircraft ................................................................................................................. 329
Figure 169: Amplitude (A) and wavelength (W) in lee waves ........................................................................... 331
Figure 170: Traffic in Europe before and during the April crisis ...................................................................... 332
Figure 171: Comparison of weather accidents to weather turbulence accidents, 1992-2001 ............. 333
Figure 172: Total weather accidents by phenomenon from 1992 to 2001.................................................. 334
Figure 173: Weather related accidents from 1992 to 2007 in the US............................................................ 334
Figure 174: Total weather accidents by phenomenon from 2003 to 2007.................................................. 335
Figure 175: Wind accidents by phase of flight from 2003 to 2007 ................................................................ 335
Figure 176: Weather related accidents in the US from 1992 to 2013............................................................ 336
Figure 177: Weather events by worst injury aboard ............................................................................................ 336
Figure 178: NEXRAD system network ........................................................................................................................ 337
Figure 179: Terminal Doppler Weather Radar at Charlotte Airport................................................................ 338
Figure 180: Block diagram of an AWIN system ...................................................................................................... 339
Figure 181: Cockpit radar display of turbulence .................................................................................................... 339
Figure 182: RPAS related occurrences in 2015 ....................................................................................................... 340
Figure 183:"Skyways" project developed by Airbus ............................................................................................. 342
Figure 184: Applications by region based on media attention ........................................................................ 343
Figure 185: UAVs operations by altitudes ................................................................................................................ 344
Figure 186: Example of an UTM system .................................................................................................................... 346
Figure 187: NASA UTM system..................................................................................................................................... 347
Figure 188: UAVs studied in CAPECON Project ..................................................................................................... 348
Figure 189: USICO simulation in Frankfurt airspace ............................................................................................. 349
Figure 190: Key statistics about UAS accidents and serious incidents from ECR occurrence database
.................................................................................................................................................................................................. 350
Figure 191: UAS reported occurrences per year 2012-2016 ............................................................................. 350
Figure 192: UAS accidents and other occurrences during 2012-2016 .......................................................... 351
Figure 193: Aircraft altitude vs distance from drone at the time of detection 2010-2016 .................... 351
Figure 194: Technologies for Comprehensive and unobtrusive security measures ................................. 353
Figure 195: Operational procedures for Comprehensive and unobtrusive security measures ............ 354
Figure 196: Security technologies in 2010. .............................................................................................................. 357
Figure 197: Million passengers screened according to TSA statistics ........................................................... 359

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Figure 198: ICT technologies in civil aviation. Source: American Institute of Aeronautics and
Astronautics ......................................................................................................................................................................... 360
Figure 199: Technological, operational and societal/human dimension of goal 19 Benchmarks ...... 361
Figure 200: Progress achieved up to now in goal 19 ........................................................................................... 372
Figure 201: Blockchain Process ................................................................................................................................... 386
Figure 202: Thematic development of EU-funded aerospace R&D projects. ............................................. 396
Figure 203: The European aerospace R&D collaboration network................................................................. 398
Figure 204: Relative shares of the different organization types to aerospace EU funded projects. .. 399
Figure 205: Need for aviation professionals in the US ........................................................................................ 404
Figure 206: NGAP: New generation of Aviation Professionals task force .................................................... 406

List of Tables

Table 1: Flightpaths 2050: 5 Challenges & 23 Goals ............................................................................................... 33

Table 2: Partner contribution to Flightpaths goals. ................................................................................................. 37
Table 3: Assignment to partners of sources of information per country ........................................................ 38
Table 4: Average number of daily IFR movements at the main European airports ................................... 42
Table 5: Average daily movements in the En route European Airspace .......................................................... 44
Table 6: Key data for 34 biggest European airports. (2010). ................................................................................ 47
Table 7: Summary Estimated benefit pool actionable by ATM. (2015). ........................................................... 50
Table 8: Top 30 airports in the EU-28 in terms of total passengers carried in 2016 (Eurostat). ............. 58
Table 9: Forecast airport congestion (SAMPLE AIRPORTS)................................................................................... 81
Table 10: Intra-EU traffic at country level: top-10 country pairs represent 40 % of 2016 intra-EU
traffic (Eurostat). ................................................................................................................................................................. 103
Table 11: Summary of flight forecast for Europe (ECAC), (EUROCONTROL, 2016). B-Base, H-High, L-
Low .......................................................................................................................................................................................... 104
Table 12: Airports and airfields of the 10 busiest European cities. ................................................................. 107
Table 13: Surface access modes to UK airports (DATASET2050, 2016) ......................................................... 107
Table 14: French airport surface access modes (DATASET2050, 2016). ........................................................ 108
Table 15: Surface access mode share for 22 German airports (DATASET2050, 2016)............................. 108
Table 16: Driving and public transport speeds (km/h) by airport (DATASET2050, 2016). ..................... 109
Table 17: Airport accessibility by rail for the 30 largest airports in the European Economic Area +
Switzerland (DLR, 2010)................................................................................................................................................... 110
Table 18: Some patent codes ........................................................................................................................................ 146
Table 19: Some patent subcodes................................................................................................................................. 147
Table 20: Some patent sub-sabcodes ........................................................................................................................ 147
Table 21: Patent to country............................................................................................................................................ 148
Table 22: Top Twenty Firms by patent number ..................................................................................................... 151
Table 23: Some data on recent widebodies ........................................................................................................... 156
Table 24: Some data on legacy and current airliners ........................................................................................... 156
Table 25: Technology Readiness Level and Technology Status ....................................................................... 193
Table 26: Level of understanding in airport emission inventory: green (good); yellow (fair); red (poor)
(Updated from (Forum-AE, 2015))............................................................................................................................... 214

11
Table 28: Comparison of different types of battery chemistries ..................................................................... 255
Table 29: Details of batteries used in different aircraft ...................................................................................... 255
Table 30: Comparison of Li-ion and Ni-Cd aircraft grade batteries ............................................................... 256
Table 31: Summary of the main (Automotive) Lithium-ion types / State of the art ............................... 256
Table 32: Some characteristics of commercially available secondary lithium-ion cell, ordered by
specific energy ................................................................................................................................................................... 260
Table 33: Comparison of different cell chemistries used in aeronautics ...................................................... 263
Table 34: Details of batteries used in different aircraft ....................................................................................... 264
Table 35: Objectives, tasks, and milestones of European Advanced Biofuels Flightpath ....................... 271
Table 36: Advances and limitations of biofuels ...................................................................................................... 279
Table 37: Indicative list of GASeP goals and targets ............................................................................................ 317
Table 38: General information concerning the aerospace sector funded from FP2 to FP7 in the time
period 1987 to 2013. ........................................................................................................................................................ 394
Table 39: Thematic categories used to classify the EU funded projects related to the aeronautic
sector...................................................................................................................................................................................... 395
Table 40: Status relative to the ACARE Goal 23. .................................................................................................... 402
Table 41: Aviation Employment in the US ................................................................................................................ 410
Table 42: Estimated Active Women Airmen Certificates Held December 31, 2007-2016 ...................... 411

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Summary
The overall objective of PARE (Perspectives for the Aeronautical Research in Europe) is to trigger
collaboration between European stakeholders to support the achievement of the 23 Flightpath 2050
goals. This document evaluates and summarises the “State-of-the-art” regarding the evolution of
aviation in Europe towards the 23 goals stablished in the Flightpath 2050. It has been prepared on
month 18 with inputs for the Second year reports in the form of deliverable D1.2.

Main improvements in YR2 report and state of the art

analysis.
During the second year of PARE project work, the assessment of the state of the art of European
aviation has deepened especially in the following topics:

1. Update on latest developments into “Cutting-edge at the Full Range of Technologies” (Flightpath
2050 goal 7).

 The 2019 SESAR vision for the future digital architecture of ATM “A proposal for the future
architecture of the European. SESAR 2019”.

This proposal encompases a progresive transition strategy towards the Single European Digital
Airspace System in three 5 year-periods, while building on known good practices and quick wins, as
well as existing initiatives such as SESAR. By 2025 new airspace reconfiguration and operational
excellence programmes are expected to deliver wick capacity and efficiency gains in ATM. By 2030
next generation of SESAR solution will be completed with the roll-out of virtualisation tehcniques and
dynamic airspace configuration.New IT architecture will enable reousrces including data to be shared
across the ATM network. By 2035 the whole Euroepan ATM network it is spected to evolve from a
sytem base on punctuality to a sytem based on predictability. This strategy is intended to provide 50
% more of fligths than in 2017. This aviation infrastructure will be built on safe and secure solutions
characterised by:

 Higher levels of autonomy and connectivity of all air vehicles

 Advanced communications, sensors and navigation services that provide real-time trajectory
information
 Digital and automated tools on board the air vehicle itself
 Big data analytics and open source data usage that allow better flight planning, airport
operations and increased predictability of the overall traffic.
 System modularity to allow easier upgrades and greater interoperability as well as system
flexibility to handle increasing number of vehicles.
To speed up the process the short time emphasis is done into: a) an airspace re-configuration
programme supported by an operational excellence programme to achieve quick wins; b) overcome
the de-fragmentation of European skies through virtualisation and the free flow of data among trusted
users; and c) develop a legal and financial framework that rewards early movers.

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  As a complement to the cutting edge tehcnologies developed under big European programms
smaller programs have developed specific technological solutions to aviation problems.
During this second year of work PARE took a closer look to recents EU initiatives not
previsously analysed, such AGILE, CAPPADOCIA and EBSF_2 – EUROPEAN BUS SYSTEM OF THE
FUTURE.
The AGILE project objective is to achieve a significant reduction in aircraft development costs through
a more competitive supply chain able to reduce the time to market of innovative aircraft products.
The scope of the project comprises the following technical objectives:
 The development of advanced MDO (Multidisciplinary Design and Optimisation) techniques,
and effective setup and integration methodologies in the design process reducing the
convergence time in aircraft optimisation.
 The development of processes and techniques for efficient multisite collaboration in overall
aircraft design teams.
 The development of knowledge enabled information technologies to support interdisciplinary
design task by processes formalisation and automation.
 Developing and publishing an open MDO test suite to deploy the AGILE Paradigm.

CAPPADOCIA (Coordination Action Pro “Production, Avionics, Design” on Cost-efficiency in

Aeronautics) is focused on research activities that address solely or mainly the SRIA goal of cost-
efficiency in Aeronautics and Air Transport and in particular the following technical domains:
 Airframe design systems and tools
 Production and maintenance
 Avionics and other relevant domains dealing with cost efficiency, e.g. propulsion
The "Bus System of the Future" projects (EBSF and EBSF_2) aim to develop a new generation of urban
bus systems. The aim is to develop and deploy innovative vehicle technologies and infrastructures
integrating the best operating practice and which have been tested in operations scenarios in several
bus networks in Europe.

2. Provide additional inside into several topics relevant for an Efficient Development and Life-
Cycle Management (Flightpath 2050 goal 8), such as:

 Aircraft development costs, prices, times, total income, break even number is provided.
 Operating costs, maintenance and spares revenue, support infrastructure is provided.
 Flight hours and time for certification and costs of upgraded versions of aircraft is provided.

3. Acomplishe a deep technical analisis of state of the art regarding Noise and emissions
reductions (Flightpath 2050 goal 9) particularly on engine noise, aerodynamic noise, and
local and global emissions. This upgrade include:

 A deeper incshicgth into the aircraft manufacturers’ plasn to develop electric aircraft.
 A revision of improved engine performances during the last decade and how they impact
aircraft efficiency.
 Alternatives to reduce aircraft weigth weight as a primary driver of fuel burn.
 Alternatives to reduce drag.

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 4. A deep analysis of advances in sustainable Alternative Fuel Sources in relation to Flightpath
2050 goal 12

5. Provide additional inside into several topics relevant for an European Research and Innovation
Agenda (Flightpath 2050 goal 20), such as

 An actualization on initiatives to fill the gap between the Joint Research Initiatives (JRI) “Clean
Sky” and “SESAR” focused on industrial application and the ERC focused on fundamental
research needs to be filled by a Basic Research Programme (BRP).
 The recommendations of the High Level Group to maximise the impact of future European
Union (EU) research and innovation (R&I) in the report “LAB – FAB – APP Investing in the
European future we want”; as well as the EREA recommendations for an impactful aviation
research programme in the next Framework Programme

6. Update on latest figures and inititiatives regarding Young Talent and Women in Aviation
(Flightpath 2050 goal 23), mainly:

 The recent European Parliament called on the Commission to provide more support in FP9 'for
young researchers, such as pan-European networking tools and to reinforce funding schemes
for early-stage researchers with less than two years of experience after PhD completion.
 Actualisation of figures about the performance of woman in higher education as well as
projections of employment in aerospace.
 A closer look into the lates international educational initiativices, such as ALICANTO, the new
International Associatin of Aviation and Aerospace Education. With the agreement of 34 of the
world’s prominent aviation and aeronautical universities ALICANTO underscores the key
importance today of the overall NGAP programme in bringing together States, educational
and training institutions, United Nations organizations, industry and other actors to address
existing and future aviation personnel shortages.
 An updated on the critical and distinctive skills necessary for Aerospace engineers by the
Bureau of Labor Statistics: mainly Science, Reading Comprehension, and Operations Analysis.

Challenge 1- Meeting Societal and Market Needs

Challenge 1 includes a 5 goals concerning air traffic capacity, ground infrastructure, mobility,
speed and punctuality.

Goal 1 addresses the main issue of air traffic capacity (25 million flights per year) and flexibility of
operation. The expected demand will challenge 3 main elements in the transport system: i) the
capacity of the runway system; ii) the capacity of the TMA; iii) the en route capacity.

Biggest TMAs in Europe are today complex and saturated scenarios. The highest concentration
of en route traffic takes places in Europe in the “core area”. Taking full advantage of both, existing
and newly developed technologies, Future Air Traffic Capacity relies on 3 different dimensions. i)

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 Technological and operational; ii) Social/human; iii) Network
operation. From the technological and operational
Air Traffic Capacity
perspectives maximization of runway capacity would be
Flightpath 2050 goal 1. achieved by dynamic and time based separation and state of
the art in wake vortex, radar separation and runway
“An air traffic management system occupancy time technology and procedures. Once the
in place that provides a range of maximum runway throughput has been achieved, increase
services to handle at least 25 of capacity at congested airports will require airport
million flights a year of all types of
expansion. Exhausted the potential growth of the biggest
air vehicles, including unmanned
airports, demand will necessarily be absorbed by closest
and autonomous systems
airports, which refers to the network dimension of air the
integrated into and interoperable
transport.
with the overall air transport
system with 24-hour operation of Single European Sky remains committed to the high level-
airports”. goals established by the EU. However, a significant
improvement in performance, network functions and
change management is needed. SESAR four key technical
pillars are perceived as the strongest enabler for sustaining future demand: i) Digitalisation – data
is the primary means of communication; ii) Virtualisation - de-couple service from airspace location;
iii) Flight centric 4-D trajectories – trajectories that optimize routes of operators; iv) Modularisation
– modular, interoperable systems based on a common infrastructure. The development of adequate
technology and aligned implementation are vital in order to improve performance of the European
ATM as a network. The future Single European Sky regulation needs to provide the framework to
accelerate the adoption of adequate technology.

Regarding goal 2, it is to be noticed that Europe's transport

system is characterized by a dense network of
Ground infrastructure
connections at short distances, with large passenger flows
and multimodal between transport nodes. The European air traffic network
transport contains about 170.000 links between airports.
Transportation on Europe is performed mainly over short and
Flightpath 2050 goal 2.
medium distances. The European transport market is the area
“A coherent ground infrastructure of competition between the road, rail and air transport.
is developed including: airports, High-speed train both competes with and complements
vertiports, heliports with the short-haul passenger air transport.
relevant servicing and connecting
As a complement, a network of small aircraft that take off and
facilities, also to other modes”.
land vertically (VTOL - Vertical Take-off and Landing), will
enable rapid, reliable transportation between suburbs and
cities and, ultimately, within cities. The development of infrastructure to support an urban VTOL
network will likely have significant cost advantages over heavy-infrastructure approaches such as
roads, rail, bridges and tunnels.

In relation to goal 3, the progress in mobile communications and availability of information may
ensure that the passenger can make informed choices among several available travel options. The

16
 issues of interferences and security of communications at
Choice of most efficient passenger information level are comparable to other
mobility solutions societal services.
Flightpath 2050 goal 3. The choice of air travel vs other means of transport depends
“European citizens are able to not only on flight time, but also on intermodality
make informed mobility choices transportation. Intermodality in Europe is the result of
and have affordable access to one political and financial actions, airport connections and
another, taking into account: users expectations and requirements.
economy, speed and level of
The 4 key variables concerning passenger requirements are:
service (that can be tailored to the
Accessibility, Single ticket, Confident, Accountability.
individual customer). Continuous, Passengers wish better information related to intermodality,
secure and high-bandwidth
comprehensibility of the reservation systems, better prices
communications are provided for when booked air and rail are together, flexibility on their
added value applications”. bookings and a secure framework with clear operators’
liability conditions. Technologies covering intermodality are
already available; however, no one has been placed yet as the global solution for the air-rail market.
Main challenges to overcome in order to achieve the desired framework for intermodality relate to
standardisation and funding, but also to provision of reliable and impartial information, single
ticketing, remote multi-modal check-in and luggage handling and schedule and delays.

As per goal 4, today 90% of travellers can complete their

trips within 4 hours, with 60 min minimum connection time
Overall ground plus air
in air transport, as most trips are on short distances.
travel time However, only 13.1% of trips would be completed within 4
Flightpath 2050 goal 4. hours if every EU citizen try to reach each other EU citizen.

“90% of passengers within Europe To achieve goal 4, the operation of airports need to be
are able to complete their journey, analyzed from 3 perspectives: i) Efficient operation of all
door to door within 4 hours. processes within the airport; ii) Interconnections among the
Passenger and freight are able to different airports; iii) Integration of the airport with other
transfer seamlessly between modes of transport. Key enablers to reduce overall travel
transport modes to reach the final times are improvement of airport access times, a higher
destination smoothly, predictably predictability of times accessing the airport and process
and on time”. times inside the terminal. 70% of flights delays are caused
by the turnaround of aircraft at airports. Network
disruptions demand increased coordination of ground
operations for European airports and the network as a whole
(knock-on effects). Impact of Airport CDM on delays shows room for improvement of 33%-50%.
If Airport CDM were implemented in the main 42 delaying European airports as in Munich, an increase
in capacity could be expected by up to 4%. Airport access has been improved through innovative
approaches. Nevertheless, researching new ways to get to the airports would be key to actually reduce
the travel duration; and connections with other mode of transport must facilitate an easy and quick
access to the plain.

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 The basic issue for achieving goal 5 is overall ATM
capacity, The capacity available in each air space sector
Air Traffic Management must be matched to allow the overall flow of traffic along
and weather optimal or near optimal routes that minimize travel time,
fuel consumption and emissions and make air transport
Flightpath 2050 goal 5.
more convenient, economical and environmentally friendly.
“Flights arrive within 1 minute of
the planned arrival time regardless ATM performance is affected by meteorological conditions,
of weather conditions. The such as visibility, wind, convective weather. The impact of
transport system is resilient against weather on operations at an airport, and as consequence on
disruptive events and is capable of ATM performance, can vary significantly in different airports
automatically and dynamically re- and depends on a number of factors such as, geographic
configuring the journey within the location and traffic density, airport and ATM equipment,
network to meet the needs of the runway configurations, and approved rules and procedures.
traveller if disruption occurs. The main weather cause of delay is visibility, followed by
Special mission flights can be wind, winter operations and thunderstorms. A high average
completed in the majority of weather-related airport arrival delay is usually the result of
weather, atmospheric conditions a notable capacity reduction in bad weather combined with
and operational environments”. a high level of demand.

Challenge 2 - Maintaining and

extending industrial leadership
In order to maintain and extend its leading position and market share, the European industry must
master a wide range of technologies and their integration in aircraft design and development.

Related to goal 6, European aeronautical industry has

Retaining and achieved and sustained a near peer position with its
worldwide competitors in the most important sectors.
strengthening market
Airbus, ATR, Airbus Helicopters, Westland, Safran, Rolls-
share Royce, Pratt & Whitney and General Electric, among others,
are leading their respective markets. International research
Flightpath 2050 goal 6. “The
is dominated by 6 clusters, four of them European.
whole European aviation industry is
Aerospace engineering is the central node of the network.
strongly competitive, delivers the
Other fields are mechanical engineering, materials, physics,
best products and services
computer science, energy, environment and Nano-science.
worldwide and has a share of more
than 40% of the world market” Innovation policy in EU level should be more diffusion-
oriented instead of mission-oriented, because although
national technological capabilities may not be collectivized,
information and experience may. Every cluster can gain
excellence in different subfields and the knowledge may be aggregated in a shared platform for
European aviation industry. China’s development may be analysed specifically to give insight for
developing EU Aerospace Innovation policy also.

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 To maintain competitiveness, Europe must keep at the
forefront of innovative technologies and leading edge
Cutting-edge at the full
design, as targeted by goal 7, since a lack of mastery in
range of technologies some of the technologies can cripple an aircraft design and
doom its market prospects. Technologies essential to
Flightpath 2050 goal 7. “Europe
develop a successful aircraft design include a wide range
will retain leading edge design,
of subjects: flight physics, aerodynamics, propulsion
manufacturing and system
systems, materials, avionics, telecommunication systems,
integration capabilities and jobs
etc.
supported by high profile,
strategic, flagship projects and The number of patents, a proxy indicator for technological
programmes which cover the innovation, has reached of 3500 patents in 2016. China is
whole innovation process from the country that has registered more patents, followed by
basic research to flight United States of America and Russian Federation.
demonstrators”
New solutions arise in response to new social needs, new
technologies and new types of transport means. Answer to
these challenges are the two big aviation programs Clean Sky 2, and SESAR 2020, as well as smaller
programs aimed to specific problems: i) wide choice of transportation modes and wider use of small
aircraft, served by small airports, to create access to more communities in less time; ii) potential of
seaplane traffic business development.; iii) magnetic levitation technology to enable aircraft take-off
and landing; iv) RPAS in non-segregated airspace.

Additionally, in order to cope with the expected evolution of air traffic, SESAR is planning to go one
step beyond the 2020 vision in relation to airspace management, based on a digital environment
highly connected and automated. Thrugh its “A proposal for the future architecture of the European.
SESAR 2019”. a progressive transition strategy is envisaged towards the Single European Digital
Airspace System in three 5 year-periods, while building on known good practices and quick wins, as
well as existing initiatives such as SESAR.

According to goal 8, in addition to master the cutting-

Efficient development and edge of relevant aeronautical technologies, it is also
life-cycle management necessary to integrate them into a product with timely
arrival in the market and competiveness over the whole
Flightpath 2050 goal 8.
life-cycle in order to maintain a competitiveness position.
“Streamlined systems engineering,
design, manufacturing, certification The growing capability and complexity of modern aircraft
and upgrade processes have increases the relevance of life-cycle analysis that needs to
addressed complexity and be considered also at component level. Current trend
significantly decreased development shows a continuous rise in the development cost and
costs (including a 50% reduction in time (including certification) of an aircraft, due to the use
the cost of certification). A leading of new technologies and the larger demands for safety.
Significant reductions could be achieved by the use of
new generation of standards is
simulation instead of physical test and experiments, as
created”
well as by more specific, flexible and adaptive regulatory
requirements for certification.

19
 Ultimaletly, the main challenge that hampers cost effective design processes is the integration of
multidisciplinary competences and services provided by heterogeneous teams with different skill sets,
which are distributed among different organisations and across different nations. Therefore, the key-
enabler to deliver innovative aircraft products in a time and cost efficient manner is the development
of a “more competitive supply chain”. Important reductions are possible in time to converge the
design of an aircraft and in time needed to set up and solve the multidisciplinary problem in a team
of heterogeneous specialists, trhough
 The development of advanced MDO (Multidisciplinary Design and Optimisation) techniques,
and effective setup and integration methodologies in the design process reducing the
convergence time in aircraft optimisation.
 The development of processes and techniques for efficient multisite collaboration in overall
aircraft design teams.
 The development of knowledge enabled information technologies to support
interdisciplinary design task by processes formalisation and automation.
 Developing and publishing an open MDO test suite to deploy the new design Paradigms.

Challenge 3 - Protecting the Environment and the Energy

Supply
Protecting the environment implies reduction of noise and emissions, emissions free taxying,
recycling enabled by design, alternative fuels and atmospheric research. ACARE runs three
research projects to achieve these goals: X-Noise EV, which relates to aviation noise research, Forum
AE, which relates to emissions research, and Core-JetFuel, which relates to alternative aviation fuels.
According to ACARE 2015 report, noise research is on track to meet its target; although significant
work is required to meet the emissions targets, specifically technology maturation; and a
quantitative target is required at European level for alternative fuels.

Goal 9 is about the reduction of noise and emissions. The

progress made since 2000 can be translated as an average
Reduction of Noise and
reduction of 10dB per operation. With about 64% of
Emissions expected benefits secured, due to effective implementation
Flightpath 2050 goal 9. of the research roadmap and associated priorities; the target
can be considered as globally on track, but will require
“In 2050 technologies and significant support in the few years remaining before 2020
procedures available allow a 75%
reduction in CO2 emissions per Main contributors to the 10dB reduction aircraft noise target
passenger km and a 90% reduction are: Noise Reduction Technologies (NRT), with novel aircraft
in NOx emissions. Perceived noise of and engine/power architectures, and Noise Abatement
flying aircraft is reduced by 65%. Procedures (NAP). Studies have already been conducted for
These are relative to the capabilities Ultra High Bypass Ratio engines and for Open Rotors, both
of typical new aircraft in 2000” technologies presumed to lower fuel consumption and to
reduce noise emission. Noise abatement operational
procedures are being employed today to provide noise relief

20
to communities around airports, such as Continuous Descent Approach (CDA) or Noise Abatement
Departure Procedures (NADP).

Significant reductions in NOx emissions have been accomplish through the development of advanced
combustors: RQL systems and staged-DLI. Additionally, fuel use per revenue passenger kilometre
(RPK) has decreased since the 1970s as aircraft structures, aircraft engines and aircraft operations have
become more fuel efficient. There has been a continuous improvement on emissions, but there is still
some gaps. It will be necessary to develop more fuel-efficient engines with innovative technologies.
Most promising solutions appear to be laminar wing, ultra-high by-pass ratio engines, Open Rotor
and distributed propulsion and light materials.

Goal 10 aims to achieve emissions free when taxing, since it can

contribute to emissions at airports and also generate noise. This
Emission-Free Taxying objective is highly related to the available battery technology.
at Airports
The currently preferred battery technology for ground
Flightpath 2050 goal 10. movements on the airfield and in the aircraft itself are the lead-
“Aircraft movements are acid and the nickel cadmium battery. Both technologies are long
emissions free when taxing” in the field and very mature, but suffer from insufficient energy
density and cycle life. In order to meet the future requirements,
substantial improvements in energy density, lifetime, cost
and charging infrastructure are needed. The trend is shifting
towards Li-ion batteries with its tremendous opportunities to be employed in MEA. Further
improvements in Li-on performance will be accomplish as new electrode materials, electrolyte
compositions and cell geometries are under research.

Goal 11 aims at recycling enabled by design. Recycling of

Design and aircraft parts depends mostly on the materials used and also on
manufacture bearing the fabrication process. Recycling capacity could require the use
in mind recycling of other materials not previously considered in the aerospace
industry or substances with tailor-made properties (graphene).
Flightpath 2050 goal 11.
One example of recycling is given by batteries, since recent
“Air vehicles are designed and technological advances in the field of electric power has resulted
manufactured to be recyclable” in the emergence of a more electric aircraft (MEA) concept. The
fact that the battery market is in continuous evolution with the
advent of many different new chemistries could difficult to
develop universally valid recycling process. The European
Commission has mandated a Battery and Accumulator Directive for 2016, which imposes to the state
members a 45% collection rate for waste-portable batteries, which can be met only if subsidies are
provided. Under this scheme, battery recycling plants are now operating in Europe (e.g., Batrec in
Switzerland, Umicore in Belgium, and SNAM and Recupyl in France) to honour the mandate.

21
 Goal 12 concerns the use of alternative fuel sources.
Alternative aviation fuels includes biofuels, with Sinthetic
Sustainable Alternative Fischer-Tropsch (FT), Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids
Fuel Sources (HEFA), Pyrolysis Oils (HPO) and Alcohol to Jet (ATJ) as
examples. Aviation footprint can be reduced by using
Flightpath 2050 goal 12. sustainable alternative fuels. However, hurdles (mainly
“Europe is established as a centre economic) still exist to prevent a large-scale production.
of excellence for sustainable Motivations for biofuel usage concern the mitigation of climate
alternative fuels, including those change, reduction of fossil fuel dependence, conservation of
for aviation, based on a strong biodiversity and water. However, potential negative impacts of
European energy policy” biofuel usage can be associated to the massive production of a
few vegetal species with detrimental effects on global
biodiversity and the triggering of market reactions to increased production of feedstock.

7thFP European project "ITAKA" (2012-2016) studied the use of bio jet blend mixed in the
conventional airport fuel systems (tanks, pipelines, hydrants) during conventional operation of the
airport. This logistics mode appears economically viable, technically feasible and fully compliant
with airport operations and users. The supply of alternative fuel is also subject to major efforts by
large consumers like the U.S. Air Force.

Goal 13 concerns atmospheric research, since atmospheric

Atmospheric Research, hazards have been a safety concern throughout the history of
Weather and the aviation. A better modelling and understanding of atmospheric
phenomena could reduce disturbances of air traffic
Environment
management as well as increase runway capacity at airports.
Aviation contribute to the monitoring of the atmosphere by
Flightpath 2050 goal 13.
collecting atmospheric data through a vast array of earth and
“Europe is at the forefront of
satellite sensors, plus specialized weather aircraft like those
atmospheric research and takes
used by NOAA (National Oceanographic and Atmospheric
the lead in the formulation of a
Administration in the US) to fly through tropical storms and
prioritized environmental
collect in-situ atmospheric data.
protection plan and the
establishment of global Several methods are used nowadays to assess the
environmental standards” atmosphere state. The Global Atmosphere Watch programme
uses globally distributed ground stations with high quality
observations. Some programs evaluate the atmosphere state
with specifically instrumented aircraft, such as IAGOS (In-
service Aircraft for a Global Observing System), MOZAIC (Measurement of Ozone and Water Vapour
on Airbus In-service Aircraft), SpectraSensors Water Vapour Sensor System (WVSS-II) and EUFAR. A
third method is the use of space-borne sensors, such as ENVISAT, AURA Copernicus and the
EUMESAT, with global three-dimensional coverage. Novel methods encompass generalised collection
of air data from commercial aircraft or ad hoc instrumented RPAS. This approach requires
aircrafts/RPAS equipped not only with systems capable of processing significant amount of data, but
also with an advanced communication system capable of broadcasting data in real time at high speed
to all the stakeholders.

22
 Challenge 4 – Ensuring Safety and Security
Aviation safety has steadily improved towards ultra-low accident rates, including in the mitigation
of weather hazards. Aviation has been one of the preferred targets of malicious actions, stressing the
importance of physical security and resilience to internal and external attacks. Progress also brings
new challenges, such as the integration of ‘drones’ that contributes to the need for vast safe
exchanges of data.

Keeping Aviation as the safest mode of transport, is the aim of

Ultra-low accident rate goal 14. The global rate of accident in commercial aviation has
in commercial flight remained well below 0.5 fatal accident per million departures since
2006. EASA MS AOC holders show lower rate of fatal accidents
Flightpath 2050 goal 14. than the rest of the world. In the last decade, there have been 12
fatal accidents involving operators from the EASA Member States,
“European air transport system with only 1 in 2016. Aircraft Upset represents only 3% of the
has less than one accident per accidents and serious incidents involving an EASA MS operator in
million commercial aircraft 2016. However, it continues to be the most fatal risk area for EASA
flights” MS Operators. In 2016, the Preliminary Impact Assessment on
“Loss of Control In-Flight” indicated the need for specific actions
in this area within the European Plan for Aviation Safety (EPAS).
With 45% of fatal accidents involving technical failures in some way
during the past 10 years, this is both a major accident outcome
and a precursor to other types of accident. Specific analysis work is ongoing to identify the systemic,
safety issues that may be present in the domains of airworthiness, maintenance and production. Over
the last 10 years, 27 % of fatal accidents involved ground collision and other associated ground events.
The risk area “Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)” is the second.

To improve existing safety levels relevant measures have been put in place last years: i) Safety
Management System (SMS); ii) data-driven approach to the identification and prioritization of
actions of the European Plan for Aviation Safety (EPAS); and iii) Risk-based Oversight (RBO). Goal 14
can be achieved by strengthening the cradle-to-grave safety chain of aviation: i) aircraft design based
on the most reliable scientific methods; ii) meeting comprehensive certification standards in all
aspects; iii) control of raw materials, fabrication processes and production quality; iv) human actors
qualification (pilots, maintainers and air traffic controllers, …); v)provision and maintenance of all
support systems at the required standards; vi)strict implementation of safety rules and procedures;
vii) reporting of incidents, in a just culture environment; viii)
protective measures once a potential hazard has been identified;
Weather hazards and ix) continuous search for best practices and their timely
implementation; x) new monitoring fault tolerant-adaptive
risk mitigation systems and emergency strategies.

Flightpath 2050 goal 15. Regarding goal 15, atmospheric conditions continue to be a major
factor in aircraft operations. Costs resulting from extreme weather
“Weather and other hazards
for aviation in Europe (cancellations and time costs for passengers)
from environment are precisely
was 606 million euro in 2010. From 2003 to 2007 weather was a
evaluated and risks properly
mitigated” cause or contributing factor in 1740 accidents, a 20,1% of
total, being the most often causes wind (50%) and visibility. The

23
number of accidents due to the weather has steadily decreased until the present time, reaching
historical minimum in 2011. Severe weather related accidents and incidents can be attributed to the
following hazards: i) In-flight icing; ii) Severe air turbulence (convective cloud origin); iii) Hail damage;
iv) Lightning strike; v) Low visibility due to fog or precipitation; vi) Strong low level/surface winds and
windshear.

The prevention and mitigation of weather hazards requires: i) supplementing meteorological data
by information from ground based or airborne weather radars or lidars and flight reports; ii) system-
wide information sharing among all aviation stakeholders and stakeholders collaborative decision
making processes; iii) simple, unambiguous and standardised products and business cases to tailor
MET info to the user’s needs ; iv) early warning of the flight concerned on the type and severity of
the hazard likely to be encountered; v) accurate assessment of the risk, survival tactics and timely
decision of avoidance if appropriate; vi) combine different hazards when and where appropriate:
seamless, and in aviation sector; vii) develop impact scenarios for various stakeholders, and viii)
training of pilots and air traffic controllers on mitigation strategies.

In relation to goal 16, the number of drones within the EU

has multiplied over the last 2 years. Analysis of RPAS
Integrating drones in occurrences in the European Central Repository identified
manned airspace 584 occurrences of all severity levels, of which 37 had been
classed as accidents (2011-2015), none of them involved
Flightpath 2050 goal 16. fatalities; and 4 with minor injuries. 63% of occurrences are
related to Airborne Conflict, particularly, airspace
“The European air transport
infringements and proximity of drones to other aircraft. The
system operates seamlessly highest number of occurrences took place in D and G class
through interoperable and airspace. The Key Risk Areas identified by EASA from the
networked systems allowing reported occurrences are: i) Airborne Conflict; ii) Aircraft
manned and unmanned air Upset; iii) System Failures, and iv) Third Party Conflict.
vehicles to safely operate in the
The EASA regulatory framework for the safe operations of
same airspace”
drones in Europe currently addresses the issue of collision
between drones and aeroplanes. A combination of measures
are envisaged such as: operate in visual line of sight, fly under 150m height above ground, be
equipped with identification and geo-limitation functions and be registered. Although there has been
an increasing trend, the collection of data on UAS occurrences is still in its infancy and there is
still a lot of work to be done to ensure the correct application of taxonomy terminology related to
UAS. Further actions taken at the European Union level will need to occur rapidly given the pace
of global development in drones, especially as the US and China are already. Much of what still needs
to be done include technology (detect and avoid, Datacom), air traffic management, security & cyber
reliance along with the availability of authorized & safe testing environments. These improvements
need to be completed within a window of opportunity limited to the next 5-10 years. One of the keys
is the technology related to air traffic management in such a way that the demand of UAVs on all
areas of airspace highlights the critical nature of air traffic management.

24
 Regarding goal 17, high-priority risk areas in the coming
Comprenhensive and years include the strengthening of security to be applied
to all phases and processes associated with the carriage of
unabtrusive security persons, their cabin and hold baggage, cargo, mail, courier
meaures and express parcels; protecting against cyber-attacks and
threats, and the increasing use of Remotely Piloted Aircraft
Flightpath 2050 goal 17. Systems (RPAS). ICAO registered 10 acts of unlawful
“Efficient boarding and safety interference in 2015 and 21 in 2014. Advanced
measures allow seamless security screening technologies allow for effective threat
for global travel with minimum detection while reducing the burden for passengers.
passenger and cargo impact. Several advanced passenger and baggage screening
Passengers and cargo pass technology begun to be deployed in 2010: Advanced
through security controls without Technology X-ray, Bottled Liquid Scanners, Advanced
introduction” Imaging Technology, Boarding Pass Scanners, Enhanced
Metal Detectors, Chemical Analysis Devices, Explosive
Trace Detectors, and the use of risk-based algorithms to
screen passenger more efficiently and quicker. Collection and transmission of advance passenger
information (API) and passenger name record (PNR) data are recognised as facilitators for developing
a “checkpoint of the future”, while acknowledging the importance of protecting passengers’ privacy.
In 2010 more than 180 States issued machine readable passports (MRPs) in conformity with ICAO
specifications. A more integrated approach to aviation safety and security is needed. Aviation
security requires a cross-functional approach that ensures appropriate coordination with facilitation,
aviation safety, air navigation and other relevant fields. More real-time sharing of critical information
between States and industry, and between aviation security professionals and partners who have a
need to know should be encouraged. The seven Strategic Focus Areas identified by ICAO should
remain as a solid foundation for addressing current and future aviation security challenges: i)
Addressing new and existing threats.; ii) Promoting innovation in aviation security; iii) Sharing of
information; iv) Promoting global compliance and establishing sustainable aviation security oversight
capability of States; v) Improving human factors and security culture; vi) Mutual recognition of aviation
security processes, and vii) Emphasizing the importance of aviation security worldwide. It is envisaged
that the ICASS would transition seamlessly into the GASeP
when the latter is approved, with the Strategic Focus Areas
Resilience to external of the ICASS being given renewed emphasis in a more
and internal threats holistic and global framework. Other supporting strategies
(for example, ICAO Assistance and Capacity Building
Flightpath 2050 goal 18. Strategy) could also be integrated therein.

“Air vehicles are resilient by design Being resilient is the aim of goal 18. The EU is facing one
to current on-board and on the of the greatest security challenges in its history and
ground security threat evolution, security has become a major factor in civil and commercial
internally and externally to the aviation. In recent decades, the number of threats to
aircraft” aviation security has grown significantly. Current and
emerging threats have been clustered into the following
eight threat categories: i) Improvised Explosive, firearms,

25
close range destructive threats; ii) Chemical, Biological, Radioactive, Nuclear and Explosive threats; iii)
Ground-to-air threats; iv) Ground-to-ground threats; v) Cyber threats; vi) Electromagnetic threats; vii)
Sabotage, seizure and hijacking; viii) Bluff threats and threats from social media.

Currently, aviation security is primarily based on the preventive phase and is inflexible to new
threats. This is also mirrored in the research landscape for aviation security. Most projects
concentrate on preventive measures such as the detection of CBRNE-substances. Some concepts
require a political apporahc sucha as the “trusted passenger” - someone who is willing to renounce a
large part of his or her data protection rights to speed up passage through security checks. This
concept, supported by robust identification systems such as fingerprint and iris detection, might
enable reduced airport transit times.

Aditionally, security concepts should aim at involving different measures at different stages of the
passengers’ travel. To be resilient to the evolving threat situation, aviation security should be based
on the complete resilience cycle of “prepare, prevent, protect, respond and recover”. This should
enable stakeholders to “learn and adapt” instead of exclusively be ruled by reactive, strict and inflexible
regulations. An Aviation Security Research Roadmap has been developed to provide the European
Commission and the Member states with clear guidelines for future R&D activities responding to
operational and economic market needs while being attentive of the acceptance by citizens.

In relation with goal 19, so far there have been no major

High-bandwidth data
reports of jamming of civil aircraft communications or
resilient to cyberattacks on air traffic infrastructure. However, some
cyberattacks isolated incidents from the past indicate that it can happen: (i)
a Tornado aircraft flying over Radio Free Europe in southern
Flightpath 2050 goal 19. Germany may have suffered loss of control due to high power
“The air transport system has radio transmissions interfering with on board systems; (ii) the
fully secured global high Iranian television showed an American UAV intact (except for
bandwidth data network, undercarriage) that did an emergency landing (US version) or
hardened and resilient by was remotely diverted (Iranian version).
design to cyber-attacks” A seamless end-to-end process for goods and cargo requires
a continuous flow of information of different security systems.
Therefore, integrated security systems and the corresponding
algorithms should be developed that are able to collect, merge and analyse data from completely
different sources/systems across all stakeholders in aviation. These systems should facilitate the
creation of completely seamless security processes. The blockchain is one of the favourites current
technologies focused on cyber-security.

The following are some of the main threats identified in cybersecurity: i) phishing threats; ii) Jamming
attacks; iii) Remote hijacking; iv) DDoS attacks, and v) Wi-Fi-based attacks. The vulnerabilities that
need to be taken into account are: (i) in a large, complex interconnected system there are many entry
points for cyber intrusion and many links to spread the cyber-attack; (ii) the weakest node may be the
preferred entry point, for example small suppliers of equipment or codes well protected by large
industries or government bodies.

26
Currently, there is no common vision, or common strategy, goals, standards, implementation
models, or international policies defining cybersecurity for commercial aviation. Ensuring a
secured aviation system and staying ahead of evolving ICT threats is a shared responsibility, involving
governments, airlines, airports, and manufacturers. Three specific studies have been developed in this
report covering key topics: i)the current state of the triple technological, operational and
societal/human dimension of the cybersecurity problem in aviation; ii) current guidelines for cyber
protection and security, and iii) the blockchain as favourites technologies for cyber-security.

Challenge 5: Prioritizing Research, Testing Capabilities

and Education
The continuation of the success of the European aeronautics sector in the long term requires a joint
research strategy, implemented through industry-research-academia cooperation, with access to
test and development facilities; the whole supported by a steady influx of young talent.

Goal 20 concerns research agenda. European research and

innovation strategies are jointly defined by all stakeholders,
European Reseach and public and private, and implemented in a coordinated way
Innovation Agenda with individual responsibility. Research is defined, organized
and funded in a coherent and coordinated, dynamic and agile
Flightpath 2050 goal 20. way avoiding duplication and inefficiency. It is prioritised
“European research and towards initiatives resulting from strategic roadmaps defined
innovation strategies are jointly and agreed by all European stakeholders. It maximizes
defined by all stakeholders, synergies with other European sustainably objectives. Since
its start at FP2 with a budget of 36 M€ to a budget of 3.6 B€
public and private, and
in H2020, EU aeronautics programme, has shifted from (i)
implemented in a coordinated
basic, to (ii) industrial, (iii) demonstration and (iv) integration
way with individual responsibly”
activities.

Today, high-quality research in basic science is sponsored by

European Research Council (ERC) and back it up by the world’s leading research infrastructure
(covering the entire aviation system from wind tunnels through simulation facilities to test aircraft)
and formal and informal pan-European networks, which link research facilities used for fundamental
and applied research in various scientific disciplines. Joint Research Initiatives (JRI) “Clean Sky” and
“SESAR” are leading demonstration and integration in ATM and Aircraft domains, focused on
industrial developments. There is, however, a gap between the Joint Research Initiatives (JRI)
deployment orientation and the ERC fundamental research. The supply of new ideas and prospects to
ensure longer term competiveness depends on a Basic Research Program (BRP), covering this gap
and linking the human resources of academia, industry and research establishments.

For supporting and keeping one of the most flourishing EU industries and because of the long cycles
characterizing research in aviation, the investment in Research and Innovation is crucial and requires
the necessary support from public funding through Grants up to TRL 6. To ensure a proper flow
through the innovation chain, a certain degree of continuity is required. EREA therefore fully supports
multi-annual programming. FP9 should earmark a larger portion of the funding for Collaborative

27
Research on TRL levels 1 to 4-5, which will keep the invaluable innovation and human capital source
for one of Europe’s most strategic sectors vibrant and bring in new ideas for the technological base
of the European Industry.

Goal 21 aims to assure that European research cover the

Industry - Research- complete innovation chain from blue sky research up to
Academia clusters technology demonstration A network of multi-disciplinary
technology clusters has been created based on collaboration
Flightpath 2050 goal 21. between industry, universities and research institutes (EREA,
“Creation of a network of multi- PEGASUS, XNOISE, FORUM-AE, etc.), including SMEs. In the
disciplinary technology clusters short-term, attractive and efficient research instruments are
based on collaboration between put in place, which ensure continuity between research on
industry, universities and research promising breakthrough concept. Natural evolution and
institutes”. specialization of current clusters structure made possible to
imagine the clusters around any or all of the 14 main
aeronautical technologies: flight physics, aerodynamics,
propulsion, structures, materials, production, control, avionics, telecommunications, computation,
electrics, noise, emissions and operations. Consolidation and evolution of these technology
clusters would require of the combination of result of 3 initiatives, two ongoing and one to be
restored from the past:

A – Demonstration and integration activities existing in the JUs Clean Sky and SESAR;
B – Fundamental research in mathematics, physics and engineering existing in the ERC;
C – Restoring the basic and industrial research that existed in the aeronautics programme since
the beginning and lapsed with increasing scale.
With a relatively modest budget item, this basic research programme in C can have a major effect on
long-term competiveness by linking A and C, and would pave the way for a network of specialized
clusters around the main 14 aeronautical technologies.

Test, Simulation and Research and development infrastructure is addressed

Develoment Facilities by goal 22, as an indispensable tool to achieve a decisive
competitive edge in developing sustainable aviation
Flightpath 2050 goal 22. products and services. Appropriate core capabilities are
“Identification, maintenance and available and accessible and the rationalization of
ongoing development of strategic smaller scale test facilities has diminished duplication
European aerospace test, and it may be time to look at updates. Some good
simulation and development examples are: (i) the joint Dutch-German aero-acoustic
facilities. The ground and airborne wind tunnel DNW; (ii) the joint British-French-German
validation and certification cryogenic pressurized wind tunnel ETW; (iii) the choice of
processes are integrated where CIRA to build an icing wind tunnel and an atmospheric re-
appropriate” entry simulation facility. There is large-scale co-operation
in science, code development and high power
computing. The main topics of this include: i) Improved and validated fluid dynamics, aerodynamic
control, combustion, noise and thermal modelling based on high performance computation, covering
all needs for the aircraft and its engines, external and internal. ii) Methods and tools facilitating

28
evaluation of aircraft and engine configurations. iii) Results from demonstration, allowing to assess
not only improvements in vehicle development but also to verify and validate new modelling
techniques.

Regarding goal 23, aerospace and defense sector

Young Talent and employment in Europe by 2015 accounted for 552000
aeronautic employees and up to 38000 space employees,
Women in Aviation
being the distribution by tasks comparable in Europe and the
Flightpath 2050 goal 23. United States. The sector is expected to require at least 12 500
“Students are attracted to careers engineers yearly, 350 000 new pilots and 480000 new
in aviation. Courses offered by technicians in the coming years. However, in 2010, the
European universities closely shortage of skilled aviation professionals were a forthcoming
match the needs of the aviation threat, due to wholesale retirements, not attractive enough
industry, its research aviation professions, competition with other industry sectors,
establishments and insufficient training capacity, not responsive learning
administration and evolve methodologies, accessibility to affordable training, lack of
continuously as those needs harmonization of competencies, and little awareness by the
develop”. “next generation” of types of aviation professions available.

Since then, important initiatives have been already put in

place. National cluster units and the new European Aerospace Cluster Partnership (EACP) established
opportunities to develop and expand transnational education and training programmes. The
Hamburg Qualification Initiative (HQI), or the PEGASUS (Partnership of a European Group of
Aeronautics and Space Universities) are examples of successful transnational cooperation. The
cooperation among the IMT, EREA and PEGASUS in general and the technology clusters are further
elements in the alignment of education, research and industry. Youth Aerospace. The launch of
ALICANTO, the new International Association of Aviation and Aerospace Education following the
signing of an agreement by 34 of the world’s prominent aviation and aeronautical universities.

Today Europe’s students are attracted to careers in aviation and perform highly. Courses offered
by European Universities are academically challenging and adapted continuously to support and
match the evolving needs of the sector research (establishments) and administrations. The critical and
distinctive skills necessary for Aerospace engineers are Science, Reading Comprehension, and
Operations Analysis. Educational policies across the EU motivate students to pursue further studies in
science, technology and mathematics to ensure a steady supply of talent for a first class work force.
The aviation community engages actively with European students from the earliest age. Higher
education is based on the adaptation of curricula based on the evolution of knowledge, language and
(soft) skill requirements. European Parliament called on the Commission to provide more support in
FP9 'for young researchers, such as pan-European networking tools and to reinforce funding
schemes for early-stage researchers with less than two years of experience after PhD completion.
Regarding female engagement, although the number of female heads of higher education institutions
rose from 15.5 % in 2010 to 20 % in 2014, there is clearly still a long way to go before we reach gender
equality in European research and innovation professions. Broadly speaking, the number of science
and technology graduates in the EU is increasing, but women remain underrepresented. Despite the

29
growth of female tertiary graduates in science and technology over the same period, women still
remain underrepresented in these fields.

The way to approach talent recruitment and engagement have also widely evolved. Companies
developed innovative and creative recruiting process in close institutional cooperation with science
and academic institutions. Employment of aerospace engineers is projected to grow 6% from 2016 to
2026. Aircraft manufacturers and airlines forresen a short term pilot shortage that could boost labour
costs and even constrain growth. Boeing estimates U.S. airlines will demand about 95,000 pilots in the
next 20 years. Leading airline executives are considering a new approach to the problem by forming
partnerships with operators, training providers, and even regulators to shape the pipeline of pilots in
training.

30
1 Introduction

1.1 Objective and scope of the document

This document constitutes the deliverable D 1.2 “State-of-the-art Flightpath 2050 goals
(intermediate)”, produced in WP 1 of the PARE project.

The overall objective of PARE (Perspectives for the Aeronautical Research in Europe) is to trigger
collaboration between European stakeholders to support the achievement of the Flightpath 2050
goals, by providing yearly reports (and respective methodology) that assess the progress, gaps and
barriers and propose suitable measures to close the remaining gap.

The main outputs of PARE are three yearly reports on the “Perspectives for Aerospace Research in
Europe” that use specific benchmarks to assess the progress towards each of the 23 Flightpath goals
and the gap remaining.

The content of the deliverable D 1.2 will be used in the production of the PARE YEAR 2 report yearly
report and sign directions for recommendations. PARE YEAR 2 report will be further submitted to
expert analysis and feedback through assessments activities, and this feedback will allow the
improvement the analysis with additional information.

Deliverable D 1.2 aims to present and evaluate the “State-of-the-art” regarding the evolution of
aviation in Europe towards the 23 goals stablished in the Flightpath 2050. The report concerns (i) the
state-of-the-art relative to the Flightpath 2050 goals, (ii) the gap remaining and (iii) the progress being
made until now in research programs in Europe.

1.2 Flightpath 2050 Europe’s Vision for Aviation: 5 challenges and 23

goals
Aeronautics and air transport is a vital sector of the European society and economy. As Europe is
entering a new era, European Air Transport system is facing new challenges affecting its
competitiveness, performance and sustainability. Fligthpath 2050 document sets out the high-level
vision for the future of European aviation and emphasises priorities for relevant policy, research and
innovation instruments.

Flightpaths 2050 Europe’s vision for aviation address 5 main challenges trough the definition of 23
ambitious goals. These specific goals and the related challenges are summarised in Table 1.

31
Challenge Flightpath 2050 goals
An air traffic management system is in place that provides a range of services to
handle at least 25 million flights a year of all types of vehicle, including unmanned
1 and autonomous systems integrated into and interoperable with the overall air
Challenge 1: Meeting societal and market needs

transport system with 24h efficient operation of airports. European air space is
used flexibly to facilitate reduced environmental impact from aircraft operation
A coherent ground infrastructure is developed including: airports, vertiports and
2
heliports with the relevant servicing and connecting facilities, also to other modes.
European citizens are able to make informed mobility choices and have affordable
access to one another, taking into account: economy, speed, and level of service
3 (which can be tailored to the individual customer). Continuous, secure and robust
high bandwidth communications are provided for added value customer
applications.
90% of travelers within Europe are able to complete their journey, door-to-door
4 within 4 hours. Passengers and freight are able to transfer seamlessly between
transport modes to reach the final destination smoothly, predictably and on time.
Flights arrive within 1 minute of the planned arrival time regardless of weather
conditions. The transport system is resilient against disruptive events and is
capable of automatically and dynamically reconfiguring the journey within the
5
network to meet the needs of the traveler if disruption occurs. Special mission
flights can be completed in the majority of weather, atmospheric conditions and
operational environments.
The whole European aviation industry is strongly competitive, delivers the best
6 products and services worldwide and has a share of more than 40% of its global
Challenge 2: Maintaining
and extending industrial

market.
Europe will retain leading edge design, manufacturing and system integration
leadership

capabilities and jobs supported by high profile, strategic, flagship projects and
7
programmes which cover the whole innovation process from basic research to full-
scale demonstrators.
Streamlined systems engineering, design, manufacturing, certification and
upgrade processes have addressed complexity and significantly decreased
8
development costs (including a 50% reduction in the cost of certification). A
leading new generation of standards is created.
In 2050 technologies and procedures available allow a 75% reduction in CO2
environment and the energy
Challenge 3: Protecting the

emissions per passenger km and a 90% reduction in NOx emissions. The perceived
9
noise emission of flying aircraft is reduced by 65%. These are relative to the
capabilities of typical new aircraft in 2000
10 Aircraft movements are emission free when taxiing.
supply

11 Air vehicles are designed and manufactured to be recyclable.

Europe is established as a centre of excellence on sustainable alternative fuels,
12
including those for aviation, based on a strong European energy policy.
Europe is at the forefront of atmospheric research and takes the lead in the
13 formulation of a prioritized environmental action plan and establishment of global
environmental standards.
European air transport system has less than one accident per ten million
Ens

ety

sec

14
saf
uri

uri
Ch

ng
ge

an
en
all

ty
4:

commercial aircraft flights.

32
 Weather and other hazards from environment are precisely evaluated and risks
15
properly mitigated
The European air transport system operates seamlessly through interoperable and
16 networked systems allowing manned and unmanned air vehicles to safely operate
in the same airspace.
Efficient boarding and security measures allow seamless security for global travel,
17 with minimum passenger and cargo impact. Passengers & cargo pass through
security controls without intrusion.
Air vehicles are resilient by design to current and predicted onboard and on-the-
18
ground security threat evolution, internally and externally to the aircraft.
The air transport system has a fully secured global high bandwidth data network,
19
hardened and resilient by design to cyberattacks.
European research and innovation strategies are jointly defined by all
Research, Testing Capabilities

20 stakeholders, public and private, and implemented in a coordinated way with

Challenge 5: Prioritizing

individual responsibility.
Creation of a network of multidisciplinary technology clusters based on
21
and Education

collaboration between industry, universities and research institutes

Identification, maintenance and ongoing development of strategic European
22 aerospace test, simulation and development facilities. The ground and airborne
validation and certification processes are integrated where appropriate
Students are attracted to careers in aviation. Courses offered by European
Universities closely match the needs of the Aviation Industry, its research
23
establishments and administrations and evolve continuously as those needs
develop.
Table 1: Flightpaths 2050: 5 Challenges & 23 Goals

1.3 Approach followed.

EU aerospace research towards Flightpath 2050 goals faces several challenges. It is clear from available
studies that these goals cannot all be achieved using evolutions of currently available technologies.
For example, noise and emissions reductions can be achieved only if sufficient efforts are made for
new technologies to mature; the transition from technology availability to technology uptake in a
product or system is influenced by many factors; besides technology maturation, certification,
sustainability and cost-effectiveness. There are also factors of a non-technological nature such as
market expectations, new products or improvements being developed. The ambitious goals set for
Flightpath 2050 can only be achieved through equally ambitious strategies and actions. Basic research
can play a key role here. The timeframe to 2050 leaves scope to mature what is now low TRL basic
research to promising high TRL demonstrations and feasible solutions to meet aviation targets. This
requires the consideration of new and breakthrough technologies often originating in universities,
SMEs and small laboratories, identifying the most promising among a multitude of new ideas, some
of which may be ahead of their time.

PARE intents to support the achievement of the Flightpath 2050 goals, by assessing the progress, gaps
and barriers and propose suitable measures to close the remaining gap. The starting point of PARE is

33
to assess the status of the EU research and innovation in aerospace, considering several aspects to
arrive at a gap to be covered. The approach followed addresses each of the 23 Flightpath 2050 goals.
For each goal, a progress line, like the one presented below in Figure 1, is analyzed.
Figure 1: Steps to be followed by PARE for the Flightpath 2050 goals

Objective

Reference
Current

Predicted

Extrapolated
Accelerated
Quantum JUMP
progress
2035
Extrapolated GAP
TARGET
Time

2000 2017 2025 2025

I II III Period

The year 2000 is considered the reference year for comparison with Flightpath 2050 goals. For period
I (2000-2017) available statistical data establishes the historic rate of progress up to the present (solid
line); the current status indicates the gap to be covered until 2050. Next, the progress in the period II
(2017-2025) may be predicted (dotted line) with moderate uncertainty, leading to a predicted level of
progress until 2025 and identifying with moderate uncertainty the gap to be covered until 2050.
Finally, period III (2025-2050) is no longer predictable with acceptable confidence, because it may be
affected by new as well as current technologies. The gap between the limit of predictability (2025) and
the Flightpath 2050 goals could be filled by:

 Evolutionary technologies (in some cases insufficient);

 Breakthrough technologies (if matured in time);
 Ideas currently at low TRL that reach higher TRL in time for application before 2050;
 New ideas not known at present but feasible by 2050.

Given the uncertainties in period III (2025-2050) several scenarios could be considered between two
extremes:

 Extrapolation of the current rate of progress (dot-dashed line) possibly leaving a gap in 2050;
 Closing the gap through accelerated continuous progress (green line);
 Closing the gap through a quantum jump in progress, with normal rate of progress before
and after (red line with “Quantum Leap” in 2035).

Deliverable D 1.2 “State-of-the-art” concentrates on the progress being made until now in research
programs towards the 23 Flightpath goals during the period I. Using as baseline reference each of the
23 Flightpath 2050 goals, the state of the art and the gap remaining will be assessed and compared
with international benchmarks. The evaluation of research initiatives regarding the whole set all 23

34
Flightpath 2050 goals entails condensation of information from a variety of projects and research
initiatives, as well as from a variety of data and information sources. This assessment includes state-
of-the-art towards the Flightpath 2050 goals within EU projects, by new acceding and associated
countries and potential competitors/collaborators outside Europe. Each partner reports about the
Flightpath 2050 goals distributed in Table 2.As for the geographic dimension, each partner will cover
the countries identified in Table 3 to assess the progress on all aspects related to the Flightpath 2050
goals in the various countries.

35
 Lead Contrib
Flightpath 2050 goals
utors
An air traffic management system is in place that provides a range
of services to handle at least 25 million flights a year of all types of
vehicle, including unmanned and autonomous systems integrated
1 into and interoperable with the overall air transport system with 9 5,9
24h efficient operation of airports. European air space is used
flexibly to facilitate reduced environmental impact from aircraft
operation
A coherent ground infrastructure is developed including: airports,
Meeting societal and market needs

2 vertiports and heliports with the relevant servicing and connecting 15 5,10
facilities, also to other modes.
European citizens are able to make informed mobility choices and
have affordable access to one another, taking into account:
economy, speed, and level of service (which can be tailored to the
3 15 12,13
individual customer). Continuous, secure and robust high
bandwidth communications are provided for added value customer
applications.
90% of travelers within Europe are able to complete their journey,
door-to-door within 4 hours. Passengers and freight are able to
4 9 15,10
transfer seamlessly between transport modes to reach the final
destination smoothly, predictably and on time.
Flights arrive within 1 minute of the planned arrival time regardless
of weather conditions. The transport system is resilient against
disruptive events and is capable of automatically and dynamically
5 reconfiguring the journey within the network to meet the needs of 15 9,11
the traveler if disruption occurs. Special mission flights can be
completed in the majority of weather, atmospheric conditions and
operational environments.
The whole European aviation industry is strongly competitive,
6 delivers the best products and services worldwide and has a share 4 3,7
Maintaining and extending

of more than 40% of its global market.

industrial leadership

Europe will retain leading edge design, manufacturing and system

integration capabilities and jobs supported by high profile,
7 4 3,10
strategic, flagship projects and programmes which cover the whole
innovation process from basic research to full-scale demonstrators.
Streamlined systems engineering, design, manufacturing,
certification and upgrade processes have addressed complexity
8 and significantly decreased development costs (including a 50% 11 7,6
reduction in the cost of certification). A leading new generation of
standards is created.
In 2050 technologies and procedures available allow a 75%
energ
onme

suppl
Prote

envir
cting

and
the

the

9 reduction in CO2 emissions per passenger km and a 90% reduction 3 7,14

nt

in NOx emissions. The perceived noise emission of flying aircraft is

36
 reduced by 65%. These are relative to the capabilities of typical new
aircraft in 2000
10 Aircraft movements are emission free when taxiing. 6 4,14
11 Air vehicles are designed and manufactured to be recyclable. 4 11,12
Europe is established as a centre of excellence on sustainable
12 alternative fuels, including those for aviation, based on a strong 3 11,14
European energy policy.
Europe is at the forefront of atmospheric research and takes the
13 lead in the formulation of a prioritized environmental action plan 5 7,6
and establishment of global environmental standards.
European air transport system has less than one accident per ten
14 15 9,8
million commercial aircraft flights.
Weather and other hazards from environment are precisely
15 9 8,14
evaluated and risks properly mitigated
Ensuring safety and security

The European air transport system operates seamlessly through

16 interoperable and networked systems allowing manned and 9 13,8
unmanned air vehicles to safely operate in the same airspace.
Efficient boarding and security measures allow seamless security for
global travel, with minimum passenger and cargo impact.
17 5 9,13
Passengers & cargo pass through security controls without
intrusion.
Air vehicles are resilient by design to current and predicted onboard
18 and on-the-ground security threat evolution, internally and 4 6,11
externally to the aircraft.
The air transport system has a fully secured global high bandwidth
19 5 12,14
data network, hardened and resilient by design to cyberattacks.
European research and innovation strategies are jointly defined by
20 all stakeholders, public and private, and implemented in a 4 3,7
Prioritizing Research, Testing

coordinated way with individual responsibility.

Capabilities and Education

Creation of a network of multidisciplinary technology clusters

21 based on collaboration between industry, universities and research 7 8,12
institutes
Identification, maintenance and ongoing development of strategic
European aerospace test, simulation and development facilities.
22 7 3,11
The ground and airborne validation and certification processes are
integrated where appropriate
Students are attracted to careers in aviation. Courses offered by
European Universities closely match the needs of the Aviation
23 2 10,13
Industry, its research establishments and administrations and
evolve continuously as those needs develop.
Table 2: Partner contribution to Flightpaths goals.

37
 Non-European
EU countries Associated countries
Partner countries (leader in
(headquarters in red) (headquarters in red)
bold)
P1-IST Portugal Israel
Belgium, Netherlands, Brazil
P2-INOVA
Portugal
Moldova, Norway, Russia, China
P3-IP
Ukraine
P4-Airbus France, Luxemburg Japan, India
P5-UPM Spain USA, Canada
P6-VARTA Austria, Germany China, Japan
Bulgaria, Croatia, Albania, Bosnia & Japan
Romania, Slovenia Herzegovina,
P7-UPB
Macedonia,
Montenegro, Serbia
P8-NAU Ukraine Russia, China
P9-FNATS Spain Switzerland USA, Canada
Czech Republic, India
P10-INNPULS Hungary, Poland,
Slovakia
P11-UNISA Italy, United Kingdom USA
P12-KCU Malta Turkey Russia, India
Cyprus, Greece, Ireland, Canada, Brazil
P13-QUASAR
Portugal, Sweden
Denmark, Estonia, Russia
P14-VGTU Finland, Latvia, Lithuania

P15-SATA Faroe Islands, Iceland USA, Canada, Brazil

Table 3: Assignment to partners of sources of information per country

With the information collected and produced, summary reports on “State-of-the-art” relative to the
23 Flightpath 2050 goals are prepared on month 8, 18 and 28 and inputs for the First, Second and
Third PARE year reports in the form of deliverables D1.1, D1.2 and D1.3.

Yearly reports will be further submitted to expert analysis and feedback through assessments activities
and to improve the second and third year reports. Feedback will also be incorporated from
dissemination activities and workshops. This feedback will allow the improvement of the process as
well as completing the analysis with additional projects or information.

The following chapters in the documents correspond to the 5 challenging areas in the Flightpath 2050
document. Within each chapter, there are sections for each related Flightpath goal. Since the ACARE
goals are quite diverse, depending on the goal, different styles are used to summarise the analysis
performed:

 A baseline integrated text covering the whole subject;

38
 A baseline supplemented by an in-depth analysis of specific important aspects as key major
topics;
 A sequential analysis in steps the reference state in 2010 and the evolution up to 2017

39
2 Meeting Societal and Market Needs
This set of 5 goals concerns air traffic capacity (2.1), ground infrastructure (2.2), mobility (2.3), speed
(2.4) and ATM weather (2.5).

2.1 Air Traffic Capacity

*Flightpath 2050 Goal 1: “An air traffic management system in place that provides a range of
services to handle at least 25 million flights a year of all types of air vehicles, including
unmanned and autonomous systems integrated into and interoperable with the overall air
transport system with 24 hour operation of airports. European airspace is used flexibly to
facilitate reduced environmental impact from aircraft operation”

The present Chapter addresses the main issue of air traffic capacity (25 million flights per year) and
flexibility of operation. The integration of unmanned and autonomous aircraft is addressed in goal 16.
The 24-hour operation of airports and environmental impacts are addressed in goals 9 and 10.

Runway Capacity and Dynamic Separation

Most often the main limit on airport capacity is the availability of runways. The simultaneous operation
of runways is permitted if they are parallel (no crossing flights) and spaced more than 400 meters (the
vortex wakes of aircraft operating from one runway do not affect operations from other runways). A
standard separation of 90 seconds between flights would allow 40 movements (take-off or landings)
per hour from a single runway. Careful planning can increase this figure up to 60 movements per hour
per runway, depending on the safe separation between aircraft, which is the critical safety factor.

The safe separation (SS) is such that the vortex wake of the leading aircraft has decayed sufficiently
so that its effects are within the control power of the following aircraft. The ICAO separation table
divides aircraft into “light”, “medium” and “heavy” and sets SS for all 9 possible pairs: the largest
separation for a light aircraft behind a heavy, and vice-versa for the shortest separation. The ICAO
separation rules are empirical and have proved safe, though there are exceptions:

 The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) introduced a ‘special’ category for the Boeing 757
after some incidents showed that it did not fit into its weight category.
 The world’s largest airliner, the Airbus A380 is subject to ‘super heavy’ separation larger than
the “heavy”.
The SS actually depends on many more factors than just aircraft weight:

 The characteristics of the leading aircraft that determine its vortex wake.
 The atmospheric conditions that affect the decay of the wake until it encounters the following
aircraft.
 The control capability of the following aircraft in overcoming the effects of the wake encounter.
The maximization of runway capacity would be achieved by “dynamic separation” that sets the
separation distance or time appropriate to the characteristics of each pair of aircraft and the prevailing
atmospheric conditions. The use of extended separation tables with more than 3 aircraft categories is
a smaller step than the full use of dynamic separation.

40
2.1.1 Terminal Area Airways Capacity

Besides runway capacity, the other important factor is to manage take-offs and landings with the
minimum safe separation without:

 Having aircraft circling above in holding patterns.

 Queuing on the ground to reach a runway position.
The landing and take-off delays are a major contributor to emissions near airports, burning fuel that
also affects airline economics. The maximum use of available runway capacity requires four-
dimensional space-time navigation, so that successive aircraft land and take-off at precise times with
the minimum safe separation.

This requires not only efficient management of ground movements but mainly efficient air traffic
management in the terminal area around airports that is the most congested.

The issues to be resolved include:

 The organization of incoming flights into a landing sequence with optimal separations.
 The management of the take-off sequence without waiting or idle times on the ground.
 The merging of the take-off.
 The compatibility of terminal area traffic (take-offs and landings) with other airways traffic.
These items are among the most important aspects of Air Traffic Management (ATM) often with
greatest impact on capacity. The current airline traffic of 10 million flights per year is expected to rise
to 14 million in 2025, and the goal of 25 million by 2050 is consistent with a growth rate of air transport
of 2.8 % per year in Europe. Traffic forecasts vary with region of the world and have a degree of
uncertainty, and there is no doubt on the need for increased capacity to cope with traffic growth.

The evolution of the air traffic capacity is closely related to air traffic management (ATM) that is thus
a Key Topic.

1.1.1.1 KEY TOPIC T2.1 – EVOLUTION OF THE AIR TRAFFIC CAPACITY

Benchmarks

The main issue of air transport capacity (section 2.1) concerns runway (2.1.1) and airways terminal
capacity (2.1.2), as well as en route capacity (2.5).

The expected demand of 25 Millions of flights will challenge three main elements in the transport
system:

a) the capacity of the runway system

b) the capacity of the TMA (Terminal Manoeuvring)
c) the en route capacity.

The accommodation of such a growth in flights will be determined by the most restrictive of these 3
capacity limits.

41
The European air traffic network contains some 170,000 links between airports. Over a network of
more than 2100 airports, 528 airports accounted for just 25% of airports, but 98% of the departures;
and just 25 out of Europe’s 2100 airports generate 44% of all flights. For all airports in Europe, the
Figure 2 shows the number of departures by rank of airport (inset). The figure also zooms in on the
largest airports (main part) to illustrate that 44% of all departures come from the 25 largest airports
in Europe, two-thirds of departures from the top 75 and 90% of all traffic comes from the largest 250
airports. There is a geographical concentration of airports in the region London-Amsterdam-Munich-
Milan. This creates dense air traffic, with large numbers of climbing and descending aircraft: a
significant challenge for Terminal Area and En route capacity.
Figure 2: 90% of departures come from the largest 250 airports (Eurocontrol).

The Table 4 shows the average number of daily IFR movements at the main European airports. As
can be observed, the number of average daily IFR departures at the biggest airport in Europe
(Schiphol) is of 1420 operations per day.
ICAO CODE AIRPORT COUNTRY AVERAGE DAILY MOVEMENTS 2016
EDDF FRANKFURT MAIN GERMANY 1.319,90
EDDM MUENCHEN 2 GERMANY 1.122,00
EGKK LONDON/GATWICK UNITED KINGDOM 812,1
EGLL LONDON/HEATHROW UNITED KINGDOM 1.314,10
EHAM SCHIPHOL AMSTERDAM NETHERLANDS 1.420,90
LEBL BARCELONA SPAIN 910,9
LEMD MADRID BARAJAS SPAIN 1.069,30
LFPG PARIS CH DE GAULLE FRANCE 1.341,50
LIRF ROME FIUMICINO ITALY 835,8
LTBA ISTANBUL-ATATURK TURKEY 1.244,20
Table 4: Average number of daily IFR movements at the main European airports

42
Airport operations depend upon a number of factors as well as on interactions between them which
all affect runway capacity to some degree. In addition to physical constraints, such as airport layout,
there are “strategic” factors such as airport scheduling and “tactical” factors which include, inter alia,
the sequencing of aircraft and the sustainability of throughput during specific weather conditions. The
runway throughput is directly related to the time needed to accommodate each flight safely. The
separation requirements in segregated mode depend on the most constraining of any one of the
three parameters: wake vortex separation, radar separation and runway occupancy time.

From the technological and operational perspectives of the runway operation, the challenge to
achieve a maximum throughput is to optimize final approach spacing in line with wake vortex,
prevailing atmospheric conditions and radar separation requirements so that the spacing is close to
minimum runway occupancy time. The maximization of runway capacity would be achieved by
“dynamic separation” and state of the art in wake vortex, radar separation and runway occupancy time
technology and procedures.

Once the maximum runway throughput has been achieved, the only way to increase capacity at
congested airports will be airport expansion through additional new runways and infrastructures. This
affects basically to the social/human dimension of the target as the growth of airports is severally
constrained by social restrictions.

Exhausted the potential growth of the biggest airports demand will need to be necessarily absorbed
by closest airports, which refers to the network dimension of air the transport. The cities closest to
Europe’s busiest airports have between 4 and 46 airfields within 100 Km from the city centre, for 8 of
the 10 cities close to Europe’s biggest airports, a single airport handles 80% or more of all the
departures within 100km.

The terminal area airspace (TMA) is the managed airspace environment created to assist in achieving
safety and efficiency where a number of larger, more complex airports and smaller, local airports
operate in close proximity. It is characterised by high numbers of aircraft conducting climbing and
descending manoeuvres in a relatively small volume of airspace. Operations within TMA airspace are
dynamic and heavily influenced by demand, regularly resulting in the need to delay aircraft in
established vertical holding stacks and causing other delays in the air and on the ground. Biggest
TMAs in Europe are today complex and saturated scenarios where the traffic of the busiest airports in
Europe is integrated with the traffic of others airports in their neighbourhood. Example of high density
TMA in Europe are Paris, London and, Frankfurt.

Regarding the airspace capacity, the highest concentration of en route traffic takes places In Europe
in the “core area” comprising of the Benelux States, Northeast France, Germany, and Switzerland is
the densest and most complex airspace. At this zone the density of fights is higher than 5 aircraft per
hour and square kilometre.

The Table 5 summarises the average number of daily movement in the European Airspace, and the
daily movements in the big block of Airspace. It can be observed how the core or central area of
Europe (FABEC) has to accommodate almost 3/5 of the European daily traffic.

Average daily Average daily

FAB (Based on FIR)
Movements 2015 Movements 2016

43
 SES Area (RP2) 25.321 25.972
Baltic FAB 2.164 2.300
BLUE MED FAB 6.375 6.479
DANUBE FAB 2.453 2.472
DK-SA FAB 2.770 2.828
FAB CE (SES RP2) 5.746 5.614
FABEC 15.525 15.977
NEFAB 2.776 2.742
SW FAB 4.881 5.272
UK- Ireland FAB 6.453 6.790

Table 5: Average daily movements in the En route European Airspace

44
Figure 3: Average daily IFR flights in the top 20 en route area control centers (Eurocontrol,2015).

The Figure 3 shows the average daily IFR flights in the top 20 European en route area control centres
(2015) where the busiest centres move around 5000 movements per day.

The achievements of the benchmark for the TMA and en route movement will highly relay on the
technological and operational performance of the future Air Traffic Management Systems and its
social and human dimensions as discussed in section 2.5.

Providing that current IFR traffic in Europe is around 10 Million IFR flights per year, an increase by a
factor of 2,5 is expected by 2050. Considering a homogeneous not restricted traffic grow, high density
airports, surrounded TMAs and congested en route control centres will have to accommodate figures
of about 3500 (1400*2,5), 7500 (2500*3) and 12500 (5000*2,) daily movements respectively.

Benchmarks to be achieved in en route and terminal area will require technological, operational and
also social/human improvements currently under design for the future ATM system. Key to the Future
ATM concept is the business trajectory principle in which the users of the airspace and controllers
define together, through a collaborative process, the optimal flight path. Taking full advantage of both
existing and newly developed technologies, such as Galileo, Future ATM target concept relies on a
number of new key features at 3 different dimensions.

45
Technological and operational dimension:

 Trajectory management, reducing the constraints of airspace organization to a minimum;

 New aircraft separation modes, allowing increased safety, capacity and efficiency;
 System-wide information management, securely connecting all the ATM stakeholders which
will share the same data;
Social/human dimension:

 Humans as the central decision-makers: controllers and pilots will be assisted by new
automated functions to ease their workload and handle complex decision-making processes.
Network operation dimension:

 The network operation plan, a dynamic rolling plan for continuous operations that ensures a
common view of the network situation;
 Full integration of airport operations as part of ATM and the planning process;
Figure 4 illustrates the benchmarks discussed for goal 1.
Figure 4: Technological, operational and societal/human dimension of goal 1 Benchmarks.

TODAY 2050
10 MILLIONS FLIGHTS 25 MILLIONS FLIGHTS OVER EUROPE
OVER EUROPE Technological & operational dimension:
Social/human dimension: High density Airports
Increase runway
High density Airports throughput by dynamic Network dimension :
2,5 separation based on Airport expansion through
additional new runways
1400 improved: Excess of demand 3200
and infrastructures:
op/days - Wake vortex separation absorbed by closest op/days
- Evolution of social airports
- Radar separation restriction to airport
- Runway occupancy time. growth Or
- 0,8% annual capacity Significant
increment2035 capacities unaccommodated demand
High density TMAs (36% by 2050)

High density TMAs

2500
op/day Technological & operational dimension:

2,5 Trajectory management,

Social/human dimension: 7500
Network operation op/day
New aircraft separation Humans as the central dimension:
modes decision-makers:
High density ACCs Network operation plan,
System-wide information Automated
management Full integration of airport High density ACCs
operations as part of ATM
5000 and the planning process.
op/day
15000
op/day

Reference State in 2010

Goal of 25 million flight by 2050 needs to be accommodated by each of the Air Transport systems
components: Airport runway system, Terminal Management Area airspace and En route Airspace. This
section states the capacity limit of each of the previous components as in 2010.

Airport runway system

As already explained the runway throughput and the number of runways becomes the principal
limitation of capacity at an airport. Here after some data are provided to characterize these elements
in 2010. The Table 6 provides high-level indicators for the main 34 airports in the Europe, including

46
average number of runways and the number of movements, as well as average daily IFR departures
in order to provide an order of magnitude of the operations of the airports.

Table 6: Key data for 34 biggest European airports. (2010).

In Europe, traffic at major airports is usually controlled (in terms of volume and concentration) in the
strategic phase through the airport capacity declaration process, and the subsequent allocation of
airport slots to aircraft operator’s months before the actual day of operation. This is the case for 30 of
the 34 airports analysed in this report which are fully coordinated (IATA Level 3).

En route Airspace

In Europe, there were, in 2010, 38 en route service providers of various geographical areas each
operating their own system. This makes it more difficult to implement arrival management across
national boundaries (e.g. sequencing traffic into major airports of other States) and may affect the
level of coordination in ATFM and ATC capacity. Ground ATFM delays principally originate from en
route capacity shortfalls in Europe, which is not the case in the US.

Progress up to now

The next Figure 5 shows the traffic complexity score in 2010. At European level, the aggregate
complexity score is relatively stable. In 2010, it is close to 6 minutes of interactions per flight hour. At
local level, the aggregate complexity scores differ quite significantly. 1
Figure 5: Traffic complexity score in 2010. (Eurocontrol, 2010).

1The complexity indicator is a composite measure calculated for the entire year which combines adjusted
density (concentration of traffic in space and time) and structural complexity (structure of traffic flows10). A
complexity score of 10 means that for each flight hour within the respective airspace, there were on average
10 minutes of potential interactions with other aircraft.

47
Figure 6 presents the more congested ACC in Europe in 2010.

Figure 6: Most congested ACC in Europe in 2010. (Eurocontrol, 2010).

Airport Runway System

In Europe, the declared airport capacity is a limit typically set as early as six months before the day of
operations through a coordination process involving the airport managing body, the airlines, and local
ATC. The peak arrival throughput is an approximation of the operational airport capacity in ideal
conditions. It is the 95th percentile of the number of aircraft in the “rolling” hours sorted from the
least busy to the busiest hour. The indicator has, however, limitations when the peak throughput is

48
lower than the peak declared capacity, in which case it is necessary to determine whether a variation
in peak arrival throughput is driven by a change in demand or by a change in operational airport
capacity.

The Figure 7 provides a comparison of the actual airport throughput vs declared capacity for the
biggest airports in Europe in 2015. Although they are developed and used for different purposes, the
values may provide some insights into the role of capacity on operational performance.
Figure 7: Actual airport throughput vs declared capacity 2015

In 2015, the main 34 European airports spend on average 77.8% of the time in VMC, 14.2% in marginal,
and 8% in instrument. At system level, weather conditions in Europe improved in 2015 compared to
2013 with a -2.0% reduction in IMC and a -1.8% reduction in marginal conditions. At the airport level,
the share of time spent in VMC, MMC, and IMC vary based on differing susceptibility to weather events
which is largely based on geographic location. The European airports located in the subtropical
Mediterranean region including Nice (NCE), Palma (PMI), Madrid (MAD), Rome (FCO), Athens (ATH),
and Barcelona (BCN) are the airports with the highest percentage of the VMC.
Figure 8: Weather conditions at the main 34 airports (2015).

49
Figure 9: Percent change in time during IMC at the main 34 airports. (2015).

The following Table 7 presents an estimate of the “improvement pool” actionable by ATM comparting
2010 and 2015. The improvement over the past five years was mainly driven by a reduction of en
route ATFM delay at the departure gates and improvements in the level of horizontal flight
efficiency.

Table 7: Summary Estimated benefit pool actionable by ATM. (2015).

1.1.1.2 KEY TOPIC T2.2 – RELATION OF ATM WITH CAPACITY

Predictions up-to-2025

Since the beginning of the 21st century, European stakeholders have been addressing the issues
related to the Single European Sky concept. The Single European Sky framework was set by EU
Regulation No. 549/2004, in which it is stated that the objectives of the Single European Sky initiative
are to enhance air traffic standards, to contribute to the sustainable development of the air transport
system and to improve the overall performance of air traffic management (ATM) and air navigation
services (ANS) for general air traffic in Europe, with a view to meeting the requirements of all airspace
users.

One of the mechanisms by which these objectives were addressed by the Regulation was the creation
of the so called “Performance Scheme”. The Regulation established that a Performance Scheme should
be set up to improve the performance of air navigation services and network functions as much as
the scheme aims to ensure that capacity is increased. As a result, flights will be significantly less

50
delayed, saving unnecessary costs for airlines and passengers. In addition, the environmental impact
of air traffic will be reduced due to more efficient and shorter flight paths. Air travellers should
benefit from a punctual, greener and more cost-efficient mode of transport with a maintained or even
enhanced level of safety. In this manner, the scheme should include Community-wide performance
targets on the key performance areas of safety, environment, capacity and cost-efficiency. National
plans ensuring consistency with this as established by this Regulation and Community-wide
performance targets must be defined, and moreover periodic review, monitoring and benchmarking
of air navigation services and network functions should be conducted to ensure that targets are met.

The first attempt to lay down the principles of the Performance Scheme was EU Regulation No.
691/2010. After that, EU Regulation No. 390/2013 has defined the current Performance Scheme, which
lays down the necessary measure to improve the overall performance of air navigation services and
network functions within the European area. As the preceding one, this Regulation defines four key
performance areas (safety, environment, capacity and cost-efficiency), for each of which a set of
key performance indicators (KPI) and performance indicators (PI) are defined. The performance of air
navigation services should be assessed against binding targets for each of these key performance
indicators.

The Regulation states that national supervisory agencies (NSA) shall be responsible for the drawing
up of the performance plans, and also for the oversight and monitoring of performance. The
Regulation also establishes reference periods (periods of validity and application of Union-wide
performance targets and the performance plans): the first reference period, known as RP1, covered
the calendar years 2012-2014, the current one, RP2, includes the calendar years 2015-2019 and RP3
will start in 2020 and subsequent periods will cover five calendar years. Key performance indicators
must remain invariable during each reference period.

The Commission has adopted Union-wide performance targets taking into account the relevant inputs
from the Network Manager and the national supervisory authorities and after consultation with the
stakeholders and other relevant organizations, such as EASA.

The national supervisory authorities have to draw up performance plans at a functional block level
that contain targets which are consistent with the Union-wide performance targets. As established in
the Regulation, the national supervisory authorities and the Commission have to monitor the
implementation of the performance plans, using the values reported on an annual basis. If, during the
reference period, targets are not met, the Member State will need to define and apply corrective
measures and communicate them to the Commission. Transparency is a key element of the
Performance Scheme thereby performance data is published and updated by the Performance Review
Body (PRB) and is readily available to the general public. Member States are in charge of gathering
the information from the providers and transmitting it to the PRB.

If data from ANS performance monitoring is collected and analysed, different outcomes can be stated.
As example, en route ATFM delay across the years 2008-2017 is shown in the following Figure 10.

Figure 10: En route ATFM delay (RP1-RP2) (min/flight).

51
As can be proved, en route ATFM delay (Figure 10) has changed along the past years. At the beginning
of RP1, the average delay was lower than the target set for 2012 (0.63 vs 0.7) and, although the target
has been even more restrictive every year, the average delay was also lower than the target in 2013
(0.54 vs 0.6). However, since 2014 until now, the average en route ATFM delay has been higher than
the target set and, even worse, the average delay has continued increasing until set the maximum
difference in the current year (1.07 vs 0.5). Therefore, as an increasing trend is underway, air traffic
stakeholders have to implement mitigating measures in order to chase the fulfilment of the targets
for each reference period during the following years.

Consequently, if the measures taken are appropriate, parameters as average delays will be likely to
decrease and other parameters as flight efficiency will be likely to increase.

These progresses that can be achieved in the following years will facilitate the fulfilment of the main
purposes of Goal 1 and, if these progresses become true, it would be a good starting point in order
to keep developing the systems, procedures and equipment related to air traffic operation.

2.2 Ground infrastructure and multimodal transport

*Flightpath 2050 goal 2 “A coherent ground infrastructure is developed including: airports,
vertiports, heliports with the relevant servicing and connecting facilities, also to other modes”.

The movements around an airport consist of aircraft operations in the air and also the taxying of
aircraft and other vehicles on the ground. The ground movements in an airport can be quite complex
involving besides taxying aircraft, on their own power or towed, but also a variety of other vehicles,
such as passenger buses, fuel trucks, luggage trailers, catering services, etc.

The potential for incidents, especially in fog and other low visibility conditions, should not be
underestimated. The tracking of vehicles on the ground can be made more difficult by buildings or
other obstructions. The optimization of aircraft ground movements can save fuel in taxying, energy of

52
towing vehicles, reduce landing and take-off queue and contribute to timeliness of passenger services.
The optimization of the use of runways, parking areas, and passenger ingress and egress, and aircraft
taxiways should not be compromised by movements of other ground vehicles that provide essential
services.

Besides the issue of ground movements, that can be of considerable complexity, and offer the
potential for gains in efficiency, there are other possible bottlenecks, such as:

 Luggage handling
 Passenger check-in, passport and security checks
 Interfaces with other modes of transport. It may happen that the main impact of an airport on
the surrounding community comes not from aircraft operations but rather from ground
infrastructure, including airport access, that also affect passenger convenience.
As air traffic grows, a particular airport may reach its capacity limits, for one or more of several possible
reasons:

 Runway capacity
 Terminal area air traffic congestion
 Available aircraft parking spaces
 Passenger and cargo management
 Noise curfews or local restrictions on operating hours.
The option of building more runways depends on land availability and community acceptance.

New airports to serve major cities tend to be built farther requiring faster transport to reduce access
time.

Vertiports and heliports can be sited much closer to city centres, providing an alternative with faster
access than airports, if noise and community issues can be resolved.

The integration of air transport ground infrastructure with other modes of transport is presented in
the Key Topic T2.3 below.

1.1.1.3 KEY TOPIC T2.3 – GROUND AND AIR OPERATIONS

Introduction

Europe is a specific area with very high population density, with short distances between large urban
centres. This makes Europe's transport system characterized by a dense network of connections at
short distances, with large passenger flows between transport nodes. This situation also concerns air
transport.

The European Union (EU) is a political and economic union of 28 member states that are located
primarily in Europe.

Therefore, it has consequences resulting from the combination of law systems and transportation
systems in one. The fragmentation of different national systems that existed before the unification of
the EU are still felt.

Contrary to the United States, Europe does not have a single sky, one in which air navigation is
managed at the European level. Furthermore, European airspace is among the busiest in the world

53
with over 33,000 flights on busy days and high airport density. This makes air traffic control even more
complex.

The EU Single European Sky is an ambitious initiative launched by the European Commission in 2004
to reform the architecture of European air traffic management. It proposes a legislative approach to
meet future capacity and safety needs at a European rather than a local level.

The Single European Sky is the only way to provide a uniform and high level of safety and efficiency
over Europe’s skies.

The key objectives include:

 Restructure European airspace as a function of air traffic flows

 Create additional capacity; and
 Increase the overall efficiency of the air traffic management system
The major elements of this new institutional and organisational framework for Air Traffic Management
in Europe consist of:

 Separating regulatory activities from service provision, and the possibility of cross-border Air
Traffic Management (ATM) services.
 Reorganising European airspace that is no longer constrained by national borders.
 Setting common rules and standards, covering a wide range of issues, such as flight data
exchanges and telecommunications.

SESAR

As part of the Single European Sky initiative, SESAR (Single European Sky ATM Research) represents
its technological dimension. It will help create a “paradigm shift”, supported by state-of-the-art and
innovative technology.

The SESAR programme will give Europe a high-performance air traffic control infrastructure which will
enable the safe and environmentally friendly development of air transport.

SESAR aims to eliminate the fragmented approach to European ATM, transform the ATM system,
synchronise all stakeholders and federate resources. For the first time, all aviation players are involved
in the definition, development and deployment of a pan-European modernisation project.

By implementing the SESAR concept in 2020, ATM-related CO2 emissions should be reduced by 10%
per flight (against a 2005 baseline).

 Improve the management of noise emissions and their impact through better flight paths, or
optimised climb and descent solutions;
 Improve the role of ATM in enforcing local environmental rules by ensuring that flight
operations fully comply with aircraft type restrictions, night movement bans, noise routes,
noise quotas, etc.
Taking into account the above facts, it can be stated that the specificity of the European air traffic
market and the growing number of flights performed in the European airspace generate growing
challenges, the most important of which are: airport capacity, sustainability, operating a highly-
congested air traffic network, fully-exploiting SESAR, and climate change. Airspace capacity will not

54
be the greatest challenge. The use of alternative airports is a major contributor to the airport capacity
challenge.

European Airports

The European air traffic network contains about 170.000 links between airports [4]. Understanding the
variety of airports in Europe, their distribution, their traffic patterns and their aircraft mix, is essential
to understand the strengths of the air traffic network. Taking into account short distances between
the European cities, transportation on the territory of Europe is performed mainly over short and
medium distances, with the domination of the first ones. The European transport market is
therefore, the area of competition between the road, rail and air transport.

A characteristic feature of the European air transport service market is co-existence of several but
large communication centres performing trans-continental links and dense net of local links between
the majority of small cities and tourist resorts. In Europe there are about 45 main airports (large and
medium hubs) and about 450 country and regional airports (commercial service airports. European
airports have almost 1350 hard take-off runways (concrete or asphalt) and 740 airports have necessary
equipment to perform IFR flights2.

In 2015, approximately 9.917 million IFR flights were performed in Europe and the forecast for 2022
assumes a 3.8 per cent increase in the number of IFR flights, which is an equivalent to 12.868 million
take-offs, and the same number of landings, in the European airports. There are serious bottlenecks
in the air, especially in ECAC core areas caused by the situation where 85% of air activity is generated
by 45 main airports. This results in a very high air traffic density in the largest European airports and
in their vicinity. What it involves is that the air traffic in the largest airports and their areas of operations
approaches the capacity limits.

In 2016, the total number of passengers travelling by air in the European Union could be established
at 973 million, an increase of 5.9 % compared to 2015. Figure 12 shows the total growth of air
passengers by Member State between 2015 and 2016. The disparity is particularly marked at country
level, with year-on-year growths ranging from -2.7 % in Belgium to +22.5 % in Bulgaria.

2
(Brusow et al., 2007; Eurocontrol, 2007, 2016)

55
Figure 11: The map of Europe with the marked airports.

Figure 12: EU-28 growth in total passenger air transport by Member State, 2015-2016 (Eurostat).

56
The Figure 13 indicates that the intra-EU share in total transport could be established at 47 %. It was
the main destination ahead of extra-EU transport (36 %) and domestic passenger transport (17 %).
Figure 13: Overview of EU-28 air passenger transport in 2016 (Eurostat).

In 2016 (Table 8), London/Heathrow remained the largest EU-28 airport in terms of passenger
transport.

57
Table 8: Top 30 airports in the EU-28 in terms of total passengers carried in 2016 (Eurostat).

Paris/Charles de Gaulle remained the second largest with almost 10 million passengers less than
London/Heathrow. More traffic in Europe will mean busier airports.

In 2035, 20 airports will handle more than 150,000 departures a year in the most-likely scenario, a
level of traffic currently achieved only at 9 airports in Europe (Table 5). Some faster-growing airports
in Southern and Eastern Europe will join the top 25.3

Airport movement

Traffic in the area of a civil airport consists of two types of activity. The first one concerns the
movement of aircraft in the area of the airport (ground and air operations), the second one concerns
the movement of all kinds of non-aircraft vehicles necessary for the operation of the airport.

Aircraft operations

Standard aircraft procedures consist of:

 Parking, intended for parking, maintenance and service an aircraft.

 Push back or power back operations.
 Towing the aircraft.

3 Eurocontrol, 2013.

58
  Taxi out and taxi in operations.
 Take-off.
 Landing.

Parking, push back or power back and towing procedures generally are called aircraft ground handling
servicing. Taxi, take-off and landing constitutes LTO (Landing and Take-Off) cycle.

The main problem to be solved relates to increasing airport capacity and reducing delays and costs
and reducing environmental impact of air transport, especially in the airports surrounding areas.
Sources of these problems lie in both handling procedures and LTO operations.

 Aircraft LTO operations

The aircraft operations and procedures are highly regulated. For example, different recommendations
are present for the take-off climb procedure for performance class A aeroplanes. According to
Certification Specifications4 the transition from the take-off to the en route configuration and the
acceleration to the final climb segment speed must be completed before the aircraft reaches 1500 (ft)
net altitude. The take-off path is determined by a continuous take-off path or by synthesis from
segments which relate to distinct changes in configuration, power or thrust, and speed.
Thus the aircraft must be ‘cleaned up’ in a manner preordained in CS’s. The regulations specify that
whilst the transition is taking place, the aircraft must avoid all obstacles that are in the ‘obstacle
accountability area’ by a minimum vertical interval of 35 (ft) or by the horizontal distance detailed in
EU-OPS 1.495. The flight path determined for the aircraft commences therefore at the end of the take-
off distance required at screen height and is constructed by assuming the critical engine to be
inoperative.

4 (EASA, 2017).

59
Figure 14: Typical six segment net flight path. (EASA,2017).

As shown in the Figure 14, the segments of the flight path are also defined in detail.

 1st Segment: this segment commences at screen height at the end of the take-off distance
required at which point the undercarriage ‘UP’ button is pressed. The speed is V2, free air
safety speed, and the power set at maximum take-off power one engine inoperative. The
segment ends when the undercarriage is fully retracted and is the start of the second segment.
 2nd Segment: the speed and power are maintained until the aircraft attains flap retraction
altitude (minimum 400 (ft) gross). The segment ends on attainment of this altitude which is
the commencement of the third segment. The first and second segments are referred to as
the ‘Initial Climb’.
 3rd Segment: this segment is an acceleration segment; it may be level or still climbing if
sufficient power is available. The segment ends when the aircraft, after flap retraction, achieves
the final segment climb speed which signifies the beginning of the ‘Final Climb’. The maximum
height of flap retraction is dependent on the take-off thrust maximum time limit.
 4th Segment: this is the final climb. The power setting must be reduced after 5 minutes from
the brakes release point, to maximum continuous power setting. The speed is maintained at
the final segment climb speed. The net flight path ends at 1500 (ft) net height.
 5th and 6th Segment: some low powered aircraft might require further two segments to reach
1500 (ft) and the en route climb speed.
At airports, aircraft emission amounts vary by aircraft operation modes and depend on the time spent
at each mode/phase during the Landing and Take Off cycle (LTO). LTO includes all activities near the
airport that take place below the altitude of 3000 feet (1000 m), which consists of taxiing-out, taking-
off and climbing out for departures, and descending, touching down, and taxiing-in for arrivals.

60
Other ground movement

Handling activities related to aircraft during ground time may be a significant contributor to local air
pollution at an airport. Such activities include all vehicles and machinery serving the aircraft on its
parking position (e.g. high loaders, baggage belts, passengers stairs) and circulating on airside
operating surfaces and service roads (e.g. lavatory trucks, catering trucks, cargo tractors).

In the context of local air quality management, it is important to assess the emissions of different
sources for various pollutants. Example emission by source groups for Zurich airport is presented in
the Figure 15.
Figure 15: NOx emission by source groups (Fleuti, 2014).

The interdependencies of aircraft ground handling is qualitatively characterised in the Figure 16. It has
to be recognised that the type and number of Ground Support Equipment (GSE) are determined by
the aircraft (size) and the aircraft stand (location and installations) as well as applicable operational
procedures at the airport (e.g. APU restrictions). In consequence, any default attribution of ground
support equipment must be reflected by all factors.
Figure 16: Characterization of GSE (Fleuti, 2014).

61
GSE is used the moment an aircraft lands and until it takes off. GSE is used for tasks as diverse as
towing, powering, and servicing. There is great diversity in the type of equipment used, as well as in
the variety of engines (diesel or gasoline) that power GSE. The commonly used types of GSE are:

 Baggage Tugs (or Tractors) transport luggage or cargo between aircraft and terminals.
 Belt Loaders are a self-propelled conveyer belt that moves baggage and cargo between the
ground and the airport.
 Forklifts, Lifts, and Cargo Loaders include equipment for lifting and loading cargo.
 Ground Power Units (GPUs) provide electricity to parked aircraft.
 Aircraft Tugs (pushback tractors) tow aircraft in areas where aircraft cannot use their own engines
for motion. These are generally the areas between the taxiway and the terminal and between the
terminal and the maintenance base.
 Air Start Units are trailer or truck-mounted compressors that provide air for starting up the
aircraft’s main engines.
 Air Conditioning Units are trailer or truck mounted compressors that deliver air through a hose
to parked aircraft for cabin ventilation and engine cooling.
 Deicers are trailers equipped with tank, pump, hose, and spray gun to transport and spray de-
icing fluid on aircraft (to ensure that no ice builds up on body of plane or in turbines).
 Lavatory carts are used to service aircraft lavatories. Other types of carts can be used to transport
equipment and personnel.
 Fuel Trucks, Utility Trucks, Maintenance, Water and Service Trucks are used on the airside of the
airport for many diverse tasks.
 Bobtail Tractors are on-road trucks modified to tow trailers and equipment.

A cost-effective way to reduce emissions is to replace GSE powered by an internal combustion engine
with electric equipment. Electric equipment has no exhaust emissions and replacing equipment
powered by ICE (internal combustion engine) engines with electric equipment will reduce NOx
emissions. Electric GSE is commercially available for a number of equipment types, including belt
loaders, baggage tractors, aircraft tugs, lifts, and GPU's.

Several airlines and airports have conducted electric GSE demonstration programs and fleet
conversion programs. Much of the experience to date with electric equipment has been quite positive.
In addition to air quality benefits, users have found that electric equipment is more "task specific" than
ICE equipment. Electric equipment often includes more ergonomic features and users find that it
"rides better" than equivalent diesel equipment. However, the higher capital cost of electric equipment
has prevented its widespread use to date.

Other airport impact on climate change

The other airport infrastructure also affects the natural environment and contributes to climate
change. It is possible to indicate the sources resulting, for example, from the need to supply electricity
to airport buildings, heating and cooling in airport’s building, etc.

This impact can be reduced by:

 Reduction of energy consumption by retrofitting of LED technology or retrofitting of airport
buildings (roof, air-conditioning, etc.)

62
 Use of renewable sources of energy, i.e. purchase of green electricity, production of energy from
renewable sources (solar, co-generation, aquifer, biomass, etc.).
Airport handling

Many processes take place while the aircraft is parking, which extends the aircraft handling time. Some
of them can be carried out at the same time and some require a proper order. The workload and time
of these processes have a significant impact on airport capacity and may be some kind of bottleneck.

The effectiveness can be characterised by turn-around time, which can be defined as the time between
touch down and take off. The conceptual model of the activities in the turn-around process is
presented at the (Figure 17).

Figure 17: Typical turn-around activities (Norin, 2008).

63
 The Baggage loading and unloading process
Checked in baggage can be stowed in the aircraft in two different ways. Either the bags are stowed in
bulk (normally smaller aircraft) or in pre-packed containers (for larger aircraft). As the containers can
be packed before the aircraft arrives to the airport, the turn-around process time for loading baggage
will be shorter with container loading than with bulk if the number of bags is large. The checked in
baggage on a flight has to be sorted, unless it is a charter flight (or other point-to-point flight) were
all bags have the same priority and destination. Otherwise there might be transferring bags, high
prioritized bags or odd size bags etc.

 The Catering process

The catering process involves removing leftover food from the previous flight and re-equipping the
aircraft with new food. The catering can start when all passengers have left the aircraft. The catering
companies use high-loaders to get the catering cabinets on and off the aircraft. All high-loaders do
not fit all aircraft, so a planning of which high-loader to use for which aircraft is required.

Catering takes between 5 and 75 minutes depending on how much food that is needed and if there
are pre-packs (pre-ordered commodities placed on the seat) or not. The catering teams need to go
back to the depot between serving two aircraft to empty garbage and re-equip with new food.

The catering coordinator makes a rough plan from the air traffic schedule for how many workers are
needed and the detailed planning of who is serving which aircraft is done manually during the day.

 The Cleaning process

The airlines can request different types of aircraft cleaning. During daytime the cleaning can take from
5 (just empty garbage) up to 40 (garbage, seat-pockets, belts, vacuum cleaning etc.) minutes. The
latter is only performed on aircraft with longer turn-around-times. Longer and more careful cleaning
is performed during night-time when the aircraft is on the ground for longer time. On most aircraft,
cleaning and catering can be performed simultaneously, but for some smaller aircraft there is not
space for both of them. In the latter case, it does not matter if cleaning or catering is performed first.

The cleaning teams can go directly between two aircraft, but at breaks and when they need new
material (like pillows and blankets) they have to go to the cleaning base. There is no significant
difference between the cleaning teams so all teams can be assigned to all aircraft and cleaning types.

 The Fuelling process

Usually the fuelling can be performed in two different ways. There is a hydrant system with fuel pipes
in the ground that dispenser trucks can connect to, to fill up the aircraft. At aircraft stands where the
hydrant system is not available, fuelling is performed by tankers. There are different types of dispenser
trucks; the large type that can serve all kinds of aircraft and the smaller type that only can connect to
smaller aircraft. However, the small dispensers are preferred when the area around the aircraft is tight.
Also, the tankers vary in size. Normally they can take between 8 and 40 cubic meters of fuel.

Fuelling cannot be performed simultaneously with baggage loading and unloading since these
services need the same area around the aircraft. Before the fuel company starts to fill up, they always
check the water content in the fuel. The area around the aircraft has to be planned so that the
dispenser truck or tanker has a free way for evacuation. There are also some airline specific rules about
fuelling while passengers are on-board. Most airlines allow that, but only under certain conditions,

64
e.g. there must be a fire engine ready in the immediate surrounding or there must be two way
communications between apron and aircraft. Usually the fuelling is not allowed if there is a
thunderstorm.

The time it takes to fill up an aircraft depends on the capacity of the pipes in the aircraft and, of course,
of the amount of fuel needed. The pilot decides how much fuel that is needed and must report that
to the fuelling company before they can start to fill up the aircraft.

 The Water and Sanitation processes

The aircraft has to be released from waste water and be re-equipped with fresh water. This is
performed by two different vehicles which most often are operating on the opposite side of the
aircraft body than baggage handling and fuelling. This means that water and sanitation can be
performed simultaneously with baggage loading/unloading and fuelling, but not simultaneously with
each other. However, it does not matter which one of them that performs its service first.

 The De-icing process

Since even very thin layers of frost and ice on the aircraft have a negative effect on the lifting force
and the control of the aircraft, de-icing is needed if any part of the aircraft is covered with snow or
frost, or there is precipitation that could cause this to happen. The de-icing period is depending on
the climate zone and specific weather conditions.

The de-icing process is divided into two steps; during the first step, frost and ice are removed from
the aircraft, usually by a warm, buoyant glycol mix (Type 1 fluid).

The next step is called anti-icing and is performed to prevent new frost and ice from appearing on the
aircraft before take-off by a thicker fluid (Type 2 fluid).

The time from anti-icing to take-off (called hold-over time) is limited, as the effect of the Type 2 fluid
wears off after a while. This means that it is not possible to de-ice an aircraft a long time before take-
off. How long the hold-over time is depends on the type of fluid, temperature and type of
precipitation. Therefore, it is important to find a de-icing truck that can serve the aircraft on the “right”
time. If the aircraft is served late, the turn-around time will increase with a possible late departure as
a result. If the de-icing is performed too early, the procedure might have to be repeated. Even so, this
would be a fairly uncomplicated planning problem, if only the time windows were known in advance
and could be considered reliable.

Today, the de-icing coordinator will plan tactically based on weather conditions and the flight
schedule, and operationally, when a truck is dispatched, based on a request from the pilot. At the
moment the coordinator gets the request, he or she decides which truck that should be allocated to
the aircraft in question. Today, there is no pre-planned schedule that the decision can be based on.
This means that the truck-drivers do not know in advance which aircraft they are going to de-ice
during the day.

Interfaces with other Modes of Transport

 High-speed train
High-speed train (Figure 17) both competes with and complements short-haul passenger air
transport. Over 50 city-pairs will be connected by new or improved links between 2019 and 2035.

65
Operating at high speeds, the train can offer comparable transport times for distances up to 800 km.
It can also successfully attract passengers by providing in some cases a lower risk of delay, less security
hassle, shorter distance to the city centre. Passengers opting for rail will reduce the demand for flights
by a little over 0.5% in 2035, often easing the pressure at congested airports rather than reducing the
number of operated flights5.

Figure 17: High-speed rail network mostly develops in Western Europe (Eurocontrol, 2013).

5 Eurocontrol, 2013.

66
Airport Capacity Limits

Airspace capacity is the decisive factor in allocating the maximum number of air operations that can
be performed, especially in the airport areas (bottlenecks). That capacity is also dependent on the
principles of performing air operations in the airport areas.

Airports are constrained in different ways by different types of capacity. Airport capacity is the number
of passengers and amount of cargo which an airport can accommodate in a given period of time; it is
a combination of runway capacity and terminal capacity6.Capacity definitions can be categorized by
considering the constraining element (Figure 18), and then divide definitions into technical capacity,
acceptable capacity and allowed capacity7.
Figure 18: Airport Capacity Constraints.

•Maximum throughput
•Taxiways
Technical capacity
•Gate / apron
•Terminal building

•Annual ATMs
Acceptable capacity •Peak hour volume
•Terminal level of service

•Noise emission
Allowed capacity
•Gaseous emissions

Technical capacity is defined as the maximum number of aircraft or passengers that can be
accommodated in a certain period of time when there is continuous demand. It is affected by the
physical constraints of the available infrastructure, such as the maximum throughput figure of a
runway or the maximum number of passengers based on the limited terminal space available.

Acceptable capacity is the maximum number of aircraft or passengers than can be accommodated in
a certain period of time, taking into account a maximum allowable delay or waiting time per step in
the airport process.

6 (ICAO, 2016).

7 (Boonstra et al, 2016).

67
Allowed capacity is defined by regulations and legislation that balance economic importance against
any problems that may be caused for local population. For instance, a government or other authority
might limit the annual amount of ATMs on the basis of the limits of maximum noise or gaseous
emissions. No additional aircraft (or passengers) would then be allowed at an airport, even if there
was physical room for expansion.

Runway capacity

Runway capacity is the number of aircraft movements which aeronautical authorities determine can
safely be operated, usually stated as the total number of landings and take-offs per hour, taking into
account such factors as the physical characteristics of the runways and the surrounding area, altitude,
the types of aircraft involved (larger aircraft may mandate greater separation) and air traffic control
(approach and aerodrome control) capabilities8.

A queue at the taxiway will occur when the maximum runway capacity is reached. This queue will only
arise in the case of maximum peak hour capacity, and not necessarily in the case of maximum annual
ATMs, which is more theoretical. If maximum environmental capacity is reached at one runway, aircraft
may be required to use a different runway.

The capacities of the airports are driven by several factors. The number of runways is one of the major
factors. The airports use one or several runways with finite capacity, which allocates the number of
aircraft that the airport can handle safely. As the number of runways affects the capacity of the airport
very strongly, the number of rapid exit ways or the meteorological conditions also influences the
capacity.

The issues of improving airport capacity and efficiency were taken up in the SESAR programme.
Currently, they are continued under the SESAR 2020 programme within the key feature ‘High
Performing Airport Operations’. The most important projects implemented in this area are:

 PJ01 - Enhanced arrivals and departures. As a part of the project, concepts, tools and
procedures will be developed to increase the capacity of Terminal Manoeuvring Areas (TMAs)
in a safe, cost-effective and environmentally sustainable manner. This will be achieved by
taking advantage of the latest technological developments from both an airborne and a
ground-system perspective and through the secure sharing of data. The needs of all Airspace
Users will be addressed including General Aviation and Rotorcraft9.
 PJ02 - Increased Runway and Airport Throughput. As a part of the project, the concepts
supporting increased runway and airport throughput were broken down into the following
sub-elements: optimal Wake Turbulence Separation, enhanced arrival procedures, minimum
Pair Separations based on Required Surveillance Performance (RSP), independent Rotorcraft
operations at the airport, improved access into small/medium airports in Low Visibility
Conditions (LVC), traffic optimisation on single and multiple runway airports and enhanced
Terminal Area for efficient curved operations.
 PJ04 - Total airport management. The project is aimed to Integration of airports into the ATM
network through sharing information in a timely manner between the network operations plan

8 (ICAO, 2016).

9
WWW. SESAR JU

68
 and the individual AOPs (Airport Operations Plan) using SWIM (System Wide Information
Management) technology.
Other projects implemented under the SESAR 2020 program also have an effect on improving safety,
efficiency, capacity and reducing the environmental impact of airports.

Another problem that has appeared in recent years is the integration of operations of manned and
unmanned aircraft (RPAS - Remotely Piloted Aircraft System) at airport area (ground and air
operations). Several projects are currently devoted to this problem, the most important of which are:

- SESAR 2020
o PJ02 - General Aviation, RPAS and rotorcraft integrated in a multi-aircraft and manned
flight environment.
o PJ03 - Integration of RPAs, GA and Rotorcraft into the airport operations
o PJ.10 Separation Management en Route and TMA (PJ10.05 Integration of RPAS IFR flight,
also in the TMA)
- Enhanced RPAS Automation (ERA) project founded by the European Defence Agency (EDA) and
led by Airbus Defence and Space. The main objectives of ERA are to establish the technological
baseline for automatic take-off and landing, auto-taxi, nominal/degraded mode automation
functions and emergency recovery. This will be done alongside support to the regulation and
standardisation of these capabilities, by providing safety assessments, procedures, simulation and
flight demonstrations.

Terminal area air traffic congestion

Terminal capacity is the number of passengers and tonnes of cargo per hour which can be processed
in a terminal building (sometimes referred to as passenger throughput or cargo throughput). The type
of passenger or passenger mix can influence the rate of passenger throughput. International
passengers who must clear customs and immigration require more time and space than domestic
passengers who are not subject to these procedures. Domestic and international cargo presents a
similar situation.10

Available aircraft parking spaces

After passing the terminal, the passenger arrives at the gate: the area of an airport that provides a
waiting area for passengers before boarding their flight. The maximum gate capacity of one gate must
be in accordance with the type and size of aircraft at the corresponding apron.

The apron is the airside area of an airport used to park aircraft. Static apron capacity is the number of
stands available or the number of aircraft that can occupy the apron at any given moment. Dynamic
apron capacity is the number of aircraft per hour that can be accommodated, considering the time
interval between successive occupancies by two different aircraft. Apron capacity becomes
constrained when the number and size of aprons does not match the actual number and size of aircraft
using the aprons.

10 (ICAO, 2016).

69
Impact of capacity constraints on air fares

Airport capacity congestion is already being felt in markets across Europe, and is expected to be one
of the greatest bottlenecks for future growth of the aviation industry. Under the current policy
framework, growth of airport capacity will not be able to keep up with aviation demand growth.

EUROCONTROL11 predicts that by 2035 more than 30 European airports will be congested. These
airports are operating at 80% or more of their capacity for more than 3 hours per day. In 2035, around
1.9 million flights (accounting for 12% of the demand) cannot not be accommodated in
EUROCONTROL’s ‘most likely’ traffic growth scenario. In Eurocontrol’s highest growth scenario, this
number rises to 4.4 million flights.

In a situation where demand for airport capacity exceeds the supply of airport capacity, and where
the airport is in a position of substantial market power in the passenger market, prices are used to
balance the level of demand with the capacity available. If the airport prices efficiently through its
airport charges, scarcity will be reflected in higher (peak period) charges, hence in higher costs to the
airlines and, in turn and depending on the market situation, in higher fares charged to passengers for
travel at peak periods.

In a study for the UK Airports Commission12 it was found that airport capacity constraints are being
associated with higher air fares for a selection of European airports. For all routes in the dataset, the
study finds that fare revenue per passenger mile increases by 18% when the capacity utilisation
increases from a non-constrained level to a severely constrained level (>95% capacity utilisation). It
was also found that the fare premium in relative terms is higher at smaller airports than at larger
airports. In addition, the study finds that the effect is strongest at airports operating at 99% of their
stated runway capacity and less so at airports operating at around 80% of stated capacity. Below 80%
of capacity use, the estimated effect on fares becomes stronger again.

Environmental impact

All transport, including air transport, contributes to the degradation of the natural environment and
has a negative impact on people. Although the aircraft noise is extremely troublesome for the people
of the settlements located near airports, however, the negative impact of air transport on the
environment is primarily associated with the emission of gases and particles which alter the
atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. Aircraft emit gases and particles directly into the
upper troposphere and lower stratosphere where they have an impact on atmospheric composition.
These gases and particles alter the concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases, including carbon
dioxide CO2), ozone (O3), and methane (CH4); trigger formation of condensation trails (contrails); and
may increase cirrus cloudiness-all of which contribute to climate change.

11 Eurocontrol, 2013.

12 Burghouwt et al. 2017.

70
Despite the fact that aviation participates only slightly (2 - 3%) in global environmental pollution, the
concentration of greenhouse gases and toxic compounds produced by aircraft and accompanying
equipment is particularly high at airport areas and in the upper troposphere. This impact is the
stronger the more intensive air traffic takes place in a given area. The problem becomes particularly
important for large airports characterized by high levels of air traffic, which are most often found in
areas with high population density, which means that they involve a large group of people by their
negative impact. Local environmental pollution associated with the airport's activities can be divided
into two groups:

- Caused by the aircraft power units and their auxiliary power units (APU);
- Caused by the airport Ground Support Equipment (GSE), e.g. airport vehicles, electric generators,
technical services etc.
The environmental impacts of aviation are both global (e.g. CO2 emissions from burning fuel) and
local (e.g. noise and local air quality impacts).

European aviation’s absolute CO2 emissions will continue to grow but at a slower rate than traffic.
Emissions per passenger km may decrease by up to 2%per year if fuel efficiency and traffic forecasts
evolve as expected.13

Technological improvements will continue to reduce aircraft engine noise although may be offset by
traffic growth and evolving public perception.

Growth in traffic may also lead to an increase in local air quality impact, despite ongoing technological
and operational improvements. Impact will vary with location, scale of operation and the relative
contribution of other local sources. Trends in public opposition on the grounds of air quality and
odour suggest that this may be a bigger constraint in future.

 Measures to reduce aircraft pollutant emissions

The aircraft emission in the area of the airport may be reduced by implementing of the following
activities:

 Improve airframe and engine design,

Better flight planning and air traffic control procedures to increase flight operation efficiency,
 Increase airfield capacity to reduce congestion
 Modify aircraft ground operations

Local restrictions on operating hours and other limits

There are a number of measures to mitigate noise used by airports including14.

 Night time and other scheduling of runway operations to remove concentrations of noise over
particular areas or at particular times
 Changes or restrictions to on-field aircraft operations including engine trials and taxiing
procedures

13 Eurocontrol, 2013.

14, 16 (EY, 2016)

71
 Adaptations to descent and approach procedures.

 Night Time and other restrictions

The airports recognised that noise impact at night are particularly troubling for local populations and
have put in place measures to address this. The airports can be split into two categories:15

1. Airports with bans on flights in night time hours.

2. Airports applying additional limits to, but not bans, on night flying

The airports which have put in place complete limits on night time flying include

 Sydney –no flights scheduled between 23:00 and 06:00 except freight flights and up to 24
international flights a week.
 Frankfurt –no flights between 23:00 and 05:00 and set limits for evening shoulder periods.
The remaining airports have put in place measures to constrain the number of flights and aircraft that
may operate at night. For example:

o Paris Charles de Gaulle –Limited to 55 flights per night.

o Schiphol –Limit of 32,000 flights per annum and a total noise limit applied over a year.
o O’Hare –There is no night flight limitation; however, proposed changes to the Fly Quiet procedures
include rotating runway used in night hours to allow respite periods.

 Other Constraints on aircraft movement numbers

In addition to the constraints on night flights, several airports operate under additional restrictions on
aircraft movements.

Typically, the measures take the form of16:

 Limiting the number of flights either per hour or per day.

 Restricting the use of noisier aircraft through either charge incentives or operating restrictions.
 Managing flight paths away from population concentrations.
 Rotating runway use so as to spread noise patterns across wider areas.
 Restrictions on ground handling procedures such as engine run-ups, use of reverse thrust and
ground power units.

 Descent and Departure Adaptations

A common measure put in place to moderate the impact of noise on surrounding communities is the
adaptations of descent and departure paths. Fraport (FRA) for example has extensive measures in
place and under development to moderate the noise impact of arrivals and departures. These include:

 Limiting take off speed,

 More frequent continuous descent operations,
 Increasing the glide angle,

16 (EY, 2016)

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 Raising the minimum downwind approach altitude,
 Raising the final approach height.

Measures currently under development include:

 Continuous climb operations,

 Increasing ILS,
 Steeper approach procedures,
 Amending the point merge procedures.

Ultimately in the UK the structure and operation of local airspace will be a matter for the airport and
regulatory authorities to agree; however, the extensive list above shows the types of measures that
might be deployed.

Vertiports and heliports

Every day, millions of hours are wasted on the road worldwide. On-demand aviation, has the potential
to radically improve urban mobility, giving people back time lost in their daily commutes. A network
of small, traditional or electric aircraft that take off and land vertically (called VTOL aircraft for Vertical
Take-off and Landing, and pronounced vee-tol), will enable rapid, reliable transportation between
suburbs and cities and, ultimately, within cities.

The development of infrastructure to support an urban VTOL network will likely have significant cost
advantages over heavy-infrastructure approaches such as roads, rail, bridges and tunnels. It has been
proposed that the repurposed tops of parking garages, existing helipads, and even unused land
surrounding highway interchanges could form the basis of an extensive, distributed network of
“vertiports” (VTOL hubs with multiple take-off and landing pads, as well as charging infrastructure) or
single-aircraft “vertistops” (a single VTOL pad with minimal infrastructure).

A VTOL fleet will likely be supported in a city through a mixture of both vertiports and vertistops.
Vertiports would be large multi-landing locations that have support facilities (i.e., rechargers, support
personnel, etc.) for multiple VTOLs and passengers. Vertiports would be limited to a maximum
capacity of around 12 VTOLs at any given time to achieve a compact infrastructure size while enabling
capacity for multiple simultaneous VTOL take-off and landings to maximize trip throughput.
Vertistops, on the other hand, would be single vehicle landing locations where no support facilities
are provided, but where VTOLs can quickly drop off and pick up passengers without parking for an
extended time.

Delay effects

It is obvious that the lack of airport capacity will create a congested network, but there is an associated
side effect of operating near capacity: delays. Delays have been classified as primary (i.e. ATFCM and
non-ATFCM delays) and reactionary (i.e. knock-on delays incurred by previous flights)17.

17 Eurocontrol,2013.

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In 2012, the airport ATFCM (Air Traffic Flow and Capacity Management) primary delays were only 0.9
minutes out of an average of 5.7 minutes of primary delay per flight and out of 10 minutes per flight
of total delay including the reactionary delay. In 2013, airports were a minor contributor of delays, the
main caused and the biggest part of primary delays were related to airline causes.

Within a network where 20 airports operated (2013) at 80% or more of capacity during 6 consecutive
hours or more, it is likely to expect that any deviation (e.g. late bags, missing passengers) from the
plan will generate delays that will accumulate rapidly along the day.

The Figure 19 shows the growing delay challenge at airports for the summer months, where for 2012
only a minority of them suffer delays greater than 5 minutes per flight. This is reflected in the 1.12
minutes/flight of ATFCM delay measured, that is slightly higher than the whole year value of 0.9
mentioned above. In 2035, the picture is drastically different with high level of delay present across
the network and a significant number of airports that present total delays greater than 20 minutes per
flight.

Figure 19: Increasing number of airports with summer delay (in minutes/flight).

Main delay causes at the top 10 affected departure airports for departure (Figure 19) and arrival
(Figure 20) are presented below:

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Figure 20:Main Delay Causes at the Top 10 Affected Departure Airports (Eurocontrol, 2017).

Figure 21: Main Delay Causes at the Top 10 Affected Arrival Airports (Eurocontrol, 2017).

The fuel cost, cost of flight crew, cost of leased aircraft, airport expenses and also the unmeasured
costs (e.g. costumer complaints and disloyalty cost) are some of the examples that airlines have to
cope with as a result of an increase in the delays.

Delays in the handling chain not only provoke impacts on the quality of the service experienced by
the passengers, but also affect the operational efficiency, and as a result, the costs of the airline. Delays
resulting from ground handling comprise one of the highest costs of the airlines, despite the fact that
handling related delays are a cheaper and easier way of reducing departure delays, and consequently
the costs, when compared to the difficulty of reducing other reasons for delays, such as weather
conditions and air traffic control (ATC).

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2.3 Choice of most efficient mobility solutions
* Flightpath 2050 goal 3 “European citizens are able to make informed mobility choices and
have affordable access to one another, taking into account: economy, speed and level of service
(that can be tailored to the individual customer). Continuous, secure and high-bandwidth
communications are provided for added value applications”.

The progress in mobile communications and availability of information may ensure that the passenger
can make informed choices among several available travel options. The issues of interference with
and security of communications at passenger information level are comparable to other societal
services. A more serious constraint may come from physical limits of transportation infrastructure and
the underlying issue of land planning:

 In the expansion of existing airports or addition of more runways.

 In the construction of new airports, vertiports and heliports.
 In the road/rail infrastructure that provides fast access.
 In the efficient organization of ground movements within the confines of the airport.
The choice of air travel compared with other means of transport depends not only on flight time but
also on the ground movements to and from the airport that is an issue addressed in the Key Topic of
intermodal transport.

1.1.1.4 KEY TOPIC T2.4 – MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT

Benchmarks

A coherent ground infrastructure implies the design and implementation of an integrated, intermodal
transport system as part of which airport evolve into integrated, efficient and sustainable air transport
interface nodes.

The operation of airports as an efficient node of the transport system can be analysed from three
perspectives (scales or points of view).

The first one corresponds to the efficient operation of all processes within the airport itself. A certain
number of issues and process of the airport operation can become bottlenecks or offer potential for
increasing efficiency such as the ground movements but also main process inside the airport as
luggage handling, passenger check-in or passport and security checks.

The airport of the future should offer customers an improved, seamless travel experience. Airside and
landside processes at airports need to be optimised for customer comfort, predictability, performance
and better integration of transport modes. In terms of performance it would be fair that airports
provide equivalent quality and efficiency on the processing of travellers and flight of service as the
one demanded to the ATM system, and therefore by extension it will be fair to envisage an efficient
2050 airport where flights depart within 1 minute of the planned departure time.

The second one corresponds to the interconnection among the different airports of the European
Networks. Technological and operational development will allow that information of traffic departing
from the origin airport will be promptly and precisely shared with all the ACC centres in the plane
trajectory as well as with the destination airport. As soon as the aircraft take-off it will become of the

76
interest of the arrival airport that will receive promptly and updated information of the flight as this
evolve.

Finally, the third one corresponds to the integration of the airport with other modes of transport. The
interfaces of the airport with other modes of transport must allow the 90% of travellers within Europe
are able to complete their journey, door-to-door within 4 hours. That means that connections with
other modes of transport should allow that passengers arrive from their houses at the plane in a time
interval compatible with the 4 hours door-to door requirement. Airport access has been improved
accordingly trough an innovative approach towards safe, efficient, frequent, comfortable transport
systems and services and connections with other mode of transport must facilitate an easy and quick
access to the plain.

According to Eurocontrol the average flight length of 80% of the flights within Europe is 504NM while
the average flight length of the flight outside the regions (20%) is 878NM. That means that the average
flight time of 80% of the flights in Europe do not exceed an hour. This will leave a maximum of 3 hours
for the passenger to arrive from its departing point to the plane and to get from the plane to its final
destination, including the processing times at the airport and all the connections with other modes of
transport.

Figure 22: Great-circle distance flown by departures from the biggest 528 airports in Europe. (Eurocontrol).

77
Figure 23: Figure 24 Departures grouped by airport size. (Eurocontrol).

The following Figure 24 illustrates the benchmarks discussed for goal 2.

Figure 24: Technological, operational, societal/human and network dimension of goal 2 Benchmarks.

GROUND INFRAESTRUCTURE & MULTIMODAL TRANSPORT

Efficient Flights depart

operation of within 1 minute
all processes of the planned
within the departure time
airport

Technological & operational dimension Information of traffic

Social dimension departing from the Interconnect
Airside and landside ion among
processes at airports need Network Dimension origin airport will be
Impact of an airport on the the
to be optimised for promptly & precisely
surrounding community different
customer comfort, Information of traffic
predictability, from access to the airport share s with the airports
and to connect the airport departing from the origin
performance and better airport will be promptly destination airport
integration of transport with other modes of
transport. and precisely share with all
modes. the ACC centers in the
plane trajectory as well as
with the destination
airport

Integration 1, 5 hours maximum for the

of the passenger processing times
airport with
other including displacement &
modes of connections with other
transport modes of transport.

Reference State in 2010

Three main aspects are addressed to understand the reference state for goal 2 in 2010:

 The efficiency of the airport processes.

78
  The airport interconnection and delay propagation.
 The intermodal transportation.

Airport efficiency

Air transport depends on a complex network architecture, where several facilities, processes and
agents are interrelated and interact with each other. In this large-scale and dynamic system, airport
represent the interconnection nodes that facilitate aircraft distribution through the network and
transport model changes for passengers.

Almost 800 million passengers used EU airports in 2010, a third of the world market, almost three
times more than when air traffic was liberalised in the early nineties. However major airports are
already congested, and traffic flows are harder and harder to cope with. In 2010 5 major European
airport hubs were at saturation, operating at full capacity: Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, London Gatwick,
London Heathrow, and Milan Linate18.

The EC Action Plan on Airport Capacity was launched in January 2007, urged by the fear that 60
airports will be heavily congested by 2025. The Eurocontrol Study ‘Challenges of Growth 2008’
envisaged that, on continuing 2010 trends, 19 key European airports will be at saturation, including
for example, Paris CDG, Warsaw, Athens, Vienna and Barcelona. The resulting congestion could mean
delays affecting 50% of all passenger and cargo flights. The Table 6 illustrates the forecast on airport
congestion at 2010. 19

Airport 2010 2017 2025 Capacity assumptions

Demand Demand Demand

Assumes annual movement cap raised
Amsterdam exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity
to 510,000 in November 2010 but no
Schiphol during part of during part of during part of
further increase
day day day

Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient

Dublin capacity most or capacity most or capacity most or Second runway built when needed
all day all day all day

18 (Eurocontrol PRR, 2010)

19 The updated study EUROCONTROL 'Challenges of Growth 2013' (CG13) confirmed and reiterated the capacity challenge identified in previous studies. In the
most-likely (capacity constrained) scenario, there will be 50% more flights in 2035 than in 2012. Nearly two million flights will not be accommodated (12% of
total demand for travel) because of reduced airport expansion plans. That is equivalent to an estimated 120 million passengers unable to make their return flights
(in total, 240 million passengers per year). In addition, by 2035, more than 20 airports will be running at or close to capacity, compared to just three in 2012
causing difficulties for managing the network (so called 'hotspot airports').

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Airport 2010 2017 2025 Capacity assumptions

Demand Demand Demand

Assumed 10% increase in capacity in
Düsseldorf exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity
2015 but no further increase
most or all day most or all day most or all day

Demand
Demand Sufficient New runway (2011) and terminal (2015)
exceeds capacity
Frankfurt exceeds capacity capacity most or allow increases from 83 to 126
during part of
most or all day all day movements/hour
day

Demand Demand Demand Assumes no new runway but increase of

London
exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity 2-3 movements/hour on current
Gatwick
most or all day most or all day most or all day runway

Demand Demand Demand Assumes no third runway, or mixed

London
exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity mode, or relaxation of annual
Heathrow
most or all day most or all day most or all day movement cap.

Demand Demand Demand Assumes ATC improvements increase

Madrid exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity capacity from 98 to 120
Barajas during part of during part of during part of movements/hour by 2020 (increase
day day day phased in from 2014)

Demand Demand Demand

Assumes no amendment to Bersani
Milan Linate exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity
Decree
most or all day most or all day most or all day

Demand Demand
Sufficient
exceeds capacity exceeds capacity Assume third runway operational by
Munich capacity most or
during part of during part of 2017
all day
day day

Sufficient Sufficient Sufficient

Palma de Assume additional capacity added
capacity most or capacity most or capacity most or
Mallorca when required
all day all day all day

Demand Demand
Demand Assumes increase from 114 to 120
exceeds capacity exceeds capacity
Paris CDG exceeds capacity movements/hour by 2015, but no
during part of during part of
most or all day further increase (e.g. fifth runway)
day day

Demand Demand Demand

Assumes no relaxation of annual slot
Paris Orly exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity
cap
most or all day most or all day most or all day

Rome Demand Demand Demand Assume improved ATC allowing 100

Fiumicino exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity movements/hour but no new runway

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 Airport 2010 2017 2025 Capacity assumptions

during part of during part of during part of

day day day

Demand Demand Demand Assume third runway operational in

exceeds capacity exceeds capacity exceeds capacity 2020, initially allowing 80
Vienna
during part of during part of during part of movements/hour increasing to 90
day day day movements/hour by 2025

Table 9: Forecast airport congestion (SAMPLE AIRPORTS)

As a consequence, a significant portion of delay generation occurs at airports, where aircraft

connectivity acts as a key driver for delay propagation. Delays have a substantial impact in the
schedule adherence of airport and airlines, passenger experience, customer satisfaction and system
reliability. Passengers and luggage processing, as well as “rotation” (flight cycle through the
airport and its surrounding airspace, from inbound to outbound processes) have a great influence on
punctuality and on the operational efficiency of the entire system.

In 2010 quality and efficiency of services at airports was demanding a great improvement. 70% of all
delays to flights were caused by problems due to the turnaround of aircraft at airports (delays
caused by airlines or their ground-handlers, airports or other parties involved in the turnaround
process). Additionally, network disruptions experienced in 2010 have shown the need for increased
coordination of ground operations for European airports and the network as a whole (knock-
on effects) so as to ensure continuity of airport operations.

The unprecedented drop in traffic reduced demand far below planned capacity levels in 2009. The
resulting spare capacity in most areas (airlines, airports, ATC) translated in a significant improved on-
time performance in 2009. However, air transport punctuality in Europe in 2010 was the worst
recorded since 2001 although traffic was still below 2007 levels and traffic growth was modest.
In December 2010, the average delay per delayed flight (ADD) for departure traffic from all causes
of delay was 50 minutes. This was an increase of 22% compared to December 2009. In addition, the
percentage of flights delayed (by 5 minutes or more) went up by 13.4 percentage points to 62.9% in
comparison to December 2009. The percentage of flights delayed by more than 15 minutes increased
from 29.1% to 41.5%.

Some of the main causes contributing to this poor performance were ANS-related delays, primarily
due to industrial actions, and higher than usual weather related delays (snow, freezing conditions)
during winter 2009 and in December 2010. The volcanic ash cloud in April/May 2010 had a limited
impact on punctuality, as the majority of the flights were cancelled. Seasonal weather conditions
predominantly affected operations in December, resulting in severe disruption to European traffic
with an estimated 35,000 scheduled flight cancellations. Cold weather conditions and snowfall were
experienced resulting in a significant increase in the proportion of weather related delay from 27% to
33%. December was a record month for all causes of delay in comparison to the historically high 2009
figure, with a peak in the average delay per delayed flight seen on the 20th December of 82 minutes.

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Many European airports suffered from snowfall. Paris, Frankfurt, Munich and London saw disruption,
Frankfurt particularly due to a lack of parking stand availability at the airport.

The next Figure 25 illustrates airport departure delays in 2010 in comparison with delays in the
previous years.
Figure 25: Evolution of airport departure delays in 2010. (Eurocontrol, 2010).

Figure 26: Average delay per movement (all causes) for Arrivals. (Eurocontrol, 2010).

The average delay per departure (ADM) from all causes increased by 55% to 31.4 minutes in December
2010 when compared to December 2009. In regard to arrivals, the average delay per arrival increased
by 56% month on month to 32.6 minutes, when compared to December 2009. These delays (Figure
26) were a record high for all causes of delay. 20

20All-causes departure delay’ is calculated as the difference between the scheduled time of departure (STD) as
communicated to the passenger and the actual off-block time (AOBT). In Europe, delay because assignment takes places
on the ramp on departure with many airlines applying the IATA delay codes and sub-codes published in the IATA Airport
Handling Manual 730 and 731. All-causes delays can be split between primary and reactionary delays. Reactionary delays

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An analysis of the delay causes and categories (grouped by IATA code) shows (Figure 27) an increase
(in percentage points) in Reactionary delay. A small increase in share was also seen in Weather related
delay. Continuing the 2010 trend there was a decrease observed in Technical and Aircraft Equipment
related delay share. ATFM weather at destination saw an increase.

Figure 27: Primary and reactionary all-cause delay, by IATA code (%). (Eurocontrol, 2010).

Finally, the next Figure 28 illustrates the causes-7drivers of departure delays. For a better

understanding various delays reported were grouped into the following main categories:

are delays that are caused by the late arrival of aircraft, crew, passengers or loads from a previous journey. Primary delays
are all other delays and occur during the turnaround process of the aircraft. The cost of one minute of tactical delay varies
by size of aircraft, but on average is estimated at €79/minute (Ref: University of Westminster for EUROCONTROL PRC,
2004, for EUROCONTROL PRU, 2011).

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  Turn around related delays (non-ATFCM): are primary delays caused by airlines (technical,
boarding, etc.), airports (equipment, etc.) or other parties such as ground handlers involved in
the turnaround process.
 ANS-related delays: are primary delays resulting from an imbalance between demand and
available capacity.
 Weather-related delays (non-ATFCM): This group contains delays due to unfavourable weather
conditions including delays due to snow removal or de-icing. Weather-related delays handled
by ANS are not included.
 Reactionary delays are secondary delays caused by primary delays on earlier flight legs which
cannot be absorbed during the turn-around phase at the airport. Due to the interconnected
nature of the network, reactionary delay can propagate throughout the network and therefore
have a considerable knock-on effects on subsequent flights.

Figure 28: Drivers of departure delays (2007-2010). (Eurocontrol, 2010).

Beginning the century airports were still a collection of immense infrastructure with a vast array of
systems and products that must work and interact in order to keep the airport operating efficiently
24/7 all year around. Airport operations represent a complex system, which involves multiple elements
and processes that are interrelated and interact with each other. There are several stakeholders (ATS
providers, airlines, airport operators and ground handling companies) involved in the airport
environment and they are still communicating in limited ways with each other. Because of this,
inefficiencies that hamper productivity and performance can be created when these stakeholders
interface with other departments and external organisations, and any incident may easily travel the
network and affect the operation of the airport as a whole.

In 2010 the concept of ACDM start to be applied at major airports to solve the previous issues. Airport
Collaborative Decision Making (ACDM) is a system that designed by the EUROCONTROL and
adopted by European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) Transport Ministers in the European Air Traffic

84
Management Strategy to control the overall European airspace and airports21, 22. This is a concept that
changes the system, hardware, human interactions with software, technology and the culture to
understand the operational processes of each related parties (Air Traffic Control, Airport Operation,
Pilots, Airlines, CFMU and ground Handling). Thus enhance the airport efficiency by reducing delays,
improving current airport facilities, maximize the capacity of landing allocations and slots as well as
utilize the resources23. The development of ACDM is based on the historical data that provided by the
airport authorities from each airport, by sharing and exchanging information and process would
enable the best air traffic performance being implemented at European airports. ACDM is also parallel
with AFTM, which is an integration of the SMEAN and SESAR programs.

Airport Interconnection and Delay Propagation

Due to the networking nature of Air transport potential incidents, failures and delays (due to service
disruption, unexpected events or capacity contains) may propagate throughout the different nodes
of the network, making it vulnerable. The situation has led in recent years to system-wide congestion
problems and has worsened due to the strong growth in the number of airport operation during the
last decades. Broadly, two elements determine the magnitude of delay propagation:

 The primary delay parameters (i.e. time of the day, length of the delay, etc.) and,
 The ability of the air transport system to absorb primary delay (i.e. aircraft and crew utilisation
including scheduled block times and turnaround times, airline business model, contingency
procedures, turn around efficiency at airports, effectiveness of airport CDM processes, etc.)
Reactionary delays are by definition a network issue and a better understanding of the contribution
of airports, airlines and ANS towards those network effects and possible measured to mitigate those
effects is desirable. Even though reactionary delays have a great impact on air traffic performance, the
research effort to better understand and handle them in practice was limited in the past. One of the
most complete studies in 2010 highlights that:

 50 percent (12 minutes) of delays in low-cost operations are reactionary delays. Hub-and-
spoke operators have by far the lowest ratio as reactionary delays account for nearly 40
percent of all delays (7 minutes). Point-to-point operations lie in between the other two with
around 45 percent of reactionary delay (9 minutes).
 The larger the share of aircraft which exceed the scheduled block-to-block time, the less delay
can be absorbed in the block-to-block phase. Buffer time is included in the scheduled block-
to-block phase of all types of operation. However, low-cost operators are best positioned to
absorb delays in the block-to-block phase.
 Depending on the airline business model, between 60 and 90 percent of flights exceed the
scheduled turn-around time. However, only half as many flights exceed their scheduled turn-
around times when additional minutes due the aircraft arriving ahead of its scheduled arrival
time are removed. Low-cost airlines appeared to have only a limited ability to absorb delay in
the turnaround phase. Instead, they even added the highest level of new primary delays.
Overall, hub-and-spoke and point-to-point carriers are able to absorb approximately the same

21
EUROCONTROL. (2010). Airport Collaborative Decision Making. Retrieved from EUROCONTROL on 3rd October 2010
Retrieved from Munich Airport on 3rd October 2010
22 MUNICH AIRPORT. (2010). Collaborative Decision Making (CDM) - a new concept.

23 EUROCONTROL. (2010). what is Airport CDM. Retrieved from EUROCONTROL on 3rd October 2010

85
 amount of delay during the turn-around phase, but hub-and-spoke carriers added more new
primary delays than point-to-point carriers.
 Irrespective of the airline business model, the time of the day and the length of the delay, the
majority of the root delays can be recovered within the first leg after the root delay
occurred. Those sequences (with one affected leg) accounted for 50 to 60 percent of all the
analysed sequences.
 The analysis of major European airports demonstrates that propagation is stronger in non-
hub operations where reactionary delays account for up to 50 percent of total reported delays.
 Root delays originating from major European hubs daily effect on average between 30 and 50
other airports within the ECAC area.
Technological and operational interconnection among the airports in the network is practically null in
2010. The only incipient attempt to interconnection is the Airport CDM initiative. Airport Collaborative
Decision Making (A-CDM) involves all airport partners in the tactical phase (i.e. up to 3 hours look-
ahead time). It ensures that airport partners get accurate data at the right time in the right place, thus
improving shared information as well as the quality of subsequent decisions resulting from improved
data.

Intermodality

The airport of the future is conceived as the central link of intermodal transport. Intermodality is
understood as the transport of goods and passengers by the use of several transport modes in one
trip and involves the inter-coordination of those different transport modes. This coordination is made
thanks adequate intermodal infrastructure, and to intermodal agreements concluded by transport
operators. Agreements allow for common reservation for the whole trip, coordinated timetables, a
common checking, and the certainty to travel to the final destination despite delays faced by one or
several transport modes during the trip, etc.

Airport intermodality in Europe in 2010 is the result of political and financial actions, airport
connections and user’s expectation.

 Political and financial approach:

At late 90’s European Union established guidelines for developing a trans-European transportation
network that comprises roads, railways, airports, seaports, inland ports and traffic management
systems that serve the entire European Union. National governments, local governments, and private
transportation companies, such as airport and rail companies, all take part in the development of
intermodal capabilities at airports.

Beginning XXI century, many airports owned or operated by private airport management companies,
have taken the lead in planning and funding major intermodal facilities on airport property. For
example, Fraport, a private company that manages Frankfurt’s airport, and Deutsche Bahn, the
German rail company, invested over 300 million euros in building a station for long-distance
and high-speed trains at the Frankfurt airport.

Additionally, some European rail systems are also privately operated. (Germany and France have
established private companies to operate their nations’ rail systems). However, the national
government still takes the lead in planning and funding the building of the overall rail infrastructure,
such as dedicated high-speed rail tracks. Once this infrastructure is built, it is then turned over to these

86
private companies that operate and manage this infrastructure. At the Frankfurt airport, Deutsche
Bahn and Fraport funded the construction of the long-distance train station, but all the track
infrastructure was funded by the German national government. Local governments also are involved
in providing intermodal transportation services to airports, with local government-owned transit
agencies providing either rail or local bus service to the airport.

It is interesting to note that there is intense cooperation within the same transport mode, for
both air and train. For example, airlines cooperate amongst themselves especially when they are part
of the same group like Sky Team, One World or Star Alliance.This enables them to share the codes
and provide combined tickets for onward travel with an associated airline at lower prices.

The same intra modal agreements have been reached in the rail sector with the Interrail and Eurail
passes. In air cargo, providers of parcel and mail services have an integrated transport chain from door
to door. These integrator companies combine all transport modes within one company including
aircraft, warehouses, vans etc. It seems that intermodal passenger transport (where more independent
organizations with different commercial objectives and funding arrangements need to work together)
is far more difficult to organize.

 User expectations:
Besides the political strategies and the financial issues, satisfying the customer´s needs and assuring
a positive and seamless travel experience is central to the success of intermodal passenger transport.
ModAir project have examined those variables which are relevant from the perspective of the
passenger before, during and after the journey and depending on the type of passenger. These
variables are numerous and wide ranging, however a number of key themes have emerged, some of
which are cross cutting:

 Accessibility, a clearly important requirement for passengers is to easily access reliable,

impartial and real time information, both for pre-trip planning and to be kept informed of
relevant developments during the journey.
 Single ticket, taking the client from start to their final destination without the use of various
tickets and the availability of multi-modal check-in facilities, avoiding the passenger having to
carry their luggage between the different modes throughout the journey.
 Confident, passengers being able to confidently find their way between modes and
experiencing a feeling safety and comfort within the spaces they inhabit throughout their
journey.
 Accountability, where there are a number of transport providers, the issue of accountability
and passenger rights is raised, highlighting the need for effective coordination between
operators.
All these variables concerning passenger requirements raise some obvious challenges for the
transport sector (operators and infrastructure managers) in terms of logistics, operations,
infrastructure, organisation and cultural factors etc., particularly with regards to single ticketing, multi-
modal check in and the provision of reliable and impartial information.

We revised hereafter the status in the first decade of XXI century (according to ModAir survey) of
some of these elements relevant for the users.

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 Intermodal information: Most airports had a simple link on their website to car rental, taxi, bus
and rail companies and in some cases time schedules of bus and train connections are provided.
None had a customer oriented approach where the customer is automatically informed about
intermodal connections from arrival at the airport to the final destination and vice versa.
 Single ticket and other services: Some airlines offered single tickets or combined tickets to
passengers that allow a multi modal travel by plane and train. Examples are:
o TGVair; A combined ticket offered for rail/ flight connections by TGV in France to Paris
Charles de Gaulle and Orly.
o Air and Rail: a combined ticket between Brussels and Paris CDG airport.
o Air and Rail: a combined ticket between Brussels and Amsterdam.
o Rail and Fly: the opportunity to buy an airline ticket and a train ticket at the same time in
Germany
Besides these ticketing possibilities there are services for luggage drop-off for airline passengers at
remote locations. In Vienna for example passengers can check in and drop off their luggage in down
town Vienna as a service by selected airlines.

 Bus connections. Low cost Carriers often use regional airports to avoid the high fees that need
to be paid at hub airports. As these airports are located outside the big cities, LCC cooperate with
a direct bus connection to these cities. There is no single ticket but the time schedule of these
busses match the departure and arrival times of the LCC aircraft.

In bigger cities, some airlines own their own bus company that offer a bus-link to the downtown city.
An example is Air France offering an Air France bus service to downtown Paris. The passenger needs
to buy a separate ticket for that service. Another service that is worth mentioning is the possibility to
check-in at the US customs at Dublin and Shannon airports, thus avoiding long queues when entering
the USA.

 Airports accessibility and connectivity.

During the first decade of XXI century there were more than 1270 airports and 1230 aerodromes in
Europe, 543 airports of them serving commercial air transport. There were also a number of new
airports planned, constructed or reclassified from General Aviation to commercial operations. Many
regional airports served seasonal traffic. The Low Cost Carriers that operated on these airports served
leisure travel during the summer (and in some cases only during the winter). The distances flown by
LCC are in general beyond 600 - 800 km point to point. Low Cost Carriers had in 2010 a substantial
market shares of about 40% in European air travel.

Regarding the accessibility, all of them could be accessed by car. 97%, 525 airports out of 543 were
being served by taxi. 70%, 379 airports were served by regular bus services. Only 10%, 56 airports
were served by local rail and light rail/tram to nearby cities or regions. At that moment there were a
few high speed rail lines (HST) in Europe, focused on massive volumes of passengers and connections
between major cities.

The interconnectivity at European airports is often still limited to urban transport, with very few (high-
speed) train stations located at airports. Some of the existing intermodal links do not fully meet the
passengers’ expectations, leading to low usage. As an example in the UK train stations at regional
airports have been closed due to the small number of passengers that made use of the facility.

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Air/rail intermodality seems to offer promising opportunities for the future of the transport system
by limiting the isolated use of road or air traffic (both responsible for congestion and air pollution)
and providing combined trips, generally with rail. However, so far intermodal agreements are not very
numerous in Europe. Funding and the possibility of signing exclusive agreements between airlines
and train operator are essential enablers to foster intermodality.

Very high speed train point to point connections (travelling at 250km/hour) can be more time efficient
than air transport over a distance up to about 600 km, although load factors are lower than in aviation
(85% on average). Experience has shown that indeed there is some substitution taking place between
air travel and HST up to that distance for example in France and Spain. In these countries regional
flight has been discontinued in favour of rail travel. Eurocontrol is expecting that the annual growth
in the number of European flights by 2030 may be reduced from 3.9% by 0.7% to 3.2% if all High
Speed Rail plans are realized (assuming that the European economy will grow at an average 2.7% per
annum).

However according to Eurocontrol and also ModAir connections analysis, HST connections are not
expected to affect long distance flights and most of the Low Cost Carrier operations as well as the
intercontinental flights. Rather than focusing on substitution, the focus should be on benefits of
directly connecting air travel to high speed rail travel.

 By substitution freeing airport slots, which is relevant for crowded HUB airports where
runway capacity and slots are scarce.
 Creating additional airspace capacity which is scarce in Europe due to the fact that
large parts of the airspace are still reserved for military operations.
 Enlarging the catchment area of HUB airports.
 Enabling airports to be interconnected via high speed rail, allowing a better distribution
of air traffic over different airports.

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The next Figure 29 summarises the Europe map of existing & planned rail connections to airports24.
Figure 29: EUROPE map of existing & planned rail connections to airports. (ACI, 2012).

 Progress up to now
 Airport efficiency and Airport interconnection

 Airport Operations Centres (APOC) and the Airport Operations Plan (AOP)

Given that it is essential to integrate airports more closely into the network, collaborative concepts
are being developed under the SESAR programme, building on the success of the A-CDM (airport
collaborative decision-making) project. Two of these concepts are Airport Operations Centres (APOC)
and the Airport Operations Plan (AOP) on the airport side, as well as the collaborative Network
Operations Plan (NOP) on the network side.

An APOC manages an airport’s operations in both normal and exceptional conditions. The AOP is a
rolling plan that covers the pre-tactical and tactical phases by providing dynamic data updates as an
operational situation evolves. Through the timely two-way exchange of relevant airport and network
information between airports and the Network Manager, AOP-NOP integration improves both the
airport’s and the network’s operational performance. Situational awareness is heightened and issues
can be contained before they can affect other parts of the network. The exchange with the Network
Manager through the AOP-NOP integration delivers local throughput status information earlier than

24
ACI,2012.

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was previously the case. This information can also be shared with other airports, airspace users and
ANSPs (air navigation service providers), so facilitating improved decision-making. This is expected to
improve network predictability and add to the improvements brought about with A-CDM.

2017 have seen how 10 mayor airports in Europe have implemented these advanced concepts:
Frankfurt, London Heathrow, Paris Charles de Gaulle, Paris Orly, Amsterdam Schiphol, Barcelona - El
Prat, Madrid - Barajas, Palma de Mallorca, Brussels and Stockholm.

 INTERACTION (INnovative TEchnologies and Researches for a new Airport Concept towards
Turnaround coordinatION)

INTERACTION project has developed and validated (at Athens Airport) a solution that integrates the
information on the different airport processes within the same system, which has allowed to analyse
the evolution of each process by itself and to predict the impact of on disruptions on one process on
the overall turnaround process. The system integrates a Centralised Information Platform, Mobile
application for passengers and a Handling processes tool. Additionally, the project has dealt with
some advances solutions for airport process improvement:

1. Unification of passenger and baggage process and Pooling of Equipment (GSE).

2. Cargo portal solution: the concept consists of a support platform for the cargo process which
was developed in a prototype.
3. Machine Learning for Estimation of Landing Time solution.
4. Time efficient passenger and baggage processes able to move passengers up until 2 m/s.
5. A new gate concept aimed at reducing the movement and space of the apron operations that
implies the standardisation of the gate design for aircraft type C such as Airbus A-320 family.
6. Conceptualising a passenger boarding bridge that can dock not only the aircraft front door
but also the rear door, by going over the aircraft wing.
7. Fleet, mobile vehicles and equipment management.
8. Aircraft Navigation lights powered by tow tractor converter.
9. Feasibility study for more electrical tractor.
10. Assisted/Automated cargo loader to aircraft docking.
11. Slot assignment for passenger security screening.
12. Prediction of consumed potable water and catering goods.
13. A collaborative decision making enhanced framework was developed which aims to avoid the
delay propagation between airport sub-processes satisfying all stakeholder business models.
14. Aircraft Navigation lights powered by towbarless tractor.
15. Aircraft RFID tag identification.
16. Communication between aircraft and airport.
17. New concepts related to passenger boarding methods via passenger boarding bridges were
explored and were left at concept maturity level.

 Total Airport Management

The full integration between Airport and Network Operations has still to be achieved (airport
performance strongly depends on the performance of the Network). Management of predicted airport

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performance deterioration therefore needs to be aligned with the Network. Collaborative recovery
procedures and support tools in coordination with all the relevant ATM stakeholders are required to
facilitate the pro-active management of predicted performance deteriorations. Total Airport Demand
and Capacity Balancing processes and tools require further integration with the execution tools
(Arrivals and Departure Management systems and Advanced Surface Movement Guidance & Control
Systems) and resource allocation planning tools (Stand/Gate Allocation Planner).

Airport landside/airside performance monitoring and management processes need to be integrated

refining as well the turnaround monitoring within the Airport Operations Centre (APOC) in
coordination with the Airspace Users. Environmental impacts and all aspects of de-icing are currently
not integrated into the planning and execution timeframes of the Airport Operations Plan (AOP).

Impact assessment tools available to the APOC need to better integrate information about MET
forecast uncertainty. Post-Operations Analysis processes, support tools and reporting capabilities
need to be developed. This project has developed solutions that are expected to have a very positive
impact on the Network through:

 A performance-driven airport through KPIs monitoring and detection of deviations,

collaborative decisions using support tools and what-if functions, post-operations analysis
used as learning process. A Better situational awareness through SWIM information sharing,
enabling provision and reception of Airport CDM data including MET and AIM.
 A significant increase in the predictability, efficiency, environmental sustainability and flexibility
of airport operations.
 Better use of existing airport capacity.
 Increased safety in the airport environment due to reduced uncertainty of operations and
reduced congestion through better planning.

 META CDM

META CDM project has worked on laying the foundations for an extended CDM concepts that
integrates Landside and Airside CDM united into the concept of Total Airport CDM. The benefits of
this concept can be split into two areas.

 If the aviation system is operating normally or with mild delays passengers will receive more
information that enables them to streamline their journey and to reduce uncertainty; for
example, better estimates of when to leave home for the airport based on real-time
information about traffic, check-in and security queues.
 In case of a major disruption with long delays and/or cancelled flights, passengers benefit from
earlier and better information about any changes to their flight, and a greater range of
alternative options if their flight is cancelled.

 TITAN project
Titan project works to improve the turnaround process and expect to generate 2 % of operational
cost reduction.

 Fantasy project

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Fantasy project investigated the design of the aircraft as a combination of a “carrier” and a “passenger
pod” proposing 2 preliminary aircraft configurations and design studies: one that employs external
attachment of the pods (EPC-External Pod Configuration) and one that accepts the pods internally
(IPC-Internal Pod Configuration).

The project studied how the pod system contributes to reduce the turn-around time of the aircraft
thus minimizing waiting time for the passenger but most importantly increase the aircraft/passenger
throughput of the airport. As pods can be loaded in a convenient time before the in-bound aircraft is
ready for take-off, the whole process is not sequential and thus less prone to delays.

It also studied how the pod system might contribute to a seamless intermodal travel finding that the
most effective way to accomplish that is to develop dedicated automated lines to carry the pods
between the airport and city centre terminals where crossing to local transport can be easier. This
option facilitates both security and operational requirements.

2.4 Overall ground plus air travel time

*Flightpath 2050 goal 4: 90% of passengers within Europe are able to complete their journey,
door to door within 4 hours. Passenger and freight are able to transfer seamlessly between
transport modes to reach the final destination smoothly, predictably and on time”.

The goal 4 (section 2.4) is a combination of all other goals 1,2,3,5 (sections 2.1, 2.2, 2.3 and 2.5) in the
same set. Air travel times can vary significantly in Europe, from 1 hour in central Europe (Paris-
Frankfurt) to 4 hours between extremities of the continent (Lisbon-Bucharest). Assuming that most
flights do not exceed 2 hours, leaves within the four hour total time frame, 1 hour to travel to and
from the airport and go through airport services. This objective is achievable if all elements of the
chain perform nominally: (i) no take-off queue, no holding pattern at landing, no major weather or
ATM disruptions; (ii) efficient check-in, passport and security checks; (iii) fast luggage handling; (iv)
efficient airport ground movements and operations; (v) uncongested local transport to and from
home or work.

The Goals 3 and 4 are closely related and addressed as three Key Topics: 2.5 to 2.7.

1.1.1.5 KEY TOPIC T2.5 – AIR TRANSPORT AND OTHER MOBILITY CHOICES
Introduction

Goal 4 was defined in Flightpath 2050 as “90% of travellers within Europe are able to complete their
journey, door-to-door within 4 hours. Passengers and freight are able to transfer seamlessly
between transport modes to reach the final destination smoothly, predictably and on time”.

Comparing the scope in both Flightpath 2050 and SRIA it can be stated that both proposals are
coherent themselves. It is a key factor in air transport development that the total travel time decreases
substantially when passengers travel by plane. This key factor is not only focused on fulfilling
passenger’s requirements but also in competing with other transport modes that have gained market
share in short haul trips (about or below 700km).

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For example, since the 1980s, high speed rail (HSR) has become an important competitor to airlines,
presenting railway transport in a new form and notably improving the quality of the service offered.

Focusing in Spain, this problem has come a reality since the launch of AVE (acronym for Spanish High
Speed) in 1992 when it began to operate the route Madrid-Seville. During the last 25 years the number
of passengers has sharply increased reaching, for example, 3.23 millions of passengers on the Madrid-
Seville route in 2016 which supposes more than 89% of the market share against the air transport on
this route. This also happens on the Madrid-Barcelona route which has reached 7.4 millions of
passengers in 2016, meaning a 62% of the market share against the air transport. These differences
between air transport and high speed rail are due to the total travel time spending by the passengers
in each transport mode.

Benchmarks

Allowing passengers to be able to complete their journey to their destination within 4 hours is a
difficult task that includes a cluster of key factors to be improved. Since the beginning of the air
transport expansion in the 1990s until nowadays, all the systems and infrastructures related to air
transport have been involved in a steady process of improvement. Some examples of this
developments have been the construction of new runways in airports that needed more capacity to
accommodate the growth of flights or the implementation of new navigation systems on the aircraft.

Besides, this growth of passengers set a new desire of improving the connection of the airports with
the city centres, developing other transport modes like underground or train. Furthermore, other
issues related to the air transport capacity like airport ground infrastructure and air traffic
management should be also considered.

Researching new ways to get to the airports from the city centres nevertheless would be the first key
to actually reduce the travel duration. Relating to that, it would be interesting taking into account new
developments that are being made in unmanned aircraft and the systems that would allow them to
flight in the airspace over the cities and near the airports.

For example, several companies are researching new ways to transport people. One of this
breakthrough technologies in the use are the VTOLs (Vertical Take Off and Landing Aircraft) which
consist of a new concept of unmanned aircraft designed specifically to transport people. As example,
UBER is currently researching it, known as UBER Elevate, in order to implement it in the near future.

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Figure 30: Example of "veliport" concept designed by UBER

These VTOLs could allow to carry people from “veliports” (Figure 30) placed somewhere in the cities
to others “veliports” placed as nearest as possible to the airports.

In this manner, it is essential to involve both top manufacturer companies such as Airbus or Boeing
and also small companies in order to develop successfully these VTOLs, which will likely be developed
across a number of different speed and range capabilities. A VTOL optimized for shorter trips (less
than 50 miles) won’t require as much speed as a VTOL capable of meeting the needs of longer distance
commuters. As example, Airbus is developing a new VTOL concept named as “Vahana” (Figure 31)
with a flight range about 50 miles, seeing it as being used by everyday commuters as a cost-
comparable replacement for short-range urban transportation like cars or trains.
Figure 31: "Vahana" VTOL concept by Airbus

Therefore, also a new regulatory framework may be necessary concerning new UAVs, VTOLs and new
ATC systems. This new framework should be assessed in order to handle this exponential increase in
complexity, with low altitude operations being managed through new concept systems. One new
concept system could be a server request-like system that can de-conflict the global traffic, while
allowing UAVs and VTOLs to self-separate any potential local conflicts with VFR-like rules, even in
inclement weather. Some of new systems are already being developed, for example NASA (Figure 32)
is studying the entry of the UAS in the low-altitude airspace, taking into account UAS operations inside

95
uncontrolled Airspace (class G), UAS operations inside controlled airspace, but segregated from
controlled air traffic and UAS operations integrated into the controlled air traffic flows.
Figure 32: NASA’s concept for a possible UTM system.

This complete study could become important because UAS can be used for many tasks (Figure 34)
such as infrastructure monitoring, precision agriculture, public safety, search and rescue, disaster relief,
weather monitoring, and delivery of goods.
Figure 33: Applications of small UAS.

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Figure 34: Complete UTM architecture.

The second key to actually reduce the travel duration would be the improvement of the current
processes carrying out at the airports or even the design of a new system regarding both passengers
and luggage processes (Figure 34). These processes are, concerning the passengers: check-in, security
control, passport control and customs; concerning the luggage: security control, management and
customs.

Nowadays, airlines advise their passengers to get to the airport with enough time to boarding. For
example, Iberia set the following limit hours to check-in:

Distance Time Limit

Short and mid-haul 45 minutes

Long-haul 60 minutes

Apart from this time limit set by the airlines, the passengers have to bear in mind the time spent from
the start of their journey to the airport and also the time spent in going through the processes at the
airport, thereby passengers usually start their journey at least 2 hours before the estimated time of
departure. In the last few years some developments have been done in order to reduce the time
elapsed going through these processes: online check-in, new baggage screening devices as
RAPISCAN RTT™ 110 or new procedures which are being developed within Smart Security, a joint
project between IATA (International Air Transport Association) and ACI (Airports Council
International). The following solutions, some of which are now permanently installed and operational
in airports, have been or are being tested [5]: Innovative use and integration of advanced and new

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security technology and passenger processing systems, use of biometrics and data for passenger
differentiation, adaptable risk-based screening capabilities, dynamic lane screening, efficient resource
allocation, seamless integration of security processes into the passenger journey from curb to
boarding and process efficiencies.

Reference state in 2010

Since the beginning of the liberalization of air transport in Europe (1993), many projects related to the
facts stated above have been carry out. At the outset, as the growth of passengers was increasing
steady over time, the first step was to expand both airside and landside, consisting in building new
runways and more terminals. For example, in 1990 Amsterdam Airport Schiphol exceeded the 16-
million-passenger mark and further expansion thus became essential, since that moment a new
control tower was built in 1991, thus the opening of Terminal West in 1993 which meant an increase
of the Terminal capacity to a total of 32 million passengers a year. Since that, several expansions were
made until the opening of runway 18R-36L in 2003.

The same case as Schiphol was Madrid-Barajas Airport (Figure 35) which had only 2 crossed runways
until 1998 when new runway 18R-36L was built. Additionally, the expansion continued during the
following years with the opening of 2 new runways (18L-36R and 14L-32R), 2 new terminals (T4 and
T4S) and new connections with city centre by underground and train.

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Figure 35: Madrid-Barajas Airport in 1998 and in 2008, respectively.

Once the infrastructures were developed, the next aim in the outline was to improve the processes
carried out at the airports. Regarding these processes, many projects were set in order to develop
them.

For example, ASSET project (Aeronautic Study on Seamless Transport) defined the problem in 2008
as the insufficient punctuality in air transport was the high variance in off-block times. This is related
to the fact that off-block time is mainly driven by the duration of landside airport processes which
contain passenger processes, baggage handling processes and aircraft turnaround processes.

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As can be noticed, the turnaround related processes have been the main factor that have induced
delays in the air transport operation over the years. In order to decrease these percentages, researches
in this field have been essential: new procedures, new devices to screen both passenger and luggage
and so on. However, this cluster of processes still constrains the throughput of the air transport
operations nowadays and it will be studied in the next part.

Progress Up-to-now

Nowadays, all the different processes at the airports still remain as essential in air transport operations.
For example, in a 2015 global passenger survey by IATA, 90% of respondents indicated that they prefer
to check-in and reserve their seats before arriving at the airport, and nearly 50% prefer to use self-
bag drop service (Figure 35) for their check-in luggage. Thus it is essential to develop new systems
and concepts related to this matter and since 2010 several improvements have been done.

Figure 36: Self-bag drop at Hong Kong Airport.

As example, Hong Kong Airport has developed some new procedures and systems than allow
passengers to have a better experience in a seamless environment:

 Enabled home-printed bag tags due to completed trials for Radio-Frequency Identification
(RFID).
 Greater check-in convenience due to the launching of self-bag drop system, reducing baggage
processing time from 2-3 minutes to about 1 minute. In this manner, it is expected that 120
self-bag drop counters will be in operation by the end of 2017.
 Enhanced passenger traceability and security due to the installation of a Positive Boarding
System at all departure security checkpoints to capture boarding pass data of each passenger.
This data is used to improve airside security and operational efficiency, and airlines’ on-time
throughput.
 Began rolling out iBeacon technology to provide passengers with terminal directions, walking
times to gates, lounge access and boarding alerts via their mobile devices.

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  Faster baggage delivery due to a team deployed to monitor real-time baggage arrival flows
and set up rescue tractor team to help operators maintain service levels during temporary
shortfalls in manpower.
 Smoother immigration service at arrivals implementing real-time arrival passenger forecast,
enabling the Immigration Department to deploy resources more efficiently against real-time
demand.
On the other hand, another project has been carried out by Aruba (Figure 37), The Netherlands, Aruba
International Airport, KLM, VISION-BOX™ and Schiphol Group called Happy Flow. This project consists
of a streamlined sequence of user-centric self-service touch points, from check-in to boarding the
aircraft. At all passenger touch-points, the passenger’s face image is the identification token so that
passengers are only required to show their passport once, at check-in, when they also enrol their
biometric data. At that moment, a virtual Passenger Data Envelope is created, containing passenger
biometric and biographic information. After check-in, the passenger goes through baggage drop off,
pass border control and board the aircraft without being asked to show any travel document: user-
centric self-service Passenger Touch Points (Self-service Baggage Drop stations, Automated Border
Control eGates and self-boarding Gates) identify each passenger’s face and match it to the
passengers’ database, only allowing authorized passengers to move on.

The most important thing is that the process at each Passenger Touch Point only takes a few seconds
so queues are smaller if exist.

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 Figure 37: Different processes in Aruba Happy Flow.

1.1.1.6 KEY TOPIC T2.6 – OVERALL GROUND PLUS AIR TRAVEL TIME
Introduction

Europe is one of the densely populated continents on Earth. The European Union, political and
economic union of 28 member states has an area of 4,475,757 sq km with over 508 million inhabitants
in 2015 (Eurostat). Geographically, it is almost 4.200 km height and 5.600 km wide. These dimensions
define the framework of the market related to the European transportation.

Air transportation is considered to be the most efficient transportation mean and therefore has a
dominating position at long distances. It is also significant at short or medium distances, but upon
various factors influencing the passenger‘s mode selection criteria, it competes with rail and car
transport.

Air transport and flight movement

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In 2016, the total number of passengers travelling by air in the European Union could be established
at 973 million, an increase of 5.9 % compared to 2015. The intra-EU share in total transport could be
established at 47 %. It was the main destination ahead of extra-EU transport (36 %) and domestic
passenger transport (17 %). International intra-EU traffic at country level, as set out in the Table 10,
shows that for 2016, the top ten country-to-country flows in general remained stable compared with
201525.

Table 10: Intra-EU traffic at country level: top-10 country pairs represent 40 % of 2016 intra-EU traffic (Eurostat).

At European level (ECAC area), the traffic forecast for 2016 was in line with the September 2015
forecast with a growth of 2.4% (±1.4pp). For 2017 Figure 38), a growth of 2.1% is foreseen (±1.3pp).
Removing the effect of the leap year (±0.3pp); this in fact means that it was expected (Table 11) a
growth of 2.1% for 2016 and 2.4% for 2017. From 2018 onwards, European flight growth is expected
to remain stable at around 2.2% per year over the 2018-2022 period. The 2008 peak of 10.2 million
flights is forecasted to be reached again by 2017. The forecast is for 11.5 million IFR flight movements
(±1.2 million) in Europe in 2022, 16% more than in 2015.

25
Euroscat.

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Table 11: Summary of flight forecast for Europe (ECAC), (EUROCONTROL, 2016).
B-Base, H-High, L-Low

Figure 38: Flight forecast details for 2017 (EUROCONTROL, 2016).

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European Airports

A characteristic feature of the European air transport service market is the co-existence of several
large centres performing trans-continental links and a dense net of local links between the majority
of small cities and tourist resorts. According to a research report published in 2006, Europe has about
2570 airports and landing fields, from which 2100 is used by IFR movements26.

More particularly, out of the 2570 identified locations, Europe has 1270 airports and 1300 landing
fields.

Distance between city pairs

For European airports/landing fields the distribution of the distance between the airport pairs is shown
on the Figure 39. As visible, the most frequent distance is related to approximately 1000 km, while
there are only few potential links above 3000 km.
Figure 39: Distribution of the European airport pairs distances (Brusow et al., 2007)

Taking into account short distances between the European cities, transportation on the territory of
Europe is performed mainly over short and medium distances, with the domination of the first ones.
The European transport market is therefore, the area of competition between the road, rail and air
transport.

Travel time from city centre to airports

Seeing the facts above, it is clear the Europe has a significant amount of airports. On the other hand,
to assess the efficiency of the air transportation system, and more particularly once considering the

26
Eurocontrol, 2017.

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door-to-door time, it is also important to know, how far these airports are located from the European
city centres. As the Figure 40 indicates, it is clear that for almost 80% of the European cities, the nearest
airport is situated at 20 km. Such a short distance reflects that the general accessibility of the European
airports is high.

Figure 40: Cumulative distribution function of the city distance to the nearest airport
(Brusow et al., 2007).

This fact is also reflected by looking at top 10 airports in Europe, in terms of IFR flights27. London has
the most airfields nearby: 46 within 100 km. Barcelona has the fewest, only 4. As shown in the Table
12, the typical distance of these airports from the city centres (weighted by the number of flights) is
ranging between 14 and 24 km.

Number of Airfields Distance from City Total

within 100 Km of City Centre (weight
Centre average) Km Departures (k)

City

Amsterdam 31 16.2 244

Barcelona 4 19.3 185

Copenhagen 21 16.3 155

27
Eurocontrol, 2007

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 Frankfurt 33 13.8 258

London 46 33.9 603

Madrid 8 13.8 233

Munich 28 32.5 224

Paris 28 20.8 441

Rome 9 21.1 196

Vienna 13 23.5 145

Table 12: Airports and airfields of the 10 busiest European cities.

The DATASET2050 shows information about what the "doors" (e.g. houses, hotels, offices) are and
how much time it takes to go from the "door" to the airport "kerb" (and vice-versa). The results for
specific areas/airports are presented in the Tables 11 – 13:

The UK CAA has analysed this topic in great detail, with some 30 specific modes of transport available
to respondents, for 11 English airports (5 London and 6 provincial). Although the cost of obtaining
these complete data is beyond the available budget for this project, the publicly-available summary
report (CAA, 2014) provides the following:

Table 13: Surface access modes to UK airports (DATASET2050, 2016)

The French DGAC has also studied surface access in their 2014-2015 airport passenger survey (DGAC,
2015), covering 15 airports. Unfortunately, these data have been aggregated over all 15 airports. The
result of 33,655 responses by non-transfer passengers to the question of how people arrived at the
airport is given below:

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Table 14: French airport surface access modes (DATASET2050, 2016).

The German Airports Group (ADV) also performs passenger surveys. The latest "Airport Travel Survey
2015" (ADV, 2015) includes summary data on the modes of transport used by (all) passengers to
access one of the 22 airports in the study:

Table 15: Surface access mode share for 22 German airports (DATASET2050, 2016).

The Table 14 gives the mean and standard deviation (StD) speeds in km/h for both driving and public
transport travel modes and for chosen airport.

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Table 16: Driving and public transport speeds (km/h) by airport (DATASET2050, 2016).

The Table 14 provides an overview on the airport accessibility by rail of the 30 largest airports in
Europe, measured by total passengers in 2008. The geographical scope is the European Economic
Area and Switzerland.

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Table 17: Airport accessibility by rail for the 30 largest airports in the European Economic Area + Switzerland (DLR, 2010).

In the case of most of the 30 largest airports in Europe, passengers have a choice between different
public transport service providers for access between the centres of the respective cities and the
airports. Currently, 23 out of the 30 largest airports in the European Economic Area (including
Switzerland) have a direct rail access at or in the vicinity of the passenger terminal. A number of rail
access projects are currently being planned or under construction.

An airport should cover the area of economic transport value (a city, a place of people concentration,
tourist areas) in order to attract a certain group of passengers. In the territory of Europe with regard
to numerous airports, a strong competition between the airports develops in order to gain passengers,
new carriers and new air links. The zone of competition between the airports is the covering the
gravitation area of the neighbouring airports, called catchment areas. The value of the catchment area
of an airport – the area where passengers start their air travel from a certain airport or the point where
they reach their destination – is determined mainly by the time factor of getting to the airport. The
value of the gravitation area which influences the potential increase in the number of passengers,
raising its competitive position depends also on other factors, such as the convenience of the
connections with the land transport.

Taking a simplified assumption that the value of catchment areas is influenced mainly by the time
factor, while the travel time is the function of distance, the gravitation areas were determined for four
European airport categories, including small, medium, large and very large.

As the Figure 41 indicates, while generally the European airports could easily accessed, very large and
large airports could attract passengers even from several hundreds of kilometres.

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Figure 41: Cumulative distribution function of the population within catchment’s areas of airports and landing facilities (Brusow et al.,
2007)

For each airport it can be identified catchment area. In principle all the potential passengers from that
area (inhabitants, tourists, business travellers, etc.) would use that airport when taking a flight.
Catchment areas can be simply defined based on the distance to the airport. The distance (to be strict:
time-based distance) is measured in terms of travel time spent in the door-to-kerb process, which
ultimately depends on the mode of transport chosen. Catchment areas for Budapest airport is
presented in the Figure 42.
Figure 42: Budapest 60, 90 120 and 180 minute drive time.

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Delays distribution

A flight delay is when an airline flight takes off and/or lands later than its scheduled time. Usually, the
flight is considered to be delayed when it is 15 minutes later than its scheduled time. EUROCONTROL’s
Central Office for Delay Analysis (CODA) collects operational data from airlines operating IFR flights
in Europe. Delay monitoring and analysis is an important aspect of the airlines’ operational and
financial success. The cost of delay is estimated at €82 per minute of delay for delays in excess of 15
minutes28.

The cost of delay is calculated separately for strategic delays (those accounted for in advance) and
tactical delays (those incurred on the day of operations and not accounted for in advance). Tactical
delay costs are given for 5, 15, 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 240 and 300 minutes. These are scaled up to the
network level because on the day of operations, original delays caused by one aircraft (‘primary’
delays) cause ‘knock-on’ effects in the rest of the network (known as ‘secondary’ or ‘reactionary’.

The largest single group of delay reasons by total generated delay minutes are delays caused by airline
operational processes. They account for approximately 50% of the primary delays. This group is
followed by airport and en route delays which account for almost one-third of all delays. Weather
delays may vary by season.

Past situation

In Europe, in 2008, 15.2% of flights departed 5 minutes or more before their planned time and 60%
of flights departed within 5 minutes of the planned time. Of all delayed flights on departure 21.4%
were delayed by more than 15 minutes. On the other hand, 21.6% of flights arrived > 15 minutes after
the STA (scheduled date and time of arrival). In 2008, the Average Delay per Movement was 12.6
minutes, a decrease of 2.1% on 2007. In 2008, the reactionary/primary delay ratio was 0.83. This means
that for each minute of primary delay there was 0.83 minute of reactionary delay. In 2003 the ratio
was 0.23. This evolution indicates a loss in delay recovery for airlines.

The share of Airport, Weather, Security and Miscellaneous delays are presented on the Figure 2.78
ATFCM (Air Traffic Flow and Capacity Management) en Route delays increased by 3% in 2008
compared to 2007, and represents 13% of all primary departure delays.

Current situation

In 2016, the average departure delay per flight ranged from a low of 8 minutes per flight in February
to a peak of 16 minutes per flight in July. This translated to an annual average all-cause departure
delay of 11.3 minutes per flight, an increase of 0.9 minutes per flight, alongside an increase in daily
flights of 2.8% in ECAC. Reactionary (knock-on) delay increased contributing 5.1 minutes to the 11.3-
minute average delay per flight, a 45% share of delay minutes meaning for every 1 minute of primary
delay there were 50 seconds of reactionary delay generated. The range of reactionary delay during
the year was wider than airline delay, with a range of 4 minutes being observed from the lows in

28
Eurocontrol,2010.

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February of 3.5 minutes per flight and the high in June of 7.5 minutes per flight, a month which also
saw a peak in en route ATFM delay29.

In 2016, delays due to airline operations remained the main cause of primary delay, contributing 3.1
minutes to the average delay per flight. Compared to reactionary delay which doubled during the
summer month’s airline delays remain relatively stable with the 2016 monthly average ranging
between 2.5 to 3.5 minutes per flight. Airline reported en route ATFCM delays increased to 0.8 minutes
per flight. Airport operations delay including ATFCM, remained at 1.2 minutes per flight and grouped
together was the second highest cause in the share of primary delay. Yearly airline arrival punctuality
decreased, with 81% of flights arriving within 15 minutes or earlier than their scheduled arrival time
(STA) compared to 82% in 2015.

Analysis of the delay reasons in 2016 in comparison to 2015, shows that reactionary delays contributed
the most to the average with 5.1 minutes per flight (Figure 43). Airline-related delays increased slightly
by 0.1 minutes per flight. ATFCM en route delay had the third highest contribution with 0.8 minute
per flight increasing by 0.3 minutes per flight compared to 2015. Total ATFM delay reported by airlines
delay increased to 1.7 minutes per flight with en route restrictions mainly contributing to the overall
increase, Airline and airport delays remained stable, with weather delays slightly increasing in 2016.
Figure 43: Primary Delay Causes 2015 vs. 2016 (EUROCONTROL, 2017).

Delays from all-causes for Q3 2017 illustrates a poorer punctuality than that of Q3 2016 with 76% of
flights arriving on time compared to 79% in Q3 2016 (Figure 43). This translated to a quarterly average
all-cause departure delay of 15.1 minutes per flight, an increase of 2.6 minutes per flight on Q3 2016.

29 Eurocontrol,2017.

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A strong increase in daily flights of 4.8% in ECAC for the quarter is a common underlying factor in the
main reported causes:

 Reactionary (knock-on) delay increased by 19% contributing 6.8 minutes to the 15.1 minutes
average delay per flight, a 45% share of delay minutes.
 Delays due to airline operations remained the main cause of primary delay, contributing 3.8
minutes to the average delay per flight, a slight increase.
 Airlines reported that en route ATFM delays increased by 0.7 minutes per flight to 1.7 minutes per
flight, following industrial action in France during September. There were also ATC capacity and
en route weather issues affecting Karlsruhe and Maastricht UACs throughout the quarter.
 Airport operations delay including ATFM increased to 1.7 minutes per flight and was the second
highest cause in the share of primary delay behind airline causes.
Figure 44: Breakdown of the Average Delay per Delay Q3 2016 vs.Q3 2017 (EUROCONTROL, 2017)

1.1.1.7 KEY TOPIC T2.7 – FACTORS IN OVERALL AIR TRAVEL TIME

The projected uptick in world passenger traffic challenges the stakeholders involved to optimize the
current aviation system and find new solutions being able to cope with the promoted goals of
international regulators such as Flightpath 2050 and ACARE. Targets are four hours door-to-door for
90 % of travellers, a 40 % reduction of turn-around times by 2050, and the arrival and departure of
each aircraft should be accomplished within one minute of the scheduled time. Especially large
airports are located far from the city centre, resulting in long airport access times for passengers
combined with buffer times for uncertainties of durations for airport processes like security checks or
even unpredictability of airport access times.

Therefore, key enablers to reduce overall travel times are a reduction in airport access times, a
higher predictability of times accessing the airport and process times inside the terminal.

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The project addresses the EU passenger mobility in the context of the door-to-door (D2D) objectives
defined in the Flightpath 2050 vision. Specifically, the following is the list of overall objectives,
challenges and how these are being faced in the project:

• To provide useful insight into the door-to-door European travel paradigm through a
cutting edge data science approach for the present, 2035 and 2050 transport scenarios.
• Taking a passenger-centric approach, paving the way for a seamless and efficient door-to-
door travelling experience.
Through this approach, the focus is to analyse how the European transport supply profile (capacity,
connections, business models, regulations, intermodality, processes, and infrastructure) could adapt
to the evolution of the demand profile (customers, demographics, passenger expectations,
requirements).

• To identify European transport bottlenecks and improvement areas across the different
scenarios, through expert application of state-of-art predictive analytics, modelling,
statistical analyses, data visualisation, along with an examination of multimodal data.
• These findings will serve as a basis for the development of intermodal transport concepts
by identifying possible solutions for current and predicted shortcomings. The insights
gained through the project's approach will also highlight research needs for the four hour
door-to-door goal formulated by ACARE.
The performed tasks include:

• Looking at the requirements of the data to feed the DATASET2050 model at all its phases
(i.e. door-to-kerb, kerb-to-gate, gate-to-gate, gate-to-kerb and kerb-to-door);
• Conducting an intensive review on what data are available, together with analysing
temporal/geographical coverage, granularity, cost etc.;
• Designing and developing a visual tool that enables an easy exploration of the datasets
• Developing a data driven model capable of simulating the door-to-door processes;
• Completing the current demand profile, including the current mobility details (passenger
behaviour, demographics, passenger expectations, and requirements).
DATASET 2050 aims to have socio-economic impact in the context of how EU door-to-door
"transport" performs, and predicting how it will perform in the future. In the long term, DATASET2050's
outcome will contribute to fewer disruptions and smoother travel for passengers.

The first progress beyond the state-of-the-art is calculating what the current D2D mobility metrics
are. This way, a better holistic passenger-centric view will be accomplished, putting the first milestone
in the path of providing D2D quantitative metrics further than the already available qualitative
analyses.

In parallel, by using the data-driven model developed in the project, DATASET2050 will try to predict
what will be the bottlenecks in future mobility scenarios (2035 and 2050). This prediction will include
assessing and analysing how compressible the D2D sub-segments are; what are the potential futuristic
scenarios; which will tentatively be the future demand and supply profiles in transport etc.

The DATASET 2050 report provides a holistic view of the different, current supply-profile processes
involved in European journeys involving at least one air-transport segment. The most important
outcome is the amount of valuable data (both qualitative and quantitative) that can be used in
modelling, specifically for adequately modelling the current mobility-supply elements. The effort

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allocated has enabled the discovery and access to difficult-to-reach datasets and to plan how to model
the air transport supply profile. Following the DATASET2050 approach, the door-to-door process has
been divided into five simpler phases: door-kerb-gate-gate-kerb-door.

The outcomes of the DATASET 2050 report range from the provision of specific data about certain
airport processes (e.g. minimum times for different types of flight connection at an airport, the
different surface transport options available and their timings) to the scientific research done on how
to model the processes (e.g. catchment areas vs an airport feeder approach). The rationale, hypothesis,
scope, literature review and some specific case studies that enable an easy understanding of the
overall approach, are given in the main text sections of the reports whereas the data discovered in
quantitative research are presented in tables in the appendices.

According to DLR report regarding the Flightpath 2050 goal 4 the following elements are needed for
the assessment of the current state:

• European origin-destination passenger demand data matrix;

• Flight schedules;
• Train schedules (limited to air/rail code sharing);
• Ground access/egress times between NUTS regions and airports;
• Assumptions on process times (MCT, time from airport arrival to flight departure/flight
arrival until exit from airport).
The minimum travel time between regions consists of the following elements:

• travel time from the point of origin to the departure airport

• the process time required from the arrival of the passenger at the departure airport to the
scheduled time of departure (at)
• the flight time from the departure to the arrival airport– in case of a connecting flight, this
element also contains the flight time of the first flight segment, the transfer time at the
hub and the flight time of the second flight segment
• the process time required from the scheduled arrival time at the arrival airport to the point
in time when the passenger leaves the arrival airport (at);
• travel time from the arrival airport to the destination point.
Using scenarios to test the desired Flightpath2050 4-hour-goal the report concludes by using data
from “ETISplus“: Modelled origin-destination trip demand from EU project ETISplus and “Population
product“: Theoretical situation, in which each EU citizen visits each other EU citizen that already today
91.7% of travellers can complete their journeys within 4 hours (with 60 min MCT in air transport). Only
13.1% of trips would be completed within 4 hours if every EU citizen would try to reach each other EU
citizen.

The 91.7% value is due to the fact that most trips are over short distances, which can be completed
within 4 hours with car/rail modes. But, if a theoretical situation in which every EU citizen should have
the opportunity to visit every other EU is aspired, the goal has been achieved only to 13% (60minute
MCT) or 22% (45min MCT).

The conclusion of the DLR report is that a re-phrase of the Flightpath 2050 goal is required. The
proposed version states that “90% of travellers within Europe are able to complete their long-distance
journey of over 200km (or 250km or 300km...), door to door, within 4 hours”.

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2.5 Air Traffic Management (ATM) and weather
*Flightpath 2050 goal 5

“Flights arrive within 1 minute of the planned arrival time regardless of weather conditions.
The transport system is resilient against disruptive events and is capable of automatically and
dynamically re-configuring the journey within the network to meet the needs of the traveller if
disruption occurs. Special mission flights can be completed in the majority of weather,
atmospheric conditions and operational environments”.

The basic issue is overall ATM capacity, not only at airports and in terminal areas (goal 1 and section
2.1) but also en route, with spare capacity to cope with special missions, disruptions and weather
hazards. The air traffic capacity must be consistent with a very high level of safety, such as the ICAO
target level of safety (TLS) of probability of collision less 5E-9 per hour. The critical parameter is
separation between aircraft, in altitude, longitudinally or transversely in all flight conditions including
air corridors, crossing, climbing and descending flights and turn manoeuvres. The safe separation
limits the capacity available in a given airspace; increases in capacity can be obtained if the same or
higher level of safety can be achieved with smaller separation; this requires greater accuracy in
navigation and faster detection of position errors either random or due to use of inaccurate data.

The capacity available in each air space sector must be matched to allow the overall flow of traffic
along optimal or near optimal routes that minimize travel time, fuel consumption and emissions and
make air transport more convenient, economical and environmentally friendly. The weather effects
can be of very different nature: (i) an airport equipped with Instrument Landing System (ILS) should
not be affected by visibility conditions; (ii) a windshear warning at an airport will advise the transfer of
flights to other locations; (iii) a volcanic eruption causing a large ash cloud may divert air traffic over
a large area for a long time. With extreme weather events being not too frequent and adequate
weather forecasting and now casting the effects can be minimized to a statistically smaller effect.
Special mission flights or ultimately free flight in which each aircraft can choose its own route depend
on available capacity, the ability to the ensure safety and the reconfiguration of the airspace. While
reconfiguration is common practice within a sector its effect across sector boundaries may require an
overall adjustment of the ATM scenario. Improvements in navigation and communication may allow
all weather operations at airports without special equipment and an evolution from pre-planned
towards free flight.

1.1.1.8 KEY TOPIC T2.8 – WEATHER EFFECTS ON AIR TRAFFIC

Flight efficiency

Flight efficiency Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) measure the degree to which airspace users are
offered the most efficient trajectory on the day of operation. It is reported in Europe by the Central
Office for Delay Analysis (CODA) and in USA by the Department of Transportation. A first estimate of
the ATM-related contribution toward overall air transport performance, is identified by analysing the
reports of the main delays experienced by airlines

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Up to now, the pursuit of flight efficiency has been focused on assessing trajectory-based horizontal
measures in order to identify opportunities of ATM improvements in the European and US system.
More recently, the attention has shifted to address vertical flight profiles and the analysis of fuel-
efficient continuous descent operations. The ICAO has identified these aspects as the key steps to
improve the “efficiency spectrum”, and in particular, fuel-efficiency - costs, environment - emissions
that are directly related to fuel consumption. Lower fuel-burnt results in lower emissions, and
environmental noise effects. The reduction of descent – related noise is a positive factor for the traffic
growth and for the environmental pollution. Indeed, these operations will support the ambitious goals
set out for the contribution of aviation to the world-wide emissions.

ICAOs has identified 11 Key Performance Areas (KPAs) of interest in understanding overall ATM system
performance: Access and Equity, Capacity, Cost Effectiveness, Efficiency, Environmental Sustainability,
Flexibility, Global Interoperability, Predictability, Participation, Safety, and Security.

Weather hazards: frequency and severity

In-flight weather hazards (for the purpose of this report, “weather hazards” include weather conditions
as icing, strong wind, low visibility, snow, and so on) has become a difficult problem worldwide and
this impacts on Air Traffic Management (ATM) systems. For example, icing causes a significant drop
in the available airport capacity and may be the cause of accidents.

In USA the Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS) establishes air traffic related data and statistics
(see for example data on weather-dependent delay on the Figure 47), whereas in Europe such
information (also used for the purpose of market analysis) derives from different sources. For example,
Eurostat reports air traffic observed at EU-28 level, while information and data on air traffic at national
level are reported by the national civil aviation authorities or associated statistics agencies. Moreover,
both Europe and USA receive information on delay and operational data for scheduled flights from
airlines. These features are used for punctuality indicators of flight.

In many performance analysis indicators and modelling processes concerning atmospheric condition
adopted by US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) time periods are categorized in visual or
instrumental weather conditions (VMC/IMC).

All major airports are characterized by specific thresholds associated to visual, marginal or
instrumental approaches. It is, also, considered as a practical way of comparing weather changes over
time. Moreover, VCM/IMC provide a first-order observation of the primary criteria for defining
weather.

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Figure 45: US Weather’s Share of National Aviation System (NAS) Delays in the period. (2015).

At US airports, the higher frequency of instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) combined with
scheduling closer to visual meteorological conditions (VMC) are key elements to reduce winter delays.

As evident from the Figure 45, weather-dependent delays are more relevant during summer. This
variability may be related to scheduling (due to increased traffic?) and features like the heterogeneous
weather conditions in the different US states. Indeed, the strong jet stream winds in the winter and
convective weather in the summer impact overall predictability statistics.

It is important to note that the ATM performance depends on a number of factors and is affected by
meteorological conditions, such as visibility, wind, convective weather and so on and can vary
significantly by airport equipment (instrument approach system, radar, etc.), runway configurations
(wind conditions), and approved rules and procedures. In light of this, a key element of system
performance is to the impact on predictability of ATM, airline, and weather influences.

According to a recent document “2015 Comparison of ATM-related performance: U.S. – Europe”, both
in US and Europe, weather is the predominant element affecting the airport throughput and as
consequence of ATM - related departure restrictions. However, in Europe weather-related constraints
represent a smaller share of delays than in USA. Indeed, Europe has also a notable feature of capacity-
related delays that depend on capacity and staffing constraints. The difference between US and
European data may derive from the fact, that the US system adopts “homogenous” procedures owing
to the single service provider using the same tools and equipment, communication processes and so
on. By contrast, at the ATC level the European system and the provision of air navigation services is
still fragmented. Since 2004, Single European Sky (SES) initiative is aimed at reducing this
fragmentation and at improving efficiency and interoperability of the ATM system through the
creation of additional capacity. In addition, the susceptibility to weather events at the airport level, is
largely based on geographic location and traffic density.

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At system level, weather in Europe is less favourable than the US, but for airport related delays, the
percentage of delayed flights at the gate or on the surface is slightly higher in the US than in Europe.
The Figure 46 shows, the percent of time spent in marginal, visual and instrument flight in Europe and
the US in 2013 and in 2015 between 6AM-10PM local time.
Figure 46: Impact of weather conditions on flight operations in the US and Europe. (2015)

Both U.S. and Europe use an effective atmospheric conditions observation system, METAR, also known
as Meteorological Terminal Aviation Routine Weather Report or Meteorological Aerodrome Report,
to monitor the weather. It contains data on temperature, dew point, wind speed and direction,
precipitation, cloud cover and heights, visibility, and barometric pressure. Events such as rain showers,
thunderstorms and strong winds, occurring during periods with high visibility and clear skies, are not
assessed and ceiling and visibility provide only a preliminary step to measuring weather conditions.
However, additional efforts are required to relate weather conditions on airport and air traffic
performances and to develop a more comprehensive assessment of weather impact.

Over the period 2010-2015, the improvements on this issue in Europe have occurred mainly because
of a notable reduction of ATM-related departure delay, enhancements in taxi-out procedures, and
better en route flight efficiency. It is important to point out that in 2010 high delays in Europe have
been originated not only by adverse weather, but also by Air Traffic Control (ATC) strikes. On the other
hand, the performance improvement in the US can be mainly associated to a substantial improvement
in taxi-out efficiency. Between 2013 and 2015 the total ATM-related ground delay in the US decreased
by 12.7%, while a notable performance deterioration in Europe was attributable to a significant
increase in capacity/volume related delays. However, it is worth noting that also events such as
temporary maintenance of runway or dependencies with traffic flow of nearby airports during good
weather may influence the performances.

As it concerns the route and traffic re-orientation under severe weather conditions in USA, Severe
Weather Avoidance Plan (SWAP) routes have been pre-validated and coordinated. SWAP is a

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formalized program that is developed for areas where weather hazards, like thunderstorms may
produce disruption in air traffic flows. In Europe, EUROCONTROL is responsible for a reference
document, named the RAD- Route Availability Document, containing the policies, procedures and
description for route and traffic orientation. The compatibility with national procedures ensures each
State with regard to the airspace organisation.

As it concerns the apparatuses employed to assist the air operations, especially under severe weather
conditions, the (ILS) Instrument Landing System is a lateral and vertical beam aligned with the runway
centreline in order to guide aircraft to the runway threshold for landing. To maintain the signal
integrity of the Instrument Landing System (ILS) the Low Visibility Procedures (LVPs) require increased
spacing between aircraft, which in turn reduces throughput. As illustrated in the Figure 47 throughput
rates depend on visibility conditions and are reduced significantly when LVPs have to be adopted. The
analysis of performances associated to meteorological conditions provides an indication of weather
impact on air traffic and put in evidence the airports mostly affected by weather:
Figure 47: Impact of visibility conditions on runway throughput. (2015).

 ATFM delay attributed to weather at US and European arrival airports

The Air Traffic Flow Management (ATFM) is established to support Air Traffic Control (ATC) for an
optimum flow of traffic. This is a service provided by the appropriate authority to promote safely,
orderly and expeditious flow of air traffic.

Figure 48 the average airport arrival ATFM delay at system level for the main 34 airports in Europe
and USA between 2008 and 2015 are shown. For Europe all ATFM delays are included, whereas for
the US only delays equal or greater than 15 minutes are included.

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Figure 48: Causes of weather-related airport ATFM delays in the period 2008-2015.

When weather-related restrictions are present, higher ATFM delays per arrival can be observed for US
compared to Europe. Major contributors to the delays in US are airports with high demand and highly
variable capacity. Both in Europe and US, the main cause of delay is visibility, followed by wind, winter
operations and thunderstorms. Overall, in the US between 2013 and 2015 weather related airport
ATFM delays continuously decreased, whereas in Europe they have been characterized by almost the
same (lower than in USA) values.

A high average weather-related airport arrival delay is usually the result of a notable capacity
reduction in bad weather combined with a high level of demand.

Briefly the impact of weather on operations at an airport and as consequence on ATM performance
can vary significantly in different airports and depends on a number of factors such as, airport and
ATM equipment, runway configurations (wind conditions) and approved rules and procedures.
Overall, the analysis of meteorological reports suggests that weather conditions at the main 34
airports in Europe are, on average, less favourable than in the US.

Percentage of airports with ILS

An Instrument Landing System (ILS) in the Airport is fundamental to enhance the reliability of landings
in adverse weather conditions and to improve regularity of service, in particular, during periods of
worst weather conditions. According to the European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
(EGNOS) Bulletin, only the major airports are equipped with ILS. EGNOS is a system developed by
European Commission, European Space Agency and EUROCONTROL, consisting of a network of
satellites to increase the accuracy and integrity of GPS data for improving existing services or

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developing a wide range of new services. As an example, Italian Airports with ILS CAT III are 28 out
of 39 (7 not having ILS, 4 having localizer)30.

30 ENAV, 2013.

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3 Maintaining and extending industrial
LEADERSHIP

In order to maintain and extend its leading position in the aeronautical sector (3.1) the European
industry must master each of a wide range of technologies (3.2) as well as their integration in an
aircraft design and development program (3.3).

3.1 Retaining and strengthening market share

Flightpath 2050 goal 6: “The whole European aviation industry is strongly competitive, delivers
the best products and services worldwide and has a share of more than 40% of the world
market”.

The European aeronautical industry has achieved and sustained a near peer position with its
worldwide competitors in the most important sectors:

 The Airbus-Boeing ‘duopoly’ dominates the market for jet airliners of more than 120 seats,
with a full range of narrow and wide body aircraft;
 ATR is a leading supplier in the regional aircraft market;
 Airbus Helicopters (formerly Eurocopter) and Agusta-Westland are market leaders in
helicopters;
 Safran and Rolls-Royce rival Pratt & Whitney and General Electric in aero-engines:
 In the equipment sector Liebherr, Safran, GKN and others are major suppliers of European and
non-European aircraft;
 Dual use and specific technologies ensure an equally strong position in the world market for
military aircraft, missiles, space launchers and satellites.
These impressive achievements across the full range of aeronautical products depends on:

a. Leading-edge technologies in all the sectors contributing to the design of aeronautical

vehicles;
b. Integration of all these cutting-edge technologies in efficient aircraft production, certification
and service support programmes.
These two aspects (a. and b.) are detailed in the next two sections (3.2 and 3.3). The aviation sector
combines competition and collaboration in a worldwide context (Key Topic T3.1).

1.1.1.9 KEY TOPIC T3.1 - COLLABORATION STRUCTURE OF AEROSPACE FIELD BASED ON WEB OF
SCIENCE DATABASE
F In this report it is aimed to visualize the Aerospace Engineering field based on three categories as
country, institution, and Web of Science categories by using co-occurrence matrices. By the way,
international scientific collaboration networks can be demonstrated on the national, institutional and
sub-field levels. All visuals are prepared by using VOSviewer software.

Data is downloaded from Web of Science Database by using the “WC= (“Aerospace, Engineering”)”
query with last ten years limitation. By the way, 57.982 publications in the Web of Science Category in
last decade is reached.

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International Collaboration Networks

First visual is prepared for understanding the international collaboration network as demonstrated in
Figure 49:
Figure 49: International Collaboration Networks with Document Frequency

As can be seen in the Figure 49, there are 6 clusters demonstrated with different colours. The node
size is showing the publication frequency. It is clear that the largest frequency is coming with USA. It
can be asserted that European countries dominate four clusters except Israel’s and the USA’s. England,
France, Germany, Netherlands, Italy, Spain, Belgium, Switzerland can be determined as main actors in
their clusters. This may be understood as the created innovation policy in EU level should be more
diffusion-oriented not mission-oriented, because it is thought that national technological capabilities
of aerospace engineering may not be collectivized but information and experience may. So, multi-
objective policies may be more suitable than one. Hence, every cluster can gain excellence in different
subfields and the experience and knowledge may be aggregated in a shared platform for aviation
industry of EU. Moreover, from the Figure 49, it can be interpreted that, China’s development may be
analysed specifically to give insight for developing EU Aerospace Innovation policy also.

Collaboration Network of Institutions

Second visualization is prepared to understand the institutional collaboration network worldwide and
demonstrated in Figure 50:

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Figure 50: Institutional Collaboration Network

As can be seen in the Figure 50, there are many universities and research centres located in the map.
European cluster can be identified here with blue coloured group. Two clusters are consisting the US
universities and research centres. One is dominated by NASA and the other one is shared by some
universities and United States Air Force.

Collaboration Networks in Aerospace Engineering Sub-Fields

Finally, last visual is prepared for understanding the research space of aerospace engineering by using
the co-occurrences of different web of science categories. The prepared visual is demonstrated in
Figure 51:

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Figure 51: Collaboration Networks Based on Web of Science Categories

Naturally, main web of science category is aerospace engineering and it is the central node of the
network. Clusters are covering these fields;

1. Mechanical engineering including biomedical engineering, robotics and manufacturing;

2. Physics, automation, telecommunications, electric-electronic and computer science;
3. Materials science optics, Nano-science, remote sensing;
4. Energy, polymer science;
5. Acoustics, thermodynamics; environmental studies, geology.

From the visual, it can be asserted that physics, computer science and materials engineering are
intersection fields. Therefore, including these fields may boost the collaborative studies while
preparing funding policy for aerospace innovation.

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3.2 Cutting-edge at the full range of technologies
* Flightpath 2050 goal 7: “Europe will retain leading edge design, manufacturing and system
integration capabilities and jobs supported by high profile, strategic, flagship projects and
programmes which cover the whole innovation process from basic research to flight
demonstrators”.

The design of a successful aircraft does not tolerate any less than first-rate solutions in an extensive
range of 10 technologies. Only a few examples of each are given:

 Flight physics: This covers the most efficient aircraft designs, either refinements of the
conventional tube-and-wing configuration whose development potential is not yet exhausted
or more radical designs (flying wings, joined wings, flush or buried engines, hybrid and
distributed propulsion) that hold greater promises and challenges.
 Aerodynamics: Advances in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD), wind tunnels and flight
testing, concerning optimization of overall aircraft configurations and critical aspects like wing
design, laminar flow, turbulent transition, shock waves, vortex wakes and their interactions;
 Propulsion systems including prop-fans and open rotors, high by-pass ratio turbofans,
turboprops and turboshafts, hybrid and distributed propulsion over a wide range of thrust and
power usable in various flight regimes;
 Lightweight structures able to withstand flight and landing loads, resist flutter and incorporate
load alleviation features, with acceptable production and maintenance costs;
 Selective use of the most appropriate metals, alloys, composites, ceramics and other materials
for airframes, engines and highly stressed or intensely heated components;
 Efficient production methods allowing fabrication and joining of sub-assemblies with tight
tolerances and high-quality finish;
 Avionic systems including sensors, emitters, receivers, power supplies, signal conditioning and
other features relevant to optimal navigation, weather and hazard detection and the
accomplishment of a variety of missions;
 Integrated control for flight stability of high gain responsive systems, digital engine control,
structural load alleviation, automatic navigation, safety protection and other features;
 Distributed, centralized or embedded computation and data processing capabilities in open
architectures amenable to the incorporation of new components to enhance performance
without degrading safety and reliability;
 Telecommunication systems for navigation and seamless integration into ATM, data exchange
with the ground and other platforms, with resistance to jamming, electromagnetic interference
and cyber-attacks;
 The whole range of support equipment including electric, pneumatic and mechanical
actuators, air conditioning and pressurization, undercarriage and control of movable surfaces,
fault diagnosis and ground support.
Since a substandard mastery of only one of these technologies can cripple an aircraft design and
doom its market prospects, it is imperative to keep at the forefront of all these 10 technologies to
avoid being caught off guard by a competitor. Also these technologies must be ready for integration
in new competitive products at any time required to maintain market leadership in a new development
programme (section 3.3).

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The competitiveness of the aerospace industry depends on mastering cutting edge technologies over
a wide range of subjects (Key Topic T3.2). An indicator of innovation in aviation as in other sectors are
the patents in related subjects (Key Topic T3.3).

1.1.1.10 KEY TOPIC T3.2 – CUTTING-EDGE AT THE FULL RANGE OF TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction

Modern Europe is facing a number of challenges, among which is the introduction of innovative
technological solutions to the European aviation market. The necessity to introduce new technological
solutions results from the needs of society, new technologies that have appeared and new types of
transport means and air transport systems.

Societal needs should be understood, among other things, as:

 The growing demand for air transport services,

 Expectations of increasing the availability of transport services (geographical, economic, etc.),
 Reducing the impact of air transport on people and the whole natural environment,
 Improvement of safety,
 Others.
New technologies that have appeared should be understood, among other things, as:

 New materials and fabrication technologies,

 New types of power units,
 New types of energy storage sources,
 New information technologies,
 New design technologies,
 New technologies in the area of management,
 Others.
New types of transport means and air transport systems should be understood, among other things,
as:

 Implementation and integration of flights of manned and unmanned aircraft in the common
airspace,
 New air transport systems (small air transport system, sat system),
 Vertical take-off and landing aircraft,
 New take-off and landing technologies,
 Others.
The answer to these challenges are the two aviation programs currently being implemented in Europe.

The first one is Clean Sky 2, the largest European research programme developing innovative, cutting-
edge technology aimed at reducing CO2, gas emissions and noise levels produced by aircraft. Funded
by the EU’s Horizon 2020 programme, Clean Sky contributes to strengthening European aero-industry
collaboration, global leadership and competitiveness.

The second one is SESAR 2020, demonstrating the viability of the technological and operational
solutions already developed within the SESAR R&I Programme (2008-2016) in larger and more
operationally-integrated environments. SESAR 2020 will prioritise research and innovation in a

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number of areas, namely integrated aircraft operations, high capacity airport operations, advanced
airspace management and services, optimised network service performance and a shared ATM
infrastructure of operations systems and services. Additionally, in order to cope with the expected
evolution of air traffic, SESAR is planning to go one step beyond the 2020 vision in relation to airspace
management, based on a digital environment highly connected and automated

In addition to the two main programs, smaller programs were accomplished or are currently
developing, solving some of the selected problems mentioned before. Among them it can be pointed:

 EPATS (European Personal Air Transportation System) continued in the frame of Small Air
Transport Roadmap (SAT-Rdmp),
 FUSETRA (Future Seaplane Traffic)
 GABRIEL (Integrated Ground and on-Board system for Support of the Aircraft Safe Take-off
and Landing),
 ERA (Enhanced RPAS Automation).
 AGILE
 CAPPADOCIA
 EBSF_2 – EUROPEAN BUS SYSTEM OF THE FUTURE 2

Clean Sky 2

The Clean Sky 2 Programme consists of four different elements, as shown in the Figure 52.:

 Three Innovative Aircraft Demonstrator Platforms (IADPs) for Large Passenger Aircraft (LPA),
Regional Aircraft and Fast Rotorcraft, operating demonstrators at vehicle level,
 Three Integrated Technology Demonstrators (ITDs), looking at Airframe, Engines and Systems,
using demonstrators at system level,
 The Technology Evaluator (TE), assessing the environmental and societal impact of the
technologies developed in the IADPs and ITDs,
 Two Transverse Activities (Eco-Design, Small Air Transport (SAT)), integrating the knowledge
of different ITDs and IADPs for specific applications.

Figure 52: Structure of the Clean Sky 2 Programme (CS2, 2015)

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Large Passenger Aircraft IADP

Large Passenger Aircraft goal is high-TRL demonstration of the best candidates to accomplish the
combined key ACARE goals with respect to the environment, fulfilling future market needs and
improving the competitiveness of future products. The focus is on large-scale demonstration of
technologies integrated at aircraft level in three distinct ‘Platforms’:

 Platform 1 “Advanced Engine and Aircraft Configurations”

 Platform 2 “Innovative Physical Integration Cabin – System – Structure”
 Platform 3 “Next Generation Aircraft Systems, Cockpit and Avionics”

Regional Aircraft IADP

Regional aircraft are a key element of Clean Sky through a dedicated ITD - Green Regional Aircraft
(GRA), providing essential building blocks towards an air transport system that respects the
environment, ensures safe and seamless mobility, and builds industrial leadership in Europe.

The following demonstration programmes for regional aircraft a/c are now foreseen:

 2 Flying Test-beds (to minimize the technical and programme risks) using modified existing
regional TP a/c with underwing mounted engines, for demonstration campaigns of: air vehicle
configuration technologies; wing structure with integrated systems and propulsion
integration; flight dynamics, aerodynamic and loads alleviation; advanced flight controls and
general systems, and avionics functionalities.
 Large Integrated Ground Demonstrators: full-scale wing, full-scale cockpit; full-scale fuselage
and cabin; all including their associated systems; flight simulator; iron bird. In addition a
Nacelle ground demonstrator will be done in the Airframe ITD.
The Demonstration Programme will be divided into technologically compatible and “scope close”
demonstrations sub-programmes:

 FTB1 - Innovative Wing and Flight Controls (Regional IADP)

 FTB2 - Flight Demonstration of a high efficient and low noise Wing with Integrated Structural
and related Systems solution, including power plant aspects (Regional IADP)
 Full-scale innovative fuselage and passenger cabin (Regional IADP)
 Flight Simulator (Regional IADP)
 Iron Bird (Regional IADP)
 Ground Demonstration of the wing (Airframe ITD)
 Ground Demonstration of the Cockpit (Airframe ITD)
 Nacelle ground demonstration (Airframe ITD)

Fast Rotorcraft IADP

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The Fast Rotorcraft IADP consists of two separate and concurrent demonstrators, the Tiltrotor
demonstrator and the Compound Rotorcraft demonstrator, along with transversal activities relevant
for both fast rotorcraft concepts.

Airframe ITD

Aircraft level objectives on greening, industrial leadership and enhanced mobility, and the fulfilment
of future market requirements and contribution to growth cannot be met without strong progress on
the airframe. Within Clean Sky, a more efficient wing with natural laminarity, optimised control
surfaces and control systems, will have been demonstrated. Also novel engine integration strategies
will have been derived and tested, and innovative fuselage structures investigated.

Programme major Technology Streams:

 Innovative Aircraft Architecture, to investigate some radical transformations of the aircraft

architecture.
 Advanced Laminarity as a key technological path to further progress on drag reduction, to be
applied to major drag contributors: nacelle and wing.
 High Speed Airframe, to focus on the fuselage & wing step changes enabling better aircraft
performances and quality of the delivered mobility service, with reduced fuel consumption
and no compromise on overall aircraft capabilities.
 Novel Control, to introduce innovative control systems & strategies to gain in overall aircraft
efficiency.
 Novel Travel Experience, to investigate new cabins including layout and passenger oriented
equipment and systems.
 Next Generation Optimized Wing Boxes, leading to progress on the aero-efficiency and the
ground testing of innovative wing structures.
 Optimized High Lift Configurations, to progress on the aero-efficiency of wing, engine
mounting & nacelle integration for aircraft who needs to serve small, local airports thanks to
excellent field performance.
 Advanced Integrated Structures, to optimize the integration of systems in the airframe along
with the validation of important structural advances and develop and to make progress on the
production efficiency and manufacturing of structures.
 Advanced Fuselage to introduce innovation in fuselage shapes and structures, including
cockpit & cabins.

Engines ITD

The following platforms or demonstrators are now foreseen:

 Open Rotor Flight Test,

 Ultra-High Propulsive Efficiency (UHPE) demonstrator addressing Short/Medium Range
aircraft market,
 Business aviation/Short range regional Turboprop Demonstrator,
 Advanced Geared Engine Configuration (HPC and LPT technology demonstration),
 VHBR Large Turbofan demonstrator,

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  Very High Bypass Ratio (VHBR) Middle of Market Turbofan technology,
 The Small Aero-Engine Demonstration.

Systems ITD

The Systems ITD in Clean Sky 2 will address these challenges through the following actions:

 Work on specific topics and technologies to design and develop individual equipment and
systems and demonstrate them in local test benches and integrated demonstrators (up to TRL
5).
 Customisation, integration and maturation of these individual systems and equipment in
IADPs demonstrators.
 Transverse actions will also be defined to mature processes and technologies with potential
impact on all systems, either during development or operational use.

Technology Evaluator

In summary, the Technology Evaluator consists of three major tasks:

 Progress Monitoring of Clean Sky 2 achievements vs. defined environmental and societal
objectives;
 Evaluation at Mission Level by integrating particular ITD outputs into TE concept aircraft /
rotorcraft models;
 Impact Assessments at Airport and ATS Level using IADPs and TEs concept aircraft / rotorcraft
models.

Eco-Design Transverse Activity

Eco-Design will aim for a roadmap of excellence, to provide high (European) individuality in quality
and eco-compliance in the aeronautics vehicles, in their whole product life.

Key Eco-Design & Recycle themes:

 Identification and Life Information Strategy,

 MPR
 manufacture & production, services to component and system (MRO, Finances/IT Know-How,
limited life and extended life integration, inside-outside gate synergy processes)
 Integration/field-assembly-disassembly-separation
 RE-Use, End of Life, Alternative Sectoral Applications
 Use Phase (TE feed-back, vehicle utilization closure; eco-values).

Small Air Transport (SAT) Transverse Activity

The SAT Initiative proposed in Clean Sky 2 represents the R&T interests of European manufacturers
of small aircraft used for passenger transport (up to 19 passengers) and for cargo transport, belonging
to EASA´s CS-23 regulatory base.

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The approach builds on accomplished or running FP6/FP7 projects. Key areas of societal benefit that
will be addressed are:

 Multimodality and passenger choice.

 More safe and more efficient small aircraft operation.
 Lower environmental impact (noise, fuel, energy).
 Revitalization of the European small aircraft industry.

SESAR 2020

The SESAR Vision identifies improvement areas where operational improvements supported by
technical solutions will bring performance gains according to the performance expected in Single
European Sky High-Level Goals, as set out in the European ATM Master Plan. These goals being
threefold increase in ATM capacity, improve safety by a factor of 10, 10% reduction of the effects on
the environment and a reduction of the cost for ATM services by 50%.

The realisation of the SESAR target concept follows strategic orientations described by four Key
Features:

 Optimised ATM Network Services – it feature will include activities in the areas of advanced
airspace management, advanced Dynamic Capacity balancing and optimised Airspace User
operations/UDPP. Innovative solutions are needed to better understand and improve the
robustness (resistance to perturbations including meteorological perturbations) and resilience
of the network.
 Advanced Air Traffic Services - the activities under Advanced Air Traffic Services will address
enhanced arrivals & departures, separation management, enhanced air & ground Safety Nets
and trajectory and performance based free routing. RPAS will be integrated into controlled
airspace, enabled by suitable technical capabilities and procedures. Their trajectories are
planned as compatible with the ATM network, and provide an appropriate level of awareness
for ATC.
 High Performing Airport Operations - the activities under this feature will address the
enhancement of runway throughput, integrated surface management, airport safety nets, total
airport management and remote tower for multiple airports. As airports remain one of the
most significant bottlenecks in ATM and therefore represent great potential for system-wide
improvement a significant focus will be placed on realising improvements.
 Enabling the Aviation Infrastructure - the enhancements described in the first three Key
Features will be underpinned by an advanced, integrated and rationalised aviation
infrastructure providing the required technical capabilities in a resource efficient manner. This
feature will rely on enhanced integration and interfacing between aircraft and ground systems,
including ATC and other stakeholder systems such as flight operations and military mission
management systems. Communications, Navigation and Surveillance systems, SWIM,
Common Support Services and the evolving role of the human will be considered in a
coordinated way for application across the ATM system in globally interoperable and
harmonised manner. Currently, RPAS operations are not routinely integrated into the ATM

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 environment. The successful integration of RPAS, General Aviation (GA) and Rotorcraft with
the commercial air traffic is a major activity in this feature.

Beyond SESAR 2020

In addition to the 2020 vision, SESAR is planning to go one step further in the way airspace is
managed currently, in order to cope with the expected evolution of air traffic. According to SESAR,
in the coming years, the future European transport system will be an intelligent system highly
connected and automated, which will rely on technological advances and enhanced services. In this
digital future, SESAR intends to build and modernize the right air traffic management infrastructure
to support operations with the objective of harnessing the potential of the sector.

This aviation infrastructure will be built on safe and secure solutions characterised by:

 Higher levels of autonomy and connectivity of all air vehicles

 Advanced communications, sensors and navigation services that provide real-time trajectory
information
 Digital and automated tools on board the air vehicle itself
 Big data analytics and open source data usage that allow better flight planning, airport operations
and increased predictability of the overall traffic.
 System modularity to allow easier upgrades and greater interoperability as well as system flexibility
to handle increasing number of vehicles.

In order to achieve the previous objectives, SESAR will take as a base several pillars that foster a
collaborative and innovative model. One of these key factors is bringing new entrants to the aviation
system (digital start-ups, SMEs, academia, research centres, other industries) and setting up a
collaborative environment between them and the established aviation players. The result will be a
new mode of public-private partnership which blends corporate and academic values, giving rise to
innovative ideas. Additionally, other SESAR’s pillar is the acceleration of the innovation lifecycle from
30 years to 5 years (e.g. remote towers, extended arrival management, in a way that allows to be
more agile and responsive to emerging trends. All these aspects will be based on an extensive
worldwide outreach through cooperative agreements with key regions and relevant organisations.

OTHER PROJECTS

A few projects outside the Joint Undertakings (JUs) Clean Sky and SESAR are given as examples:

EPATS

Date: 2007-01-01 to 2008-06-30

The EPATS (European Personal Air Transportation System) focused on the future Highly Customer
Oriented and Time, and Cost Efficient Air Transport System. It fills niche between Surface and
Scheduled Air Transport. Future mobility cannot be satisfied only through investments in hub and
spoke, or rail - and highway systems.

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This future EPATS system will provide a wide choice of transportation mode and the wider use of small
aircraft, served by small airports, to create access to more communities in less time.

The goal of the EPATS proposal was to demonstrate the needs and potential of small aircraft business
development and to propose recommendations for the introduction of this new European Air
Transportation System in the context of the European Research Areas.

The EPATS study addresses the following issues:

 The potential new market for personal aviation up to 2020.

 The potential impact of this new way of transport on the European ATM, and airport
infrastructures, as well as the environmental, safety and security issues involved.
 The EPATS general specification and R&D Roadmap
 The studies will be carried out by a Consortium supported by representative experts of the
EPATS stakeholder community.
The deliverables of these studies were rapports containing a joint vision of the personal air
transportation system in Europe to 2020 and proposals for developing this new small aircraft business
at a European level.

The EPATS SSA proposal fitted in the framework of FP6-2002-Aero-2.

SAT-Rdmp

Date: 2011-01-01 do 2013-03-31

The Small Air Transport (SAT) focused on the new affordable, accessible, energy effective component
of Air Transport System (ATS). It fills niche between Surface Transport and Scheduled Large Aircraft Air
Transport.

This future SAT system will provide enlarge choice of transportation mode, and the wider use of small
aircraft served by small airports will provide access to transport to more communities in a cost
effective way and in a short time.

The goal of the SAT-Rdmp study (CSA-SA) proposal was to improve the understanding of the
commercial role that small-size aircraft operating on scheduled or non-scheduled flights, as a
component of the Air Transport System, in order to satisfy the needs of transportation in regions
where transport networks (especially surface transport) are underdeveloped.

Main issues of the SAT-Rdmp study (CSA-SA) proposal were:

 Definition of a common vision of the small aircraft transport system for inter-regional mobility
through the identification of the corresponding requirements. The requirements identify the
technology needs and regulatory issues to be addressed.
 Definition of a business case compliant with the identified requirements which describes the
relations among all the system’s components.
 Assessment of current capabilities versus the ATS demand, collection of previous results and
involvement of the stakeholders in Europe among all actors (manufacturers, research
establishment, EASA, airspace users, infrastructure providers, airport managers, small aircraft
service providers).

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  Definition of a roadmap to fill the technology/regulatory/operative gaps in order to fulfil the
requirements considering the current capabilities. Identification of dissemination actions and
establishment of a network of stakeholders.
 Assessment of risks and benefits of the identified new system’s concept.
The SAT-Rdmp study (CSA-SA) was a very important tool to support the European Commission in
defining appropriate actions and a roadmap to implement the Agenda for Sustainable Future in
Business and General Aviation. This was recommended by the EU Parliament Resolution on 3rd
February 2009.

The SAT-Rdmp study (CSA-SA) was building the European synergy in that segment of Air Transport
System, and was created European General Aviation Community by discussing, agreeing, finding
common approach of European Key Players: Users, ATM, Manufacturers, Regulators, Research
establishments.

The SAT-Rdmp study used the results from the previous EPATS (European Personal Air Transportation
System) project. It also kept in close contact to the PPLane (Personal Plane) project funded by the
Commission. Organisations that were involved in the EPATS and PPlane projects were also involved
in SAT-Rdmp. This prevented a situation that studies were done twice and were ensure that SAT-
Rdmp is complementary.

The SAT-Rdmp (CSA-SA) proposal fitted in the framework of FP7-AERONAUTICS and AIR TRANSPORT
(AAT)-2010-RTD-1 Topic AAT.2010.7-12 “Assessing and further developing the role of small aircraft in
the air transport system”.

FUSETRA

Date: 2009.12.01 - 2011.08.31

The general objective of the FUSETRA project was to demonstrate the needs and to quantify the
potential of seaplane traffic business development, and to propose recommendations for the
introduction of new seaplane/amphibian transportation system, in the context of the European
Research Area like the improvement of passenger’s/customer’s choice for better time and cost
efficient travel and transport. The main objectives were:

 Identification of possibilities to improve seamless travelling by implementation of seaplane

transportation systems within the European air- & landside transportation infrastructure
(connectivity of possible seaplane harbours to other means of transportation).
 Development of solutions which will be ready for implementation by ensuring passenger
acceptance (Evidence of seamless travel, flight time reduction, reduced operational cost,
reduced travel charges, operational safety, better access to international air traffic).
 Identification of reduced environmental impact of air transport by developing solutions for
point-to-point seaplane operations (De-congestion of major airports, seaplane routes over
uninhabited areas).
 Propositions for enabling uniform implementation (EC wide) of the chosen seaplane
operational system (Regulatory issues, water landing fields, etc.).
 Improvement of the accessibility of regions by serving business as well as private mobility by
new seaplane/amphibian connection.

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  Identification of number of seaplanes or amphibians needed to replace existing aeroplanes,
and needed to satisfy the potential new demand.
 Improvement of trans-national co-operation by organising international workshops.
FUSETRA contributed substantially to the objectives of the EC policies, society and the scientific and
technical objectives of the aeronautics priority in particular by organizing international workshops and
by inviting all relevant stakeholders as political and public authorities, decision makers, research
communities, industries. FUSETRA contributed to the integration of old and new EC member states.
The venues of Greece and Poland were intentionally chosen as being an ideal location to integrate
the new member states in South-East and North-East Europe. This procedure supports building
networks and tight cooperation’s, too; and allows a wide distribution of crucial information on FP7.
Partners and stakeholders of the new and old member states were have the possibility to network and
to give examples of their experience and achievements by giving papers or participating in working
groups with specific work packages. Seaplane operators and industrial stakeholder were mainly small
and medium-sized enterprises. The workshops and the technical objective to prepare an action plan
and road map for future seaplane traffic systems was particularly addressed to those companies.
FUSETRA was directly linked to the vision 2020 of the aeronautical strategy ACARE. Two objectives of
the ACARE research agenda were in the focus of this proposal. With new concepts for sea parks and
scheduled flights of Seaplane/amphibian operations and its integration to the sea/air/land transport
chain, this proposal contributed to “novel solutions for efficient airport use and connecting air
transport to the overall transport system and an increase of the time efficiency of air transport”.

GABRIEL

Date: 2011.09.01 - 2014.08.31

The future air transport system will be confronted with new challenges. Therefore, new radical ideas,
methods and technologies are needed to respond to these challenges and to keep Europe world
leader in aviation. One of the ideas that came from the Out of the Box project was to launch and
recover aircraft by using ground-based power. Several ideas were proposed like using microwave
power technology, hoisting aircraft in the air, aircraft carriers type of aircraft launch and recovery etc.

The GABRIEL proposal was based on a system using magnetic levitation technology to enable aircraft
take-off and landing. This unique solution will reduce aircraft fuel consumption since aircraft weight
can be reduced as no undercarriage is needed, less fuel needs to be carried on-board and engines
can be smaller as less thrust is needed. Using ground power will also reduce CO2 and NOx emissions
at airports whilst noise levels can be substantially reduced since only airframe noise will be produced
during take-off. Airport capacity can be increased by introducing multiple launch and recovery ramps
thus alleviating the problem of limited runway capacity in Europe.

Gabriel investigated if such a system is feasible and cost effective.

Magnetic levitation is already a developed and deployed technology in rail transportation. However,
research is needed to prove the technical feasibility of the concept in air transportation. GABRIEL
investigated how to adapt the existing magnetic levitation technology and to redesign the aircraft
and more particularly its fuselage. The project also studied the feasibility of launch and recovery in
connection to operating limits and aircraft flight controls. Operational and safety issues were studied

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extensively. A small scale test was designed to validate, assess the feasibility and estimate the limits
of the assisted take-off and landing concept. The issue of emergency landings were addressed.

The project also performed an extensive cost benefit analysis, covering the effects on fuel savings,
environmental benefits, new airport infrastructures and the required power supply.

The GABRIEL was a typical “out of the box” project that involves 12 partners from 7 European
countries.

ERA

Date: 2015.02.12 – 2019.12.30

The project will support the use of military and civil RPAS in non-segregated airspace in Europe. It will
also help in the integration of RPAS in airport operations to address capability gaps that have been
identified in the European RPAS steering group roadmap for RPAS air traffic insertion.

The project will work with the European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment (EUROCAE) to
develop draft standards, with collaboration from stakeholders including the Eurocontrol and European
Aviation Safety Agency (EASA). The project will also work towards establishing European standards
that will offer technical grounds for the certification of auto-taxi, automatic take-off and landing and
automation and emergency recovery functionalities.

To achieve the project goals, technical and procedural solutions will be developed, and demonstrated
by simulations and flight trials.

ERA is a European Defence Agency (EDA) ad-hoc project launched by five Member States: France,
Italy, Poland, Sweden and Germany as the lead nation. The planned duration of the project is 42
months with an overall budget of around €31 million (excl. VAT).

The ERA industrial consortium is led by Airbus Defence and Space, and composed of sixteen partners
from five EDA Member States: Airbus Defence and Space and ESG Elektronik system- und Logistik-
GmbH from Germany; Sagem, Thales and ONERA from France; Saab from Sweden; Finmeccanica from
Italy; and nine partners from Poland: Air Force Institute of Technology (leadership Polish consortium),
Institute of Aviation, Hertz Systems Ltd., EUROTECH, PIAP (Przemysłowy Instytut Automatyki i
Pomiarów), Eskadra Grzegorz Trzeciak, Politechnika Rzeszowska (Rzeszow University of Technology –
RUT), WB Electronics S.A., Asseco Poland S.A.

AGILE

Date: 2015.06.01 - 2018.11.30

Current aircraft development programs are performed as collaborative and multi-organisational

design processes. The main challenge that hampers cost effective design processes is the
integration of multidisciplinary competences and services provided by heterogeneous teams with
different skill sets, which are distributed among different organisations and across different nations.
Therefore, the key-enabler to deliver innovative aircraft products in a time and cost efficient manner
is the development of a “more competitive supply chain”.

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The AGILE project, which is granted by the European Commission, brings together 19 industry,
research and academic partners form nine countries to address the complex challenge of
collaborative product development. The project aims to achieve the reduction of 20% in time to
converge the design of an aircraft and a 40% in time needed to set up and solve the
multidisciplinary problem in a team of heterogeneous specialists. Therefore, the overall AGILE
project objective is to achieve a significant reduction in aircraft development costs through a more
competitive supply chain able to reduce the time to market of innovative aircraft products.

The scope of the project comprises the following technical objectives:

 The development of advanced MDO (Multidisciplinary Design and Optimisation) techniques, and
effective setup and integration methodologies in the design process reducing the convergence time
in aircraft optimisation.
 The development of processes and techniques for efficient multisite collaboration in overall aircraft
design teams.
 The development of knowledge enabled information technologies to support interdisciplinary design
task by processes formalisation and automation.
 Developing and publishing an open MDO test suite to deploy the AGILE Paradigm.

The composition of the AGILE consortium reflects the heterogeneous structure characteristic for
today’s aircraft development teams and virtual supply chains: including airframe OEMs, suppliers, as
well as specialist design teams. The AGILE methodologies are currently adopted to investigate
several design and optimization scenarios, and will be deployed during the rest of the project to
design unconventional aircraft configurations.

CAPPADOCIA

Date: 2013.10.01 - 2017.09.30

The mission of the Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe (ACARE) is to provide the
European Commission with strategic orientations for the future of European aeronautical research.
The Strategic Research Innovation Agenda (SRIA), ACARE’s roadmap, has thus contributed to the
definition of the European Commission’s policies in this area. In 2011, the European Commission
published a report entitled “FlightPath2050”, which presents the Europe’s vision for aviation. In
particular, it specifies the future major challenges of research and innovation in this sector.

Within this context, CAPPADOCIA (Coordination Action Pro “Production, Avionics, Design” on Cost-
efficiency in Aeronautics) is a Coordination and Support Action (CSA), which is focused on research
activities that address solely or mainly the SRIA goal of cost-efficiency in Aeronautics and Air
Transport and in particular the following technical domains:

 Airframe design systems and tools

 Production and maintenance
 Avionics and other relevant domains dealing with cost efficiency, e.g. propulsion

The CAPPADOCIA project is composed of ten partners and funded by the European Commission
under the 7th Framework Program. Its mission is mainly to provide strategic recommendations for a
better coordination of research and innovation policies in the aeronautical sector.

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CAPPADOCIA assesses how the achievement of SRIA objectives impacts cost optimization, in the
cost-efficiency sense, of the aerospace value chain (design, avionics, system, production,
maintenance). Each year, a state of the art developed by CAPPADOCIA identifies “key” scientific and
technical barriers, those technological areas that have not been enough worked on and new
opportunities for innovation. These results are tested and eventually completed by the aviation
community through experts’ interviews and dedicated workshops.

Then, CAPPADOCIA consolidates its analysis in an annual report, formalizes its strategic
recommendations and proposes it to all the industry through ACARE and, more broadly, to the
aviation community via the European Commission.

EBSF_2 – EUROPEAN BUS SYSTEM OF THE FUTURE 2

1.1.1.10.1.1 Duration: May 2015 – April 2018

The "Bus System of the Future" projects (EBSF and EBSF_2) aim to develop a new generation of
urban bus systems. The aim is to develop and deploy innovative vehicle technologies and
infrastructures integrating the best operating practice and which have been tested in operations
scenarios in several bus networks in Europe.

The EBSF, coordinated by Union internationale des transports publics (UITP), combines the efforts of
42 partners. The joint collaboration of industries, operators and authorities allows testing and
evaluating a set of technological solutions for improved efficiency of urban and suburban bus
systems as well as attractiveness to the users. Part of the experiment are presented on 30 March
2018 by RATP Group, the CEA and Iveco Bus. They presented a demonstration of a fully autonomous
bus depot in the level 3 basement of the Lagny bus centre in the 20th arrondissement in Paris.

The outstanding results come form RATP Group which teamed up with two partners, IVECO BUS and
CEA List, to develop the automation system for depot operations and conduct the demonstration:

 IVECO BUS modified one of its electric hybrid Urbanway vehicles operated by RATP with approval
from Ile-de-France Mobilités to be driven electrically and steered autonomously.
 CEA List also deployed its expertise in artificial intelligence and robotics. The bus is equipped with
sensors and an autonomous navigation controller, which makes it capable to locating and steering
itself without human intervention while detecting any obstacles.
 Teams at RATP Group steered the overall project, integrated various sub-systems and developed the
interface between the bus and the current fleet management systems to tell the bus about available
spaces in the depot. RATP Group also oversaw demonstration safety

1.1.1.11 KEY TOPIC T3.3 – MAPPING PATENTS IN AVIATION TECHNOLOGIES

Introduction and short background literature for aviation technologies

According to IATA records first scheduled commercial airline flight took place from St. Petersburg, FL
to Tampa, FL on January 1914. Beginning with national flights, international flights came forward and
long-range flights have taken place in a decade by KLM in 1924. And now, 4 million people scheduled
and 58.2 million freight transported with a revenue of 743 billion in 2017. However, there are many

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challenges for aviation industry especially from the environmental side. The amount of greenhouse
gases generated by the aviation industry accounts for about 3% of the total generated amount in the
world. Moreover, because the greenhouse gases are exhausted in high-altitude areas trees and plants
cannot absorb it as in road-related greenhouse gases. Therefore, aforementioned 3% becomes 13%
of the overall greenhouse effect by the aviation industry.

Now, the dilemma is coming for aviation industry with increasing demand on passenger traffic and
the environmental goals of the next few decades. Based on the study of Kellari et al. (2017) general
domains of study in aviation technology includes “the optimization of existing aircraft architectures
for maximizing aircraft performance or minimizing environmental impact; examining potential future
architectures which have superior performance over the current dominant design; and, extrapolating
performance trends in order to predict future aircraft performance.”

Optimization studies are mostly aimed to minimize fuel burn, emissions or noise, or operating costs.
Multidisciplinary design optimization is generally used in this field for optimization. Kellari et al. (2017)
mentioned some technological advancements as blended-wing body or flying wing architecture;
“double-bubble” and “hybrid wing body” architecture of NASA. According to author, engine
architecture is a major driver for aircraft architecture. Bypass ratio, increasing individual component
efficiency, and increasing turbine inlet temperature along with increasing overall pressure ratio are
the study trends on engine improvement field. However, there are technical constraints regarding
material thermal properties, emission regulations, aerodynamic issues and geometric constraints of
the dominant architecture.

There are a few scholarly works in accordance with the technological analysis on aviation technology.
One of them is Nakamura et al. (2012)’s study which aimed to map aerospace engineering
comparatively with citation network analysis by using patent data of aerospace industry and Toyota.
They found that, in system level there are similar technology fields for improvement in both aviation
and Toyota. In another study Kwon and Lee (2012) prepared a technology forecast for sustainable
(green) aviation by using patent analysis. Based on the study findings, it is asserted that technology
developments for fuel cell and noise area in the green aviation technology area were continuously
performed in the 2000s. Finally, they forecasted that new aircraft engines would be expected to be
focused on for development as a new technology for future green aviation.

Data and methodology in brief

Patents, as a vital data source, are main outputs of research and development that represent the
characteristics of technology. A vast amount of recent technical knowledge is available in patent
documents and the importance of exploiting this knowledge has been constantly increasing since
electronic patent database accessible worldwide. Hence, patent data have been considered as an
important source in technology evaluation and analysis research.

Patent analyses have been used to assess the knowledge diffusion and transfer processes in research
and development which extract useful knowledge from databases.

The patent analysis method has been used at length to understand the invention and innovation
processes. There are a number of different uses patent data such as the analysis of the time-lag
between the allocation of research funds and patents issues (Daim et al, 2006); to assess innovation

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diffusion (Nelson, 2009); or predicting the future directions of technological development (Choi et al.,
2011). There were two accepted perspectives in patent technology analysis; citation-based and
content-based approaches. Citation-based studies consider the citations between two patents as
knowledge flows (Gress, 2010). By using these knowledge flows main technological trends may be
discovered. However, these visualizations neglected the patent contents and the quality of citation
relationship cannot be recognized. On the other hand, content-based studies used text-mining
techniques to measure the content similarity between pairs. Another alternative approach is network-
based patent analysis which prepared for overcoming drawbacks of citation analysis. Although
network analysis shares some commonality with citation analysis, its relative advantage is substantial.
First, network analysis shows the relationship among patents as a visual network and therefore assists
the analyser in intuitively comprehending the overall structure of a patent database. Second, network
analysis enriches the potential utility of patent analysis because it takes more diverse keywords into
account and produces more meaningful indicators (Yoon & Park, 2004). Network analysis based on
text mining which decreases search time and cost. Therefore, it can be said that by applying network
analysis approach content-based studies and citation-based studies are combined. A general patent
analysis scenario may be demonstrated as in the Figure 53.

Figure 53: Typical Patent Analysis Steps

•Task Identification
1

•Searching
2

•Segmentation
3

•Abstracting
4

•Clustering
5

•Visualization
6

•Interpretation
7

As can be seen in the Figure 53 typical patent analysis steps begins with defining the scope, concepts,
and purposes of the analysis. Second issue is deciding the search query strategy. After searching and
downloading the related patents data should be segmented, cleaned and normalized. In the fourth
step, patent content should be analysed to summarize their claims, topics, functions, or technologies.
By clustering in the fifth step, analysed patents grouped or classified based on some used metrics.
These groups are visualized in sixth step and then technology or business trends and relations
predicted at last step. As can be seen, this scenario requires the analyst to have a certain degree of
expertise in information retrieval, domain-specific technologies, and business intelligence. This multi-
discipline requirement makes such analysts hard to find or costly to train. Therefore, automated

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technologies for assisting analysts in patent processing and analysis are thus in great demand (Tseng,
Lin, & Lin, 2007).

The patent analysis in the current study was performed with the use of the Vantage Point software
(Watts et al., 1997). Derwent Innovations Index is used as a data source. In Derwent Innovations Index,
patents are divided into 20 broad subject areas or sections. These sections are grouped into three
areas as; Chemical Sections (A - M), Engineering Sections (P - Q), Electrical and Electronic Sections (S
- X). These sections are then further subdivided into classes. Each class consists of the section letter,
followed by two digits. For example, X22 is the class designation for Automotive Electrics and C04 is
the class for all Chemical Fertilizers.

Search term is used as ‘aviation’ in Topic field of patents and reached 23,508 patents. Because this
study is configured as explanatory, filters are not applied to limit the data corpus at first. Data retrieved
from the database and then cleaned for further analysis. Some pre-specified thesaurus and fuzzy
clustering algorithms applied in this stage.

Findings

Trends of patents on aviation

Figure 54: Number of patents in aviation per year

4000

3500

3000

2500

2000

1500

1000

500

0
1979

1985

1991

2017
1969
1973
1975
1977

1981
1983

1987
1989

1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015

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Figure 55: IPC subclasses year chart

G: Physics B: Performing Operations; Transporting

H: Electricity C: Chemistry; Metallurgy
F: Mechanical Engineering A: Human Necessities
E: Fixed Constructions D: Textiles; Paper
1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1977

1981
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975

1979

1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
2017
Figure 56: Macro Classes

G: Physics B: Performing Operations; Transporting

1300
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

145
Figure 57: Medium Classes

Figure 58: Micro Classes

Sunburst diagram for general and a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h subclasses

Figure 59: Sunburst diagram for general and a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h subclasses

H: Electricity C: Chemistry; Metallurgy F: Mechanical Engineering

800

700
A: Human Necessities E: Fixed Constructions D: Textiles; Paper
600
180
500
160
400
140
300
120
100
200
80
100
60
0
40
20
0

Code % Definition
G 27,3 Physics
B 24,9 Performing Operations; transporting
H 16,2 Electricity
C 13,1 Chemistry; Metallurgy
F 12,2 Mechanical Engineering lighting; Heating; Weapons; Blasting
A 3,7 Human Necessities
E 1,3 Fixed Constructions
D 1,3 Textiles; Paper
Table 18: Some patent codes

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 Code % Definition
G01 12,7 Measuring; Testing
B64 9,3 Aircraft; Aviation; Cosmonautics
H01 6,2 Basic Electric Elements
G06 6,2 Computing; Calculating; Counting
H04 4,0 Electric Communication Technique
C08 3,1 Organic Macromolecular Compounds; Their Preparation Or Chemical
Working-Up; Compositions Based Thereon
C10 3,1 Petroleum, Gas Or Coke Industries; Technical Gases Containing Carbon
Monoxide; Fuels; Lubricants; Peat
F16 2,9 Engineering Elements Or Units; General Measures For Producing And
Maintaining Effective Functioning Of Machines Or Installations; Thermal
Insulation In General
F02 2,9 Combustion Engines; Hot-Gas Or Combustion-Product Engine Plants
H02 2,8 Generation, Conversion, Or Distribution Of Electric Power
B23 2,6 Machine Tools; Metal-Working Not Otherwise Provided For
G05 2,5 Controlling; Regulating
G08 2,0 Signalling
G09 1,9 Educating; Cryptography; Display; Advertising; Seals
C22 1,7 Metallurgy; Ferrous Or Non-Ferrous Alloys; Treatment Of Alloys Or Non-
Ferrous Metals
Table 19: Some patent subcodes

Code % Definition
B64C 4,1 Aeroplanes; Helicopters
B64D 3,7 Equipment For Fitting In Or To Aircraft; Flying Suits; Parachutes;
Arrangements Or Mounting Of Power Plants Or Propulsion Transmissions
G06F 3,7 Electric Digital Data Processing
G01N 2,2 Investigating Or Analysing Materials By Determining Their Chemical Or
Physical Properties
G01C 1,9 Measuring Distances, Levels Or Bearings; Surveying; Navigation;
Gyroscopic Instruments; Photogrammetry Or Videogrammetry
G01M 1,8 Testing Static Or Dynamic Balance Of Machines Or Structures; Testing
Structures Or Apparatus Not Otherwise Provided For
C08L 1,7 Compositions Of Macromolecular Compounds
H01L 1,7 Semiconductor Devices; Electric Solid State Devices Not Otherwise
Provided For
G01R 1,4 Measuring Electric Variables; Measuring Magnetic Variables
B32B 1,4 Layered Products, I.E. Products Built-Up Of Strata Of Flat Or Non-Flat, E.G.
Cellular Or Honeycomb, Form
Table 20: Some patent sub-sabcodes

Country evaluations

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 Basic Patent Country Patent
Number
China 11876
United States of America 3249
Russian Federation 2140
Soviet Union (USSR) 1393
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 1327
Korea (South) 1308
European Patent Office 637
Germany 369
France 305
Japan 254
United Kingdom 191
India 98
Canada 56
Brazil 37
Australia 28
Belgium 28
Taiwan 26
Romania 19
Spain 15
Poland 14
Table 21: Patent to country

World Map

148
Figure 60: World map distribution

Top 10 country Patent numbers per year

Figure 61: Evolution in the number of patents

China United States of America

Russian Federation World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
Korea (South) European Patent Office
Germany France
Japan United Kingdom
2750
2500
2250
2000
1750
1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
0
2002

2010
2000

2001

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

Top 10 country Patent numbers based on Subclasses per year

149
Figure 62: Aviation patents per country

G B H C F A E D

4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0

European Patent Office

France

Japan
Soviet Union (USSR)
United States of America

Russian Federation

Korea (South)

Germany
China

World Intellectual Property

Organization (WIPO)

Patent assignees

Patent Assignees Record

Stats Chippac Ltd 369
Honeywell Int Inc 233
Shenyang Liming Aero Engine Group Corp 222
General Electric Co 193
Univ Beijing Aeronautics&Astronautics 189
Univ Nanjing Aeronautics&Astronautics 165
Boeing Co 151
Harbin Inst Technology 145
State Grid Corp China 142
Rockwell Collins Inc 123
Univ Beihang 106
Avic Comml Aircraft Engine Co Ltd 103
Aviation Ind Corp China Shenyang Engine 99
Stats Chippac Pte Ltd 94
Univ Northwestern Polytechnical 90
Aviation Materials Res Inst 88
Univ China Civil Aviation 83
Thales 75
Avic Shenyang Engine Design Inst 71
United Technologies Corp 71

150
Table 22: Top Twenty Firms by patent number

151
Patent Numbers per year

Figure 63: Top Ten Firms by patent number

80 STATS CHIPPAC LTD

70 HONEYWELL INT INC

60 SHENYANG LIMING AERO

ENGINE GROUP CORP

GENERAL ELECTRIC CO
50

UNIV BEIJING
40 AERONAUTICS&ASTRONA
UTICS
UNIV NANJING
30 AERONAUTICS&ASTRONA
UTICS
BOEING CO
20
HARBIN INST
TECHNOLOGY
10
STATE GRID CORP CHINA

0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
ROCKWELL COLLINS INC

Patent numbers based on Subclasses per year

Figure 64: Number of patents per holder

G B H C F A E D

400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
HONEYWELL INT INC

GENERAL ELECTRIC CO

ROCKWELL COLLINS INC

STATS CHIPPAC LTD

SHENYANG LIMING AERO

HARBIN INST TECHNOLOGY

BOEING CO

STATE GRID CORP CHINA

AERONAUTICS&ASTRONAUTI

AERONAUTICS&ASTRONAUTI
ENGINE GROUP CORP

UNIV NANJING
UNIV BEIJING

CS

CS

152
Title words analysis

 Derwent classification network

Figure 65: Patents in areas relevant to aeronautics

153
 Title words network

Figure 66: Patents per subject

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3.3 Efficient development and life-cycle management
Flightpath 2050 goal 8 “Streamlined systems engineering, design, manufacturing, certification
and upgrade processes have addressed complexity and significantly decreased development
costs (including a 50% reduction in the cost of certification). A leading new generation of
standards is created”.

It is not sufficient to master the cutting-edge of all 10 relevant aeronautical technologies (goal 7 and
section 3.2). It is also necessary to integrate them into a product with timely arrival in the market and
competiveness over the whole life-cycle:
 The mature and cost-effective technologies in all 10 relevant areas must be selected and
incorporated in a new high-performance design that significantly improves over all existing
products without an excessive development risk;
 The development program must focus on validation and verification of all new features that
may involve a higher risk, while making sure that lessons learned are used to improve all other
items;
 The production process must be as reliable and fast as possible, allowing for unexpected
modifications with minimal upset and providing a margin for product evolution;
 The certification process must be considered from the beginning of design through
development and production, to minimize the risk of redesigns and costly delays, that may
have a domino effect on market availability and share;
 The supply chain and final assembly capabilities need to be able to keep up with high market
demand, and survive market lows without cost penalties, while ensuring prompt service
support in all situations;
 If the aircraft is not the first to the market it should try to claw back leadership by embodying
performance enhancing features that cannot be incorporated in the existing competitors;
 If the aircraft is the first to the market, it should anticipate the possible responses by
competitors, leaving no room for alternatives that could render it outdated or uncompetitive;
 The competiveness should be maintained by upgrades to keep the product ahead of other
alternatives in performance, cost, availability and service support;
 In parallel with gradual improvement of the existing aircraft, a whole series of clean sheet
designs covering a wide range of options should be pursued, to be ready to introduce the
follow-on product at the right time to keep or increase market share.
The growing capability and complexity of modern aircraft increases the relevance of life-cycle analysis
(Key Topic T3.4) that needs to be considered also at component level (Key Topic T3.5).

1.1.1.12 KEY TOPIC T3.4 – AIRLINER DEVELOPMENT TIME AND COST

Benchmarks
Current programmes did show a continuous rise in the cost of development (including certification)
which is correlated with the increased complexity of the machine (frequently supported by new
technologies) on one hand and the ever larger demands for safety and lower life-cycle costs. The
development time has shown a similar trend, responding to the same factors:

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 Development Costs Development Time
Aircraft Year of First Service
(Constant 2014 $) in Years
Douglas DC-3 1936 4.9 Million 2
Douglas DC-6 1946 173 Million 3
Boeing 707 1958 1.5 Billion 6
Boeing 747 1970 5.8 Billion 4
Boeing 777 1995 8.0 Billion 6
Airbus A380 2007 16.5 Billion 7
Boeing 787 2012 13.6 Billion 7
Airbus A350 XWB 2014 15.6 Billion 8
Table 23: Some data on recent widebodies

An important remark is that all the programmes listed above were clean sheet projects. A significant
upgrade of an existing model could reduce both the costs (by a factor of 1:5 to 1:10) and the time to
first delivery (by a factor of 1:1.5 to 1:3), factor depending on the quantity of the improvement
targeted. As an example, data available for Airbus A320neo (first delivery 20 January 2016) show a
duration of the development of 5 years and an estimated cost of $1.3 Billion.
Unfortunately, a comparative analysis of the tendency of the two measures in the table above would
not provide a correct indication of the degree of evolution because one would compare different sizes
and generations of aircraft. So the benchmark is to be created otherwise.
A simple and accessible approach is taken by P. Nolte et al in an article published by R. Curran and L.
Fischer in Air Transport and Operations. Proceedings of the Third International Conference (page 525).
The author takes into account the complexity by defining a Specific Development Cost (per number
of model’s passenger seats), SDC. Similarly, the development period might be corrected by the same
parameter, resulting SDP – Specific Development Period. (The source mentioned here proposed one
other measure, Development Cost per Seat Built, which we do not consider relevant for our purpose.)

Development Costs
Number Development SDC SDP
Aircraft (Constant 2014 $
of Seats Time (Years) ($mil/seat) ($mil/year)
mil)
Douglas DC-3 21 4.9 2 0.2 2.5
Douglas DC-6 60 173 3 2.9 57.7
Boeing 707 145 1500 6 10.3 250.0
Boeing 747 410 5800 4 14.1 1450.0
Boeing 777 335 8000 6 23.9 1333.3
Airbus A380 545 16500 7 30.3 2357.1
Boeing 787 242 13600 7 56.2 1942.9
Airbus A350 XWB 325 15600 8 48.0 1950
Table 24: Some data on legacy and current airliners

For this application, restricting the analysis to SDC and SDP is not expected to induce major errors.
However, for a future increase of accuracy, other factors as service life, life cycle costs etc. should be
considered.

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Aircraft development costs, prices, times, total income, break even number

The total operating cost (TOC) include the direct operating costs (DOC) and indirect operating cost
(IOC). The DOC includes the cost of ownership (e.g. depreciation, interest, insurance) as well as flight
cost such as cockpit crew, cabin crew, fuel and fees. The IOC include the other maintenance cost
such as airframe and engine, even if certain cost element normally included in DOC, such as cabin
crew cost are considered to be IOC.
However, in aircraft new technologies and aircraft designs assessment the DOC plays a key role,
alternatively, life cycle based models can be used. However, even if less common, probably due to
the more detailed information requires, the usage of life cycle based models provide an enhanced
breakdown of the economic impact.
Newer engines and larger aircraft helped significantly in reducing the DOC, this target have been
reached with the introduction of new technologies such as increased use of carbon fibre reinforced
polymer and advanced sophisticated metallic alloys to reduce weight, advanced integrated
aerodynamics, improved systems and so on. Figure 67 – shows a typical gradual increase of the
contributions to the DOC of an aircraft.

Figure 67 –Typical Direct Operating Cost Breakdown Fuel Price $0.8.

Another major issue and cost for aircraft design is the price of fuel. Kerosene will be the only viable
fuel for passenger aircraft- due to its excellent energy density by volume and by weight.
Nevertheless, in future, it will be produced form fossil oil, biomass and so on, and probably the cost
will be increase. Figure 68 – shows the cost of aviation fuel since the year 2000.

157
Figure 68 –Cost of aviation fuel since the year 2000.

It is useful to note that the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A380 were designed when the fuel price was
in a period of relatively low oil prices (i.e., 2003 and 2000 respectively).
Nowadays, to ensure competitiveness and in light of increasing global competitive market, all the
aviation stakeholder, have to decrease their cost and increase their revenues.
There will be both extreme economic and environmental pressure to reduce fuel consumption and
even if the kerosene became viable in the necessary quantities, the cost is going to be extremely
high and will not affect the pressure to reduce fuel burn. To environment point of view even the
production of contrail cirrus will an issue which also need to be addressed and it will also be
minimised by reducing fuel consumption. Hence, more studies should be conducted to increase
even the efficiency and to reduce environment impact of aircraft and air transport operations with
the expected increasing demands in the next two three decades. Since the year 2000, the European
Union has supported the research to improve civil aviation. In Figure 69.1 – Figure 69.5 the ACARE
targets environment are shown, for aircraft entering service in 2020 relative to those that were being
delivered in 2000

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Figure 69 –Figure 67. ACARE environmental targets. Source:

Overall, we can conclude to say that the aircraft design range has a fundamental effect on fuel
efficiency as discussed in the following sections.
 Operating costs, maintenance and spares revenue, support infrastructure

To produce air transport services, airlines use various tools such as labour, capital, fuel and materials.
The operating cost, maintenance and spares revenue depend to different features, such as the
company, the period, the needed, the concurrences, and so on. For examples, in 2014 fuel costs
accounted for about 20-50% of total costs. The fuel cost is proportional to the distance of the route
and differ from one country to another. Some airlines are keen to use more fuel – efficient aircraft to
save costs by leasing or purchasing new aircraft. Other airlines choose to replace with newer version
the airplane’s interior such as the seats, television monitors, beverage carts, and so on. However,
when the oil price is at a high level, these “secondary” measures may not be sufficient for airlines to
retain profitability. Therefore, in order to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel
cost, different companies have been used fuel hedging contracts.
Finally, the differences in aircraft capital costs (i.e. input in aircraft and ground property and
equipment) across airlines largely reflect the differences in their fleet composition. Moreover, the
purchased materials and services are a catchall expense category as it includes all the inputs other
than labour, fuel and capital inputs.
An airline’s maintenance cost is closely related to the airline’s average aircraft age, as the older
aircraft needs more frequent and expensive heavy checks. However, some authors, found that
airlines using newer aircraft have higher average operating costs per aircraft movement, which
suggests that ownership costs due to depreciation and leasing cost of new aircraft outweigh the
increasing maintenance cost of old aircraft. Other costs to considers are the airline cost per seats
which declines with the size of aircraft and when the load factor is achieved, since much of a flight's
cost is fixed regardless of the number of passengers flown.
 Flight hours and time for certification and costs of upgraded versions of aircraft

Flight hours, time for certification, and costs of upgraded versions of aircraft depend on different
features as well, such as the distance, the airline need, the new technology used or design project,
the urgent needed to reduce environment impact and so on. For example, with respect to an
intercontinental travel duration such as between Tokyo and Washington, D.C., a commercial airliner
takes approximately 12 h for the cruise phase at an approximate cruise flight speed of Mach 0.85.
A new promising technology to upgraded version of aircraft is the hybrid laminar flow control
(HLFC) which- by reducing the aircraft drag- offers significant potential for increasing aircraft fuel
efficiency and hence reducing operation costs. In this regard, interesting to note, LYFE (Lifecycle
Cash Flow Environment) -a life cycle cost-benefit tool - which is a modular simulation environment
developed by German Aerospace Center (DLR) for the simulation of a virtual life cycle, hence the
impact of changes in the aircrafts’ life from manufacturing until end of life. In a recent work, the
authors analysed the efficiency of different DOC methods compared to the LYFE model. Their results
show that the DOC methods are no so efficiently to measure the impact of the technologies even if
are easier and faster. In contrast, LYFE requires more detailed input but provides key performance

159
indicators such as the net present value or the internal rate of return, which is the most used metrics
in investment budgeting. In light of this, as in aviation DOC’s methods are widely used and
established, due to their rather faster and easier application, it is important to give more attention in
the products lifecycle.
In fact, product lifecycle management (PML) is a concept that facilitates the manufacturing planning
process of new products as well as production development. All the stages are integrated and
digitally processed thanks to the support of software tools. We have already discussed of the LYFE
models developed by DLR. Recently, the Cranfield University’s Aircraft Design Group developed
another multidisciplinary design analysis and optimization environment named GENUS, which boats
to be modular, expandable, flexible, independent, sustainable, and performable. The authors of this
project, in a recent study, discussed and developed this GENUS environment to the methodologies
appropriate to supersonic business jets (SSBJs) which is consider as the pioneer of the next
generation of supersonic airliners. In Figure 69.2 shows the position of Genus in diverse aircraft
conceptual design.

Figure 69.2 – Position of Genus in diverse aircraft conceptual design.

The aim of GENUS Aircraft Conceptual Design environment is to achieve a flexible framework for
researcher to develop new methods for aerospace vehicle design and less expensive. The design of
a Supersonic Jet (E5 Neutrino) was carried out by a group of 30 students in Aerospace Vehicle
Design in Cranfield University. The MSc students worked in synergy on this goal over a period of
seven month using almost all the requirements and attributes to a supersonic jet, such as safety,
security, comfort, performance. As shows in Figure 3.23 the E5 supersonic Jet present features such
as highly swept wing and thin aerofoil in order to decrease supersonic wave drag. The slender
fuselage helps to mitigate sonic boom intensity and the canard generates additional vortex lift
especially on high angle of attack

160
Figure 69.3: Three view design of the E5 Neutrino Supersonic Jet.

Overall, despite the efforts of these brilliant students that have been made on GENUS aircraft
conceptual design environment, in future growth the need to explore more in detail some aspects
such as different fidelity methods, more new engine model including hybrid propulsion system, and
more stability analysis and control means setting are important challenges to be achieve.
Nowadays the airports have witnessed exponential growth, and the associated risks are congestion,
delays and dissatisfied passengers. To avoid this problem, different models and methods are
proposed by researchers for optimal flight paths and route. A summary is present in Table 3.8.

Table 3.8 - Summary of new models & methods proposed by researcher’s for optimal flight paths & route.

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In term of environmental performance and noise, one of the most efficient large turbofan aero
engine is the Trent XWB (Figure 69.4). Many of Rolls-Royce products are currently market leaders.
Their efforts, research and development programmes aim to ensure that their future products are
cleaner, quieter and more efficient.

Figure 69.4 - Airbus A350. Source: www.rolls-royce.com

The aerospace sectors challenges, as we have seen before, are increase aircraft efficiency and
decreasing carbon emissions, new security criteria, cost constrains and the potential negative
influence of noise. Apart from GENUS project in UK, in Europe the SIMBA project brought together
private and academic partners to develop and improve state-of-the-art tools and skills related to
high-performance computer modelling. This project adapted the aerospace sector’s advanced 3D-
computer simulation tools and numerical methods. Their simulation tolls and approach help
designer improve aerodynamic performance, limiting cost and time of the different design steps.
Moreover, this method allows engineers to visualise the results of replacing sharp edges with
another surface to achieve a better aerodynamic profile, such as better adapted in case of wind
damage and so on. Once fine - tuned, the wind tunnel test and the new computer simulation tools
and method were promoted to the aerospace sector via industrial meeting, training and so on. The
total investment for the project “Simba multi-physics simulations for building applications” was EUR
986 787. In conclusion, one of the more forward-looking projects is the E- thrust shown in Figure
69.5 -

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Figure 69.5 - Airbus - Rolls-Royce ‘E-Thrust’ project.

Progress Up To Now
The programmers started around 2000 represent a peak in both SDC and SDP. What followed a
decade later is a slight reduction in both, but much below the objective. As identified in SRIA 2017,
significant reductions in the measures of aeronautical development efficiency (SDC and SDP) could
be achieved by:
 Intensive use of modelling and simulation instead of physical test and experiment
 More specific, flexible and adaptive regulatory requirements (standards) for certification, including
the involvement of airworthiness authority in virtual design.
 “A fully integrated multi-physics and multi-scale model of the complete aircraft including its
engines and systems should be coupled with aerodynamic and thermal models, eliminating
ground test rigs completely”.

1.1.1.13 KEY TOPIC T3.5 – EFFICIENT DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE-CYCLE MANAGEMENT OF

BATTERIES
Life-Cycle Management for secondary batteries possibly used in ground-vehicles (e.g. towing-
tractor) or aircraft
LCA of EV´s
The following consideration is related to automotive electro mobility and must of course have be
adapted to general condition of aviation economy (e.g. ground-moving vehicles, taxiing etc.)
The environmental impacts of EVs depend on various parameters related to the vehicle’s
characteristics, their location of use and user influences. Variations of driving patterns of different
users and the use of heating and cooling due to local climate conditions have an impact on the energy
consumption of EVs. In combination with the regional electricity mix these parameters influence the
environmental impact of EVs. Therefore, the vehicles must be seen as a part of the setting with which
it interacts to answer specific LCA questions. When neglecting these interdependencies, important

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aspects might be missed and left out. Connecting external influences with the use phase of the
vehicles assists the LCA practitioner to evaluate the influence of parameters on the environmental
impact. Setting up a descriptive framework allows the LCA practitioner to translate external influencing
factors into environmental impacts reducing the uncertainty of LCAs.
The Figure 68 shows the proposed framework and illustrates the EV as an element in a larger system
of influencing factors and highlights the connection of energy consumption and external factors. The
material and energy flows over the entire life cycle necessary to manufacture and operate the vehicle
define the life cycle of the EV (mid-level). The setting of external factors in which the EV is deployed
(top level) influences the life cycle and the LCA results. These external factors can be divided into three
groups: the user, the infrastructure and the surrounding conditions.
Figure 68: LCA framework for electric vehicles

 Vehicle

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In the use phase specific characteristics of the vehicle influence the energy. These factors are
considered internal in this framework as they are inherent properties of the vehicle.

 User

The user of the EV influences the environmental impact of the EV through the driving and charging
behaviour as well as through the intensity of the use of auxiliaries. A more aggressive driving style
leads to a higher energy consumption whereas a more cautious driving style results in a more efficient
use of energy. Depending on the charging behaviour and the willingness to install renewable energy
specifically for the EV (e.g. in the form of solar panels), the share of renewable energy can be increased
significantly compared to the use of grid energy in many countries.

 Infrastructure

The electricity mix is one of the most crucial parameters for the LCA calculation. Using a mix based
entirely on renewable energies delivers a completely different result than an energy mix based on
fossil fuels. Choosing the adequate mix which reflects the real world situation and leads to fair and
reliable results is challenging.
In many LCAs an energy mix is used which is based entirely on renewable energy. However, often it is
not clear if this represents the actual grid situation or if it is a case of crediting renewable energy to
the EV rather than a different use. In the latter case it must be considered if the crediting can be
justified. The charging of EVs can in principle often be carried out at regular household plugs. Yet,
often more sophisticated solutions are required at workplaces or in public areas to allow adequate
and safe charging. Depending on the conditions of the site the installation of these charging stations
demands major building activities. These activities can be significant for specific scenarios in which
only one or a few vehicles use one charging station. The available charging infrastructure also
influences the options of smart charging. Smart charging applications can increase the share of
renewable energy used to charge the EV.

 Surrounding conditions

The surrounding conditions influence the environmental impact of EVs. The climate, the topography
and the type of road are identified as significant factors for the energy consumption. The climate
influences the need for heating and cooling appliances in the vehicle. The temperature varies both on
a seasonal as well as on a daily level leading to a fluctuation of the energy consumption. Depending
on the interaction of temperature and humidity the wind shield of the car can fog up and require
ventilation or the use of the air conditioning and/or heating. Currently, resistance heating is mostly
applied in EVs. Recycling of Batteries possibly used in ground-vehicles (e.g. towing-tractor) or aircraft.

The interest in sustainable vehicles, namely hybrid and/or electric (HEV, BEV), is increasing worldwide
due to the growing concern about global warming and air pollution in large urban cities. Predictions
suggest that hybrid and/or electric vehicles in the year 2035 will have a 35% share of the automobile
market, with an associated, considerable reduction of CO2 emissions. To be successfully achieved, this
important goal requires (Figure 69) an efficient power source for the electric engine and, in view of its

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high energy density, long life, and rate capability, the lithium-ion battery is an ideal candidate for this
purpose.

For consumer electronics, e.g., for powering mobile phones, only a single cell is sufficient, whereas car
driving battery packs require the assemblage of many cells and the inclusion of a safety battery
management system (BMS).

The worldwide reserves of lithium carbonate (i.e., the lithium main natural source) are still large.
Considering that the yearly production amounts to about 0.16 M tons and that ~0.5 kg of Li 2CO3 are
needed per kWh battery, we can estimate from 80 to 100 years of reserves. Nevertheless, almost 70%
of the global lithium deposits are concentrated in South America’s ABC (Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile)
salars, and this poses an inherent risk for the accessibility of the raw material since unexpected events
may condition the supply with a resulting impact on the battery price and consequently on the vehicle
cost.
Figure 69: Battery pack as BEV power system.

Furthermore, one has to consider that lithium is also the material of choice for applications other than
batteries, including pharmaceuticals, ceramics, and glasses. Actually, the present consumption rate of
lithium by OEMs is limited to a minor fraction, accounting for only about one quarter of the current
lithium production. However, in the prospect of large road diffusion of BEVs (1 million expected in
2020), the amount of lithium needed to meet the market demand is expected to increase considerably.
The prices of lithium constantly increased over the last 10 years; at time of publication, prices were
$5500–6000 per ton of lithium carbonate, depending on applications. Accordingly, considerable
increases are expected if the demand rises. To limit the risks, many battery material manufactures
underwent investment in partnerships with the South American ABC countries to secure the lithium
supply and hence, to control prices fluctuations.

The above considerations clearly outline the need for recycling lithium car batteries once they have
exhausted their operational life, with the final goal of reusing them back to the car manufacturers. The
idea is well represented by the general scheme reported below, as proposed by the Japanese
Sumitomo company, see the Figure 70. The future of battery recycling, however, is still uncertain; see
below.

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Figure 70: General operational loop for EV battery saving

The main goal of recycling is that of separating battery components, as well as of removing waste
from the environment. However, the process is affected by a series of issues that make it very
challenging. About 100,000 tons of spent batteries are forecast in the prospect of 1 million EV cars on
the road and their treatment is not straightforward.

The main problem is in the collection rate, which is still at a very limited extent, even for lithium
batteries used in mobile electronic devices. Although the circulating number of these devices, and
hence of their batteries, is extremely high, the collection is scarce for a series of reasons. First, there
are not many lithium battery collection points in the municipalities. In principle, the shops selling
lithium battery-operating devices should serve as collection points for the related exhausted batteries.
However, this rarely happens and the customer, out of laziness or forgetfulness, tends to drop the old
telephone with the included battery in a drawer. The problem is serious to the point that often the
capacity of the plants is not matched by the number of received spent batteries. Obviously, the
situation is even more of concern for the car batteries, considering the very limited number of EVs
presently in the road.

Another serious issue is associated with the intrinsic safety risk owing to the high reactivity of the
lithium batteries, especially if they arrive at the recycling plant still with residual charge or if they are
damaged. In fact, if overheated or overcharged, as it may happen by shorting when they are stored in
masses, the batteries can enter a state of thermal runaway which can eventually lead to fire or even
explosion. In addition, metallic lithium can also form on the graphite anode by overcharge and/or by
abnormal deposition, whose high reactivity greatly increases the risk of explosion. The energy released
by these explosions is powerful enough to melt the metal containers with resulting serious safety
hazards.

The other serious issue is related to the fact that the lithium battery market is in continuous evolution
with the advent of many new chemistries. Further, in addition to the rechargeable Li-ion batteries, also
primary lithium batteries, using cathodes such as manganese oxide or thionyl and sulfuryl chloride,

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are still in the market and they may arrive to the plant as well. Finally, also the electrolyte may widely
change, passing from a variety of liquid organic solutions to polymer membranes. Clearly, this high
diversity makes it difficult to develop a universally valid recycling process, as well as affecting its
economics, since the new chemistries may not involve components worth being recovered.

Indeed, the European Commission has mandated a Battery and Accumulator Directive, which imposes
to the state members the following target.

● A 45% collection rate for waste-portable batteries to be met by September 2016.

● A recycling efficiency to ensure that a high proportion of the weight of waste batteries is recycled,
this including 65% of lead-acid, 75% of nickel–cadmium, and 50% of “other waste batteries,” the latter
likely referring to lithium batteries.

Considering the present low economic value, these targets can be met only if subsidies are provided,
usually adding a tax to each manufactured battery, as indeed is the case. Under this scheme, battery
recycling plants are now operating in Europe (e.g., Batrec in Switzerland, Umicore in Belgium, and
SNAM and Recupyl in France) to honour the mandate.

Plants are also in force under different schemes in the United States (e.g., Toxco) and in Japan (e.g.,
Sony and Sumitomo Metal). Due to the still scarce production of lithium-ion batteries of EV types, the
recycling is for the moment limited to the portable ones. However, EV battery recycling is expected to
gain quite a significant importance in the years to come, this enhancing the role of the experience
obtained with the present small-scale prototypes.

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Figure 71: Typical lithium battery recycling flow sheet

 Government regulations
Battery recycling (Figure 71) has been a task for many years motivated by environmental awareness
and waste legislation mandates. With the public’s increase in environmental sensibility, growing
attention is paid to sustainable management of natural resources. The public also has an increasing
concern with the hazardous properties of metals and substances, a concern that certainly
encompasses batteries of all types. European (if not worldwide) regulations have designated all
batteries as hazardous waste that require treatment before disposal, with the following tasks to be
accomplished, in order of priority:

1. Waste reduction at the origin, by means of cleaner products and processes.

2. Recovery of valuables from wastes, where possible.
3. Treatment of non-recoverable wastes to make them safe and disposable.

These regulations require large efforts to be devoted to the collection and recycling of batteries of
any kind, despite the possibility that they may contain a low content in heavy metals. To cope with
these directives, several recycling plants are in operation in Europe, the United States, and Japan.
Initially, the activity was mainly restricted to zinc–carbon batteries, namely the common “dry” primary

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AA or AAA cylindrical cells that are largely present in the low-value electronic market. For these dry
cells, regulations have been imposed requiring that they be produced as “mercury-free” systems,
which is the case for European and American manufacturers. However, the market globalization has
favoured circulation from countries where environmental sensitivity is not as acute as in Europe and
the United States, with the result that a considerably large amount of mercury is still recovered when
recycling these batteries. Interestingly, the majority of the plants are still treating mostly consumer
batteries, such as the quoted dry cells, and the rechargeable NiCd and NiMH batteries, while little
attention has thus far been devoted to the collection and the recycling of lithium batteries. On the
contrary, recycling of conventional automotive batteries, such as starting lighting and ignition (SLI)
lead-acid, are in full operation worldwide.

The low recycling rate of lithium batteries is rather surprising since they are products that strongly
influence our everyday life. Due to their favourable characteristics, lithium-ion batteries are in fact the
power sources of choice in the consumer electronics market and, as such, are sold by several billions
per year. Primary lithium batteries are mainly marketed to generic consumer markets for use in
cameras, watches, and similar, whereas lithium-ion secondary batteries are marketed for mobile
devices of increasing sophistication, such as cellular phones and laptop computers.

The large expansion of these markets (it is assumed that today billions of cellular phones are
circulating worldwide) is evidence of the importance of the problem, which will only worsen with the
expected advent of a high number of lithium-ion battery-powered electric cars. We need to increase
the number of recycling plants for treating these batteries which, despite being rechargeable, will
inevitably come to the end of their life at some point. Even though in the last few years protocols and
plants have been developed in Europe, the United States, and Japan, much still needs to be done to
assure a full collection and an effective recycling program for lithium-ion batteries. We hope that this
review will provide the motivation and the stimulus for achieving this important goal in the near future.

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4 Protecting the environment and the energy
supply
Environmental protection is and will continue to be a key driver for the aviation industry as a whole.
The challenge with respect to the environment is to reduce continuously the environmental impact in
the face of continuing expansion in demand for aviation. This expansion will also put pressure on
existing energy supplies. This set of 5 goals consists of reductions of noise and emissions (section 4.1),
emissions free taxying (section 4.2), recycling enabled by design (section 4.3), alternative fuels (section
4.4) and atmospheric research (section 4.5).

ACARE runs three research projects to achieve these goals: X-Noise EV, which relates to aviation noise
research, Forum AE, which relates to emissions research, and Core-JetFuel, which relates to
alternative aviation fuels. In 2015 ACARE published a 2014/2015 activity update. This update reports
on the progress of each of these projects including an assessment of performance against ACARE’s
goals. The report concludes that noise research is on track to meet its target, that significant work
is required to meet the emissions targets, specifically technology maturation, and that a
quantitative target is required at European level for alternative fuels.

Politically, there is a shared awareness that climate change will dramatically modify our societies in
the longer term. The image of Air Transport in the public mind has been tarnished by its perceived
impact on the environment. The main levy to reduce aviation emissions will be to reduce travel
demand through taxes and/or individual emissions quotas. Aviation environmental impacts include
gaseous emissions and noise issues. Hardly any technical solution is able to reduce both types of
impact. Trade-off decisions have to be made by all industry actors. The potentially negative impact of
any drastic “green” approach on the supply industry is a concern. There is a need for global
agreements on such measure to maintain fair competition.

ICAO, as the lead United Nations (UN) Agency in matters involving international civil aviation, is
conscious of and will continue to address the adverse environmental impacts that may be related to
civil aviation activity and acknowledges its responsibility and that of its Member States to achieve
maximum compatibility between the safe and orderly development of civil aviation and the quality of
the environment. In carrying out its responsibilities, ICAO and its Member States will strive to:

a) Limit or reduce the number of people affected by significant aircraft noise;

b) Limit or reduce the impact of aviation emissions on local air quality; and

c) Limit or reduce the impact of aviation greenhouse gas emissions on the global climate.

In 2008 the global stakeholder associations of the aviation industry (Airports Council International,
Civil Air Navigation Services Organization, International Air Transport Association and International
Coordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Association), under the umbrella of the Air Transport
Action Group, committed to addressing the global challenge of climate change and adopted a set of
ambitious targets to mitigate CO2 emissions from air transport:

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• An average improvement in fuel efficiency of 1.5% per year from 2009 to 2020;

• A cap on net aviation CO2 emissions from 2020 (carbon-neutral growth);

• A reduction in net aviation CO2 emissions of 50% by 2050, relative to 2005 levels.

To achieve these targets, all stakeholders agreed to closely work together along a four-pillar strategy:

• Improved technology, including the deployment of sustainable low-carbon fuels;

• More efficient aircraft operations;

• Infrastructure improvements, including modernized air traffic management systems;

• A single global market-based measure, to fill the remaining emissions gap.

For that latest ICAO Assembly adopted three environmental resolutions (ICAO Resolution A39-1, ICAO
Resolution A39-2, ICAO Resolution A39-3), providing in such way very ambitious policy for
environment protection from civil aviation impact and for the sustainable growth of aviation as
important element for future economic growth and development (ICAO contributes to ten of 17
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals). ICAO has established a Committee on Aviation
Environmental Protection (CAEP) for the purpose of assisting in the further development of Standards,
Recommended Practices and Procedures and/or guidance material on aircraft noise and engine
emissions to assist States in implementing them in efficient way.

4.1 Reduction of Noise and Emissions

* Flightpath 2050 goal 9: “In 2050 technologies and procedures available allow a 75% reduction
in CO2 emissions per passenger km and a 90% reduction in NOx emissions. The perceived noise
of flying aircraft is reduced by 65%. These are relative to the capabilities of typical new aircraft
in 2000”.

This goal covers noise and emissions. The distinction is made between engine (4.1.2) and aerodynamic
(4.1.3) noise and local (4.1.4) and global (4.1.5) emissions.

Unfortunately, aircraft have a large number of noise sources, as illustrated in Figure 4.2. The major
sources of engine noise are the fan and jet, and to a lesser extent, the compressors, combustor, turbine
and bleeds (which may actually dominate at certain times during flight). Airframe noise is generated
by the airflow surrounding the moving plane. The main sources are the discontinuities of the aircraft
structure, such as high-lift devices (HLD), landing gear wheels (when extended), and trailing edges
which lead to speed shearing (aircraft speed versus still air). A further source of noise arises from the
interaction of the engines exhaust jet with the airframe. As a general rule, engine sources dominate
on take-off while airframe noise dominates on approach.

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Figure 73: Main sources of engine and airframe noise.

There is potential for reducing noise by way of better component design and incremental
improvements in existing technology, but it is not appropriate to detail all the possibilities here (Table
25 is for illustrative examples). Instead, we highlight where new technological improvement is likely,
and cases where an improvement in aircraft efficiency and gaseous emissions creates a new noise risk
that will need to be addressed. However, they can be broadly classified as engine noise sources and
airframe noise sources. The range of liners employed to attenuate noise will be significant in the near
term. Specifically, lip liners (where the intake liner is extended around the lip of the nacelle intake) are
feasible now that the problem of integrating them with the de-icing system has been overcome.
Modern ceramics and improved manufacturing have made core exhaust liners possible, but the
problem of high temperatures and a highly curved geometry must still be solved. Equally, ALM allows
for varying the depth of nacelle liners to obtain a distribution of acoustic impedance that can be
optimised for maximum attenuation (Nark et al., 2016) or the use of radically new liner design (Koch
et al., 2017).
Table 25: Examples of potential noise reduction through component improvements. (Based on data given in (CAEP/9 Meeting, 2013))

4.1.1 Aircraft engine emission

The medium range aircraft class has seen significant re-engineering over the last two decades with the
introduction of aircraft such the A320neo and B737 Max, while three all-new wide-body long haul models

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– the A380 and A350, plus the B787 – have been introduced. They have benefited from the introduction
of new technologies, principally the increasing use of composites and the replacement of hydraulic and
pneumatic systems by electric powered alternatives.

The increasing use of electric systems presages yet further introduction of electric technology, and the
commitment of both Airbus and Boeing to electric power is clear with the E-Fan and Horizon X
programmes. More broadly, there exist a host of concepts and demonstrators for hybrid electric and fully
electric powered aircraft by a number of new players who have entered the field.

The notion of “on demand” (or “air taxis”) is currently seen as a likely first step for fully electric flight,
with hybrid electrics replacing the current family of regional turbofan and turboprop aircraft (such as the
Bombardier CRJ and Q400 Series, and the Embraer E jet series).

Whilst technological improvements targeted at reducing noise and/or gaseous emissions have been
made, the main reason for the steady progress in reducing aviation emissions over the last few decades
can be directly linked to an overall improvement in aircraft fuel consumption, as illustrated in Figure 73.
Figure 74: Improvement in aircraft efficiency.

Aircraft efficiency is a measure of how well the available energy of fuel is converted into useful forward
motion for an aircraft. It is the product of the individual efficiencies of the steps involved in this overall
process. The efficiency of an engine comprises two main factors. The engine’s thermal efficiency describes
the effectiveness with which the available chemical energy in the fuel is turned into mechanical energy,
and the propulsive efficiency of the engine indicates how well the mechanical energy is turned into thrust.
Additionally, the propulsive efficiency of the airframe measures how well this thrust is converted into
useful forward motion. Higher values for all of these efficiencies are desirable in the drive to reduce fuel-
burn and CO2 emissions. However, while lower fuel burn implies less NOx emission, a higher thermal
efficiency can lead to enhanced NOx production per unit mass of fuel burn.

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Historically, the greatest increase in aircraft efficiency has been made by improved engine performance.
However, as engines have become more efficient, the gains to be made through airframe improvements
have become more significant. There are two main points worth noting here. Aircraft weight is a primary
driver of fuel burn because a heavier aircraft requires increased lift, thereby increasing drag and the
consequent need for additional thrust. To decrease weight, the use of composite materials (based on
carbon fibre or glass fibre) in aircraft has increased in recent decades. A high percentage of newer aircraft
such as the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A350 XWB consist of such materials.

In addition to decreasing weight, decreasing drag (for a given thrust) will improve aircraft efficiency.
Winglets are the most obvious recent example of a technology that decreased drag. Adding winglets that
are tilted upward at the tips, either to new aircraft or as retrofits to existing models, has delivered 3-5%
reductions in fuel burn, depending on the length of the flight and type of aircraft. An alternative to the
winglet is the raked tip, which can produce similar drag reductions. One more way of doing this is to
increase the aspect ratio of the wing (i.e. make it longer and thinner). With a conventional cantilever wing
arrangement, there are limits to how far this approach can be pursued because of structural integrity
concerns. However, with composite technology, there is now the capability to manufacture truss-braced
wings (i.e. a wing supported part-way along its length by a strut which carries part of the load to the
fuselage). According to NASA, such a wing can reduce fuel use by 5 to 10%. These benefits are offset by
potential space related problems at airport stands as a result of the elongated wings, increasing the
likelihood that such a design will fall within the longer term timeframe.

One drag reduction technology that is realistically achievable in the near term is the Natural Laminar Flow
wings. The EU Clean Sky BLADE project recently conducted a demonstration to show the feasibility of
introducing laminar flow wing technology on a large airliner. It is estimated that the technology can
decrease aircraft drag by up to 10%. Further efficiency gains to the engine will be made via both thermal
efficiency and propulsive efficiency. Like in the past, these will be achieved by further increasing the core
pressure ratio and engine BPR. However, the penalties associated with these strategies (enhanced NOx
production and increased weight, respectively) are now sufficiently large that mitigating technology will
need to be employed.

4.1.2 Engine Noise for Turbofans and Propfans

Since the start of the jet age enormous progress has been made in lowering noise levels and reducing
the noise footprint per aircraft movement. Some of this progress has been offset by air traffic growth
that can lead to increased total noise exposure unless noise reductions continue. Studies to probe
various technologies have already been conducted, or are being conducted, both for Ultra High
Bypass Ratio engines and for Open Rotors. These two technological tracks are both presumed to
lower fuel consumption and to reduce noise emission (at least jet noise, since tonal noise may
dramatically increase for Open Rotors).

The major contributor to the reduction of engine noise has been the increase in the by-pass ratio
of turbofan engines: the larger by-pass flow at a lower speed radiates less noise and shields and
scatters the sound from the hot high-speed core flow. Increasing the by-pass ratio also decreases fuel
consumption, leading both to lower emissions and more favourable economics. This triple win-win-
win situation of lower fuel consumption-less noise-lower emissions may be reaching it limits for by-
pass ratios (BPR) in the range 15-20.

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For higher BPR the size and weight of the engine nacelle and the limited space for acoustic liners and
other noise reduction measures point towards the open rotor. The propfan promises reductions in
fuel consumption up to 20% corresponding to a BPR of 30-40 not feasible with engine nacelles. The
reductions in fuel consumption have direct benefits in lower emissions and better economics.

Propulsion efficiency of the jet engine is maximum, when exhaust jet speed is equal to that of air
vehicle that does not produce propulsion. In practice at preset propulsion the jet speed can be
reduced up to that optimum value due to increase in the bypass ratio of the engine and reduction of
fan rotational speed. It also makes favorable influence on noise. As a result the diameter of engine fan
systems gradually has grown. In order to reduce weight and improve aerodynamic efficiency of the
fan of the last century fan blades were replaced by those made of hollow titan. New blades are of
super plastic forming, wide-chord ones and developed with involvement of complex third-
dimensional aerodynamic design. Fan protection superlight ribbed systems made of titan also
replaced high-priced Kevlar-coated systems. In future even lighter and more efficient fan systems
should support high integrity level to be provided by a hollow titan blade and thus can have complex
metallic or composite structures. Such technology is developed in VITAL EU program.

Open rotors in essence are turboprop engines with second counter-rotating propeller, which
regenerates the flow. Addition of the second step of the propeller makes possible to improve
considerably efficiency and high speed of engine operation holding the propeller diameter, which can
be built in the airframe. Without a spinner around propellers the open rotors have lower potential to
provide shielding and releasing noise reduction than turbofan ones. Though the early results of scaled
model tests show that the modern design with open rotor can be as much “soft” as current closed
turbofans. This potential effect on the perceived noise around airports should be balanced with
potential 30% increase in efficiency of fuel use over modern turbofans (Royal Aeronautical Society,
2005). Open rotors also can be restricted from the technical point in several motion speeds some
lower than turbofans (maximum Mach number is equal to 0,75, but not to 0,85 that makes 5-10
minutes of additional flying time). The number of flights, which can be made at short hauls (< 2000
km) per day, does not change considerably; therefore this difference in speed will be acceptable.
Nowadays some turbofan air vehicles with short ranges are already slower than М=0,8 in order to
save fuel. Long-time air vehicles can still support closed engines, where time, noise and operational
problems can avoid application of the open rotor (Parker R., Lathoud M., 2010).

The open contra-rotating rotors require careful optimization both from the aerodynamic and noise
aspects, with the aft rotor cutting the wake of the forward one. Taking as noise metric the average of
sound level (EPNDB) at the 3 certification measuring points the prop-fan could meet current noise
standards. Future noise standards could be more challenging depending on the further reductions
sought below the current standard.

For example, in the framework of Quit Technologies Demonstrator 2(QTD2) program the engine
nacelle with a seamless inlet and chevron nozzle made of shape memory material of B777 aircraft with
bypass turbojet engine GE90 was subjected to flight tests. The test results showed that the application
of such technologies can reduce noise level at takeoff by ~3–4 dB and improve specific fuel
consumption at cruise flight conditions by 1%. (Craig L., 2006, Eury S., 2005, Gliebe Ph., Dodds W.,
2005).

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To reduce the noise level it is supposed to use the noise active control system, which includes acoustic
resonators to be installed on blades of the fan outlet straightener and devices based on MEMS-
technology and installed along the inner passage of the engine nacelle. The application of such system
makes possible to reduce noise level in a source by ~50–60% (Fig. 75-76).

In the work (Czech M.J., Thomas, R.H., Elkoby, R., 2012) there were studied the effects of chevron
nozzles of two main types on the noise level, chevron rigging angles (submersion), the effect from a
standard pylon, vertical control surfaces of an airframe, elevon and aileron deviation angles.

Sufficient noise reduction was possible in case of combination of low-frequency noise reduction from
chevrons and shielding from redistribution of the initial peak source and rear protection space at
nominal design position of the fan diameter in front of the trailing edge. Effects from additional
characteristics of the airframe were generally restricted. Vertical surfaces provided noise reduction up
to 1 dB, but only in restricted ranges of polar and azimuth angles. Effects of elevon deviation
depended on observer’s azimuth angle and also were small, though the deviation made only 5
degrees. This effect will probably increase for higher deviation angles of the elevons. New concept of
acoustic inserts built in an aileron also was tested with restricted effect, although the design was not
optimized for this application. Further work on this conception of noise reduction should be continued
(Czech M.J., Thomas, R.H., Elkoby, R., 2012).
Figure 75: Chevron nozzle made of shape memori material.

Figure 76: Engine noise reduction technologies.

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When adding the sideline and retraction points more than 6,5EPNdB of reduction of jet noise was
achieved by mounting a better common nozzle relatively to an isolated nozzle of the base line. The
better common nozzle contains T-fan chevron (Fig. 76) oriented for longer chevrons in an asymmetric
pattern from the airframe and ground observer location and the main chevron, which in essence is a
homogeneous structure by circumference. This nozzle was selected and manufactured for the
experiment with high accuracy in order to obtain the aeroacoustic characteristic of N+2A HWB
concept in NASA (Czech M.J., Thomas, R.H., Elkoby, R., 2012).
Figure 77: Chevron nozzle, type T-fan.

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Addition of a common-type pylon gave considerable spectral changes reducing the jet noise up to 4
dB at lower polar angles and increasing it by 2-3 dB at right angles. Moreover the pylon also had a
strong azimuth effect of redistributing to noise sources. Mountings on two diameters of the fan in
front of the wing trailing edge provided shielding in front arc at high frequencies either for axially-
symmetric nozzle or for common round nozzle with pylon. It matches with phased array
measurements, which assume that high-frequency sources are located predominantly near the nozzle
outlet and consequently are shielded. Medium and low frequency sources were observed further by
the stream and shielding reduced far less.

The engine with m=7 ran in peculiar cycle periods at static conditions and in flight conditions. Pylon
effect and its orientation for jet noise were also studied as a function of bypass ratio and cycle
conditions. Adding of the pylon led to considerable spectral changes reducing jet noise up to 4 dB at
high polar angles and increasing it by 2-3 dB at direct angles. In order to estimate noise shielding a
model scheme to scale was presented so that the jet nozzle was located from the trailing edge to
several diameters before the trailing edge of the airframe model. Mounting on two diameters of the
fan in front of the wing trailing edge provided only restricted shielding in the first arc at high
frequencies either for axially-symmetric nozzle or for the common round one with a pylon. The pylon
was additionally modified as for the technology, which inflates air via pylon flange, which is efficient
for reduction of low-frequency noise and moving the jet noise sources closer to the nozzle outlet (Fig.
78). Further it is reviewed the concept of the active pylon, where the flow is inflated via the lower part
of the thermal flange. Reduction by 1 dB was revealed in mid angles with blow pressure factor.
Configuration with stronger submission of the chevron and pylon oriented opposite to microphones
caused the maximum reduction of jet noise. Additionally to the jet noise source the shielding of the
wide-band spot noise source was recorded with reduction of the noise level up to 20 dB.
Figure 78: Pylon with blowing of gas to the stream.

Generally the following was studied in the work: the effect of noise source position relatively the
trailing edge, influence of vertical surfaces, presence of the pylon with blowing of air through holes in
the pylon (Czech M.J., Thomas, R.H., Elkoby, R., 2012).

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In parallel with an evolution largely driven by global environmental issues, there is evidence of
increased sensitivity to noise in local communities impacted by aviation operations despite significant
reduction of aircraft source noise over the years. The air transport growth perspectives in Europe are
still conditioned by improvements in all three elements of the ICAO Balanced Approach (ICAO
Resolution A39-1). The initial SRA1 approach presiding over the definition the ACARE 2020 noise
targets remains valid (Figure 79), as originally based on the Balanced Approach concept developed
by ICAO:

 The first noise target aims at reducing noise emission of flying vehicles by half, which was
translated in quantitative terms as an average reduction of 10 decibels per operation, taking
into account technology benefits as well as operational improvements.
 The second noise target aims at ensuring that the 10dB benefit in noise emission anticipated
for fixed-wing aircraft effectively leads to no impacted people outside airport boundaries,
provided the appropriate management practices are in place.

Figure 79: ACARE SRA 1: Noise Goals for Fixed-Wing Aircraft

Three years ahead of 2020, the progress registered since 2000 is significant, reaching an
excellent level of completion with about 64% of expected benefits secured, due to effective
implementation of the research roadmap and associated priorities. In terms of identified ACARE
contributors, the investigation and development of recommended ACARE solutions have been well
supported at European level over the years, complemented by a steady activity at national level. The
first two elements of the Balanced Approach concept (noise reduction at source, noise abatement
procedures) constitute the identified contributors to the 10dB reduction aircraft noise target, and can
be further described in terms of associated technical and operational solutions as shown below:

 Quiet Aircraft contributor associated solutions: Noise Reduction Technologies (NRT)

generation 1 and 2, Novel aircraft and engine/power plant architectures
 Noise Abatement Procedures contributor associated solutions: Improved Operating
Practices with Current Concepts / Optimized Operations with New Technology / ATM-ATC
Integration
At the occasion of previous progress assessment exercises, a methodology has been established in
EU XNoise project (X-NOISE network as part of its activity, has identified gaps and priorities,

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supporting the definition of a general strategy addressing the anticipated 10 dB reduction per
Operation in a phased approach by means of a significant effort on Technology as well as Noise
Abatement Procedures), based:

 On the internationally recognised Technology Readiness Level scale (Figure ), that allows to
keep track of the situation of individual technologies identified in the SRA1.
 On a dedicated process, called Technology Evaluator, involving a predictive model with
capability to roll up the benefits of individual technologies at solution level and establish the
progress achieved globally, including operational aspects.

Figure 80: Technology Readiness Level Classification (TRL) used for solutions assessment

An approach by consensus based on expert’s judgement, assessment of the TRL situation and results
from the technology evaluation exercises has then been used to perform the 2015 progress
assessment, coming up with updated progress achievement figures and formulating associated
recommendations for future research. Recommended Phased Approach to meet ACARE Noise Goal
#1 includes analysis of expected advances on noise reduction with Noise Reduction Technology 1
(NRT1) and NRT2, as well as the Noise Abatement Procedure, (Figure 81).

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Figure 81: Expected advances on noise reduction with NRT1 and NRT2, as well as the Noise Abatement Procedure

Since the year 2000 a number of civil air transport aircraft have been certified by the European
industry, a few others, still in their development phase are planned to be certified before 2020.
Certification requirements for aircraft noise during this 20 years period were changed twice (¡Error!
No se encuentra el origen de la referencia.) – in 2006 and 2017, once again basing on NRT1 and NRT2
achievements, reached in EU (¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia.). In 2014, ICAO adopted
a new standard that will result in a reduction of 7 Effective Perceived Noise Decibels (EPNdB)
compared to the current Chapter 4 Standard. The new standard will apply from 2018. As a result of
technological improvements, the noise footprint (85 dB(A) maximum sound pressure level contour)
of new aircraft is up to 50% smaller than that of the aircraft they replace (Source: Lufthansa). The prime
purpose of noise certification is to ensure that the latest available noise reduction technology is
incorporated into aircraft design demonstrated by procedures which are relevant to day to day
operations, to ensure that noise reduction offered by technology is reflected in reductions around
airports.

The results of aircraft noise certification provide a representative panel of effective implementation
of state of the art Generation 1 Noise Reduction Technologies delivered to TRL6 by completed
research programmes such as Silence(r) and Vital (¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia.).
The observed average achievement is in fact slightly over the expected 30% of the ACARE target.
In dealing with the further steps towards the -10dB target (NRT Generation 2, Novel Architectures),
the 2015 assessment exercise benefits from the achievements of the OPENAIR project as well as
interim results from CLEAN SKY in specific areas related to business jets and regional aircraft in
particular.

At the end of the OPENAIR project NRT2 have achieved TRL 4/5 (look in the Figure and ¡Error! No se
encuentra el origen de la referencia.) through large scale testing in wind tunnels and dedicated engine
fan or exhaust rigs. These technologies have been aimed primarily at Short-Medium Range and Long-
Range aircraft fitted with advanced ducted turbofans. Through CLEAN SKY, additional efforts reached

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similar TRL achievements on complementary noise reduction solutions aimed at Regional Aircraft (low
noise landing gear and high lift devices) and Business Jets (U-Tail). In addition to technology solutions,
CLEAN SKY will also bring further consolidation of noise abatement procedures benefits. At last CLEAN
SKY has produced a first noise evaluation of the Counter Rotating Open Rotor (CROR) engine concept
at mission level on a Short-Medium Range aircraft.
Figure 82: Roadmap of EU Aircraft Noise Research Projects vs Key Technical Areas (Generation 1 and 2 solutions - NRT1 and NRT2
performances – were achieved by results of the projects shown and classified in accordance with priority acoustic sources)

Figure 83: Roadmap of EU Aircraft Noise Research Projects vs Key Technical Areas (Generation 1 and 2 solutions - NRT1 and NRT2
performances – were achieved by results of the projects shown and classified in accordance with priority acoustic sources).

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Figure 84: Noise Reduction Technologies Development & Validation

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Figure 85: Sources of aircraft acoustic emission during take-off.

During landing (Figure 86), along with the noise of the engine fan, the noise sources are the airframe
skin and airplane elements (flaps and landing gear) (Leylekian, L., Lebrun, M., Lempereur, P. 2014).
Figure 86: Sources of acoustic emission during landing.

One of the promising areas is the creation of effective sound-absorbing structures that are used in
the engine nacelle (Leylekian, L., Lebrun, M., Lempereur, P. 2014).

Besides, special porous materials are under development, the use of which can reduce the acoustic
emission from the source (Delfs, J.W., et al., L. 2017).

In the paper (Nae, C. 2014) the level of technological readiness of the most promising technologies is
assessed, as well as general integration into a new generation of Green Regional Aircraft (GRA), as a
highly optimized configuration that meets the requirements for FlighPath 2050. The design features
of aircraft for achieving the ACARE goals, i.e. fuel efficiency increase, acoustic emission and CO2
emissions reduction, are analyzed in the paper (Szodruch, J., et al., 2011). One of the methods of noise
reduction is an electric aircraft with MEA technology [More Electric Aircraft) (Baharozu, E., Soykan, G.,
Ozerdem, M. B. 2017).

Let's consider briefly the main directions of new technologies. Rolls-Royce engines have new
technologies introduced, providing low noise. Fig. 87 shows the compliance of Rolls-Royce engines

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with modern ICAO requirements (Chapter 14 of the Annex 16, vol. 1). The noise reduction in Rolls-
Royce engines is provided by increasing the by-pass ratio of the engine, reducing the fan noise,
optimizing the engine cycle, using the contra-rotating rotors, using the sound-absorbing structures
and reducing the level of turbulence in the inlet section.
Figure 87: The compliance of Rolls-Royce engines with modern ICAO requirements (ICAO Annex 16, vol. 1, Chapters 4 and 14)

Reduction of fan noise is provided by the use of a low-speed advanced fan (reduction of the dipole
acoustic noise source). Wide-chord fan blades have a twist in height and are made of composite
materials.

Reduction of the acoustic interaction between the fan impeller and the outlet guide vanes is provided
by inclined and specially profiled blades, the number of which is selected to provide the "cut-off"
effect.

The development of optimized OGV made it possible to significantly reduce discrete and broadband
noise. To achieve this goal, a multidisciplinary aerodynamic and acoustic optimization of the fan OGV
design was performed, a reduction in the number of vanes from 42 pieces to 14 pieces was considered
(Kröger, G., Schnell, R., Humphreys, N. D. 2012). In addition, the design of the inner surface of the
casing is made without seams, which are one of the sources of the quadrupole acoustic source of
noise at the inlet and outlet of the fan.

Using an inlet section of a special design contributes to reduction of the turbulence level at the engine
inlet, which in turn reduces the level of vortex noise at the fan inlet. Also, acoustic emission reduction
is achieved by using sound-absorbing materials and reducing the tonal noise of a low-pressure
turbine. Decrease in tonal noise is provided by improved aerodynamics of the turbine blades and a
decrease in the rotational frequency. Fig. 88 presents a set of technologies in the Rolls Royce engine
to reduce noise.

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Figure 88: Rolls Royce engine noise reduction technologies.

To achieve ACARE noise reduction goals, Rolls Royce is developing engines under the Advance and
UltraFan programs, which are planned to be completed in 2020 and 2025, respectively. These engines
feature the following:

- three-shaft modular design of a high-bypass engine (for Advance up to m=11, for UltraFan up to
m=15);
- improved aerodynamics of the impeller machines and a high pressure ratio up to 60 for Advance
and 70 for UltraFan;
- multiparametric optimization of aerodynamic and acoustic characteristics, use of the "Intelligent
Engine"concept;
- application of 3D printing technology.

The proposed measures allow to reduce engine weight and increase fuel efficiency by 20% for
Advance and 25% for UltraFan, as well as to reduce noise level and harmful emissions level (Innovation
through evolution, 2019).

The Advance configuration will be the baseline for the next-generation UltraFan engine. The Advance
project will become the implementation of a whole range of new technologies, and, first of all, it is
aimed at increasing the thermodynamic efficiency of engines.

The UltraFan program will implement all innovations of Advance and with the use of gear technology
will be aimed at increasing thrust efficiency.

The large-scale use of composite materials provides the most significant contribution to the reduction
of the total weight of the power plant. Composite fan made of the third-generation carbonic titanium
became advanced. Composite materials will also be used in the manufacture of the fan casing, the
radial drive shaft, the rear housing and the attachment points for additional equipment. Among other
upgraded components of Advance engines are turbine blades made of titanium aluminide.

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Among other features of power plants are dynamic seals, hybrid ceramic bearings, enhanced adaptive
systems, three-dimensional aerodynamic blades of the fifth-generation turbine, hydraulic switches for
efficient air-cooling control. The new engines will also use the next-generation combustion chamber
and ceramic matrix composites.

The fan speed reduction in the UltraFan engine will be ensured by the use of a special reduction gear.
The technology of a geared fan drive is quite an attractive solution to the problem of weight reduction.
The gearbox application will reduce the fan speed, which is beneficial for the noise reduction when
the fan rotates. The composite materials application will reduce the weight of the fan blades. In
addition, to improve the aerodynamics of the blades, it is suggested to use the boundary layer control
(Whurr J., 2013).

To maintain stable operation of a larger diameter fan, Rolls-Royce engineers are considering the
possibility of using a variable area nozzle. The design of the UltraFan includes the blisk stages of the
compressor (Figure 89). In addition, the design of the nacelle will allow to reduce the aerodynamic
drag.

Further strategic development of the company will be based on Open-Rotor engine technologies.
Figure 89: Rolls Royce technology for the future engine.

SAFRAN engineering solutions for many years have followed their commitment to improve the
environmental and economic parameters of their products, including some well-known innovations
in this field. For example, the CFM56 engine (designed and manufactured by CFM International, a joint
venture of Snecma (Safran) and General Electric with a 50/50 share of equity) today is, from a fuel
efficiency point of view, one of the most efficient engines in its class.

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Its successor, the LEAP engine, will reduce fuel consumption by 15% relative to CFM-56-5B, which in
its turn will reduce harmful emissions. Also a number of engineering solutions for significant
improvement of acoustic characteristics is introduced in this engine.

The structure of the engine is based on proven principles. For example, the engine design does not
include a gear for speed reduction, which significantly complicates the engine design. One of the most
striking engineering solutions is the design of fan blades made of a three-dimensional woven
composite.

The LEAP engine also involves integration of the power plant with Airbus A320neo, Boeing B737MAX
and Comac C919 to reduce acoustic impacts. Lots of innovations are used in the fan, including three-
dimensional woven composite blades, which have already been successfully tested on the Mascot
engine demonstrator. The patented technology is based on resin transfer moulding (RTM). Within the
framework of this technology, liquid resin is introduced between the matrix and the solid opposite
matrix, that ensures the production of lightweight but strong cast parts of three-dimensional woven
composites using a process that is easy to implement on an industrial scale.

The acoustic characteristics of the fan are reduced by the optimized shape of the blades, the absence
of shroud platforms and the reduction in the fan blade weight. The engine nacelle is made of special
composites, which reduce the noise level.

Currently, SAFRAN is working on a future technological breakthrough - the next generation engine
based on the “Open-Rotor” concept. The first demonstrator of this engine - GE36 - was developed
back in the 80s of the last century jointly by Snecma (now part of the SAFRAN group) and GE. Offering
an ultra-high bypass ratio (UHBR), this type of engine, while providing the same speed as traditional
by-pass engines, provides a fuel flow rate by an average of 25% less compared to existing turbofan
engines and 10% less compared to advanced turbofan engines.

The application of the "Open-Rotor" design will entail significant changes in the nacelle design, since
in this case it will play an even greater role in the reduction of noise. The development of the nacelle
is performed by AIRCELLE, a member of the SAFRAN group. In the manufacture of nacelles,
honeycomb materials are used, which helps to reduce the noise level of the engines. Many other
improvements are introduced at every stage of the product life cycle, reflecting the SAFRAN approach
to environmental design. A nacelle is a complex system located at the intersection of the competence
areas of engine manufacturers and airframers. AIRCELLE develops titanium nozzles to improve engine
performance and reduce noise (Beple, M. 2015).

SAFRAN environmental approach focuses on five key areas: economic risks, energy consumption,
increasing shortage of natural non-renewable resources, atmospheric emissions and noise. SAFRAN
is one of the active participants in the European research program Clean Sky. In particular, SAFRAN is
conducting research in the field of next generation helicopters and open-rotor aircraft engines. The
open-rotor engines can be commissioned by 2030 and reduce fuel flow rate by up to 25%.

One of the innovative products, "Development of wireless communication and the Internet", has
played a decisive role, as the data collection from on-board systems became almost automatic. By
analyzing the collected data, SAFRAN can offer recommendations for reducing fuel flow rate and CO2
emissions during the flight or changing the flight path to reduce the noise level on the ground.

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Pratt & Whitney engineering solutions ensure reduction of the fuel flow rate, noise and emissions
level by developing the PurePower engine family (maximum thrust of 10,000-40,000 pounds). It allows
to optimize the routes, reduce flight time and save on environmental fees. Thus, the costs and
environmental pollution are reduced.

The PurePower PW1000G engine allows to optimize the combustion process by more than 16%
compared to the best modern engines - from regional jets to narrow-body long-range aircraft.

The TALON ™ X Pratt & Whitney fuel combustion system dramatically reduces the level of pollution
produced. The PW1000G engine exceeds the requirements of the most demanding standards
(CAEP/6) for nitrogen oxides (NOx) emissions by 50%.

The PurePower PW1000G engine will allow to reduce carbon emissions by 3000 tons per aircraft per
year. The PurePower technology has successfully passed the tests using alternative fuel. Thus,
according to the company's plans, this engine will be able to remain in operation in the long term for
most of the 21st century.

The PurePower PW1000G engine provides a 50% - 75% reduction in noise level. The noise level value
is 15-20 dB below the most stringent of existing standards (ICAO Stage 4).

The fan noise in the PurePower PW1000G engine is reduced by using a fan drive system. This allows
to rotate the engine fan at a lower speed when compared with the low-pressure compressor and
turbine, while increasing the by-pass ratio. This technology provides a lower fuel flow rate and a lower
level of pollution and noise produced. The PurePower PW1000G engine is optimized for a new-
generation aircraft and allows to provide the highest levels of green operation and fuel efficiency with
lower ownership costs during the engine life cycle.

The engineering solutions of Pratt&Wittney Canada are implemented on turbofan engines PW300,
PW500, PW600 and PW800. The engines are equipped with the latest advanced technologies in terms
of performance, reliability, durability, fuel flow rate and environmental friendliness..

The low noise level is provided by an improved wide-chord fan with the use of shock wave control
and by a highly efficient jet nozzle with acoustic optimization.

GE Aviation annually invests more than 1 billion USD in research and development in the aircraft
engine industry.

The optimized design of the GEnx engine fan blades and the use of composite materials allow to
reduce the acoustic emission of the fan. The new GE9X engine is at the R&D stage, including
component testing.

The new-generation PASSPORT engine with improved environmental and economic performance is
developed for the new Bombardier business aircraft Global 7000 and Global 8000.

In Russia, CIAM and TsAGI are involved in reducing acoustic emission of engines. CIAM develops and
conducts experimental studies of typical high-load, high-efficiency axial stages of fans, low pressure
and high pressure compressors of advanced gas turbine engines in a wide range of stages parameters
variation. Measures are being developed to ensure the parameters of the stages and multi-stage
compressors by using stationary cascades and other controls in the areas of unstable flow. CIAM is

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working on the improvement of design flow models in the RANS, URANS approximation in direct and
reverse setting, including taking into account the nonstationary interaction of the blade rows, by the
NLH method, both for gas dynamics problems and for aeroacoustics problems.

Effectiveness of advanced technologies to reduce fan noise is verified on model fans, whose diameter
is 400-700 mm. TsAGI specialists have experience in aeroacoustic calculations on high-performance
multiprocessor complexes

It is also worth mentioning COBRA, an EU-Russia cooperation program that started in October 2013
and that is considered as the continuation of VITAL and DREAM. It is dedicated to the consolidation
of Ultra High Bypass Ration (UHBR) Contra-Rotating TurboFan (CRTF) that was once explored by
Kuznetsov in the early 90s and further explored within VITAL. CRTFs associate two contra-rotating fans
in a nacelle and thus appear as a kind of hybrid between turbofans and Open Rotors. CRTFs envisaged
by COBRA strongly differ from those experimented with within the VITAL program and by the Russian
engine manufacturer. Kuznetsov’s NK-93 (BPR ~ 16.5) highlight the good behaviour in term of
performance of this concept, but the design was made over more than 20 years ago without the
current computational tools and free from present environmental constraints. At the time being
indeed, first NK-93 full scale tests showed that noise performances of such UHBR CRTFs were not so
bad and that the combustion chamber has been up to now one of the most efficient among the
Russian ones. Compared to VITAL, COBRA explores a higher bypass ratio (BPR ~ 11 within VITAL) with
the obligation to use a gear box in order to reduce the fan speed. This reduction directly impacts the
tip velocity and thus will allow the fan noise to be reduced. Within the COBRA project, the BPR
investigated is from 15 up to 25. A specific conception/optimization will be proposed by European
research centres (Onera and DLR) and by Russian partners (CIAM, Kuznetsov, AEROSILA and MIPT).
Both designs will be manufactured by COMOTI and tested at CIAM’s C3-A test rig facility.

It is also worth to mention the research outside Europe, particularly the one performed by NASA,
though its NASA/P&W Ultra High Bypass Turbofan program and its NASA UHB Fan Noise
Reduction.

Under the Engine Validation of Noise and Emissions Reduction Technologies (EVNERT) task of the
NASA Glenn Revolutionary Aero Space Engine Research (RASER) contract, which was sponsored by
the NASA Quiet Aircraft Technology program, NASA and Pratt & Whitney (P&W) formed a
collaborative partnership to develop an Ultra High Bypass engine demonstrator. The goal was to
verify the potential advantages in reducing fuel burn, noise and emissions that could be achieved with
an engine cycle having a fan to core flow bypass ratio of 13 and a fan pressure ratio of 1.3. P&W
designed their engine, which they labelled the Geared Turbofan (GTF), with a geared Low Pressure
Core fan allowing the core and fan to operate at different speeds, thus optimizing the performance
and reducing the complexity of the core.

To help meet the aggressive N+1 noise reduction goal of 32 dB cumulative below the Stage 4 noise
regulation, the SFW Project supported a high fidelity wind tunnel experiment of a scale model
UHB turbofan-simulator to investigate the potential of two advanced noise reduction technologies,
called Over-the-Rotor (OTR) metal foam acoustic treatment and Soft Vanes (SV) acoustically
treated stator vanes, for the UHB engine cycle (Figure 72). The technologies were developed in a
partnership between the NASA Glenn Research Centre and the NASA Langley Research Centre. The

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testing was conducted in the NASA Glenn 9’x15’ LSWT using the Glenn UHB Drive Rig propulsion
simulator at test section velocities simulating aircraft take off, approach and landing speeds. The goal
of these two technologies was to reduce the noise generated by the fan rotor, and that generated by
the interaction of the rotor wakes with the stator vanes with a minimum impact on the aerodynamic
performance of the fan.
Figure 72: Illustration of the UHB Fan Model identifying the locations of two noise reduction technologies used during the NASA Ultra
High Bypass Fan Noise Reduction Test, which were Over-the-Rotor acoustic treatment and Soft Stator Vanes.

The Over-the-Rotor acoustic treatment was designed to replace the traditional hardwall fan case and
rub strip over the fan tip. The new design consisted of a 0.10” thick perforated hard plastic polymer
flow surface with a 1.5” thick porous metal foam material behind it and contained within a steel shell
which interfaced with the rest of the model hardware. The hard plastic flow surface had 0.035” holes
drilled into it resulting in a 20% open area and allowing the acoustic pressure disturbances to pass
through into the metal foam liner behind it. The size and number of holes was designed to minimize
impact on the fan aerodynamic performance. The metal foam had a density of 6% to 8% (or 94% to
92% open area) with extremely small holes of approximately 100 pores per cubic inch of material. The
metal foam presented a random and tortuous path to the incoming acoustic waves, forcing dissipation
of the wave energy internally in the foam. The design allows the local acoustic waves on the vane
suction surface to penetrate into the vane’s four internal chambers, where the acoustic energy would
dissipate.

Combining all previous works, particularly CLEAN SKY interim analysis (2014) with the OPENAIR final
analysis at airport level, and considering the relative importance of business and regional operations,
it can be concluded that a typical 2.5 dB additional benefit relative to the 5dB already
consolidated at TRL 6 can be expected from NRT2 provided such technologies mature to TRL6
in time for 2020 (Table 26).

While such a progress has been registered in terms of secured achievements, the gap to be covered
by new programmes has basically stayed at the level identified in previous assessments. This is due
on the one hand to uncertainties that remain about the capability to support successful OPENAIR
technologies to TRL6 through static and flight demonstrations before 2020 and on the other hand to
a similar lack of visibility relative to the emergence of ambitious multidisciplinary initiatives dedicated

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to environmentally friendly advanced aircraft configurations and design. In contrast, similar projects
have gained momentum in other parts of the world.

Table 26: Technology Readiness Level and Technology Status

In conclusion, relative to the ACARE noise target of -10dB per operation, the aircraft noise
research effort can be considered as globally on track to meet its objective, but will require
significant support in the few years remaining before 2020. Actions critical to the ultimate success
of the global approach initiated around 2000 can be summarized through the following
recommendations:

 Bring the most promising NRT2 solutions put forward by the OPENAIR project to TRL6,
through an appropriate full scale validation effort across the board (engines, nacelles, landing
gears, airframes).
 Drastically increase the effort dedicated to Low Noise Aircraft configurations noting that while
programme prospects are good concerning novel engines architectures, the effort on aircraft
configurations is lagging behind.
 Take advantage of the sustained effort on low noise operational procedures to consolidate
wider implementation capability.
Relative to the second ACARE 2020 noise target (no people impacted outside airport boundaries), a
pilot study led to the following observations:

 Benefits of each individual element differs significantly (very airport dependent)

 The effect of Land Use Planning may be of the same order of magnitude as that of noise
reduction at source
 A combination of actions is required to maintain future population affected below 2000 levels.
The full assessment process however will require a very significant amount of input data and need
effective support if it is to be in place and validated ahead of the next assessment exercise. In the
meantime, dedicated research actions should address the development of updated dose-response
relationships to allow a translation from exposure (LDEN) to annoyance fitted to the characteristics of
today’s and tomorrow’s operations.

At this stage, it should also be pointed out that in noise reduction the main expectations are based
on benefits associated with ducted turbofans engine concepts.

In parallel, Counter Rotating Open Rotor (CROR) engine concepts have re-emerged in recent years
as a serious option to provide the needed fuel burn benefits implied by the targets set for aviation

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CO2 emissions reduction. Noise was considered as a major issue in the initial investigation effort of
such engine concept which culminated in a series of noise evaluation flight tests performed in the US
in 1986-1987.

As a consequence, a significant research effort has been and still is dedicated to noise reduction of
CROR engine concepts (Figure 89). From 2008 to 2011, within the DREAM project (EC 7 framework
program), preliminary campaigns were led to compare noise measurements and numerical
simulations on some Open Rotor configurations. Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) and
Computational AeroAcoustics (CAA) made by Onera (France) appeared to be in good agreement with
the measurements performed by Tsagi (Russia).

However, at this stage, based on results from model tests in anechoic wind tunnel (TRL4), CROR
powered aircraft with an EIS between 2025 and 2030 can be expected to produce noise levels similar
to those of turbofan powered aircraft currently under development. When placed in perspective with
the best expectations resulting from the 1987 post flight test assessment, this represent a typical 20dB
noise reduction on a cumulative basis, a spectacular achievement for the European research effort
initiated in 2008.

Figure 90: Programme Level & EPNL reduction for aircraft noise due to technology improvements

As is seen from the represented material, the aviation technologies andoperational factors shall be
designedin parallel so that to comply with the requirements of Silent Aircraft Initiative, whichsets
objectives ofnoise abatement outside of the perimeter of a typical urban region airport. The
technologies were included into the conceptual design “Silent Aircraft”, ensuring slow andsteep
descending trajectory withoffset landing threshold (Hall, C.A., Schwartz, E. and Hileman, J.I.,2009).

Due to using animproved airframe designin conjunction with a deployable drooped leading edge,
elevator displacement andthrust vectoring (see Figure 91), for the “Silent Aircraft” developed was
ashort-length landing flight path withflight-path angle 39°. Upon that the engines are running idle so

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that to decrease the noise level and to diminish the head resistance, which is required for aircraft
holding.
Figure 91: Deign of Silent Aircraft SAX-40 involving key technologies of noise abatement

Such an approach flight path ensures a peak noise level of 61 dBA outside of the airport perimeter,
which is adequate to the background noise level. This procedure would comply with the
manoeuvering requirements, but it can affect the runway acceptance rate in the airport, if such
operations are not separated from the conventional landing approach procedures.

The group of experts (IEP2) held its own analytical research of UHBR engines with a conventional
scheme of frame-engine integration for the following aircraft categories: SMRA and twin-engine LRA
(long-range aircraft). The research was held by comparing existing certification noise databases at
each control point using an appropriate sample of the reference physical parameters. Based on the
correlations obtained, the noise margins of the UHBR engines with a conventional scheme of frame-
engine integration were obtained within the range of bypass ratios from 11 to 18 for SMRA and twin-
engine LRA.

The potential of noise reduction for the aircraft with large turboprop engines, which consume less fuel
compared to bypass engines, was also investigated, which is why it is expected to use them on large
aircraft. The International Co-ordinating Council of Aerospace Industries Associations (ICCAIA)
presented the results of a research devoted to the analysis of aircraft noise levels with turboprop
engines. The baseline aircraft chosen for this study was Bombardier Q400 (EIS 2001, take-off weight
up to 30 tons, 6PW150A engine, 6 blades propeller made by Dowty). The noise reduction technologies
included an improved air intake and compressor design and an increased number of propeller blades
up to 8, resulting in a reduction in circumferential speed at the periphery.

The aircraft with open-rotor type engines can demonstrate higher fuel efficiency than by-pass engines.
Only the concept of open-rotor was considered in application to the aircraft of the SMRA category.
To evaluate the aerodynamic and acoustic characteristics, the test data of the scaled model in the
NASA wind tunnel was used.

The constant stiffening of ICAO standards has contributed to the development of programs aiming
on technologies creation for reducing aircraft and engine noise (Figure 56-58 their analogues 75-77
in current report) [Leylekian, L., Lebrun, M., Lempereur, P. 2014].

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In the paper (Nae, C. 2014) the level of technological readiness of the most promising technologies is
assessed, as well as general integration into a new generation of Green Regional Aircraft (GRA), as a
highly optimized configuration that meets the requirements for FlighPath 2050. The design features
of aircraft for achieving the ACARE goals, i.e. fuel efficiency increase, acoustic emission and CO2
emissions reduction, are analyzed in the paper [Szodruch, J., Grimme, W., Blumrich, F., Schmid, R.
2011]. One of the methods of noise reduction is an electric aircraft with MEA technology [More Electric
Aircraft) [Baharozu, E., Soykan, G., Ozerdem, M. B. 2017].

The concept of a low-noise aircraft is considered in the papers [Hileman J.I., et al., 2007; Chevagin, A.F.
2015; Maldar, A., et al., 2008]. The Silent Aircraft Initiative (Figure 92) has developed a conceptual
design for extremely low noise (61 dB outside the perimeter of the airport during the landing
approach) of commercial aircraft using various technical and operational innovations [Hileman J.I., et
al., 2007; Chevagin, A.F. 2015; Maldar, A., et al., 2008].

Using the example of the SAX-40, it has been shown that, based on the low-noise design of the aircraft
and the ability to approach for landing at a steeper angle, a significant reduction in noise during
landing is possible at a lower engine thrust. Low-noise technologies developed for Silent Aircraft may
be suitable for upgrading existing aircraft.

Aircraft layouts other than the classic ones are possible, in which the engine's installation losses and
the negative aerodynamic interference between the power plant and the airframe do not exceed the
level adopted today, but give the background for reducing environmental noise (Figure 59) [Chevagin,
A.F. 2015].

There are strict limitations on the safety and fuel efficiency conditions for placing the bypass engine
on the airframe to implement the effects of engine noise screening. The placement of engines at the
top of the wing behind the edge can be taken (for safety and fuel efficiency reasons) for consideration
as a way of bypass engine noise screening in the front hemisphere. The jet stream noise screening in
the rear hemisphere can be considered only in the dorsal layouts, for which interference losses can be
minimized. Bypass engines in overwing layouts tend to dramatically deteriorate the aerodynamic
characteristics of the aircraft.

Figure 92: Non-standard aircraft layouts.

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A diversion from the classical layout of the aircraft (Figure 93) is likely to require an increase in the
stall margins of the bypass engine in terms of inlet flow nonuniformity at limit conditions of the attack
angles and slip of the aircraft.
Figure 93: Built-in PP layouts with spaced ducts.

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For the next stage of exploratory studies of non-standard low-noise civil aircraft based on adequate
Noise-Efficiency-Safety ratio evaluations, it is necessary to develop the methods of calculating the
engine aeroacoustics within the aircraft.

In the paper (Mincu, D.C., Manoha, E. 2014) different methods of acoustic emission calculation are
compared when integrating the power plant with the aircraft, 3D models, computational meshes are
presented (Figure 94). The computational model of the multiply-connected system "engine-
attachment-frame" is presented in the paper (Baklanov, V.S. 2010).
Figure 94: Elements of numerical simulation.

The model is developed on the basis of experimental researches of frequency characteristics of

dynamic flexibilities and vibroacoustic conductance of the engine casing and the airframe structure in
the places of supporting connections. This model allows us to develop a number of algorithms for the
evaluation of acoustic processes in the engine gas flow duct, vibration characteristics of the power
plant units (for example, plunger pumps) and dynamic loading of the engine mounts.

The problems associated with calculating the reliability of some noise models and using these models
for uncreated airplane configurations are discussed. In the paper [Havrilesko, B.R., et al., 2014] the
capabilities of the software module for predicting noise generated by modern aircraft during climb,
cruise flight and approach are examined. The calculation module was created in the MATLAB program.
The authors of the paper emphasize that the calculations in this module are well suited for aircraft

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that are in operation, but for calculation of future aircraft it is not suitable and requires further
development.

In the paper [Redonnet, S. 2014] a hybrid noise prediction method developed in the Onera Research
Center, France is considered.

When developing and beta-testing the calculation methods, a very important issue is the availability
of an acoustic characteristics database for the aircraft and individual elements.

A separate place is occupied by the methods for calculating fan noise. In the paper [Ferrante, P. et al.,
2014], an innovative integrated approach to noise calculation has been proposed to predict noise
from a fan in the front hemisphere with taking into account the design of the nacelle. The method is
based on the use of an effective CFD solver that implements the Nonlinear Harmonic method for
simultaneous calculation of noise sources and its expansion in the near field, considering aeroacoustic
characteristics in the far field. The results of the simulation were compared with the experimental data.
The method of predicting the acoustic characteristics, proposed by the authors, has a higher efficiency,
takes less time and has higher possibilities for calculating acoustic characteristics; it can be used to
predict the acoustic characteristics of impeller machines.

In the CIAM (Russia), a 3DAS solver calculation method was developed [Rossikhin, A., Pankov, S.,
Brailko, I., Mileshin, V. 2014]. Verification is carried out for the acoustic emission polar pattern of a
high-bypass ratio fan (m = 8) for the first three harmonics. Authors conclude that the model has
satisfactory results and needs to be improved.

In the paper [Timushev S.F., Gavriliuk V.N., Aksenov A.A., Klimenko D.V. 2017] a new highly effective
method is proposed for numerical simulation of three-dimensional tonal acoustic fields at the blade
passing frequencies and their higher and combination harmonics generated by an aircraft engine fan.
The method is based on a direct solution of the Fourier - transformed wave equation in complex
variables considering convection in a rectangular coordinate system with boundary conditions in the
form of complex impedance. The noise source can be received by the acoustic-vortex decomposition
method.

The paper gives examples of verification and application of the proposed method of sound field
simulation considering the boundary conditions in the form of complex acoustic impedance. Good
perspectives of its application for the optimization of impeller machines are shown, including for the
purpose of reducing the tonal noise of the bypass engine fans. The LMS software package is well
proven in the calculation of acoustic characteristics.

The paper [Piatunin K.R., Arkharova N.V., Remizov A.E. 2014] presents the results of numerical
simulation of the fan tonal noise using the LMS Sysnoise software package in the format of Exterior
Direct BEM.

The calculations are performed at the approach condition. The calculation results include acoustic
emission polar patterns at a distance of 50 m from the engine in the front hemisphere. The simulation
was made in a complete setting for all the blade channels of the wheel and the stator blades of the
fan stage in the absence of axial symmetry of the stage. The article gives an assessment of the

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possibility of using the presented approach for analyzing the acoustic characteristics of aircraft engine
elements. Also, the manpower input and computational burden required for simulation are presented.

The tone noise of the interaction between the fan and the add stages of the low-pressure compressor
makes a significant contribution to the overall noise level of the aircraft engine, especially at subsonic
conditions (KhaletskyYu.D., Korzhnev V.N., Pochkin Ya.S. 2016). This noise is caused by the interaction
of the fan and booster elements. The tonal components at these frequencies are the result of the
nonlinear interaction between rotor and stator rows. Therefore, in the noise spectrum of the fan, in
addition to the usual noise of interaction, the total and difference tones appear.

When studying the acoustic characteristics of a by-pass wide-chord fan, it was found out that the total
and difference components of the noise of interaction between the fan and the compressor appear
at subsonic conditions and spread mainly over the front hemisphere.

In order to reduce the noise, researches are being held on the combined silencers of the fan noise, as
well as the location of their installation. The results of the research [Khaletsky Yu.D., Shypov R.A. 2010]
show that the latticed silencer is broadband and universal. In one way or another, it reduces all noise
components practically in the entire frequency range above 1.0 kHz approximately. On average, for
four to five discrete components of noise, the sound power reduces for about 4 dB, that is, more than
twice.

In addition, researches on centrifugal and radial compressors and fans under carried out. For example,
the paper [Wang, P., Zangeneh, M. 2014] presents the results of a research on the aerodynamic and
acoustic characteristics of a transonic centrifugal compressor. As a result of the blades reprofiling, the
characteristics of a centrifugal compressor have improved. Aerodynamic performance has improved
over the entire operating envelope, and acoustic characteristics have improved at the operating
condition close to the maximum one.

In the paper [Mamaiev, V.K., Vlasov, E.N. 2009], an analysis of the dependencies of the sound power
level estimation that were proposed by various authors is presented in the context of radial fans with
a double inlet and a single-stage radial compressor with a bladed diffuser. A new formula is proposed
for estimating the sound power level, taking into account both aerodynamic characteristics and
geometric parameters. The authors proposed a correction factor that takes into account the geometric
parameters of the impeller machines.

Particular attention is paid to the methods of gas-dynamic influence on the flow in fans and
compressors for the reduction of acoustic emission in the source [Kohlhaas, M., Carolus, T.H. 2014;
Doroshenko, E., Tereshchenko, Y., Lastivka, I., Tereshchenko, Y. 2017; Polacsek, C., et al., 2014]. The
paper [Kohlhaas, M., Carolus, T.H. 2014] presents the results of the axial fan rotor-stator interaction,
which is the source of tonal noise. The presented results show that the optimized sectional air blowing
through the trailing edge makes it possible to reduce the sound pressure level by 2.4 dB, and on the
first harmonic up to 21.4 dB, which practically indicates its elimination. The paper [Polacsek, C., et al.,
2014] considers a method of reducing the broadband noise of a fan by an active influence on the
flow. The studies have shown that active impact on the boundary layer leads to a decrease in the
aerodynamic wake behind the blade and helps to reduce broadband noise, but discrete noise can
increase in this case. The results of the study presented in [Doroshenko, E., Tereshchenko, Y., Lastivka,

200
I., Tereshchenko, Y. 2017] showed that the use of a double-row fan makes it possible to reduce the
overall sound power level by 6.8 ... 7.4 dB. As it was said earlier, one of the advanced developments is
an open-rotor engine (Open Rotor), such engines have high efficiency. However, acoustic
characteristics require additional research and improvement.

In the paper [Perullo, Ch.A., Tai, J.C.M., Mavris, D.N. 2013] the characteristics of an open-rotor engine
are analyzed for different operating conditions. Fig. 95 shows a comparison of the engines.
Figure 95: Advantages of an open-rotor engine.

The calculation of the characteristics of an open-rotor engine is presented in the paper [Hendricks,
E.S., Tong, M.T. 2012]. It is shown that the designed engine will have a higher efficiency. It is also noted
that such engines have a margin of 13 dB according to ICAO requirements (Chapter 4). To improve
the acoustic characteristics of an open rotor, reliable methods of noise calculation are needed.

In the paper [Farassat, F., Dunn, M.H., Tinetti, A.F., Nark, D.M. 2009] methods for predicting open-rotor
noise available at NASA Langley are discussed. Three codes called ASSPIN (Advanced Subsonic-
Supersonic Propeller Induced Noise), FW-Hpds (Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings with permeable data
surface) and FSC (Fast Scattering Code) are compared. The first two codes are in the time area, and
the third code is the frequency area code. The capabilities of these codes and the requirements for
input data are presented, as well as the output data. In addition, the authors proposed procedures for
further improvement of these codes. In particular, a method based on equivalent sources is described
to eliminate false signals in the FW-Hpds code.

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A number of papers [Hildebrandt, T., Thiel, P., Albert, S., Vilmin, S. 2014; Zamtforth, B.S. 2012; Zante,
D.E., Envia, E. 2014] are devoted to the study of the acoustic characteristics of an open rotor. In terms
of design an open rotor consists of two rotor wheels, which rotate in different directions. The results
of the paper [Zamtforth, B.S. 2012] showed that in the engine noise spectrum, in addition to the
traditional noise components, tonal noise peaks at combination frequencies in the low-frequency part
of the spectrum are added. This creates significant difficulties in reducing the aircraft noise with such
engines afield.

In the paper [Hildebrandt, T., Thiel, P., Albert, S., Vilmin, S. 2014] the study was carried out with the
help of a numerical experiment using NLH (Non-Linear Harmonic method). The first blade ring
consisted of 9 blades, the second consisted of 12, the tip radius was 2.5 m, the hub radius 0.75 m, the
rotational speed of the first blade ring was 783.6 rpm, the rotational speed of the second - 763.8 rpm.
The results of the paper made it possible to investigate the mechanism of generation of the open
rotor acoustic emission. The results of the paper [Zante, D.E., Envia, E. 2014] show that for the reduction
of acoustic emission, it is necessary to reduce the wake behind the first rotor and to reduce the
acoustic effect from the vortices behind the second rotor, which separate from the blade tips.

The paper [Sgadlev, V.V. 2009] presents the results of the blades number optimization for the stage
of one of the contra-rotation fans, developed under the European program VITAL. In addition, the
paper presents a method for evaluating the acoustic characteristics of a fan. The method is based on
obtaining analytical solutions of the Tyler-Sofrin theory and the theory of disturbance propagation in
a duct. A program has been developed to obtain these solutions and to present them in a user-friendly
form.

After optimizing the number of blades of the contra-rotation fan stage, the number of modes
decreased by 38.5%, which implies a corresponding reduction in noise levels. This technique will be
more efficient if it incorporates the weight coefficients of the mode for better consideration of the
human hearing physiology and for more optimal adjustment of the sound absorbing structures (SAS)
characteristics.

The results of the paper [Danner, F., Kendall-Torry, C. 2014] showed that when the diameter of the
second wheel of an open rotor is reduced by 20%, acoustic emission from the interaction between
the first and second rotor wheels are reduced.

Jet stream is one of the main sources of the jet engine noise, therefore, research on reducing the jet
stream noise is still of vital importance. In the medium term, a method of reducing the jet noise for
the engines with m=7...9 is the use of a chevron or splined device for the nozzles of the bypass and
core ducts.

The effectiveness of this method makes up 0.5 EPN dB at take-off (average certification value for
takeoff run and climb) [Solonin V.I., KhaletskyYu.D. 2010]. An effective way to reduce the noise of a jet
stream is to increase the bypass ratio. According to rough estimates, using a 3dB/m dependence, a
power plant with a bypass ratio of m≈12 will reduce the noise level of the aircraft at control points
by 9 EPN dB. Table. 3.5 shows the methods for reducing the noise of the jet stream in the medium
term [Solonin V.I., KhaletskyYu.D. 2010].

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The paper [Rybinskaya, L.A., Bul'bovich, R.V., Kychkin, V.I. 2017] provides an overview of methods for
reducing the jet noise. In various research programs, advanced methods for reducing the noise of a
jet stream are investigated. These methods include liquid injection, the use of a bevelled nozzle, the
use of micro-jets, high-frequency excitation. All of these methods have a potential noise reduction of
1-2 EPN dB for takeoff run and climb [Rybinskaya, L.A., Bul'bovich, R.V., Kychkin, V.I. 2017; Solonin V.I.,
KhaletskyYu.D. 2010].

In order to reduce the jet stream noise, in the paper [Panda, J. 2005] an analysis of known results of
experimental studies for 5 researches was made using correlation method to identify the jet stream
noise sources.

In the paper [Medviediev, V.V., Timko, O.S. 2012] a comparative analysis of methods for reducing the
noise of an aircraft engine exhaust jet was made. It is shown that mixing the flows is practically the
only way to improve the acoustic characteristics of the engine without deterioration of its economy.

At high values of the bypass ratio (m>6...8), the positive effect of mixing on the economy is negligible
and does not justify the increase in the mass of the engine due to the mixing chamber, but the acoustic
effect remains. Therefore, for the engines with m<6, the use of a mixing chamber gives the best results,
both in economy and in acoustics. In addition, in such a scheme of the engine, acoustic processing of
the nozzle walls and screening of the bypass duct with the mixer is possible, which allows reducing
the fan noise emitted to the rear hemisphere, and screening of the core duct with the mixer and the
decrease in the average rate of flow from the nozzle due to mixing reduce the noise of the turbine
and the jet stream itself. These measures are implemented on the PS-90A2 engine.

In the paper [Bailly, C, et al., 2014], the structure of shock waves in a jet nozzle is studied. The
mechanisms of interaction between the broadband noise and shock waves noise are considered.

The paper [Knobloch, K., et al., 2014] presents the experimental studies results of the acoustic
characteristics of an A320 aircraft auxiliary power unit with different silencers. It is shown that the use
of silencers allows reducing the level of sound pressure by 20 dB. Among all of the silencers studied,
the authors highlighted a new PFW Aerospace AG silencer, which has high performance over a wide
frequency range.

The introduction of the presented measures in the power plants with m <8 will allow reducing the
total noise level of the jet stream at the control points, in the nearest decade it will be about 1.0-3.0
EPN dB. By increasing the bypass ratio the jet stream noise decreases due to the decrease of its
velocity, which is estimated at about 3-4 EPN dB at the points of takeoff run and climb [Solonin V.I.,
KhaletskyYu.D. 2010].

Currently, the contribution of the core duct noise into the total noise of the aircraft at certified points
is much lower than the noise of the fan, jet stream and airframe. Nevertheless, with an increase in the
bypass ratio of the engines and the introduction of effective methods for reducing the noise of the
fan, the jet stream and the airframe, an increase in the share of the core duct is expected. The sources
of the core duct noise are the turbine, the combustor, the bleed valve and the compressor [Solonin
V.I., KhaletskyYu.D. 2010].

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The decrease in the acoustic pressure level of the compressor and the turbine is aimed at optimizing
the number of rotor wheel blades and stator vanes, optimizing the gaps in order to reduce the wake
interaction, and optimizing the aerodynamic design of the blades. The paper [Nordwall, G.,
Demeulenaere, A., Ferrante, P. 2014] presents the results of numerical simulation and physical
experiment to improve the acoustic characteristics of a radial turbine. The paper shows that the initial
radial turbine had significant hydraulic losses associated with separation flow. More than 50% of the
blade passage was occupied with separated flow. After optimizing the geometric parameters of the
turbine in order to improve the aerodynamic characteristics, the acoustic characteristics of the initial
turbine and the optimized one were investigated. As the research results showed, the level of acoustic
power of a radial turbine with optimized geometric parameters decreased by 9 dB.

In the paper [Serrano, A., Fernández, J.R. 2014] the modal characteristic of a low-pressure turbine is
investigated. As a result of the research, a radial structure of modal noise during rotation is obtained,
which makes it possible to study in more detail the mechanism of noise generation at a supersonic
flow in a turbine. The data processing in the evaluation of acoustic power is described in details.
Acoustic characteristics were measured with a special device that rotated with the NMM turbine.

High-temperature noise silencers (composite sound absorbing structures), lining of the nacelle mixing
chamber are used for acoustic efficiency of the core duct. For the reduction of the combustion
chamber noise, studies are being conducted aimed at research on the noise sources in the combustion
chamber and the mechanism for generating acoustic emission.

The paper [Grimm, F., et al., 2016] presents the results of a turbulent combustion noise analysis for
small Mach numbers in a combustion chamber model. A hybrid approach is used to predict acoustic
characteristics. The calculation results showed that this computational method FRPM-CN is rational
from the point of view of reliability, computing time and accuracy of results. The mechanism of
generating the acoustic emission in the reverse-flow combustion chamber of a gas turbine engine
was investigated in [Duran, I., et al., 2014].

A promising method of reducing the turbine noise is the acoustic lining of its flow section above the
wheel [Solonin V.I., KhaletskyYu.D., 2010]. The effectiveness of the method has been verified for a fan
[KhaletskyYu.D., Shypov R.A., 2010].

Reducing the noise of the combustion chamber may be obtained with the use of a sleeve turbine
fairing as a silencer, formed as a Helmholtz resonator with a neck in the form of a microperforated
membrane and folded cavities separated by a grid baffle. The efficiency of these silencers is estimated
at 4-9 dB in a narrow frequency range and 3-4 dB for the total noise level. In addition, the use of
curved and inclined turbine blades will reduce turbine noise and at the same time prevent the noise
of the combustion chamber from expanding downwards due to a higher acoustic impedance at the
combustion chamber outlet.

Among the methods to reduce the noise of the combustion chamber are: a multi-stage combustion
chamber, injectors with aeration instead of high-pressure injectors, an increase in the cross-section of
the flow channel in the combustion zone. However, in studying the methods for reducing the noise
of the combustion chamber, emission characteristics must be taken into account.

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Reduction of the bleed valve noise can provided with an output perforated screen (decrease in the
noise of an isolated unit reaches 10 EPN dB, with the total aircraft noise level decreasing by several
EPN dB units). An advanced method to reduce the bleed valve noise is the jet dispersion by means of
a toothed orifice, its efficiency is estimated at 5-7 dB relatively to tonal noise [Solonin V.I.,
KhaletskyYu.D., 2010].

In turboprop engines, the issue of noise reduction is associated, first of all, with a reduction of the
propeller noise. Reducing the noise of propellers is based on changing the number of blades,
optimizing their shape, using an active noise reduction system. An important place is taken by the
issues of prognosticating the propeller acoustic emission and the mechanism of noise generation.

In the paper [Tan, Ch.H., Voo, K.S., Siauw, W.L. 2014] the known data of a physical experiment are
compared with the results of numerical simulation of the of the eight-blade propeller acoustic
characteristics at Mach number equal to 0.6. The results of the calculations show a good correlation
between the results of physical and numerical experiments.

As a result of the computational-experimental study of the blade number and diameter influence on
the propeller noise, it was established that the aeroacoustic optimization of the propeller by means
of increasing the number of blades and changing the diameter is achieved, primarily, due to the
reduction of noise from aerodynamic loading when the number of blades increases [Moshkov, P.A.,
Samokhin, V.F., 2016]. It has been experimentally established that an increase in the number of blades
leads to a decrease in the acoustic efficiency of propeller-driven power plants.

In the paper [Zimcik, D.G. 2004], a method of active noise reduction in the cockpit of a propeller
aircraft is considered. It is shown that even without propeller synchronization, it is possible to achieve
a 3-6 dB reduction in the acoustic pressure level.

The trend analysis of the aircraft engines noise reduction has shown that the technology advance will
allow reducing the fan tonal noise by 2-4 dB, and the broadband noise by 1-3 dB. In this case, the
influence of the stator blades sweep and inclination on the tonal noise emitted into the rear
hemisphere is expected to be in the range of 3-5 dB.

Thus, in solving the problem of the fan noise reduction, an important role is played by: reducing the
fan rotor speed, applying the composite materials in the fan blades design, aerodynamic and acoustic
optimization of the fan blade profile, considering the effects of interaction between the fan rotor and
stator blade rings, using an acoustically optimized stator blades. Application of these methods will
reduce the tonal noise of a fan by 2-4 dB, and the broadband noise by 1-3 dB. In this case, the use of
acoustically optimized stator blades will reduce the tonal noise emitted in the rear hemisphere by 3-
5 dB.

It is expected that the implementation of the results of the planned studies on aeroacoustic
characteristics of the variable-area nozzle of the fan, the stator blades rings SAS, the noise silencers
installed above the rotor wheel, the rotor wheels and stator blades of the fan with active interaction
elements, the hubless fan will additionally reduce the noise by 1-3 dB.

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When reducing the engine noise, acoustic optimization of the nacelle takes an important place.
Application of seamless SAS, bevelled air intake will reduce the suction noise by 1-4 dB. The use of
active-passive SAS can reduce the tonal noise by 2-7 dB.

The use of a chevron or splined device in the nozzles of the bypass or core duct of aircraft powered
by bypass engines with a bypass ratio of m = 4 ... 6 will reduce the jet stream noise by 1-3 EPN dB.

The reduction of the jet stream noise during take-off for the engines with a bypass ratio of m = 7 ... 9
due to the use of a chevron or splined device for the nozzles of the bypass and core ducts makes up
0.5 EPN dB. With an increase in the bypass ratio, the effect of the chevron nozzles is decreased, and
therefore the investigation of various methods for reducing the jet stream noise play an important
role.

The use of micro-jets, whose influence is based on the aerodynamic interaction between the
peripheral jets and the main one, can reduce the low-frequency noise by 1-2 dB, while the thrust value
remains the same.

Plasmatic actuators can reduce the jet by an average of 1.3 dB, their designs are simple, as they are
integrated into the surface and do not have moving parts.

A multi-tube nozzle provides a decrease in the total acoustic power of the flow by an average of 8 dB,
while the part of low-frequency components decreases and the noise spectrum shifts to a higher
frequency sector when compared with a round nozzle due to an increase in the surface of the jets
mixing with the environment in the area near to the nozzle exit area.

The use of mesh screens reduces the total acoustic power of the flow by an average of 5 dB, leads to
a decrease in the share of low-frequency components and an increase in the share of high-frequency
noise components. The effectiveness of mesh screens increases in combination with other methods
of noise reduction, for example, SAS (Figure 96). Screening the jet stream noise with a secondary gas
flow can lead to a noise reduction of up to 5-7 dB in the high-frequency area of the acoustic spectrum.

An ejector noise-suppression nozzle with a multi-element outlet leads to the disappearance of

discrete components in the jet stream spectrum (Figure 97), while the noise of the jet stream decreases
by an average of 10 dB. However, a significant disadvantage is weight gain, reaching 6%.

The use of acoustic influence is difficult in practice due to the complexity of the application, but this
method allows reducing the noise level of the jet stream by 2-3 dB. Screening of jet stream noise,
based on the phenomenon of acoustic waves diffraction, allows reducing the noise level up to 3.5 dB.
Figure 96: Effectiveness of methods for reducing the noise level in the fan: In Figure the numbers indicate the positions: 1 - sweep of
the rotor wheel blades; 2 - sweep and inclination of the fan stator blades; 3 - optimization of the rotor wheel circumferential speed; 4
– variable-area fan nozzle; 5 – stator blades with SAS; 6 – rotor wheel with noise silencer; 7 – rotor wheel and stator blades with
active influence; 8 - hubless fan

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Figure 97: Effectiveness of methods for reducing the level of jet stream noise: In Figure the numbers indicate the positions: 9 - chevron
nozzle; 10 - microjets; 11 - plasmatic actuators; 12 - multitubular nozzle; 13 - mesh screen; 14 - screening of jet stream noise by
secondary gas flow; 15 - ejector noise-suppression nozzle with a multi-element outlet; 16 - acoustic impact; 17 - noise screening

4.1.3 Aerodynamic Noise and Operating Procedures

The progress in the reduction of engine noise implies that: (i) it still remains the dominant noise source
at take-off and with cut-back in climb; (ii) on approach to land, with the engine at idle, the
aerodynamic noise can predominate. Thus overall noise reduction at airports requires consideration
of not one but two classes of noise sources;

 Engine noise sources such as fan, turbine and jet noise, combustion and buzz-saw (shock waves)
noise with tonal and broadband components;
 Aerodynamic noise from the extended undercarriage and its wells and other cavities, and the
deflections of control and high-lift surfaces.
Depending on the noise mechanism various measures can be taken to reduce the noise at the source
or to reduce the effects of its emission. Noise reduction measures may not be additive, with the overall
noise reduction less than the sum of the parts. The overall noise exposure of near airport residents
can be reduced by land planning and by operational measures. The effects of noise on the near airport
residence can be addressed at all of 7 links in a long chain:

(i) the noise of an isolated engine in a test stand;

(ii) the noise of the engine installed in aircraft subject to reflections;

(iii) the noise in flight with flow effects and aerodynamic noise sources;

(iv) the modification of sound by wind, turbulence, stratification and dissipation while propagating in
the atmosphere;

(v) the effect of different types of ground (concrete, snow, soil) and obstacles (terrain and buildings)
in sound absorption and interference;

(vi) the outdoor to indoor sound transmission through windows and other apertures;

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(vii) the psychoacoustic effects depending on the different types of activity: sleep, study, talking or
other tasks.

All the factors can play a role in the “noise annoyance”, which can motivate noise restrictions at
airports.

Starting from a low noise design, the only technology which may be available for additional noise
reduction uses flow control, today at TRL 1 to 2 (Figure 98). The expected noise reduction is no more
than 1 dB at the component level, which is additive to the benefit of the low noise design, but is so
small that it would be not very significant at the aircraft level. The IEP concluded that no additional
noise reduction can be expected for a conventional configuration (under the wing installed engine).
It appears that the only way to obtain more landing gear noise reduction at the approach condition
seems to be the development of fuselage mounted short landing gear, which of course necessitates
corresponding change of the aircraft structure, as described in (Dobrzynski W. M).

High lift devices – slat and flap – with low noise designs (including in particular the slat cove filler),
today at TRL 1 to 2 are expected to be at TRL 6 by 2020 with a potential of 5 dB maximum reduction
at the component level. The current TRL of these technologies is too low and the benefits too
uncertain to obtain credible estimates on the benefit at the aircraft level which in any case will be
small with conventional aircraft configurations.

Most of the novel airframe/engine concepts currently being developed and evaluated within the
aviation industry today have to be viewed as one integrated system and cannot strictly be assessed
separately. The low noise characteristics of these concepts are partly due to the shielding of the engine
noise (fan inlet, fan exhaust, core and jet, ) by the Blended-Wing-Body (BWB) and partly airframe noise
reduction features such as low noise landing gear and the omission of flaps. Benefits of about 11
EPNdB cumulative were quoted relative to a conventional State-of-the-Art reference aircraft but more
research is in progress on those noise reduction features as well as installation effects before these
noise reduction concepts can be quoted with reasonable confidence.

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Figure 98: Airframe noise reduction technologies.

The noise of aircraft is subject to ICAO certification rules that are intended to apply worldwide. This
does not prevent local authorities from applying stricter noise standards at specific airports. For
example the noise limits at a major airport like Heathrow cannot be ignored by the main airliner
manufactures Airbus and Boeing. Local airport rules can include noise limits, curfews and fines on
excessive noise levels. These measures can limit the capacity of airports by reducing the operating
hours; and they can affect the economics of flight by limiting take-off weight and payload. The
certification rules do not cover interior noise, though airlines may have their own standards.

Noise abatement operational procedures are being employed today to provide noise relief to
communities around airports from both arriving and departing aircraft. PANS-OPS, Volume 1,
contains guidance for the development of a maximum of two noise abatement departure procedures
(NADP’s) designed generally to mitigate noise either close in (NADP 1) to the airport, or further out
(NADP 2) along the departure path. Review (ICAO Document 9888) contains a list of current NADP’s
in use by air carriers for a wide range of aircraft types. A number of them was assessed during EU
Silence(R) project for their possible contribution to ACARE 2020 goal (Figure 99):

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Figure 99: Departure and approach noise abatement procedures

Operational procedures can often be implemented with the existing fleet and have the potential to
make an immediate improvement in the environmental impact of aviation. Noise abatement
operational procedures in use today can be broken down into three broad categories:

Noise abatement flight procedures:

 Continuous Descent Arrival (CDA)

 Noise Abatement Departure Procedures (NADP)
 Modified approach angles, staggered, or displaced landing thresholds
 Low power/low drag approach profiles
 Minimum use of reverse thrust after landing
Spatial management:

 Noise preferred arrival and departure routes

 Flight track dispersion or concentration
 Noise preferred runways
Ground management:

 Hush houses and engine run up management (location/aircraft orientation, time of day,
maximum thrust level.
 APU management
 Taxi and queue management
 Towing
 Taxi power control (Taxi with less than all engines operating)
The NAPs listed above can make a measurable contribution to reducing noise levels and other
environmental benefits in the vicinity of airports (ICAO Document 9888):

— 3 to 12 dB noise reduction, and 8% to 36% reduction in noise contour areas on approach;

— 2 to 9 dB noise reduction and 23% to 42% reduction in noise contour areas on departure;

— As much as 35% reductions in CO2, HC and NOx and 50 to 1000 pound fuel savings per
landing; and

— 90 to 630 kg CO2 and 60 to 440 pound fuel savings per departure.

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The magnitude and scope of the reductions, as well as the specific procedures to be used to achieve
them should be determined through a comprehensive noise study. The study should also include an
analysis of emissions impacts and fuel burn, as these variables may be affected by procedure changes
both in the air and on the ground. The aircraft operators and ANSP should be parties to the study to
ensure the safety and feasibility of the procedures and to take advantage of their technical expertise.
The environmental benefits of some operational procedures are straightforward and easy to visualize:
preferential runways or flight tracks move aircraft away from more noise sensitive locations.
Conversely, the benefits assessments for NADP’s and CDA procedures are extremely complex and may
require detailed modelling in order to be well understood. It is imperative that accurate aircraft
operating data and specific operator flight procedures are applied as input to the noise and emissions
models and that impacts on airport and airspace capacity be analysed. It is worth repeating that some
noise abatement operational procedures may increase emissions or derogate airport capacity while
providing significant noise relief. Appropriate consideration of all potential environmental impacts is
essential, particularly as priorities change and procedures evolve or come up for review.

CAEP Independent Expert Panel (IEP) evaluated NAP methods, how and when they might be used to
supplement new noise reduction technology developments in the next 10 years, to further reduce
noise exposure around the airport community, as well as during climb and descent. A very significant
improvement in cumulative noise reduction is expected from the introduction of NRT and increased
BPR, but this improvement is not expected to be the same between take-off and landing, most of this
improvement occurring at take-off (lateral and flyover) with much smaller benefits predicted at
approach. In general the benefits at landing/approach are ~3 to 4 dB less than at departure. The main
contributor at landing, at least for the SMR and LR classes of aircraft, is the undercarriage-generated
noise, even when engine noise has a no negligible contribution. So the difference between take-off
and landing suggests a difference in the potential role of operational procedures for aircraft noise
reduction. NAP may useful for reducing noise exposure at take-off, but may be essential for the final
approach, depending on what noise levels are ultimately deemed acceptable.

Continuous descent approach (CDA) is still under study, mainly to save fuel, but noise exposure
reduction is also a benefit of this procedure. The challenge is to combine the aircraft deceleration and
the rate of descent from the end of cruise to the final approach (with the gear down), under ATC rules.
To avoid increasing noise exposure, the trajectory adjustments have to be minimized in particular at
low altitude, and the gear operation cannot be earlier than in the current practice. As the engines,
during this phase of flight, are at or close to idle, the noise reduction technologies and increased BPR
have no appreciable noise exposure benefit.

In order to exploit new technology and low noise operations developments, and to enable integrated
impact mitigation solutions, it was considered of utmost importance to (Collin D):

 Improve and continuously update the understanding of how noise from air transport
operations affects people, with a significant focus on the influence of non-acoustic
factors. The Figure 100 provides a rough survey of the most important non-acoustic
variables for long-term annoyance and for annoyance at night.
 Provide the technical support for the successful implementation of planning policies
compatible with traffic growth for the long-term benefit of the communities. This will

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 require specific thematic research aimed at better integration of land use planning (LUP)
in decision making.
Figure 100: Overview of most important non-acoustic factors contributing to aircraft noise annoyance (Collin D)

4.1.4 Local Emissions of CO2 and NOx

There are growing concerns about the impact of aviation on the atmosphere with respect to local air
quality (LAQ) and the associated human health and welfare impacts. Aviation emissions in airports are
produced by aircraft, support vehicles and ground transportation dominantly. The emissions from
these sources fall into two categories: emissions that cause deterioration in local air quality and
emissions that cause climate change. Emissions that cause climate change from aviation also fall into
two categories. The first category is GHGs, which are gases that cause climate change by trapping
heat in the atmosphere. These emissions are produced when fossil fuels are combusted. Secondly,
emissions from aircraft can alter radioactively active substances, trigger the formation of aerosols and
lead to changes in clouds. Together these effects are known as radiative forcing.

LAQ issues are caused be Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Sulphur Oxides (SOx) and Particulate Matter (PM10
and PM2.5). In high concentrations these pollutants have been shown to cause health effects, among
them to exacerbate a range of cardiovascular diseases including chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (an umbrella term for lung diseases including chronic bronchitis), heart disease, lung cancer
and asthma. Health impact depends on population exposure. Somewhere visibility impairment from
NOx and PM is a subject of control also. Requirements to LAQ are driven by local regulations usually.
Significant LAQ pressure exists already - noted 2010 NO2 EU directive exceeded today at several EU
airports (ICAO CAEP/7-IE/WG/3).

From a scientific and a health point of view – and subsequent policy interest, monitoring and control
– the most important pollutants to focus on are nitrogen dioxide (NO2), regional ozone (O3) and
particulate matter (PM) - currently PM10, PM2.5 and ultrafine particles (UFP). Concerning
airports, this especially concerns UFP emissions on the apron area (airside) where ramp workers are
exposed. The identification of such particles and tackling of their sources remain issues of importance
and further investigations. Moreover appropriate technology and air quality standards, limitations or
any other criteria linked to ultrafine particles are still lacking and need to be defined (FORUM-AE).

FORUM-AE puts important emphasis on ACARE environmental goals related to aircraft emissions, but
sufficient openness is necessary. New topics may emerge, which were not initially shaped. This is the

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case for instance of: ultra-fine particles (higher LAQ concerns at European airports, perspective of a
future nvPM international standard), cruise NOx emissions to be distinguished from LTO NOx, cruise
emissions influence on air quality, drop-in kerosene (fossil or renewable) composition
optimisation, fuel sulphur content, contrail avoidance strategy, possible CO2 or non-CO2 trade-
offs with noise environmental constraint, comparison between other transport modes (particles,
CO2), introduction of a new aircraft CO2 metric from future CAEP standard. Ambient measurements
in the vicinity of airports typically show little to no contribution from airport emissions (Zurich Airport,
2013). However, recent studies have shown elevated PM number levels near airports (Hudda et al.,
2014; Keuken, et al. 2015). Measurement protocols and guidance are established for criteria pollutants.
However, the ambient measurement of ultrafine particle number concentrations is not yet
standardized.

The Figure provides a representation of aircraft emissions and how they ultimately contribute to
ambient pollutant concentrations that impact public health and welfare. Even from this figure, one
may conclude on site specific LAQ in airports. While aircraft emissions can be directly measured at the
source and ambient pollutant concentrations can be measured at any location, modelling is required
to attribute the contribution of aircraft to ambient pollutant concentrations (Miake)
Figure 101: Schematic presentation of emissions, dispersion, concentrations and impacts with their interaction at airport level (Miake-
Lye R)

To estimate the ground air pollution in the airport area it is necessary to determine the contribution
of aircraft emission at various stages of takeoff-landing cycle into this process. In the course of aircraft
operation it is extremely difficult to determine from the technical and practical point of view whether
it holds the limit allowances of the control parameter – emission. However there is no need in it, since
all stages of engine operation can be reproduced with sufficient accuracy at bench tests.

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Table 27: Level of understanding in airport emission inventory: green (good); yellow (fair); red (poor) (Updated from (Forum-AE,
2015))

For instance International airport Beijing is the second airport in the world as for airport workload. In
this research the emissions of air pollutants from air vehicles and other sources in ZBAA in 2015 were
estimated applying the advanced method, which considered the height of the mixed layer computed
on the basis of the aircraft meteorological data transponder (AMDAR) instead of applying the height
(915 m) recommended by ICAO. Annual emissions of NOx, CO, VOCs, SO2 and PM2.5 in the airport
made 8,76×103, 4,43×103, 5,43×102, 4,8×102 and 1,49×102 tons per respectively. Spatiotemporal
distribution of air vehicle emissions was systematically reviewed to understand the air vehicle emission
characteristics. The results showed that NOx mainly is emitted at stages of takeoff and climbing that
makes 20,5 % and 55,5 % of the total emission volume. CO and HC mainly were emitted at taxiing
stage that made 91,6 % and 92,2 % of the total emission volume. Since in summer the height of
mixture layer was high, then the emission indices were at the highest level in the year. On the ground
of detailed emission calculation four seasons were imitated applying the model WRF-CMAQ above
the space surrounding the airport. The results showed that contribution into PM2.5 was relatively high
in winter: average deposit made about 115 µg/m3 in radius 1 km around the airport. Meanwhile close
environs and south-eastern areas of the airport are sensible to PM2.5 to the maximum extent.
[Xiaowen Yang, et al., 2018].

However almost all researches related to estimation of airport cadasters are focused only to emissions
of air vehicles, APU and ground auxiliary equipment. Few researches were performed as for other
pollution sources. Moreover in the majority of those researches there is employed one of two methods
for quantitative estimation of air engine emissions: one applies the cycle of landing and takeoff (LTO)
to estimate air vehicle emissions, another uses control values recommended for calculation of ICAO
airplane emissions (2011). LTO cycle determined by ICAO includes all types of activities near the
airport, which take place lower than the height of atmospheric mixture (height 915 m), while the actual
mixture height will vary in different time and in different places. Therefore those two methods, which
estimated the height of mixture layer to be 915 m will lead to high estimation uncertainty. Detailed
and accurate estimation of emissions in airports are necessary to review the characteristics of air
pollutants and study of their effect on air quality. From the other hand in spite of the fact that all the

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more researches pay attention to air vehicle emissions at ground level and air pollution near airports
still there are gaps in such researches, especially in Asian airports.

Air vehicle emissions depended on the following factors: number and type of airplanes, types of air
engines, fuel used, time spent for each phase of operation, flight power and distance [Song, S.-K.,
Shon, Z.-H., 2012]. Traditionally researches of air vehicle emissions and their effects can be mainly
divided into two parts: emissions of pollutants to atmosphere taking place within LTO phase (local
pollutant emissions) and flight phases not related to LTO (i.e. 915 m and at cruise condition level)
(ICAO), Doc. 9889, 2011). Aircraft emission effect on human activity at ground level was the most
important and all the actions coincided with the airport as for emission sources grew rapidly
[Tsilingiridis, G., 2009]. Therefore there were reviewed air vehicle emissions within LTO phase except
the cruise condition phase. In the emission cadaster there were applied detailed data on activity
provided by ZBAA, including each type of air vehicle, origin and destination point, estimated time of
arrival and actual time of arrival, estimated time of departure and actual time of departure. In this
research the authors used not only improved models to calculate the time of climb and descent, but
also the actual time of aircraft taxiing using the information received from the airport (Table 28).

In Table 4.4 there are shown emissions of NOx, CO, VOCs, SO2, and PM2.5 for the main engines of air
vehicles, APU, ground support equipment (GSE), ground access vehicles (GAV), private transport,
stationary sources, airport oil depot in 2015. APU emissions are shown in Table 29.

Table 28: Emissions in Beijing airport.

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Table 29: APU emissions.

In Fig. 102 there are shown contributions of various emission sources in ZBAA. It’s obvious that air
vehicle emissions are the most important of all sources in airport, of them annual CO, VOCs, SO2, and
PM2.5 made 7,56×103, 3,49×103, 3,66×102, 4,6×102 and 7,15×101 tons per year.
Figure 102: Contribution of pollution sources in emissions in international airport Beijing in 2015.

The aircraft was the main airport sources, of them emissions NOx, CO, VOCs, SO2 and PM2.5 made
86,3 %, 78,7 %, 67,4 %, 95,6 % and 48,0 % of the total emission volume respectively. From the review
of air vehicle emission characteristic it was revealed that NOx mainly is released at takeoff and climb
stages that makes 20,5% and 55% of the total emission volume (Table 30).

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Table 30: Comparative data on emissions in big airports of the world.

Taxiing of air vehicles is a considerable source of СОи SO2 emissions, their share makes 91,6 % and
92,2 % of the total emission volume. The mixing level is higher in summer; therefore emissions of
pollutants in air were at the highest level throughout the year. The ratio of NOx, CO, HC, SO2 and
PM2.5 from air vehicles made 27,2 %, 25,7 %, 25,5 %, 26,9 % and 27,0 % of annual emissions
respectively [He, J.-C., and Y.-Q. Xu, 2012].

Chinese air industry had been rapidly growing for the last two decades. Its aircraft turnover had grown
by 20% per year [Liu, D., 2010] and the total transport turnover had gained the second place after the
USA [Zhou, L.-P., 2010]. At present main attention in emission researches is paid to atmospheric
pollutants such as NOх.

CO2 emissions from air vehicles had been low in China till the year 1980, while in 1960-1979 they had
made 328×103 t at average. Starting from 1980s especially after 1990s CO2 emissions had been
rapidly growing (Fig. 4.34). The average growth of CO2 emissions for air vehicles in China made
826×103 tons per year.
Figure 103: Annual CO2 emissions from civil air vehicles in China within the period 1960-2009.

The civil aviation in China had been rapidly developing for the recent years and consequences of its
emission into atmosphere should not be neglected. Issue of cadasters (accounting) of civil aviation
atmospheric pollutants is helpful to associated policy development and contamination control. Fuel
consumption and pollutant emissions in China Southern Airline is the biggest national share, each of
them makes 27 % and 25…28 % respectively [Weiyi Fan, Yifei Sun, Tianle Zhu, Yi Wen, 2012].

Some of the gaps for the production of airport emission inventories are displayed in the Table 27-

ACARE’s environmental research is driven by five goals to be achieved by 2050. Among them are CO2
emissions per passenger kilometre have been reduced by 75%, NOx emissions by 90% relative to the
year 2000. Engine manufacturers, cognizant of aviation’s’ growing impact on the environment,
continue to develop and introduce into service cleaner and more fuel-efficient engines. It must be
understood that technology development and introduction of products into revenue service is heavily
influenced by customer pull. To address this environmental concern, manufacturers continually work

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to develop technology for cleaner and more efficient new engine designs, and periodically update
existing engines to maintain state of the art durability, performance and emissions.

Airport emission inventory and air quality modelling improvements are required, which will ask that
models more accurately predict concentrations. As illustrated in previous table there is still a
lot for improvement in airport emission inventory making, and that further consolidation is
needed in knowledge of airport emissions sources and their activity (performance), emission factor
and calculation algorithm. Linked to both inventory making and air quality modelling, there is the
need for further development and validation of performance based emissions modelling, and the
need for harmonisation in this area.

The efforts to reduce (i) noise and emissions, (ii) different types of emissions like CO2 and NOx at (iii)
local airport or global earth level are not always compatible. A highly efficient engine with low fuel
consumption and high speed of the jet exhaust is likely to be noisy. High temperature combustion to
increase thermal and propulsive efficiency increases NOx emissions. Reducing CO2 emissions may not
lead to the same thermodynamic cycle than reducing NOx emissions.

In order to improve fuel efficiency, engine pressures and temperatures are increased with time which
can lead to higher NOx emissions. As such, following the adoption of the original emissions standards,
more stringent NOx limits have been periodically introduced in order to mitigate the potential
trade‑off with market‑driven fuel burn improvements. The NOx limits are referred to by the CAEP
meeting number at which they were agreed (i.e. CAEP/2, CAEP/4, CAEP/6 and CAEP/8). The regulatory
limits for smoke, HC and CO have not changed from their original value as they are considered to
provide adequate environmental protection. These regulatory limits provide a design space for aircraft
engine technology within which both NOx emissions and fuel burn can be reduced.

Latest advances in engine combustor design technologies were considered in the context of the
existing mid- and long- term CAEP goals. To provide the latest state of technology, currently CAEP is
working on an integrated independent expert technology goals assessment and review for engines
and aircraft which aims to be delivered to the CAEP/11 meeting in February 2019 (ICAO Secretariat).

A certification Standard to control the amount of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) permitted to be produced
by civil turbo-jet and turbo-fan aircraft engines was first adopted by ICAO in 1981. The stringency of
that Standard was successively increased at CAEP/2, 4, 6, and most recently at CAEP/8 in 2010. The
introduction of a standard to control NOx production was originally driven by concerns relating to
surface air quality (SAQ) where NOx is implicated in the production of ozone in the vicinity of airports.

To complement the Standard-setting process, CAEP agreed in 2001 to pursue the establishment of
technology goals over the medium and long term. These were to be challenging yet achievable targets
for researchers and industry to aim at, in cooperation with States. Also they provide policy makers
with a view of what technology could be expected to deliver for emission reductions in the future. The
first of these reviews was to focus on NOx, and to help achieve this, a panel of Independent Experts
(IEs) was appointed and tasked with:

 Leading a review of technologies for the control of NOx.

 Recommending technology goals for NOx reduction from aircraft engine technologies over
the 10 year and 20 year time horizons.

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The goals can be seen in the Figure 104, which is taken from the 2006 report of the IEs, together with
goals proposed by the EU ACARE and the US Ultra Efficient Engine Technology (UEET). It is important
to note that these other goals were not used to influence the CAEP goals and were plotted simply for
comparison. The graph also illustrates the historic ICAO NOx Standards and highlights the large gap
between the goals and the latest standard. It is important to note that the goals indicate that
significant NOx reductions are achievable over the 10 and 20 year timescales based on the leading
edge of control technologies; while standards on the other hand are based on already certified
technology.

The Figure 104 also illustrates the continuous improvement achieved over time with newly certified
engines achieving the largest margin to the limits. Some of the engines certified since 2008 are
already close to mid-term and long-term technology goals. The Figure 105 illustrates the evolution of
the average margin to the CAEP/6 NOX limit for EASA certified in-production engine models. During
the last five years the margin has increased by approximately 3% per year. It is noted however that
the trend is influenced by which engines go out of production, and whether the new entries in the
ICAO Aircraft Engine Emissions Databank represent new engines or derived versions of existing
engines with smaller evolutionary improvements.
The ¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia. uses the recognized NOx certification metrics, and
shows the amount of NOx produced from an LTO cycle (Figure ) on the vertical axis (grams per kN of
thrust), and the engine overall pressure ratio (OPR) at the take-off condition on the horizontal axis. It
is evident that the larger, higher thrust engines operating at higher pressure ratios, and consequently
at higher thermal efficiencies, produce greater amounts of NOx. In relation to the degree of
uncertainty, it should be noted that the band width was greater for the longer time period. The
medium term (MT) goal for 2016 was agreed at 45% ± 2.5% below CAEP/6 at OPR 30, and the long
term (LT) goal for 2026 at 60% ± 5% below CAEP/6 also at OPR 30.
Figure 104: Historical ICAO certification Standards together with the 2006 MT & LT goals.

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Figure 105: Improving average NOx margin to CAEP/6 limit for in ‑production engines shown in successive versions of the ICAO EEDB

Figure 106: Illustration of ICAO emissions certification procedure in the LTO cycle.

The second CAEP IE review for NOx emission was intended to be less extensive and was focused on
what had changed in the intervening three years since the first review. The IEs concluded that the
scientific evidence supports continued efforts to reduce aircraft NOx emissions and that the evidence
of impact of aircraft NOx on both surface air quality and global climate change was, if anything, more
compelling than during the first review. Nevertheless, given the still considerable uncertainty about
the quantification of these impacts, the IEs recommended continued research on NOx emissions, and
other emerging concerns such as particulate matter (PM), and the role of NOx in PM formation. As in
the 2006 report, it was again concluded that for SAQ, NOx continues to be an important pollutant and
in the context of Global Climate Change (GCC) its ranking versus CO2 continues to depend crucially
on the length of the time horizon. It appears that NOx is more important in shorter time periods, with
CO2 dominating in the longer term, and then continuing to do so over many hundreds of years.

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Since 2006, further significant reductions in NOx emissions have been evident, something for which
manufacturers should be congratulated. Advanced combustors can be categorized into two broad
types: RQL systems (rich burn, quick quench, lean burn), and staged-DLI (direct lean injection), also
called staged lean burn systems. In very simple terms, RQL combustors control NOx production
through a series of changes to the air to fuel ratio as the combustion air progresses through the
combustor. Staged-DLI combustors operate quite differently with NOx control being achieved by
switching (staging) between pilot and main burner zones arranged in concentric circles. Although
reductions in NOx production were shown to have been achieved by both types of combustor, neither
was deemed to have met the goals set at the first review - defined as having reached Technology
Readiness Level 8 (TRL8) - although they were possibly close to that.

The Figure 107 provides a summary presentation of the test data results received for this review with
the two types of combustor identified separately; the data points coloured grey being for RQL
combustors, and those in red being for the new staged-DLI combustors. As with the first review, the
conclusion reached was that RQL combustors appear likely to meet the MT goal, though a significant
challenge remains, but the LT goal may not be achievable particularly for high OPR engines. Dramatic
reductions in NOx production from the use of new generation staged DLI combustors were in line
with the expectations recorded in the 2006 Report, although the migration towards the LT goal was
not expected so soon. However, the wide spread of NOx performance raised questions about how
such families of engines might be handled in the future within a goals setting process.

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Figure 107: 2009 Review data with RQL combustors in grey and new mid-OPR engines. Generation staged DLI combustors in red. Note
these data points area mixture of certificated engines and high TRL developments

Information presented for advanced RQL combustors was believed not to challenge the definition, or
levels, of the goals established at the first review. The somewhat limited information relating to the
new generation staged-DLI combustors however was thought to offer something of a challenge to
both the definition and the goal levels. Nevertheless, since they are untested in commercial service,
the IEs decided not to change the goals at this review but to wait until further experience had been
gained. It was concluded that staged-DLI combustors were likely to be essential to meet the LT goal,
particularly at high OPRs. A critical factor for future goal setting will be the extent to which advanced
RQL and staged-DLI systems can be made to work effectively for (smaller) low and mid-OPR engines.

The objectives of the European programs are to reduce short & long term development costs,
incorporate new technology faster into future products and improve the environmental impact with
regards to emissions. Specific goals of the EC FP6 Aeronautics Work Programme are to reduce NOx
emissions over the ICAO-LTO cycle by 80% compared to the CAEP/2 standard and achieve a NOx
emission index of 5 g/kg at cruise (ICAO CAEP/8-IP/11).

Good progress has been shown on state of the art Single Annular Combustors with rich burn (air blast)
injection, Double Annular Combustors/Axially Staged Combustors (rich pilot / rich main) and Lean
Burn Combustors. The latest state-of-the-art lean burn fuel injection systems with centrally integrated

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pilot fuel injection for flame stabilisation have achieved up to 70 to 75% of NOx reduction at TRL3
(demonstrated in a high pressure single sector combustor test rig) relative to the CAEP/2 certification
standard. A technology deterioration factor, which describes the transition from TRL3 to TRL6 needs
to be considered, leading to likely technological progress by the end of Framework 7 of a range of
approximately 60 to 65% NOx reduction. It is most likely that in Framework 8, research initiatives will
need to focus on further improvements towards 70 to 85% NOx reduction, which may lead to another
50% relative NOx reduction and to higher Technology Readiness Levels (ICAO CAEP/8-IP/11).

One should pay attention to the fact that results of the research of the aviation emission effect on
climate [Gettelman A., et al., 2017] show that it is necessary to introduce additional normalization for
NOx emission level in high-level atmosphere. In high troposphere at height about 10-11 km, where
cruise flights of passenger aircraft and air-freighters take place the main effect of aviation emission is
exercised through the change of planet thermal balance as a result of greenhouse effect growth and
reduction in atmosphere transparency. At present ICAO interacting with other international
environmental organizations has determined the technological target level of NOx emissions in high-
level atmosphere (9-13 km) for subsonic aircraft - EINOx=5 g/1 kg of fuel.

In the work [Volkov S.А., Gorbatko А.А., Khaletsky Y.D., 2010] the authors state the estimated value of
the regulatory restriction to NOx emission at level EINOx=5 g/1 kg of fuel (at the first step of the
restriction introduction it is supposed that the index is set at level EINOx=10 g/1 kg of fuel).

The authors [Volkov S.А., Gorbatko А.А., Khaletsky Y.D., 2010] mark that achievement of the technical
level stated at simultaneous satisfaction of ICAO prospective allowances for NOx emission at condition
of LTO cycle is a complicated scientific and technical problem.

Should we compare the aircraft designed to provide high cruise efficiency and low global emissions
(a) and the aircraft designed to provide low noise and emission level near airports at takeoff and
landing (b), then they can differ very much. The aim (b) leads to the fuselage similar to the airplane
with a wide-span wing and an engine with slow cold exhaust to provide low engine and aerodynamic
noise and emissions. Such configuration has low cruise speed and small efficiency that leads to flight
time increment and excessive fuel consumption as well to the cruise flight emission level. Vice versa
aim (a) leads to the airplane with a sweptback wing and high gas speed from a jet engine to provide
high cruise speed and small fuel consumption and emission level. But in doing so the noise level near
airports will be higher, the emission level also will be higher due to higher flight speed and exhaust
velocity at takeoff and landing.

Plenty of engines and noise sources as well as compatibility of CО2 and NОx low emission levels at
local and global levels is that immense set of limitations directed to protection of environment and
aims, which can require major changes:

- engines with a variable cycle, high speed of jet stream at cruise flight condition as well as low
speed of exhaust jet at takeoff and landing;

- new aircraft configurations, for example, flying wing, joined wing, v-tail or U-tail with noise
shielding and/or buried engines.

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It will be required that those designs meet version (a) with more than ever strict environment
protection allowances and be compatible with (b) improved efficiency and saving. Since both of those
factors provide continuation of air traffic growth together with its mobility.

Improvement of engine efficiency can be achieved for new types of air vehicles as well as for those
being in operation. For example long-term programmes on engine renewal for the recent decade led
to reduction of oil consumption by 2%. It is estimated that new engine technologies such as coating
materials, combustion chamber technologies, sensors and cooling technologies will permit the
engines and auxiliary power units of new airplanes to save 15% of fuel compared to the previous
generation of air vehicles.

In the long-term prospects there are reviewed radical changes in the engine design, for example
engines with an open rotor. If noise and vibration problems can be solved, then engines with an open
rotor will potentially improve fuel saving [Lee, D.S., et al., 2009; King, D., et al., 2010].

In the work [Hendricks, E.S., Tong, M.T. 2012] the results of imitation for the engine with an open rotor
were compared with similar results of imitation for turbofan engines with a drive either through a
reduction gear or with a direct drive. It is supposed that the system with an open rotor will have higher
specific oil consumption compared to both types of turbofan engines. At the same time direct
comparison of engines with an open rotor and turbofans with a direct drive and the drive through a
reduction gear can give some notion on advantages of each of them. Engine effect can be assessed
only in the course of their integration in an air vehicle in general. When integrating an engine into an
air vehicle, one can make general estimation of fuel consumption, exhaust (emissions) and noise. In
the work [Hendricks, E.S., Tong, M.T. 2012] the engine with an open rotor was integrated in the
prospective airplane in order to assess the potential win from application of engines of such type. In
general it is anticipated that airplanes with an open rotor will have fuel consumption by 36% lower
than the main air vehicles of 1990’s. Moreover as for estimations the airplane with an open rotor has
13-fold margin by cumulative noise level of chapter 4 [Guynn, M., 2012]. Although there is uncertainty
in both those estimations, the data show that the engine with an open rotor can meet future
requirements for airplanes.

In 2012 at NASA ASCR test bench there were determined emission characteristics of two technologies
of fuel combustion - PW ACS and GE TAPS. The measurement results showed considerable reduction
of NOx emissions by 75% lower than CAEP 6 2004 level [Chang CT, Lee CM, Herbon JT, Kramer SK,
2013].

As the level of NOx emissions is an integral index to be determined by the speed of nitrogen oxide
formation, which depends exponentially on gas temperature, then the level of NOx emissions is well
correlated with fuel injector characteristics determining the degree of fuel-air mix preparation. The
fastest and uniform agitation of fuel with air before combustion - key technology for provision of low-
emission combustion. The main difficulty in solution of this problem is the necessity to prepare well
agitated fuel-air mix within the time, which is reduced at temperature and gas pressure rise due to
enhanced probability of self-ignition and flashback.

The existing trends of increase in pressure rise degree advance extra requirements for combustion
chambers including capability to operate at higher temperatures. Applications of ceramic composite

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materials and thermal protection coating are additional technologies providing new capabilities of
combustion chambers. The flame tube made of ceramic composite materials can withstand
temperatures higher than the traditional one made of super-alloyed material thus not requiring lower
air consumption for cooling. The application of those materials makes possible to employ extra air in
the fuel nozzle to increase fuel and oil agitation. It provides more homogeneous mixture with smaller
number of local hot spots that in turn permits reduction of air volume for cooling of the flame tube.
Thermal protection coating protects the surface of parts made of ceramic composites from oxidizing
and reduce temperature mode of the flame tube and extend service life of the product.

Starting from the traditional design Twin Annular Premixing Swirler (TAPS) made with employment of
several technological and commercial programmes including GEnx and LEAP (Fig. 108), GE company
has extended possibilities of that technology to reach the aims of N+2 generation on NOx and
efficiency. Architecture, scale and cycle of the engine were set using the review of engine-aircraft
system pointing at the concept of aircraft and engine Hybrid Wing Body (HWB), which might meet
the key aims of the generation as for NOx level, specific fuel consumption and noise reduction. The
main concept of GE combustion chamber design of N+2 generation is in increase in air share
employed for preliminary agitation in the combustor flame tube head (higher 70%). Moreover there
are employed structural elements, which improve heat-air mixability. Increase in air volume for
preliminary agitation can lead to breakdown of difficulties coincided with either provision of
serviceability (combustion efficiency and combustion stability) or structural durability (due to
reduction of cooling air consumption).
Figure 108: Concept of TAPS dilution section.

In the framework of researches by ERA project new technologies of fuel combustion were compared
to the results obtained in previous successful programmes on technology advance for combustion
chambers. Tests were performed at NASA installation in the whole range of operating parameter
variation. [Chang CT, Lee CM, Herbon JT, Kramer SK., 2013]

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On the basis of result review of emission characteristic experimental determination 3 most prospective
versions (of 13 versions under research) were selected and then further design optimization was made,
after that one final structural version of the combustion chamber was tested by NASA new five-head
section (Fig. 4.41) [Herbon J., et al., 2017].
Figure 109: Combustion chamber 5-sectional sector.

By results of NOx emission level experimental determination in 5-head section the GE combustion
chamber provides the level meeting 19% NOx from CAEP6 regulatory requirements at target level for
the engines of N+2 generation meeting 25% from CAEP6 regulatory requirements at good
combustion efficiency and acceptable level of pressure fluctuations at this design stage (Table 2).
Further development of that technology will be focused upon the thermal state, mechanical strength,
processibillity and design optimization in order to find compromise between provision of fuel
combustion efficiency and pressure fluctuation level in the combustion chamber from one side and
NOx emission level per LTO cycle.

Table 31: NOx emission level of GE 5-head section for ICAO LTO cycle.

TAPS design permitted them to combine two combustion areas in a single volume of the flame tube: rich
one implementing the diffusion combustion pattern and weak one – with combustion of well-premixed
practically homogeneous fuel-air mix. In TAPS combustion chamber two high-power swirlers are located
around the central nozzle. Thus it is achieved reduction of concentration fluctuation and combustion
product temperature (approximately by 50%). Due to this combustion efficiency is improved and NOx
emission level is reduced. One radial swirler is located on the fringes; fuel is supplied by 12 pneumatic
nozzles to the air flow swirled by it. Premixed and vaporized lean air-fuel mixture enters the chamber and is
combusted as almost homogeneous one. The application of such approach makes the major contribution in
NOx emission reduction, since minimum half of all fuel is combusted in this area.

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P&W company in the framework of EA project has demonstrated several very diverse concepts including
also the improved version of its TALON X combustion chamber with rich combustion. Final conception
version on Axially Controlled Stoichiometry (ACS) of the combustion chamber was selected for NASA tests
that considerably improved its characteristics compared to those achieved two decades ago. ACS concept
was preliminary tested in three-sectional sector at UTRC installation, then it passed NASA tests at ASCR
object (Fig. 110).

By NOx emission level experimental determination results P&W ACS combustion chamber provides the level
meeting 12% NOx from the regulatory requirements CAEP6 at combustion completeness minimum 99,9% at
maximum rating. As it is clear from the above mentioned, P&W together with United Technologies Research
Center (UTRC) to achieve the aims of NASA programme have successfully applied the approach containing
reprocessing of the family concept studied earlier and have assessed probable potential on emission
abatement and operability improvement. The concept changes under consideration included the
application of multi-point lean flame tube heads, radial swirlers, axial zoned combustion chambers and
combustion chambers with rich-quench-lean (RQL) mixture. P&W company have attained considerable
improvements in TALON X Rich-Quench-Lean and continues development for additional emission
abatement.
Figure 110: Three-sectional sector of low-emission combustion chamber at NASA ASCR bench (Pratt & Whitney).

The concept of multipoint injection has a drawback – big number of injection points. Modern
manufacturing technologies reduced production cost of the multi-point combustion chamber.
However it is required developing the activities, which will avoid probability of fuel channel
carbonization. It was expedient to reduce the number of injection points thus providing high efficiency
of fuel-air agitation [Chang CT, Lee CM, Herbon JT, Kramer SK, 2013].

Both combustion chamber concepts from GE and P&W have surpassed the target level for engines of
N+2 generation meeting the level 25% from allowance of CAEP-6 LTO NOx at good combustion
efficiency and pressure fluctuation at level TRL 4. Both combustion chamber conceptions researched
meet the requirement on NOx emission abatement level at cruise condition by 70% as well as
considerably reduce the volume of hard particles emissions that is important for chemical composition
of upper atmosphere.

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The degree of influence of nozzle recession and dilution section on operating and emission
characteristics was estimated in the course of detailed study of the scheme characteristics for LDI fuel
combustion technology. Goodrich, Woodward and Parker have obtained excellent results in
combustion chamber testing within mid-pressure range demonstrating ignition, flame propagation
and NOx emission abatement.

NASA plans to continue tests of those concepts at the mid-pressure installation to estimate their
capability in ensuring NOx emission abatement.

Goodrich (at present called UTC Aerospace Systems) has developed a modular LDI array around
discrete-jet based air-blast fuel nozzles (Fig. 111a). Intense mix turbulence level is produced close to
the fuel injection point. As a result it is obtained rapid breakup of fuel and vaporization sheet
accelerating the process of homogeneous combustible mixture formation especially at low engine
power setting.

Rows of slightly recessed pilot nozzles, designed to ensure secure ignition, are dispensed in the
multiple-stage matrix (Fig. 111). Air flow through the pilot nozzles makes 10% of the total air
consumption and fuel is dosed independently of the supply to the major elements. It is anticipated
that employment of separately prepared areas of fuel-air mixture will permit them to minimize NOx
emissions thus providing a wide range of combustion chamber steady operation.
Figure 111: Goodrich multi-zone multi-stage LDI concept.

a) b)

At present the researches are continued to determine the optimum design of the nozzle jet, which
further will be tested at the maximum pressure mode. There were performed tests to determine the
emission level of that fuel consumption technology employing Jet-A fuel and alternative fuel at low
pressure modes; at present it has been planned to perform tests at middle and high pressure modes
in NASA to confirm efficiency of LDI multi-point scheme in order to abate NOx emission level [Prociw,
A., Ryon, J.,Goeke J., 2012].

Woodward FST based their developed concept on combined types of fuel nozzles by the simple vortex
and shear action. Their LDI package module consists of multi-stage series of smaller and more
compact nozzles surrounding the central bigger module, which provides low-power operations.

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Modules can be added together as a multi-component sector (Fig. 112). The built-in module provides
a zoned effect and shields from its neighbours. At low power settings the fuel-air mix distributed
uniformly can be excessively lean to burn.
Figure 112: Woodward LDI package in 5-sectional sector.

As a result it is used a multi-stage fuel-feeding scheme in order to ensure combustive composition of

the mixture at very low total equivalence numbers. In Fig. 113 it is shown 5-burner annular
compartment during the test to determine the margin for lean blowout. At present the works on
maturation of the fuel preparation system are underway [Lee, Ph., 2012].

Parker presented the version of multi-stage 3-zone injector module designed under UEET NASA
programme. The concept originated from the idea on updating CC modern injectors applying new
equipment having the improved characteristics (Fig. 114). The module is composed of miniature
mixing cups each fueled by a pressure-swirl nozzle. The cups are formed using Parker’s platelet
technology and produce intense turbulence, when the fuel injection takes place. Three zones are
formed by canting the side nozzles away from the middle layer to provide some relief from injector
interaction. Multiple fuel stages are used to shift fuel spatially to provide the leanest and acceptably-
stable burnable fuel-air mixture (Fig. 115). This package passed tests at middle power conditions and
is accepted for testing under high pressure in NASA [Lee, C-M., Chang, C., Kramer, S., and Herbon, J. ,
2013].
Figure 113: LDI Woodward package undergoes tests with lean mixture

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Figure 114: Conceptual implementation of 3-zone module.

Figure 115: Spray test using Parker 3-zone probe.

Bypass turbojet Trent 1000 was produced basing on bypass turbojet Trent 900 applying new technical
solutions from the prospective technology solution program Vision of company Rolls-Royce [Madden P.,
2005; Haley Ph., 2006]. The design features of the engine are as follows:

- single-step low-noise slow-speed fan, diameter DF=2,845 m with 20 wide-chord light impeller blades
made of titanium alloy with variable sweep by height and improved aerodynamic characteristics as well as
small relative diameter of the hub;

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- intermediate pressure power off-take, two Nst=250 kVА starter-generators are installed on, ensuring
engine starting and electric power supply to aircraft systems;

- new nickel alloys, HPC and LPT blade manufacturing technologies providing engine life extension;

- low-emission one-layered annular combustor of “plate” design with direct fuel injection and lean
combustion zone;

- counter-rotating rotors of high and middle pressure;

- anti-icing system at Middle Pressure Spool inlet;

- smart transmitters in ACS and technical condition diagnostic system.

The application of the fan with a hub of small relative diameter in bypass turbojet Trent 1000 ensures
reduction in weight, outer resistance and oil consumption. The applied design of fan impeller blades
provides little weight, good aerodynamic characteristics and rigidity to ingestion. Outlet guide vanes also has
light sweepback vanes; the technological process used for their manufacture is similar to impeller blades.

To reduce the noise level in the bypass turbojet Trent 1000 and Trent 900 there have employed the
following technical solutions: new fan casing with an inner circuit, reducing the noise level in the source; the
optimized number of sweepback vanes in the outlet guide vanes; slow-speed fan with sweep variable by
height; acoustic treatment of LPT casing.

The application of the intermediate pressure power off-take in the bypass turbojet Trent 1000 used for
engine starting and electric power supply to aircraft systems makes possible to:

- reduce short haul fuel consumption by 6% and specific fuel consumption at cruise condition by 1…1,25 %
relatively to the engine with HPC power offtake;

- reduce thrust at ground idle condition that favorably affects reduction in fuel consumption, noise as well as
load on landing gear wheel brakes;

- reduce the time of transient process from idle condition to the maximum one owing to big margin of HPC
gas dynamic stability;

- increase HPC gas dynamic stability margin;

- curtail operating costs.

In the bypass turbojet Trent 1000 due to the fluid drive coupling applied in intermediate pressure power off-
take at engine starting by the starter, both rotors – middle pressure spool and HPC are spun with the result
that the starting time is shorter than 40 s [Aviation Week, 8/V, 2006, v. 164, №19, p.48-50]. At flight
conditions the power off-take for the generator drive is made mechanically from the middle pressure shaft.
Generators of each engine can produce up to 0,5 MW of electric power for B787 electrical systems.

High pressure and temperature of the combustor led to undesirable increase in NOx emissions. The rate of
NOx formation grows with temperature rise in the combustion area reaching the maximum values at ratio
air-fuel close to stoichiometric one. Consequently to provide low level of NOx emissions the time spent for
mixture combustion at high temperatures shall be minimized. The example of implementation of such
approach providing the margin as for harmful substance emissions relatively to the ICAO regulatory
requirements serves the combined technology Rolls-Royce “Phase 5” employed in Trent engine series
[Parker R., Lathoud M., 2010].

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The extension of electrical technology application in further airplanes and engines will be helpful. Aircraft
and engine systems traditionally represent the aggregate of hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Many of
them, for example, air conditioning systems (in the cabin), driven by compressed air to be supplied directly
from engine compressors can be replaced by special lighter and more power-efficient electric equipment.
The engines can produce high electrical load, for example by embedded electrical generators. Sustained
control over this electrical load also can offer opportunities to improve the engine. “MOET EU” programme
is directed to the integration of completely electrical airplanes and engine systems. It will provide reduction
of fuel consumption by 2% together with all operational advantages: maintenance and reliability [Parker R.,
Lathoud M., 2010].

In the work [Zhoujie Lyu, Martins J.R.R.A., 2015] the trailing edge was optimized with various conditions
throughout the whole flight as for the company plans. The authors observed 1% drag reduction at design
conditions and 5% drag reduction out of design conditions. Efficiency of trailing edge morphing is
demonstrated by comparison with optimized results of the hypothetic, completely morphing wing.
Moreover it was computed reduction in fuel consumption for several flights applying optimization results.
Reduction in fuel consumption by 1% at cruise conditions is achieved by adaptive morphing of the trailing
edge for the typical long-range two-aisle air vehicle. Morphing of the trailing edge has a high level of
technological availability and can be implemented in existing airplanes in order to reduce drag as far as
possible for each flight condition.

Besides in the work [Ninian, D.; Dakka, S.M., 2017] the wings for morphing were designed – innovative
technology, which has potential to improve aerodynamic efficiency (feature) and reduction in aircraft noise
patterns. This research was focused on reduction of induced drag caused by lifting force on flaps of the
airfoil section and on improvement of the design in order to reach aerodynamic efficiency (Table 32).
Modelling has showed almost 11% growth of the lift factor for the initial morphing wing and 15,4% for the
optimized morphing wing compared to the traditional wing layout. At angles of attack 0, 5, 10 and 15
degrees the optimized wing has the gain in aerodynamic efficiency by 18,3 %, 10,5 %, 10,6 % and 4 %
respectively compared to the common wing. Modelling also showed that there is considerable improvement
of pressure distribution at lower surface of the wing with morphing. Increase in flow smoothness and
decrease in vortex dimension along the wing trailing edge led to drag reduction. It was observed also
pressure rise on the lower surface. The morphing ring reduced the vortex dimension; therefore the noise
levels measured were reduced by 50%.

Table 32: Noise level of traditional and adaptive (morphing) wings in the air tunnel.

All aircraft emit CO2 is a fuel combustion product. Fuel use by the global aircraft fleet has increased
approximately linearly over four decades (up to 2013) based on International Energy Agency

232
estimates. Fuel use per revenue passenger kilometre (RPK) has decreased since the 1970s as aircraft
structures, aircraft engines and aircraft operations have become more fuel efficient (Lee et al., 2009).
Aviation fuel use and CO2 emissions are projected to continue increasing in the coming decades as
aviation demand increases, even as CO2 per RPK decreases due to technological and operational
improvements.

Therefore, improving fuel efficiency is a key method of reducing CO2 emissions. Fuel represents
approximately 20% of the total operating costs for modern aircraft [Kahn Ribeiro, et al., 2007]. It is
expected that market forces lead airlines to minimize fuel consumption, for example, through the
introduction of new technologies in aviation [Holland, M., 2011]. Since 1960, fuel efficiency has
improved by about 70-80%. Some assessments indicate that by 2050 another 40-50% improvement
can be achieved [Kahn Ribeiro, et al., 2007]. The main areas for improving the overall fuel efficiency
of an aircraft are:

1. Aircraft weight reduction.

2. Improvement on aerodynamics of aircraft to reduce aerodynamic drag.

3. Improvement on the specific efficiency of the engine to reduce fuel consumption per thrust unit
[King, D., et al., 2010].

The weight reduction of aircraft was achieved through the introduction of light advanced alloys and
composite materials, new designs for aviation systems, improved and new production processes. For
example, the Boeing 787 entered service in 2011 and has an airframe made up of almost 50% carbon
fiber reinforced plastic and other composites, offering an average weight reduction of 20% compared
to similar traditional aluminum structures. Just as an example of the introduction of new technologies
aimed at reducing fuel consumption and reducing emissions of pollutants, the scheme of the Airbus
A350XWBis presented (Figure 116). The future volume of aircraft emissions will be determined by the
intensity of air traffic, air traffic control, new aviation technologies and the speed of change in the
fleet of aircraft.

The impact of aviation on the environment has increased as a result of increased air traffic. Between
1990 and 2005, the number of aviation and CO2 emissions increased by about 80%. However, due to
technological improvements, fleet renewal, increased efficiency of air traffic control and because of
the economic downturn in 2008, the level of emissions and noise in 2014 was approximately at the
level of 2005.

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Figure 116: Advanced Airbus Technologies.

As can be seen in Fig. 4.49. CO2 emissions follow the same tendency as air transportation from 1990
to 2014. CO2 emissions increased by 80%, remaining stable between 2005 and 2014. However, it is
expected that they will also increase by 45% more between 2014 and 2035. Nitrous Oxide emissions
doubled between 1990 and 2014.

The experimental demonstrator Airbus A340 with a laminar flow «BLADE» (A340-300 MSN001) made
the successful maiden flight under BLADE project funded by EC. The aircraft is equipped with two
outer transonic wing boxes. Several hundreds of points to measure surface undulation are fitted on
the wing in order to study out the influence of undulation on the laminar boundary layer. There are
employed infrared cameras to measure wing temperature along with acoustic generator, which
measures the effect of acoustics on the laminar flow. Moreover there is an advanced reflectometry
system, which measures general deformation in real time in flight.

The main aim of BLADE project is to measure admissible deviations and drawbacks of the surface, at
which the laminar flow is supported. To this end Airbus will simulate all imperfection types, and as a
result the tolerances to create the laminar wing will be known completely. BLADE project is organized
in the frame of aeronautical research programme “Clean Sky” in Europe. 21 European partners take
part in Blade project with 500 participants including GKN Aerospace – designer of onboard panel with
a laminar flow and SAAB is designer of the wing segment.

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Figure 117: СО2 emissions with prediction after 2014 considering different scenarios.

Figure 118: NOx emissions with predictions after 2014 considering different scenarios.

Airbus company presented updated aircraft A380, named A380plus in 2017 with extended range,
greater passenger capacity and reduced fuel consumption. New winglet airfoils together with other
wing upgrading improve aerodynamics and reduce drag that leads to 4% fuel economy. In doing so
the aircraft meets the dimension requirements - 80x80 meters for compatibility of the aircraft with
airport infrastructure [http://www.airbus.com/aircraft/passenger-aircraft/a380-family.html].

Speaking about the level of aircraft aerodynamic excellence, which determines its competitiveness
nowadays, it makes sense to address to the definite example - long-range civil aircraft B-787
[Goldhammer M., 2011]. The maximum effect on improvement of its common efficiency was reached
due to employment of new engines. Owing to mastering of the systems including avionics and
accessories it was managed to improve quality approximately by 15%. New materials considerably

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contributed as long as composites in B-787 made 50% of the aircraft weight. Mastering of
aerodynamics made possible to improve efficiency of the new aircraft approximately by 20%.

Airplanes of the type “flying wing” are the other conceptual directions. One of them is HWB concept
(hybrid wingbody). NASA and Lockheed Martin studied fuel consumption of the HWB concept. They
came to the conclusion that positioning of engines over the trailing edge of a wing reduces drag on
flats. In general HWB aircraft have better aerodynamic properties than those with traditional
configuration that in turn leads to considerable reduction of fuel consumption and emissions
[Warwick G., 2017].

As for NASA estimation the optimum HWB configuration will consume maximum 114 tons of fuel per
one flight compared to Boeing 777, which consumes 142 tons of fuel per flight [Burley C.L., Olson E.D.,
Thomas R.H., 2017]. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration claims that at average 28537
commercial flights are accounted daily in the United States. If every commercial aircraft is of HWB
type, then it would make 799036 tons per day of total fuel reduction. Annually it will make
approximately 292 million tons of fuel consumption saving only for commercial flights in the USA.
Such fuel saving would make HWB aircraft more ecological and economical than modern airplanes,
that would be advantageous especially taking into account the growing problem of greenhouse gases
effect.

One more ecological problem, which HWB aircraft can help to solve, is noise pollution effect on
animals. Cambridge philosophic society has gathered the data of two decades of researches on effect
of human noise on wildlife. The conclusion was made that any noise higher than 40 dB effects on
animals, high noise level is “harmful for wild life and natural ecosystems”. In particular transport noise
sources including commercial airplanes can effect on vocal behavior, motion, physiology and
population species indices.

The main limitation of HWB airplanes is a large volume of noise generated by their landing gear at
land approach. Compared to the traditional design layout scheme of airplanes and wings the landing
gear of HWB design makes much more noise. It is due to airframe geometry around the landing gear
location. On the flat with a tube the landing gear is placed under the wing part nearest to a fuselage.
This area has a low-speed air flow; therefore the landing gear does not cause a lot of noise [Guo Y.,
Thomas R. H., 2015]. As for the HWB design the landing gear is located in one and the same common
area, but the local geometry of the airframe in this area is different. As long as the body and the wing
is one uninterrupted part the air flow actually accelerates in this area. Therefore the landing gear
becomes an obstacle for movement of high-speed air. The landing gear noise is proportional to air
flow speed, so it makes more noise. 20% increase in air flow speed around the landing gear leads to
increase in HWB noise level by 6 dB [Guo Y., Thomas R. H., 2015]. It’s a counter effect from the HWB
design. Researchers hope to use HWB design for reduction but not for increase in EPNL aggregate
amount; therefore it is needed to find the solution of the landing gear noise problem. However the
HWB design has several existing limitations.

The eighth meeting of ICAO’s Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection (CAEP/8) held in
February 2010, made important decisions regarding technological means to reduce the impact of
aviation on climate change. It was agreed that the effort would be referred to as a “CO2 Standard”
based on “fuel efficiency concepts” within the certification requirement metric. This was decided in

236
order to ensure the necessary transparency and public understanding that is essential to demonstrate
that this work is contributing to efforts to reduce aviation’s impact on climate change.

Following six years of development, ICAO’s CAEP at its tenth meeting (CAEP/10) recommended an
Aeroplane Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Emissions Certification Standard. This new standard is a part of the
ICAO “basket of measures” to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the air transport system, and it
is the first global technology Standard for CO2 emissions for any sector with the aim of encouraging
more fuel efficient technologies into aeroplane designs.

The recommended CO2 Standard has been developed at the aeroplane level, and therefore has
considered all technologies associated with the aeroplane design (e.g. propulsion, aerodynamics and
structures). Once adopted by the ICAO Council, the Aeroplane CO2 Emissions Certification Standard
will be published as a new Annex 16, Volume III. The framework for the CO2 Standard consists of a
certification requirement and regulatory limit, as shown in the Figure 109, and the work to develop
the CO2 Standard was divided into two phases. Phase 1, which was completed at the ninth meeting
of the CAEP (CAEP/9) in February 2013, resulted in the approval of some of the details regarding the
applicability of the Standard, the CO2 Metric System and the development of a CO2 Standard
certification requirement. Phase 2 involved the development of the regulatory limit lines and the
applicability requirements such as scope and date.
Figure 119: The framework and development phases of the CO2 Standard

The results of the CAEP/10 meeting were unprecedented, because it was the first time CAEP had been
able to recommend two completely new standards in one meeting, on CO2 and non-volatile
particulate matter (nvPM) emissions. The recommended Aeroplane CO2 Emissions Certification
Standard is a technology standard with the aim of encouraging more fuel efficient technologies into
aeroplane designs. This technology-based approach is similar to the current ICAO engine emissions
standards for LAQ and the aircraft noise standards. The recommended CO2 standard has been
developed at the aeroplane level, and therefore has considered all technologies associated with the
aeroplane design (e.g. propulsion, aerodynamics and structures). This approach is similar to the
current ICAO aircraft noise standards. The CO2 standard will apply to subsonic jet and turboprop
aeroplanes that are new type (NT) designs from 2020, as well as to those aeroplane type designs that
are in-production (InP) in 2023 and undergo a change. Regarding the latter, if after 2023 any InP
aeroplane type design that is changed to the extent that it triggers applicability, it would then need
to be made compliant with the standard. In 2028, there is a production cut-off. This means that InP

237
aeroplanes that do not meet the standard can no longer be produced from 2028, unless the designs
are modified to comply with the standard.

The recommendation on the CO2 emissions standard was supported by a significant data driven
process and the cost-benefit modelling analysis of several different CO2 stringency options. The new
CO2 emissions Standard is recommended as being included in an entirely new Volume to Annex 16
(Volume III). The Figure 120 shows an overview of the CO2 Standard regulatory limit lines for both NT
and InP CO2 Standards. The CO2 Standard covers a broad range of aeroplane masses and types and
is especially stringent where it will have the greatest impact: for larger aeroplane types with an MTOM
of greater than 60 tonnes. CAEP considers technical feasibility very carefully during the development
of environmental standards, and as such, the decision at CAEP10 recognised the fact that the larger
aeroplane designs have access to the broadest range of CO2 emissions reduction technologies. This
is less so for aeroplanes below 60 tonnes where the standard provides additional margin for a sector.
This is particularly recognised for aeroplanes of MTOMs less than 60 tonnes and with fewer than 19
seats maximum passenger seating capacity, where for new aeroplane type designs the applicability
date of the standard is 2023.

Figure 120: The CO2 Standard regulatory limits for the aircraft

It is complex to fully understand the impact of the CO2 Standard due to potential unknown market
driven responses to the regulation, and the fact that the CO2 Standard cost-effectiveness analysis was
a comparative investigation of regulatory limit lines. However, it is clear that the new standard will
have direct effects by increasing the importance of fuel efficiency in the design process such that an
aeroplane type not just meets the regulatory limit but also has good relative product positioning in
terms of a margin to the limit.

The Figure 121 shows the estimated excess CO2 emissions generated per flight that can be attributed
to inefficiencies related to overall Air Navigation Services. These excess emissions have decreased by
7% since 2012, with the climb and descent phase decreasing by 6%, the taxi phase by 8% and the en
route phase by 7%. It should be noted that the inefficiencies in the individual flight phases are average
excess emissions compared to theoretical optima. These theoretical optima are not achievable in
reality at the air traffic system level due to safety or capacity limitations. Therefore the excess emissions

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indicated cannot be reduced to zero, as a certain level of excess fuel burn is necessary if a network
system is to be run safely and efficiently.

Figure 121: Estimated excess CO2 emissions per flight are decreasing in taxi, take-off, climb/descent and en route phases

FORUM-AE’s reference when assessing European progress towards ACARE emissions CO2 & NOx
goals is shown in the Figure 122. One should also note that NOx emissions are considered either at
local level when addressing air quality concern or at global scale when addressing climate change.
Still referring to SRIA Vol. 1, Appendix, the timing assumption to progress towards CO2 & NOx goals
is the following (FORUM-AE):
Figure 122: ACARE CO2 & NOx goals calendar (using CAEP6 margin for NOx) (FORUM‐AE)

Air traffic CO2 share will keep increasing unless adapted measures are taken. ACARE 2050 ambitious
objectives would permit to mitigate the increase of aviation part in anthropogenic CO2. If ACARE
technology goals were not achieved, if technology improvements were not introduced in the fleet

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early enough, and if global anthropogenic CO2 was not growing as much as assumed, share of
aviation could be above 5% in 2050.

ACARE 2050 very challenging CO2 reduction objective would permit to mitigate substantially the
increase of aviation CO2, with realistic traffic growth assumption. Therefore, it is essential to pursue a
tremendous effort at the aircraft level, the engine level and the ATM & flight operation level in order
to progress towards this ambitious goal.

Aircraft/Engine panel of technologies (an exhaustive list would be very long and one can refer to SRIA-
Vol.2 enablers table and to FORUM-AE relevant workshops proceedings) must be further and
continuously improved or newly introduce both for evolutionary aircraft or engine applications and
longer term disruptive applications.

Unconventional configurations like aircraft equipped with CROR concept or UHBPR concepts, must
be further developed. Their mitigation potential, complemented with laminar wing benefit, must be
maximised and their maturity must be pushed over TRL5, recognizing there is still some gap towards
ACARE 2020 CO2 goal.

The recommended new nvPM standard (ICAO CAEP/9 meeting in 2013) has been developed for the
certification of aircraft engines emissions and is set at the engine level, in a similar way to the current
ICAO engine emission standards. The recommended new nvPM standard will apply to engines
manufactured from 1 January 2020, and is for the certification of aircraft engines with rated thrust
greater than 26.7kN. The new nvPM standard is the first of its kind, and it includes a full standardized
certification procedure for the measurement of nvPM, and the regulatory limit for the nvPM mass
concentration set at the current ICAO smoke visibility limit. The new nvPM standard is recommended
as a new Chapter to Annex 16, Volume II. The agreement on the new nvPM standard will set the basis
for a more stringent nvPM standard during CAEP/11.

Consensus appears that nvPM reduction must be also achieved, in addition to NOx. This induces
critical R&T on (FORUM-AE):

 The combustor technology itself in order to ensure both NOx & nvPM ambitious low levels:
enhanced lean combustion in general (achieving TRL6 maturity & extending its application to
smaller size and/or smaller OPR engine combustors), and focus on more specific aspects
which may be beneficial to particles reduction (improved atomisation);
 The modelling of emissions, which for particles emissions is far from being predictable today,
because of the physical complexity of particles formation (gaseous precursors formation,
particles nucleation & oxidation…), and the modelling of combustion related operability
aspects;
 The experimental analysis, which is absolutely necessary to support modeling development o
r to assess technology. This assumes advanced measurements (in particular intrusive and no
n intrusive measurements of particles in the combustion chamber) and appropriate test capa
bility (from multi-sector tests to full annular tests, with ability to achieve high pressure levels).
4.1.5 Cruise efficiency and global emissions
In 2012, aviation represented 13% of all EU transport CO2 emissions, and 3% of the total EU CO2
emissions. It was also estimated that European aviation represented 22% of global aviation’s CO2
emissions. Similarly, aviation now comprises 14% of all EU transport NOx emissions, and 7% of the

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total EU NOx emissions. In absolute terms, NOx emissions from aviation have doubled since 1990,
and their relative share has quadrupled, as other economic sectors have achieved significant
reductions31.

In 2010, Member States agreed to work through the ICAO to achieve a global annual average fuel
efficiency improvement of 2%, and to stabilize the global net carbon emissions of international
aviation at 2020 levels. During 2012, Member States submitted voluntary Action Plans to the ICAO
outlining their annual reporting on international aviation CO2 emissions and their respective policies
and actions to limit or reduce the impact of aviation on the global climate. New or updated action
plans were submitted during 2015, and are expected once every three years thereafter.

Combining air traffic and environmental indicators together shows some signs of growing
economic and connectivity benefits from aviation (measured in passenger kilometres flown)
without a proportionate increase in environmental impact (Figure 123). The diverging trends of
passenger kilometres flown and noise energy between 2005 and 2014 have shown that this is possible,
and that there is the potential for this to continue in the future. Nevertheless, the absolute noise
energy and emissions of aviation are expected to grow further in the next twenty years.

Aircraft emit gases and aerosol that change the composition of the atmosphere, because increases in
cloudiness through contrail formation and spreading, and modify natural clouds. At present, these
changes together are estimated to cause a net positive forcing of Earth’s climate system, which
contributes to surface warming and other responses. There is substantial understanding of the
components of aviation climate forcing, particularly CO2. Important uncertainties remain in
quantifying some of the aviation non-CO2 climate terms and in the underlying physical processes.
This paper presents a summary of recent progress in the state of the science since the 2012
ICAO/CAEP/ISG paper, especially related to contrails and induced cloudiness, contrail avoidance, and
aerosol and NOx effects. The number and diversity of newly available studies has created a need to
re-evaluate best estimates of aviation climate forcing. Our understanding and confidence in aviation
climate forcing’s would be enhanced by a new international scientific assessment.

31
(EEA, Transport and Environment Reporting Mechanism 2014)

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Figure 123: Noise and emissions forecast to grow slower than passenger kilometres

The connections between aviation emissions and radiative forcing, climate change, and its impacts
and potential damages are shown in the Figure 123. The principal greenhouse gases (GHGs) emitted
are carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O). Emissions of nitrogen oxides (NOx) impact the
concentrations of other GHGs, mainly ozone (O3) and methane (CH4). Black carbon (soot) is a directly
emitted aerosol, and sulphur oxides (SOx), NOx, and hydrocarbons (HC) lead to aerosol production
after emission. Water vapour emissions in combination with emitted or background aerosol lead to
contrail formation. Persistent contrails, which form at high ambient humidity and low temperatures,
increase cloudiness. Additionally, aviation aerosol may modify natural clouds or trigger cloud
formation. There is high confidence that these are the primary pathways by which aviation operations
affect climate.

The evaluation requires knowledge of many physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere and
requires summing over the global aircraft fleet operating under diverse meteorological conditions in
the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere where most emissions occur. The Lee et al. (2009) study
is the most recent assessment in the literature of the best estimates of aviation RF terms.

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Figure 124: Updated schematic of the principal emissions from aviation operations and the relationship of emissions to climate
change and impacts. The terminology, ΔX, indicates a change in component X. The term, Δclouds, represents contrail induced
cloudiness and aerosol-cloud interactions. (From Brasseur et al., 2015).

The recent ACCRI report drew similar conclusions in noting that recommendations for best estimates
were precluded in their study due in part to the varied modelling approaches that did not all account
for climate system couplings and feedback processes (Brasseur et al., 2015). Continued progress in
understanding and quantifying aviation climate forcing and responses requires continued focused
research activities and would be enhanced by a new international scientific assessment that would
assess new published results available, for example, for contrails, contrail cirrus and indirect cloud
effects. An updated science assessment would also identify important remaining gaps in
understanding and, hence, guide future research directions.

Aircraft CO2 emissions increased from 88 to 156 million tonnes (+77%) between 1990 and 2005
according to the data reported by EU28 and EFTA Members States to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) (Figure 125). According to data from the IMPACT emissions
model, CO2 emissions increased by 5% between 2005 and 2014. The increase in emissions is however
less than the increase in passenger kilometres flown over the same period (2005 to 2014). This was
due to an improvement in fuel efficiency driven by the introduction of new aircraft, removal of older
aircraft, and improvements in operational practice. The average fuel burn per passenger kilometre
flown for passenger aircraft, excluding business aviation, went down by 19% over this same period.
However, projections indicate that future technology improvements are unlikely to balance the effect

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of future traffic growth. Under the base traffic forecast and advanced technology improvement rate,
CO2 emissions increases by 44% from 144 Mt in 2005 to 207 Mt in 2035.
Figure 125: After remaining stable between 2005 and 2014, aircraft CO2 emissions are likely to increase further

NOX emissions have also increased significantly (Figure 126): +85% (316 to 585 thousand tonnes)
between 1990 and 2005 according to the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
(CLRTAP) data from the UN Economic Commission for Europe, and +13% between 2005 and 2014
according to IMPACT data. Under the base air traffic forecast and assuming an advanced NOX
technology improvement rate, emissions would reach around 920 thousand tonnes in 2035 (+42%
compared to 2005).

Current and future technological developments to achieve the challenging ACARE 2050 CO2 goal are
essential to mitigate substantially the increase of aviation CO2, with realistic traffic growth assumption
(Figure ). A large part of the effort of the last decade was supported within Clean Sky, and within other
European projects like LEMCOTEC, ENOVAL and E-BREAK.

Most promising solutions appear to be laminar wing, and ultra-high by-pass ratio engines like Open
Rotor (medium term) and distributed propulsion (longer term as explored in DISPURSAL project). New
and light materials (e.g. composites for fan blade) should also provide benefits. It is unclear what is
projected on new aircraft architectures before 2050, but AHEAD project illustrates a radical aircraft
configuration change.

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Figure 126: NOX emissions are likely to increase in the future, but advanced engine combustor technology could help mitigate their
growth

Figure 127: Global aviation CO2 forecast with ACARE assumption

(Assumptions: ACARE 2050 is achieved in 2050 and fully introduced in the 2050 fleet; there is a conti
nuous improvement of average effiency from now to 2050; ICAO 37th assembly average traffic grow
th of 4.6% is taken)

A new assessment was performed against ACARE CO2 and NOx goals and is summarized in
the following ¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia.. Although, there is no ACARE objective
related to ultrafine particles, this is now a key environmental and regulatory concern, which requires
appropriate mitigation solutions (combustor technology and fuel composition).

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Table 33: FORUM‐AE assessment against ACARE emissions goals (FORUM‐AE)

Operational measures are among the elements in the basket of measures available to States to
address the impact of aviation on the environment. Improved operational measures have the potential
to reduce fuel consumption, and in turn, CO2 emissions. For every tonne of fuel reduced, an equivalent
amount of 3.16t of CO2 are avoided. CAEP has developed updated guidance material to replace (ICAO
Circular 303). This was done in order to provide States and other stakeholders.

For example the aircraft designed for (a) high cruise efficiency and low global emissions and (b) low
noise and emissions at take-off and landing near airports may be quite different. The objective (b)
leads to a glider like aircraft with wide span wing and engine with a slow cold exhaust, for low engine
and aerodynamic noise and reduced emissions; this configuration has a low cruise speed and poor
efficiency leading to longer travel times and higher fuel consumption and emissions in cruise flight.
Conversely the objective (a) leads to an aircraft with a sweptback wings and high jet exhaust velocities
for fast cruise and low fuel consumption and emissions that will be noisier and have more emissions
near airports because of higher speeds and exhaust velocities at take-off and landing.

The multitude of engine and noise sources and the compatibility of low CO2 and NOx emissions at
local and global levels are a formidable set of environmental constraints and objectives that may
require major breakthroughs such as: (i) variable cycle engines with high jet speeds at cruise and lower
exhaust velocities at take-off and landing; (ii) novel aircraft configurations like flying wings, joined
wings, V- or U-tails with shielding of noise and/or flush or buried engines. These developments that
may be needed to meet (a) ever stricter environmental standards must be compatible with (b)
increased efficiency and economy, since both enable the continuation of air traffic growth at the
service of mobility.

In 2008, the EU decided to include aviation activities in the EU ETS (EC, 2008, Directive 2008/101/EC).
These emissions now form part of the EU’s internal 20% greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction
target for 2020. On the basis of national GHG emission reports to the United Nations Framework

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Convention on Climate Change, domestic aviation from the EU Member States accounts for less than
0.5% of total EU GHG emissions37, whereas international aviation represents 3%, a relative share which
is increasing (EEA, 2014). One example is the ETS which is a cornerstone of the EU’s policy to combat
climate change and its key tool for reducing industrial greenhouse gas emissions cost-effectively. The
ETS either incentivises CO2 emission reductions within the sector, or through the purchase of emission
reductions in other sectors of the economy where abatement costs can be lower.

In addition to improving operational efficiency and achieving technological progress, aviation

community is putting significant efforts in promoting the use of sustainable alternative fuels that have
a reduced carbon foot print compared to conventional jet fuel. However, hurdles (mainly economic)
still exist to prevent a large scale production. A complementary global MBM scheme would act as a
policy tool that would allow for an immediate response to the need for stabilising the emissions in a
cost-effective manner for international aviation to meet its aspirational goal.

According to Assembly Resolution A39-3, paragraph 4, the role of a global MBM scheme is to
complement a broader basket of measures to achieve the global aspirational goal (of carbon-neutral
growth from 2020 onwards). Paragraph 5 of the Assembly Resolution decides to implement a global
MBM scheme in the form of the Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation
(CORSIA) to address any annual increase in total CO2 emissions from international civil aviation (i.e.
civil aviation flights that depart in one country and arrive in a different country) above the 2020 levels,
taking into account special circumstances and respective capabilities. The average level of CO2
emissions from international aviation covered by the scheme between 2019 and 2020 represents the
basis for carbon neutral growth from 2020, against which emissions in future years are compared. In
any year from 2021 when international aviation CO2 emissions covered by the scheme exceed the
average baseline emissions of 2019 and 2020, this difference represents the sector's offsetting
requirements for that year.

States that voluntarily decide to participate the CORSIA may join the scheme from the beginning of a
given year, and should notify ICAO of their decision to join by June 30 the preceding year. CORSIA
would be the first global MBM scheme for a whole sector, and a major step to complement
the efforts made by States in the context of the Paris Agreement. Action for the implementation of
the global MBM scheme for international aviation from 2020 will start right after the Assembly.

The major environmental issues of aviation concern noise and emissions that are the subject of
different views in literature (Key Topic T4.1). The prospect of emissions free airport movements are
related to the battery technology (Key Topic T4.2).

The long term sustainability of aviation may depend on the availability of alternative fuels (Key Topic
T4.3). The atmospheric research contributes to minimise the weather and environmental effects of
aviation (Key Topic T4.4).

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1.1.1.14 KEY TOPIC T4.1 – LITERATURE ON THE ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL TARGETS OF
AVIATION
Air Pollution Related Studies

It is clear that between alternative transport modes aviation’s impact on climate change deserves
special attention. Due to typical flight altitudes in the upper troposphere and above, the effect of
aircraft engine emissions like e.g. water vapour, nitrogen oxides and aerosols on radiative forcing
agents is substantial. It is thought that doubling of aircraft movements in the next 15 years will
increase the impact of aviation on global climate. For instance, Macintosh and Wallace (2009) analysed
the contribution of aviation industry to climate change since 1990 and projected the international civil
aviation emissions to 2025. They found that CO2 emission of international aviation would increase
more than 110% between 2005 and 2025 and so they concluded that the emissions could unlikely to
be stabilized at levels consistent with risk averse climate targets without restricting demand.

Therefore, supra-national organizations on aviation put forward some challenges regarding mitigating
the risks on global warming and climate change. According to Schilling (2016)’s report the objectives
set by aviation industry in 2009 cannot be met especially the long-term reduction goal of CO2
emissions by 2050. AIRCAT project is a collaborative work of IATA and DLR to identify possible
challenges, obstacles and roadblocks to the deployment of new technologies. They selected three
aircraft designs of low-emissions concepts as battery-driven, hybrid wing body and strut braced wing
with open rotor design. In addition, analyse two types of low-carbon alternative fuels as drop-in solar
jet fuel and natural liquid gas. Consequently, they assessed that the majority of emissions reductions
necessary to meet the 2050 goal would have to come from low-carbon fuels and radically new fuels.
Another study is coming with Hassan et al. (2017)’s criticism regarding the challenges. Hassan et al.
(2017) studied the feasibility of the aviation goals on CO2 emission reductions designated for 2050
and by considering 40 different scenarios they found that these goals are not feasible because of the
high demand growth. Moreover, with medium or low demand growth coupled with high technology
introduction rates and faster retirement of old aircraft they found that the goals are feasible.
According to Jovanevic and Vracarevic (2016) especially rising travel demand constrained to perform
designated challenge. They studied the feasibility of global climate stabilization goals (70% reduction
of CO2 emissions) with the International Civil Aviation Organization’s forecasts of future commercial
aviation growth and found that, air transport’s emissions were going to rise five-fold (4.9 times) in the
2005-2040 period and CO2 emissions of air transport would be higher by 50% in 2040 than in 2005
due to the sudden increase in the volume of air-transport tourist trips. Moreover, they proposed that
policy focus should shift to more efficient implementation of market-driven instruments, which, apart
from creating incentives to develop and use low-emission technologies can also reduce the demand
for travel.

Beyond travel demand, Heinemann et al. (2017) analysed tube and wing configurations in terms of
reaching the Flightpath 2050 goals. They used simplified methods to model the technologies and
produce statements on how fuel burn was changed on overall aircraft level. Finally, they found that
with selected technologies in the study it was not likely to reach any of the goals. They proposed that
for reaching the aforementioned goals of EU considering noise and NOx goals radical approaches
would be necessary for the airframe and the propulsion system. However, Ozaki (2017)’s study
contradicted to Heinemann et al. (2017)’s study from a different perspective. He studied the potential

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of NOx and proposed that if all of NOx has been used global warming can be protected. According
to Ozaki (2017) NOx elimination should be stopped because based on his calculations for eliminating
the World consumption of 2.5x109 tons of NOx 17.6 billion tons of CO2 was released. He asserted
that NOx is playing most important role for the promotion of CO2 assimilation and nutrient N and P
in drainage should be used for fixing CO2 and protecting global warming.

Alternative fuel usage is another option among the researchers. However, according to Noh et al.
(2016) using alternative energy fuels has other research issues that should be met in future. Noh et al.
(2016) examined alternative energy bio-jet fuel with maintenance perspective and based on their
evaluations they asserted that the use of biofuel would offer the benefit to aircraft maintenance. In
addition, they argued that global aviation world need to be underpinned by the awareness of the
good effect of the usage of biofuel on engine process and procedure.

For mitigation alternatives, Linke et al. (2017) proposed Intermediate Stop Operations which was
discussed in several scholarly works by combining it with different models. Finally, they found that a
more realistic medium-range aircraft for flying ISO could on the other hand have a positive climate
impact due to the expected lower cruise altitudes.

It is clear that dealing with global warming and climate change issue is holistic and should be analysed
with a systemic perspective. Lue at al. (2016) presented the main results of ‘REACT: A European
Strategic Research Agenda for climate-friendly transport’ project, which was co-financed by the
European Commission, in their study. Based on their findings, technology alone would not be
sufficient to achieve the necessary reductions in carbon emissions and they proposed that integrated
solutions should be necessary. For instance, technological improvements might offer significant GHG
reduction potential, but strong interventions in policy schemes would be needed. In addition, they
asserted that long-term technological solutions could not be treated independently from the short-
term behavioural change and behavioural and social changes should be recognized as paramount.
Another social or policy perspective is coming from Gössling et al. (2016) analysed the issue and
asserted that scientific insights were not translated into transport policies far reaching enough to
achieve climate mitigation objectives and called this issue as an “implementation gap”. In their study
they analysed the issue on EU level and found that policy officers had diverging ideas of the level of
decarbonisation that needed to be achieved in the transport sector and over which timelines;
responsibility ownership; applied concrete measures to cut emissions. Therefore, they concluded that
there were number of vital reasons why significant climate policy for the transport sector was not
being effectively developed at the EU supranational level and implemented in member states.

Chen et al. (2016) applied en route traffic demand model and for estimating the fuel consumption
used Boeing Fuel Flow Method in their study. Based on their real-time application results, they
asserted that the proposed method could characterize well the dynamics and the fluctuation of the
en route emissions and provided satisfactory prediction results with appropriate uncertainty limits.

Dahlmann et al. (2016) focused in their study on preparing a methodology based on Monte Carlo
simulation of an updated non-linear climate-chemistry response model AirClim. They integrated
uncertainties in the climate assessment of mitigation options. After applying it to a use case they
demonstrated that proposed methodology could be used to analyse even small differences between
scenarios with mean flight altitude variations.

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It can be asserted that all researchers in this field have a consensus on the demand of new
technologies enabling ways to significantly improve aircraft performance for ACARE goals regarding
emission reduction. Kling et al. (2016) discussed the issue on the modification of the inlet of an Ultra-
High Bypass Ratio turbofan nacelle with adaptive structure technology with a EU funded project
MorphElle which was concluded between October 2013 and November 2015. They established a pool
of concepts for an adaptive nacelle inlet and performed a down selection and identified most
promising one. They elaborated by using Computational Fluid Dynamics and structural simulations
the selected concept and examined the impact at aircraft level. Finally, they developed a first prototype
of shape adaptive mechanism as proof of concept. They found that the aircraft assessment
demonstrated a possible fuel burn reduction of up to 5% for the considered mission. However, they
stated that this benefit was strongly coupled with the use reference nacelle geometry which did not
reflect a state-of-the-art nacelle contour.

Hayes et al. (2017) discussed the applications of exergy applications in the aviation sector by reviewing
the recent literature focusing primarily on commercial applications. They derived the limitations and
discussed the potential benefits for furthering proliferation of the second law method in aerospace
community. They demonstrated that exergy analysis and mapping exergy destruction would provide
to aerospace industry with following six items. These were;

 “A consistent common currency to allow consistent accounting across sub systems,

 Loss-producing mechanisms can be readily mapped at the system level,
 Analysis space provides physically possible/meaningful bounds,
 Provides foundation for robust and efficient optimization,
 should produce same result regardless of technique utilized, and also match the results of first
law implicit methods, but providing additional insight on top of this
 an understanding of how one system influences and interacts with other non-discipline
specific sub-systems” (Hayes et al., 2017)
Another perspective is coming from Balakrishnan et al. (2016) with next generation air transportation
system which was presented as FAA’s vision of how nation’s aviation system would operate in 2025
and beyond. The NextGen initiative was established in 2003 in order to meet the challenges of
predicted increase in demand. The system was including satellite-based navigation and control of
aircraft, advanced digital communications, advanced infrastructure for greater information sharing,
and enhanced connectivity between all components of the air transportation systems. They asserted
that these characteristics of the system might have the potential to increase system efficiency by
reducing delays, robustness by reducing the impact of weather disruptions and energy efficiency by
reducing fuel burn. Therefore, these improvements would lead to decrease environmental impact with
ensuring safety and accommodating the increased demand. For the European Counterpart Single
European Sky Air Traffic Management Research (SESAR) initiative may be accepted as similar ongoing
effort also.

Reynolds (2016) prepared a report for monetizing the environmental benefits of Terminal Flight Data
Manager (TFDM) capabilities which reduce fuel burn and gaseous emissions, and in turn reduce
climate change and air quality effects. He created a methodology for taking TFDM “engines on” taxi
time savings and converts them to fuel and CO2 emissions savings, accounting for aircraft fleet mix
at each of 27 TFDM analysis reports over a 2016-2048 analysis timeframe. Finally, for all 27 TFDM

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analysis airports for 2016-2048, it was estimated that totally 954.000 metric tons of fuel reduction and
2.0 million tons of CO2 reduction would be reached.

Galssock et al. (2017) analysed two case studies for highlighting the positive advantages of hybrid
electric propulsion for aircraft. However, they asserted that negative compromise of electric
propulsion remained significant because of the increased system weight compared to pure internal
combustion alternatives. They proposed the use of Hybrid Electric Propulsion systems for transition
to fully electric aircraft first and stressed that because there were hybrid and electric aircraft concepts
emerging from small light sport types through to intercontinental heavy transport regulatory and
certification systems should be reformed.

Karcher (2016) prepared a theoretical model for predicting properties of water droplets and ice
particles in jet contrails and found that avoiding contrail cirrus formation would mitigate aviation
climate impact and changing contrail formation stage had large but unexplored mitigation potential.
For future developments he proposed that the atmospheric response to reductions in initial contrail
ice number should be explored using global climate models with an interactive parameterization
scheme for contrail ice formation depending on variable soot particle number emissions and
atmospheric conditions.

Owen et al. (2010) presented new aviation emission scenarios to 2050 that were designed to interpret
the IPCC SRES storylines under the four main families A1B, A2, B1, and B2 with a further look to 2100.
Moreover, they calculated an additional scenario assuming that the technology targets of ACARE were
achieved or not. They found that emissions of CO2 from aviation between 2000 and 2050 were
projected to grow by between a factor of 2.0 and 3.6 depending on the applied scenario and emissions
of NOx from aviation over the same period were projected to grow by between a factor of 1.2 and
2.7. Furthermore, based on their findings, they asserted that B1-ACARE scenario would differ from the
SRES scenarios as it would require significant continuing improvements in fuel efficiency and some
radical technological advances in the second half of the century probable.

Noise-Reduction Related Studies

Bernardo et al. (2016) studied on noise reduction by considering fleet-level analysis. They used rapid
automated airport noise models which can be simulated by using Design of Experiments. They used
surrogate models to model the airport noise space in conjunction with the equivalency assumption
to examine two potential technology scenarios in a target forecast year, simulating technology and
market performance factors to identify vehicle classes that could have the greatest impact in reducing
contour area. Based on their findings, they asserted that technology and market performance of future
notional Small Single Aisle and Large Single Aisle vehicle aircraft have the highest positive correlations
with potential reductions in contour area.

Schwaiger and Wills (2016) proposed that cyclo-gyro propulsion can be used for vertical launch and
had potential to achieve efficiency beyond the range of conventional fixed wing and rotorcraft. They
assumed that their technology was feasible for VTOL aircraft that can safely form densely packed
swarms and would solve the challenges facing the air environment of the future.

Postorino and Mantecchini (2016) analysed the effectiveness of airport noise mitigation strategies and
considered airport-related factors, flying paths, and aircraft type in their study. They tested their

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assessment process on a real case in Italy and found that their assessment model provided a priori
evaluation measures that are in line with current data concerning the implemented post-variant
scenario. With their approach they considered simultaneously a number of standard measures
together and by the way several potential scenarios could be compared.

Bartlett (2016) aimed to determine whether current turbofan noise reduction nozzles could reduce
the amount of noise for turbojet engines at two different thrust levels. He tested experimentally three
turbofan engine nozzles by comparing the original turbo jet engine. He recorded six samples of thirty
decibel levels and frequencies at idle and at a higher thrust level. Finally, he found that the turbofan
nozzle designs used in this research project did not make any major improvements in reducing the
overall noise. He determined some reductions in DB levels for some specific frequencies. Moreover,
he identified that engine cycle efficiencies were degraded by these nozzles as compared to the original
and proposed that alternate designs that did not penetrate the gas path could reduce the negative
effects on engine parameters.

There are many studies regarding noise and aviation in literature. Therefore, for understanding the
noise problem in aviation, scientometric approach is applied. Data is retrieved from Web of Science
database by using “aviation” and “noise” keywords in Topic Sentence field. After search, 461
publications are reached and metadata of these publications downloaded in text format. Then, pre-
processing is applied as duplication check. Citespace open-source software is used for visualization
(Chen, 2006). The timeline view of the intersection of noise and aviation field is demonstrated in the
Figure 128.

As can be seen in Figure 128 studies initiated since 1994 and there are 8 clusters. All clusters are
represented by the yellow lines and size of nodes is representing the volume of the studies and
different colours in these nodes are representing the time interval that concept studied. It can be seen
that health and social issues regarding noise are mostly studied in the literature. Actually, it is assumed
to find out a technology cluster in this graph but as can be seen in the fig. 1, technology related nodes
are not revealed asexpected. It is thought that, selected keywords may affect this result.

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Figure 128: - Timeline Demonstration of Noise Related Scholarly Publication

253
4.2 Emissions Free Taxying at Airports
*Flightpath 2050 goal 10: “Aircraft movements are emissions free when taxing”.

The taxying of aircraft on engine power and the use of auxiliary power units (APU) on the
ground can be significant contributors to emissions at airports and also generate noise. The
most obvious way to achieve goal 10 is to use electric towing vehicles. There are technical
aspects like ensuring compatibility of towing brackets and sufficient traction power. Also
infrastructure aspects with recharging facilities for a fleet of electric towing vehicles. At last,
but not least, the coverage of the initial investment and operating cost. These must be seen in
the context of lower environmental impact.

The feasibility and economic of emissions - free taxiing thus critically depends on the available
battery technology (Key Topic T4.2).

1.1.1.15 KEY TOPIC T4.2 – AIRCRAFT MOVEMENTS ARE EMISSIONS FREE WHEN TAXING
Benchmark / State of the Art - Battery

The currently preferred battery technology for ground movements at the airport or on the
airfield and in the aircraft itself are the lead-acid and the nickel cadmium battery.

Aircraft:

a. Internal engine starter generator (ESG) set

b. Auxiliary power unit (APU) which includes battery and super/ultra-capacitor
c. Flight control actuation, and a fault tolerant Power Management And Distribution
(PMAD)
d. Motor drive system
Other motorized movements at the airport:

a. Moving the aircraft from the gate to the starting position

b. Other motorized movement at the airport
Both technologies are long in the field and therefore technically very mature but suffer from
insufficient energy density and cycle life. In order to meet the future requirements, substantial
improvements in energy density, lifetime, cost and charging infrastructure are needed. The
following Table 34– Table 37 give an overview of the most important key figures of common
battery systems.

Characteristics Ni-Cd Ni-MH Lead Acid Li-Ion

1 Cell voltage / V 1.25 1.25 2 3.7
2 Spec. energy density / Wh 40-60 60-90 30-50 50-250
kg-1
3 Energy density / Wh dm-3 150-190 300-340 80-90 100-700
6 Cycle life 1000-1500 500-1000 200-300 300-
10000

254
 7 Operating Temperature / -40 to 60 -20 to 60 -20 to 60 -20 to 60
°C
8 Self-discharge / month 20 % up to 30 % 5% <5 %
9 Overcharge tolerance Moderate low high Very low
10 Maintenance 1-2 month ? 3-6 Not
month required
Table 34: Comparison of different types of battery chemistries32

 Aircraft- Batteries
Battery manufacturer / System Capacity
Chemistry Aircraft
model nr Voltage / V / Ah
1 Saft-2758 Ni-Cd A320 24 23
2 Saft- 4059 Ni-Cd A340 24 40
3 Saft-405 CH Ni-Cd A330 24 40
4 Acme Aerospace Inc- Fibre Ni-Cd B-777 24 47
263BA101-2 (FNC)
5 Saft-539 CH1 Ni-Cd B-737NG 24 53
6 Saft-539 CH1 Ni-Cd B-767-400 24 53
7 Saft-539 CH2 Ni-Cd A380 24 50
8 GS Yuasa LVP-40-8-65 Li-Ion B-787 28.8 75
9 Saft-40176-7 Ni-Cd B_747 x 24 40
10 Concorde RG150-1 VRLA B-717 24 3.5
11 Marathon Nacro 7-75M3- Ni-Cd 8.4 75
120
12 Concorde D8565/5-1 SLA, lead acid C-130 24 30
13 Concorde D8565/11-1 SLA, lead acid C-141, F4 24 10
Table 35: Details of batteries used in different aircraft 33

Li-ion* Ni-Cd**
Nominal cell voltage / V 3.20 1.20
Battery voltage / V 25.6 24.0
Capacity / Ah 45-55 23
Energy / Wh 1280 552

32
(Adapted from Gianfranco Pistoia, “Batteries for Portable Devices”, Elsevier 2005)
33
(Adapted from a. Aircraft batteries - current trend towards more electric aircraft IET Electr. Syst.
Transp., 2017, 7, 2, 93-103)

255
 Typical battery cost / US $ ~21.000 ~6.500
Battery Cost per Wh / US $ 16.4 11.1
Spec. Energy density, Wh/kg 110.0 21.65
Weight / kg 22-25 26
*EagerPicher Technologies, LLC MAR-9526 (LFP), ** SAFT 410946 Mod. 2758
Table 36: Comparison of Li-ion and Ni-Cd aircraft grade batteries34

 Automotive Batteries (towing tractor, etc….)

Cell level
Cell level Durability Price Safety thermal Temperature
energy Power Voltage
energy density cycle life estimate runaway onset, range in ambient
density C-rate /V
Wh/kg 100% DoD US$/ Wh °C conditions °C
Wh/L
LiCoO2 170-185 450-490 >500 0.31-0.46 1C 170 3.6 -20 to 60
5 C
LiFePO4 cont.
90-125 130-300 >2.000 0.3-0.6 270 3.2 -20 to 60
(EV/PHEV 10 C
pulse
30 C
LiFePO4 cont.
80-108 200-240 >2.000 0.4-1.0 270 3.2 -20 to 60
(HEV) 50 C
pulse
20 C
cont.
NCM (HEV) 150 270-290 >1.500 0.5-0.9 215 3.7 -20 to 60
40 C
pulse
1 C
NCM cont.
155-190 330-365 >1.500 0.5-0.9 215 3.7 -20 to 60
(EV/PHEV) 5 C
pulse
5 C
Titanate vs. cont.
65-100 118-200 >>12.000 1-1.7 Not susceptible 2.5 -50 to 75
NCM/LMO 10 C
pulse
Manganese
3-5 C
spinel 90-100 280 >1000 0.45-0.55 255 3.8 -20 to 50
cont.
(EV/PHEV)
Table 37: Summary of the main (Automotive) Lithium-ion types / State of the art 35

34
(Adapted from a. Aircraft batteries - current trend towards more electric aircraft IET Electr. Syst.
Transp., 2017, 7, 2, 93-103)
35
(Adapted from Johnson Metthey Technol. Rev., 2015, 59, (1), 4-13)

256
Reference State in 2010 - Battery

Since the lead acid batteries and the nickel-cadmium batteries are technically exhausted (Table
34), no significant improvement in the energy and power density is expected. Therefore, a
reference value for 2010 is difficult to set for lead-acid and the nickel cadmium battery. Rather,
there is a shift to lithium-ion technology in the aviation industry. Lithium-ion chemistry offers
a large variety of materials and cell architectures, which enables the possibility to design high-
power as well as high energy systems. In this respect, it has to be noted again that choice of
active material, which is able to reversibly insert and extract lithium-ions within vacancies in
their crystal structure, decisively influences the amount of energy that can be stored in LIBs.
The commercial breakthrough of lithium-ion batteries did not happen until the discovery of
these insertion compounds, also known as host matrices.

For the lithium-ion technology, it can be stated that these are mainly based on carbon as the
anode and transition metal oxides, as well as phosphate as the cathode material. This
combination and its variation has been state of the art for years. Increase in the energy density
could be mainly achieved by optimizing the cell production process. As an example of the
state of the art from 2010 for an energy cell (Figure 129), the Panasonic NRC18650 should
serve with an energy density of about 230 Wh/kg.

257
Figure 129: Specification sheet for the Panasonic NRC 18650

Due to the wide range of applications, different requirement profiles result and thus many
types of cells with different specifications results. Improvements are achieved with consistent
chemistry mainly through improvements in manufacturing and engineering. The Table 38
shows an overview of various cells launched since 2010.

258
 Nominal voltage

Specific energy

Energy density

Specific power
Temp. Range

Cycle life
Capacity

Weight
Manufacturer

Comments
Cell type

Wh/ Wh/
V Ah g °C W/kg cycles
kg L
Available as a module, data taken
from an evaluation specification
LiAlMn oxide with LTO

sheet. Cycle life to 80% balance of

Altair
24 60 2740 -40 to 55 52 106 ~800 >16000 life (BOL) capacity at 2C charge
nano
discharge with 100% DOD at 25°C.
Calendar life of ~25 years. Can be
recharged in ~15 min
This is a larger form factor
prismatic cell. For 1s pulses, the
Lifebatt ~21 >130 2000-
LiFePO4 and

3.3 18 550 -40 to 60 108 specific power is >2600 Wkg.

2295130 0 0 3000
graphite

Maximum charge current is 90A,

full charge in ~ 15 min
Li Mn and NMC

Molicell Cycle life is to 80% BOL capacity for

~210
IBR18650 3.6 1.5 45 -30 to 60 129 326 750 20A discharge at 23°C, would be
0
BC higher for lower discharge rates.

Panasoni
LiCoO2 and

c
3.7 2 43.3 -20 to 60 162 421 ~300 Standard type of cell
graphite

UR18650
Y
Panasoni
LiCoO2 and

c High power cell. Capacity ~85% of

3.6 2.15 44.5 -20 to 60 162 432 ~500 >500
graphite

UR18650 BOL at 500 cycles

E

Molicell
Cycle life is to 80% BOL capacity at
IHR18650 3.6 2.2 45 -20 to 60 170 450 ~700 >700
Li NMC

4 A and 23°C
BN

Panasoni
LiCoO2 and

c ~50 ~140 High power cell, cycle life I to 80%

3.6 2.25 45 180 400
graphite

NCR1865 0 0 BOL
0

259
 Molicell
LiCoO2 and

Capacity>90% of BOL after 300

NMC and
graphitic
ICR18650 3.7 2.8 50 -30 to 60 216 609 ~300 >300
cycles at 23°C
M

Panasoni
heat resistant
Platform with
New Nickel

c High energy cell, highest specific

separator

3.6 3.35 47.5 -20 to 60 243 676 ~450

NCR1865 energy in readily available cells
0B
Paucity of technical information
LiCoO2 and tin-based

available. Cells mostly used in Sony

Sony
own laptops. Bare details in
Nexelion 3.5 3.5 53.5 226 723 ~300
Chinese with Arabic numbers from:
WH1
www.sony.com.cn/news_center/pr
ess_release/technology/1955_3787

Table 38: Some characteristics of commercially available secondary lithium-ion cell, ordered by specific energy 36

Progress up-to-now - Battery

Since the lead acid batteries and the nickel-cadmium batteries are technically exhausted, no
significant improvement in terms of energy density, cycle life, calendar life etc. is expected. In
the fields of lithium-ion batteries, the situation looks a bit more optimistic. In general, an
increase in the energy density, with state of the art chemistry, could be mainly achieved by
optimizing the form factor and the cell production process. As an example, a Panasonic
NRC1865 cell should be mentioned (Figure 130) in which the energy density could be
increased from 230 Wh/kg in ~2010 to 243 Wh/kg within the last years.

36
(Underwater Technology, 33, 3, 2016)

260
Figure 130: Specification of the Panasonic NRC1865 battery

Nevertheless, even if the current (Li-Ion)- battery chemistry has proven itself, efforts are still to
be made to increase the energy density as well as other key performance parameters to meet
future requirements. In R&D advanced and post-lithium concepts are also considered, which
are still far away from being commercialized.

4.3 Design and manufacture bearing in mind recycling

*Flightpath 2050 goal 11: “Air vehicles are designed and manufactured to be recyclable

Recycling of aircraft parts depends mostly on the materials used and also on the fabrication
process. The choice of materials for an aircraft is subject to a considerable set of constraints
related to performance, weight, availability, cost, ease of manufacture and maintenance,
durability and resistance to hostile environments. Adding the recycling ability is an additional
constraint which can bring benefits in several of other areas; it may require consideration of
materials not previously used in the aerospace industry and take advantage in the major
progress made synthetizing new substances with tailor-made properties (graphene).

An illuminating example of the experience and challenges of recycling is given by batteries

(Key Topic T4.3).

1.1.1.16 KEY TOPIC T4.3 – Batteries for the More Electric Aircraft (MEA)
1) Requirements for Aircraft Grade Batteries

Competition in the aircraft industry market and global warming has driven the industry to
think along economic and environmental lines. This has resulted in the emergence of a more
electric aircraft (MEA) concept, providing for the utilization of electric power for all non-
propulsive systems.

261
Traditionally these non-propulsive systems are driven by a combination of different secondary
power sources such as hydraulic, pneumatic, mechanical and electrical. Recent technological
advances in the field of power electronics, fault-tolerant architecture, electro-hydrostatic
actuators, flight control systems, high density electric motors, power generation and
conversion systems have ushered the era of the MEA. This trend is accelerating, as aircraft
manufacturers collaborate with their suppliers to design new systems and implement new
electrical-intensive architectures. Adoption of the MEA concept is seen as critical enabler for
the aircraft industry to unlock significant improvements in terms of aircraft weight, fuel
consumption, aircraft noise, total life cycle costs, maintainability and aircraft reliability.

The tremendous increase in the power demand of aircraft, especially in the last two decades,
coupled with advancement in battery materials and technology has led to the development of
many aircraft grade battery systems with high energy density (more than 100 Wh/kg) and low-
temperature capability with following key trades:

 To deliver power reliable and be certifiable safe

 To be lightweight
 To have a consistent power output over their operating environment
 To have a reasonable long life.
A small size, high energy density battery (Table 39) is the need of the aircraft industry as a
10kg decrease in the weight of aircraft will result in the saving of 17,000 tons of fuel and 54,000
tons of carbon dioxide emission per year for all air traffic worldwide. The reduction in battery
weight is also profitable in terms of cost.37

Serial
Criteria Li-ion Ni-Cd Pb-acid
no.
1 nominal cell voltage, V 3,20 1,20 2,00
2 typical battery cost in US$, (V, 207 (12, 100 67
Ah, Wh) 21,252) (12,20,240) (12,20,240
)
3 cost per Wh in US$ 0.82 0.42 0.28
4 cycle life (no.) 3000 1500 250
5 cost per cycle in US$ 0.069 0.067 0.268
6 cost per Wh per cycle in US$ 0.00027 0.00028 0.00112
7 specific energy density, Wh / kg 135 65 40
8 operating temperature, °C -20-60 -30-60 -20-60
9 self-discharge / month 2–3% 4–6% 15–20%
10 overcharge tolerance very low moderate high

37
M.Tariq, A.I.Maswood, C. J. Gajanayake, A.K.Gupta, IET Electr. Syst. Transp., 2017, Vol. 7 Iss.2, pp 93-
103

262
 11 maintenance not required 1–2 3–6
months months
Table 39: Comparison of different cell chemistries used in aeronautics

2) Types of aircraft batteries

Only vented Pb-acid batteries were in use in aircraft until the 1950s. In the late 1950s, military
aircraft started using vented Ni-Cd due to higher low temperature capability, which was
adopted by commercial aircraft. The use of alternative battery chemistries like Ag-Zn was
discontinued because of high costs and poor reliability. From late 1960s, the development of
sealed Ni-Cd batteries, followed by sealed Pb-acid batteries in the late 1970s started for
aircraft application, in which maintainability and reliability have been improved significantly.
Ultra-low maintenance Ni-Cd batteries were developed by SAFT and Marathon Norco since
the mid-80s, replacing the conventional vented Ni-Cd batteries.

The most common voltage rating for main aircraft batteries is 24V, as capacities are available
between 23 and 75Ah. The number of batteries installed in the aircraft depends on the system
architecture, e.g. the Airbus A380 has a complex architecture requiring three 24 V, 50 Ah Ni–
Cd batteries. A fourth 50 Ah battery is dedicated to APU starting. The total weight of the
batteries is about 210 kg. The life duration of an aircraft battery depends on various factors
such as number of operating hours, ambient temperature, start frequency and on-board
charge. It is therefore difficult to determine in advance how long the expected life of a battery
will be in the real situation. Typically, the life of Ni–Cd batteries on long-range transport jets is
6–9 years, while in commuter aircraft is 5–7 years. On the other hand, in military trainers and
fighters it is typically 4–6 years. By comparison, the life of Pb-acid batteries is half to one-third
that of Ni–Cd.

Though most of the civil aircraft have used Ni-Cd batteries, the trend is shifting (Table 40)
towards Li-ion batteries with its tremendous opportunities to be employed in MEA.

Cell Function in
Aviation Battery Manufacturer Civil Aircraft Ah
type the aircraft

GS Yuasa (Japan) Pb-acid Main Aircraft 36

GS Yuasa Li-ion B-787 75
Ni-Cd Main B-737, B-747, 23-53
Aircraft, B-767, A320, A330,
Auxiliary A340, A380,
SAFT (France)
Power Unit Bombardier,
(APU), a.s.o. Gulfstream G650,
ComacC919
SAFT Li-ion Airbus, Boeing
Ni-MeH Emergency
SAFT
door, floor

263
 escape path
lighting,
electronic
flight bags.
Li-ion Starting Airbus, Boeing 60
aircraft
engine, DC
Changhong Battery (China)
emergency
power
supply.
Ni-Cd Airbus, Boeing
Ag-Zn Emergency Airbus, Boeing, Tu- 45
starting 154
power
supply or on-
board back
up power
supply
Concorde Battery (US) Pb-acid C-130, C-141 10-30
Concorde Battery Ni-Cd B-717 3,5
Hawker Energy Products Ltd Pb-acid
(US)
Teledyne Battery Product (US) Pb-acid
Marathon Norco Aerospace Ni-Cd 75
(US)
Li-ion Emergency Honda Jet 30-65
Batteries
(2006), Main
EaglePicher (US) Engine Start
Battery for
Light
Jet(2010)
Ag-Zn 0.8-
EaglePicher
800
Li-ion Starting Robinson R44, Bell 17-46
True Blue Power (US) aircraft Jet Ranger
engine helicopter
Ni-Cd APU, B-777 47
Avionics,
Acme Aerospace (US)
Environment
al systems
Table 40: Details of batteries used in different aircraft

264
Li-ion cells comprise a sensitive electrochemistry which needs a detailed knowledge of its
characteristics to allow its benefits to be exploited fully while ensuring maximum safety. We
are likely to see further improvements in Li-ion performance as new electrode materials,
electrolyte compositions and cell geometries are under research. Nano-materials now being
developed will also have a role to play. Nevertheless, Li-ion batteries are not currently
envisaged as retrofit solutions so Ni-Cd and Pb-acid batteries still have many years of work
ahead of them.

Furthermore, many manufacturers include the Li-ion battery system with proper integrated
battery management (BMS) and safety monitoring system, which are commercially available,
e.g. the Li-ion battery with LiFePO4-cell chemistry by EaglePicher Technologies.

Most new batteries face the same adoption curve, starting with initial resistance and then
acceptance.

3) Life Cycle Management – Recycling

In general, the same processes used to recycle automotive batteries are used to recycle aircraft
batteries.38

A serious issue is related to the fact that the lithium battery market is in continuous evolution
with the advent of many different new chemistries. Further, in addition to the rechargeable Li-
ion batteries, also primary lithium batteries, using cathodes such as manganese oxide or
thionyl and sulfuryl chloride, are still in the market and they may arrive to the recycling plant
as well. Finally, also the electrolyte may widely change, passing from a variety of liquid organic
solutions to polymer membranes. Clearly, this high diversity makes it difficult to develop
universally valid recycling process, as well as affecting its economics, since the new chemistries
may not involve components worth being recovered.39

Indeed, the European Commission has mandated a Battery and Accumulator Directive, which
imposes to the state members the following targets: 40

A 45% collection rate for waste-portable batteries to be met by 2016.A recycling

efficiency to ensure that a high proportion of the weight of waste batteries is recycled,
this including 65% of lead-acid, 75% of nickel–cadmium, and 50% of “other waste
batteries,” the latter likely referring to lithium batteries.
Considering the present low economic value, these targets can be met only if subsidies are
provided, usually adding a tax to each manufactured battery, as indeed is the case. Under this

38
D. Vutetakis, The Avionics Handbook, 2001, Ch. 10, pp. 9
39
B. Scrosati et. al, Advances in Battery Technologies for Electric Vehicles, Elsevier 2015: Recycling of
Batteries possibly used in ground-vehicles or aircraft.
40
http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/waste/key_waste_streams/batteries

265
scheme, battery recycling plants are now operating in Europe (e.g., Batrec in Switzerland,
Umicore in Belgium, and SNAM and Recupyl in France) to honour the mandate.

Recycling plants are also in force under different schemes in the US (e.g., Toxco) and in Japan
(e.g., Sony and SumitomoMetal). Due to the still scarce production of Li-ion batteries of EV
types, the recycling is for the moment limited to the portable ones.

However, EV battery recycling is expected to gain quite a significant importance in the years
to come.

4) Risks Related to (Li-ion) Batteries in Aircraft

Due to the use of certain chemical compounds in combination with high energy densities and
the use of control electronics (potential of technical defect) required for secondary batteries,
Li-ion batteries are associated with specific potential hazards which need to be taken into
special consideration with regard to safety. Spectacular incidents have raised public awareness
of potential problems associated with Li-ion batteries.

 On 3 September 2010, UPS Airlines flight 6, a Boeing 747-400, crashed close to Dubai
International Airport on its way to Cologne Bonn Airport, leaving two crew members
dead. The crash had been caused by fire in the cargo area which contained lithium ion
and lithium metal batteries.
 After a Boeing 787 coming from Japan had landed in Boston/US on 7 January 2013,
fire broke out, caused by the thermal runaway of a Li-ion battery. As a consequence,
the US-Federal Aviation Agency FAA has mandated to install a casing for the battery
to contain/extinguish the fire (Figure 130):
 On 12 July 2013, a non-rechargeable lithium metal battery in an ELT (emergency
locator transmitter) of a Boeing 787 at London Heathrow Airport caught fire.

Figure 130: Boeing-787 relaunched the Li-ion battery system with the new design, adding an extra weight of 68kg to the
weight of the airplane.

It is characteristic of a battery that it releases chemically stored energy in the form of electric
energy in the course of the discharging process. In case of a “thermal runaway”, the entire
energy is not released as electrical energy in a controlled manner, but uncontrollably in the
form of thermal energy. In case of such a failure, the thermal energy released by a lithium ion
battery may be 7 to 11 times higher than the energy stored electrically. The produced heat
accelerates the reaction, resulting in a critical overheating of the battery.

266
In addition, it is possible that cathode materials disintegrate at high temperatures. This
reaction also produces heat (exothermic reaction) and releases bound oxygen; when fire
breaks out, the thus released oxygen makes it difficult to control the fire. It is even impossible
to extinguish such a fire using conventional fire extinguishing methods.

Causes of battery fires:

 Improper handling;
 Mechanical damage;
 Secondary thermal stress;
 External short circuit, Internal short circuit caused by a cell failure or crash;
 Overcharge, Over discharge and exhaustive discharge;
 Cooling system defect (large-scale batteries);
 Counterfeit lithium ion batteries and chargers.
5) Threats Regarding Aircraft Batteries

5.1) Permanently installed batteries41

There are a number of potential threats that can be associated with aircraft batteries (Figure
131), their distribution networks and their charging and monitoring systems:
Figure 131: Use of batteries in a typical aircraft.

 Battery Leakage. Overfilling a wet cell battery can cause leakage. Likewise, damage to
the battery case caused by mishandling, overcharging or freezing can result in leakage.
 Battery Internal Failure or Short Circuit. Manufacturing defects or inappropriate
handling can result in internal failures.
 Battery Overcharging. Batteries can be overcharged due to faulty charging equipment
or inappropriate maintenance practices.
 Excessive Battery Charging/ Discharging Rate. Some battery types are vulnerable to
high rates of charge or discharge.
 Battery Bus Fault or Fire. A Battery Bus Bar is "hot" - it cannot be electrically isolated
from the source battery without physically removing the battery. 42

41
Airbus, 18th Flight safety conference Berlin, 19-22 March 2012
42
https://www.skybrary.aero/index.php/Aircraft_Batteries

267
As a consequence, following preventive measures should be undertaken:

 Containment of thermal effect;

 High standard electronic protection against overheat (overcurrent, overvoltage, short
circuits);
 Specific choice of battery structural material and design;
 Battery management system with cooling system;
 Mitigation of pressure release effect;
 Venting areas within the battery/module;
 Specific venting outside the battery/aircraft when relevant;
 High robustness to shocks (handling) and ageing;
 Adequate integration in the Aircraft.

5.2) Li-ion batteries in the cabin43

By accident of intentionally triggered thermal runaway of Li-ion cells occur due to devices
carried by passengers in an aircraft cabin (Figure 132).
Figure 132: Batteries in the cabin of an airliner

5.3) Li-ion batteries in the cargo area44

43
Airbus, 18th Flight safety conference Berlin, 19-22 March 2012
44
Airbus, 18th Flight safety conference berlin, 19-22 March 2012

268
Figure 133: Cargo with batteries that can cause safety risks

Shipping lithium batteries has also caused havoc in the airline cargo industry. In the last years,
the U.S. Postal Service banned the shipment of lithium batteries until the ruling was reversed
in November. Cathay Pacific and British Airways recently discussed banning the shipment of
any related Li-ion battery devices in their cargo holds.

There is so much concern in the industry over on board fires related to lithium ion that the
FAA released a Safety Alert for Operators dated Oct. 8, 2010. The title is “Risks in Transporting
Lithium Batteries in Cargo by Aircraft.”

Furthermore cargo areas are not accessible for direct firefighting and Halon 1301, used as fire
extinguishing agent in cargo holds or engines, is insufficient to stop the thermal runaway and
prevent propagation to adjacent cells.

Recycling of aircraft parts depends mostly on the materials used and also on the fabrication
process. The choice of materials for an aircraft is subject to a considerable set of constraints
related to performance, weight, availability, cost, ease of manufacture and maintenance,
durability and resistance to hostile environments. Adding the recycling ability is an additional
constraint which can bring benefits in several of other areas; it may require consideration of
materials not previously used in the aerospace industry and take advantage in the major
progress made synthetizing new substances with tailor-made properties (graphene). There is
a need for effective materials extraction and separation technologies, worthwhile end-use
applications for the recovered materials as well as an attractive business model for aircraft
recyclers. Only when all of these conditions are united can the aircraft recycling industry truly
take off in Europe.

269
4.4 Sustainable Alternative Fuel Sources
*Flightpath 2050 goal 12: “Europe is established as a centre of excellence for sustainable
alternative fuels, including those for aviation, based on a strong European energy policy.

The supply of fuel alternative to kerosene is subject to major efforts by large consumers like
the U.S. Air Force. The consumer base is more diversified in the airline industry but it is no less
important due to the large number of flight hours. Although airlines have been willing to test
new fuels a coordinated effort must be done far upstream to:

consider a variety of sources of fuel, that do not interfere with food production and
whose environmental impact is neutral or positive (waste disposal);
 establish the technical feasibility to meet all applicable quality and safety standards
and certification requirements;
 assess the economic and environmental feasibility of large-scale sustained production,
distribution and use.
For example, hydrogen is a clean fuel that produces only water vapour by combustion;
however the quantities produced and altitudes should be considered as for contrails.
Hydrogen has a low volume power density and requires cryogenic conditions; water is an
abundant source of hydrogen but its separation by hydrolysis is energy consuming. At the
opposite extreme some algae have high yields per unit area of culture; the full processing
chain up to flight grade fuel needs to be considered. In between other options exist, making
multiple sources of aviation fuel all the more desirable.

The Key Topic (T4.4) is thus the availability and sustainability of alternative fuel sources.

1.1.1.17 KEY TOPIC T4.4 – Sustainable Alternative Fuel Sources

The European Commission, Airbus, and high-level representatives of the Aviation and Biofuel
producers industries, launched in 2011 the European Advanced Biofuels Flightpath. This action
is scheduled to achieve 2 million tons of sustainable biofuels used in the EU civil aviation sector
by the year 2020. The overview of objectives, tasks, and milestones of this Flight Path 45 is
shown in the Table 41.

The supply of fuel alternative to kerosene is subject to major efforts by large consumers like
the U.S. Air Force. The consumer base is more diversified in the airline industry, but it is no less
important due to the large number of flight hours. Although airlines have been willing to test
new fuels a coordinated effort must be done far upstream to: (i) consider a variety of sources
of fuel, that do not interfere with food production and whose environmental impact is neutral
or positive (waste disposal); (ii) establish the technical feasibility to meet all applicable quality
and safety standards and certification requirements; (iii) assess the economic and
environmental feasibility of large-scale sustained production, distribution and use.

45
(https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/20110622_biofuels_flight_path_launch.pdf).

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Table 41: Objectives, tasks, and milestones of European Advanced Biofuels Flightpath

For example, hydrogen is a clean fuel that produces only water vapour by combustion;
however, the quantities produced, and altitudes should be considered as for contrails.
Hydrogen has a low volume power density and requires cryogenic conditions; water is an
abundant source of hydrogen but its separation by hydrolysis is energy consuming. At the
opposite extreme some algae have high yields per unit area of culture; the full processing
chain up to flight grade fuel needs to be considered. In between other options exist, making
multiple sources of aviation fuel all the more desirable.

Searching fuels alternative to kerosene is a subject of main efforts of the large consumers,
such as USA Air Forces. The customer base is more diversified in the airlines industry, but it is
no less important due to the great number of the flight hours. Although the airlines are ready
to test the new fuel types, coordinated efforts shall be in advance undertaken, in order to:

1. Examine the variety of alternative fuels sources that are not intersected with the food
production, and the environmental effects of which are neutral or positive(elimination of
waste).

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2. Determine the technical feasibility of complying with all existing quality and safety
standards and certification requirements.

3. Appraise the economical and environmental feasibility study of large-scale stable

production, distribution and consumption.

For example, the hydrogen is a pollution-free fuel, during combustion of which only aqueous
vapour is produced. However, the quantity of vapor generation and the altitudes concerning
appearance of condensation trails shall be taken into account. The hydrogen has low power-
to-weight ratio, and requires cryogenic conditions; the water is an inexhaustible source of
hydrogen, but its release from the water byhydrolysis requires lots of energy. The opposite
extreme – some algae provide high output of production per cultivation unit area. It is
necessary to consider the complete processing chain till deriving usable aviation fuel. Between
these two extremes there are other variants of provisioning aviation fuel sources, much more
preferable.

The alternative types of fuels for aviation with less carbon intensity have been considered by
many countries, both from the viewpoint of potential usefulness for the environment and
delivery safety precautions [Kahn Ribeiro S., et al., 2007]. The alternative types of fuels are also
a subject of ICAO’s attention. In the Conference regarding the aviation and the alternative
types of fuels (CAAF) 2009 a global base was established for developing the alternative types
of fuels. The examples of fuels alternative to the traditional jet fuel (mineral kerosene), that
were investigated in the effort [Grote M., Williams I., Preston J., 2014] are as follows:

– liquefied hydrogen (LH2);

– methane;

– methanol;

– ethyl alcohol, ethanol;

– biodiesel (dimethyl ethers) based on retreatment ofvegetable oils and fats;

– atomic energy;

– synthetical paraffine kerosene (SPK);

– Fischere-Tropsch (F-T) process, based on retreatment of raw materials, such as biomass,

natural gas or coal;

– hydrotreating (including hydrogenation, hydro-cracking and hydraulic cleaning, especially

within the framework of oil refining) of vegetable oils and fats with hydraulically treated
renewable reagent (HRJ). Sometimes the renewable reagent is referred to as bio-SPK or hydro
retreated compound ethers and fatty acids (HEFA).

As it was found, the majority of variants from this list at present are not suitable for different
reasons: heavy expenses, absence of infrastructure for fuel production and delivery, increased
fuel tanks requiring greater fuselage volumes, which results in increase of the weight and the

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resistance, low energy density, safety problems [Lee, D.S., et al., 2010; Allen, C., et al., 2012;
FAA, 2011].

Taking into consideration the growing ecological and energy problems during the last decade,
the aviation industry has involved significant resources for developing stable alternative types
of fuel that may promote achievement of coordinated political objectives oriented to
diversification of electrical power supply, agriculture support and combating climate change.

The International committee on fuel specification has developed a standard process [ASTM
International, 2014], in order to check the suitability of the stable alternative types of fuels
taking into account the requirements of existing systems and infrastructures. As a result at the
present time three ways of alternative fuel production are approved for using in the
commercial aviation, and they are included into the new alternative fuel standard [ASTM
International, 2015]. Among these are:

– fuel based on hydraulic treatment of vegetable oils and animal fats, such as hydrotreated
compound ethers and fatty acids / hydrotreated vegetable oils (HEFA / HVO);

– Fischere-Tropsch fuel derived from biomass (the biomass down to BTL liquid);

– synthetic alisoparaffin fuels derived from sugars.

The first two fuels are approved for blending with traditional jet fuel in proportion up to 50 %,
whereas the blending proportions of the synthetical isoparaffins are limited to 10 %.

On the short-term horizon it can be provided more quantity of biofuel for aviation if the
biodiesel will receive authorization for application in aviation. In spite of the fact that the
biodiesel does not apply with the aviation requirements and requires further treatment for
producing equivalent jet fuel, it can be potentially use in aviation in case of low blending
proportions (till 10 %) with conventional jet fuel [EASA, EEA, EUROCONTROL, 2016].

Meanwhile, in connection with the expected oil price growth, ecologic requirement
strengthening regarding the noxious emissions, as well as the eagerness to decrease the
dependency on oil, the civil aviation in the developed countries directs its look to the
alternative types of fuels.

The leading aircraft producers and airlines in these countries have already made a bid for
biofuel, which it seems practical to be produced from different sorts of biomass and organic
residues. The advantages of the aviation biofuel are the fact that its application is not related
to changes in the existing engines and in the fuel infrastructure. The carbon dioxide escaped
in the course of burning is compensated by the quantity of carbon dioxide absorbed by the
biomass from the atmosphere during vegetation. However, the energy expenditure for
growing, transportation and processing of the biomass decreases this effect. Besides that,
expenditure of fresh water and agriculturally used areas for producing biofuel at a time when
the best part of the global population faces the problems with food provision draws criticism.
Nevertheless, the effect of compensating the carbon dioxide emissions at the expense of using
the second-generation biofuels can make up 80 %. The International Air Transport Association

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(IATA) puts forward an objective of reaching the ratio of using the new generation biofuels at
2020 at the level of 6 %.

The western certification centers have approved the method of producing aviation kerosene
from biomass (biomass-to-liquid) using the Fischere-Tropsch process, and later the method
of producing biofuel from vegetable oil was approved. Under consideration are also other
processes, by means of which production of biofuel is possible. Such a certification allows for
airlines using biofuels on passenger flights in proportion with the conventional kerosene up
to 50 %.

Already more than 1600 passenger flights with use of biofuels (mixture of biofuel and
conventional kerosene) have taken place in the world. It can be expected that within the
forecast period the developed countries will actively promote implementation of biofuels in
aviation industry using sometimes provocative and forbidden financial mechanisms. The
systems of emission trading will gain widespread. Thanks to these tools it will be possible to
bring down the price of biofuel in comparison with the traditional fuel. In the European
emission trading system (ETS) the CO2originating from burning the ecologically friendly
biofuels is not taken into account.

The hydrogen is also considered as an advanced alternative energy source for the aviation
industry. It has thrice bigger energetic potential than the kerosene, however even in the liquid
state it requires four times greater volume than the kerosene. In the process of its firing into
the engine the СО2 is not generated, as well the NOx emissions decrease. Also it can be used
in fuel cells for generating electric energy on the aircraft board. The problems of using the
hydrogen as an aviation fuel are related, on the one hand, with technological difficulties during
its transportation and storage, and on the other hand, with energy consumption of its
production. The mass production of hydrogen, including in liquid state, is possible by using
nuclear power engineering (in the future - thermonuclear reaction).

The Rolls-Royce Company carries out active investigations for evaluating theeconomically
viable alternative types of fuels. In February 2008 R-R has joined with Airbus and Shell for
testing the A380 aircraft flying with 40/60 mixture of GTL and kerosene (the GTL or gas-liquid)
is are duction process of converting the natural gas or other gaseous hydrocarbons into more
heavy hydrocarbons. The gases enriched with methane are converted to liquid fuel through
the synthesis gas (CO+H2) as an intermediate product by using the Fischere-Tropsch process.
By means of this line route some of gaseous wastes of theoil-processing plants and oil-
commercial fields can be converted to valuable fuel oils blended with kerosene. Otherwise the
excess gas would be discharged to the atmosphere thus adding energy to global warming.
The activities involve testing biofuels based on the jatropha (jatropha – an oleaginous plant
that is doing well in arid areas) on the Boeing 747-400 aircraft. Finally, British Airways proposed
to the suppliers to deliver fuel for testing on the RB211 engine at covered test bench. In these
tests evaluation of engine operation, processing and emissions for each type of fuel is carried
out. There is little likelihood that the wide-scale replacement of the kerosene in aviation will
be favourable in the next decade [Parker R., Lathoud M., 2010]. Within the AAFEX program

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framework the CFM56-2C1 engine emissions of NOx and CO were determined depending on
the type of fuel used:

- Standard fuel JP-8 (or base);

- Fischer-Tropsch (FT) fuel, synthesized from natural gas (FT1), Shell corporation;

- Fischer-Tropsch fuel produced from Sasol coal (FT2);

- Mixture of FT1 and FT2 fuels with JP-8 in proportion 50:50.

In Figure 134 the values of EINOx emissions (standardized to the fuel caloricity value) are
shown, depending on fuel consumption and environment temperature.
Figure 134: Results of investigations to the Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX) program [NASA/TM–2011-
217059].

The testing data suggests that increase of the ambient temperature leads to increase of the
EINOх emissions for the power rating 30 %. The nature of EINOх emissions change with the
ambient temperature increasing is the same for different types of fuels, and the EINOх
emissions for the FT1 fuel were always lower than those for the JP-8 fuel.

On the Figure 135 the EICO graphs are shown, depending on the fuel flow and the ambient
temperature, for the ratings 4 %, 7 % and 30 % of nominal power.

According to the results of investigations [NASA/TM–2011-217059]:

– reduction of EICO by 10 % was achieved by using the FT1 fuel as regard to the JP-8 and FT2
fuels;

275
– the EICO emissions when using the FT1 fuel are lower than the emissions when using the JP-
8 and FT2 fuels within the whole range of ambient temperatures investigated;

– the EICO ambient temperature dependence isforemost strong at the rating 4 % of nominal
thrust and almost is absent (is within theconfidence error range of themeasuring equipment)
for the ratings greater than 30 % of nominal thrust.
Figure 135: The results of investigations to the Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX) program [NASA/TM–2011-
217059].

On the Figure 136 shown is the dependence of EINOxemissions on the thrust rating of engine
operation when using the base and alternative fuels, as well as shown are the NOx emissions
measured during certification of the CFM56-2C1 engine that was carried out using the JET-A
fuel.

The points “С” correspond to values obtained on the CFM56-2C engine during its ICAO
certification [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/ 20110007202.pdf].
Reduction of NOх by 5-10 %, achieved during carrying out investigations to the AAFEX
program, are in line with two previous tests regarding the influence of the alternative FT fuels
based on the natural gas on reduction of the NOxи CO emissions: 1) Pratt & Whitney on the
PW308 engine and 2) GE on the CFM56-7 engine.

For the PW308 engine operating at the rating of 85 % nominal thrust the EINOх value was
reduced approximately by 7 % for the FT fuel (Shell, natural gas) in reference to the JP-8. It is
noted that the EINOх value at idle running is greater for the FT fuel tested on the PW308

276
engine, though the difference can becaused by the experimental errors. During testing the
CFM56-7 engine the EINOх emissions were reduced by 11 % for the FT fuel (natural gas,
Syntroleum) in reference to the Jet-A1.

The results of AAFEX tests indicate that one ofpromising directions for decreasing the NOx
emissions is using the alternative fuels [Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX). Technical
Report NASA/TM–2011-217059. Publication Date: Feb 01, 2011. - 408 p.].

Figure 136: The results of strict policy investigations to the Alternative Aviation Fuel Experiment (AAFEX) program [NASA/TM–
2011-217059]

Possible alternative aviation fuels are discussed hereafter.

 Biofuels
In the initial 2011 Biofuel Flightpath document only three candidates were considered, but by
now several alternative biofuels are under scrutiny or already approved46.

 Synthetic Fischer-Tropsch (FT) based kerosene produced through biomass gasification

Fischer-Tropsch synthesis entails a process which produces a gaseous mixture of hydrogen
and carbon monoxide called syn-gas, over the surface of a catalyst material47. This is then
converted into liquids of various hydrocarbon chain length and product distributions. These

46
https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/20130911_a_performing_biofuels_supply_chain.pdf
47
A. D. Surgenor, J. L. Klettlinger, C. H. Yen, and L.M. Nakley, “Alternative Fuel Research in Fischer-
Tropsch Synthesis”, https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20130000439 2017-11-17T11:23:50+00:00Z

277
hydrocarbons can then be further processed into higher quality liquid fuels such as gasoline
and diesel.

 Hydrogenated Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA) and Hydrogenated

HEFA derived synthetic paraffinic kerosene is based on triglycerides and fatty acids which can
originate from plant oils, animal fats, algae and microbial oil. Hydrogen demand for hydro
processing of different feedstock qualities varies, resulting in conversion cost advantages for
certain raw materials like palm oil and animal fats. HEFA production is already proven on full
commercial scale. Neste Oil operates two 190,000 t/a HEFA plants in Finland and one 800,000
t/a plant each in Singapore and Rotterdam. UOP and its customers have announced several
HEFA projects worldwide. In Europe both ENI and Galp Energia have plans for HEFA plants at
330,000t/a each, but these facilities are designed for diesel replacement in road transport and
as such cannot be used for aviation unless some process modifications are carried out on the
existing facilities.

 Pyrolysis Oils (HPO) produced from lignocellulosic biomass.

HPO is still at research phase. It entangles developing fast pyrolysis processes. A few of them
(e.g. Ensyn/Envergent Technologies (a joint venture between UOP and Ensyn Corp from
Canada) and BTG in the Netherlands) are implementing the pyrolysis process on a commercial
scale to produce crude pyrolysis oil. Pyrolysis oil, unlike vegetable oils (VO), contains a few
hundred different chemical species. For application in the transport sector the crude oil needs
further upgrading to produce HPO. One or more hydrogenation steps are required to achieve
the desired product quality. The scale of operation for producing the pyrolysis oil can be quite
different from the upgrading activities. The latter one might be combined with current refinery
operations. Envergent/UOP, for example, is conducting a demonstration project for Pyrolysis
and the Upgrading technology to transport fuels at the Tesoro refinery in Hawaii. Contrary to
FT and HEFA fuels HPO will still contain a certain amount of aromatic compounds which are
currently needed in jet fuel to avoid engine sealing problems. Therefore, HPO may
complement HEFA and FT.

 Alcohol to Jet (ATJ)

The alcohol to jet (ATJ) is characterised by the production of alcohols as an intermediate
product derived from biomass as shown in theFigure 137:
Figure 137: Possible pathways to obtain ATJ biofuel. Source “2 million tons per year: A performing biofuels supply chain for
EU aviation 48

48
(August2013Updatehttp://ec.europa.eu/energy/technology/events/2011_05_18_biofuels_in_aviation_
en.htm)

278
The overall process consists of alcohol synthesis from the raw materials followed by chemical
synthesis into jet fuel. An advantage of the ATJ technology is that it can be fully integrated
with a wide variety of different front end technologies for the production of alcohol
intermediates. ATJ is currently still at pilot plant scale. Major players are Swedish Biofuels AB
in Europe and Gevo in the United States. The technology called Direct Sugar to HydroCarbons,
DSHC, developed by Amyris and Total, produces pure iso-paraffinic molecules by fermentation
of any type of sugar, followed by a mild hydrogenation. The first industrial molecule, a C15
hydrocarbon called farnesane, can be safely incorporated in fossil jet-fuel at 10% and ASTM
certification is presently under way.

Advantages and limitations of this alternative fuels are discussed in the following table.

Advantages Limitations
The most important motivations for biofuel Potential negative impacts of biofuel usage
usage concern the mitigation of climate can be associated to the massive production
change, the reduction of fossil fuel of a few vegetal species with detrimental
dependence, the conservation of effects on global biodiversity and the
biodiversity and water, as well as the triggering of market reactions to increased
development of agriculture. production of feedstock.
F-T jet fuel has been shown to reduce
particulate emissions without effecting
engine performance.
F-T fuel is characterized by excellent thermal
stability at elevated temperatures and very
good properties at low temperatures
Table 42: Advances and limitations of biofuels

Current status and future prospects

The use of alternative biofuels, has been explored under 7thFP European project "ITAKA"
49
(2012-2016). The main milestone achieved concerns the use of bio jet blend mixed in the
conventional airport fuel systems (tanks, pipelines, hydrants) during conventional operation of
the airport. This logistics mode appears economically viable, technically feasible and fully
compliant with airport operations and users. Since the end of 2015, all flights departing from
Oslo airport (Gardermoen) have used a biojet fuel blend (below 3%), which corresponds to
about 60,000 flights and about 6 million of passengers. The biojet fuel was the camelina oil
100% made in the EU. It was produced in Spain (accumulated in three seasons, more than
1000 t), and refined to biojet fuel in Finland. Camelina plantations have been cultivated in a
wide range of climatic and soil conditions. As consequence, camelina yield has varied from
500 to 2,500 kg per hectare, depending on the cultivation and weather/soil conditions. Barley
data has been used as an indicator of the land quality. So, a farmer harvesting 3,000 kg/ha of
barley in a given year should expect a camelina harvest of 1,500 kg/ha (50%). It has been

49
http://www.itaka-project.eu/nav/pages/progress_results_7.aspx

279
demonstrated that sustainable camelina oil can be produced in Europe, in large amounts, with
low risk of ILUC (Indirect Land Use Change), generating additional social and economic
benefits for the farmers. The GHG (greenhouse gases) savings in a scaled up production can
achieve 66% reduction. Besides, the savings can go over 70% if a fertilization strategy is put in
place, using i.e. ammonium sulphate (NH4) instead nitrate (NO3) for fertilization.

The use of the biofuel has been tested in two series of flights. The first series of 18 long haul
flights from Amsterdam to Aruba, on an Airbus A330-200 (carrying around 4,500 passengers
informed about the project) was performed using biojet fuel blend in one engine to compare
the performance of the two engines. No significant performance differences were noted, but
that the water accumulated in the tanks during flights can be lowered using the synthetic fuel,
reducing the maintenance frequency and costs. The second series of 80 short haul flights, from
Oslo to Amsterdam, on an Embraer E190, carrying about 8,000 passengers, using the camelina
biojet blend in both engines, confirmed the no detrimental effects on operation with similar
or slightly better fuel consumption and, no variation in fuel gauging systems. The flight series
were complemented with a series of lab based emission measurements using a testbed
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). APU emissions tests were completed for the two ITAKA fuel batches
and baselined against a standard fossil Jet fuel: performance parameters were as expected
quite similar, fuel consumption decrease up to 1% (saving fuel and CO2 emissions), and the
emitted particulate matter (PM) was decreased up to a 50% for a 50:50 fuel blend. PM
emissions are a major air quality concern that are linked with a significant number of
premature deaths across Europe. High paraffinic fuels such as HEFA biojet could significantly
help to reduce the impact of this pollutant in the vicinity of airports. The information obtained
has been supplied to the International Civil Aviation Organization for the development of
future standards for aircraft engines.

The use of the biofuel has been tested in two series of flights. The first series of 18 long haul
flights from Amsterdam to Aruba, on an Airbus A330-200 (carrying around 4,500 passengers
informed about the project) was performed using biojet fuel blend in one engine to compare
the performance of the two engines. No significant performance differences were noted, but
that the water accumulated in the tanks during flights can be lowered using the synthetic fuel,
reducing the maintenance frequency and costs. The second series of 80 short haul flights, from
Oslo to Amsterdam, on an Embraer E190, carrying about 8,000 passengers, using the camelina
biojet blend in both engines, confirmed the no detrimental effects on operation with similar
or slightly better fuel consumption and, no variation in fuel gauging systems. The flight series
were complemented with a series of lab based emission measurements using a testbed
Auxiliary Power Unit (APU). APU emissions tests were completed for the two ITAKA fuel batches
and baselined against a standard fossil Jet fuel: performance parameters were as expected
quite similar, fuel consumption decrease up to 1% (saving fuel and CO2 emissions), and the
emitted particulate matter (PM) was decreased up to a 50% for a 50:50 fuel blend. PM
emissions are a major air quality concern that are linked with a significant number of
premature deaths across Europe. High paraffinic fuels such as HEFA biojet could significantly
help to reduce the impact of this pollutant in the vicinity of airports. The information obtained

280
has been supplied to the International Civil Aviation Organization for the development of
future standards for aircraft engines.

NYSERDA (TRL/CRL) Calculator results for analysis and assessment of ACARE Challenge 3 Goal
12 “Sustainable Alternative Fuel Sources” achievements at 1st stage of the researches on PARE
Project are shown in Figure 138 grounding on the results of the 1st year PARE report (PARE
D1.1, 2018).
Figure 138: NYSERDA (TRL/CRL) Calculator results for analysis and assessment of ACARE Challenge 3 Goal 12 “Sustainable
Alternative Fuel Sources”

4.5 Atmospheric Research, Weather and the Environment

* Flightpath 2050 goal 13: “Europe is at the forefront of atmospheric research and takes
the lead in the formulation of a prioritized environmental protection plan and the
establishment of global environmental standards”.

Atmospheric hazards have been a safety concern throughout the history of aviation and are
addressed in the goal 15 (section2.2). A better modelling and understanding of atmospheric
phenomena can reduce disturbances of air traffic management (goal 5) and allow an increase
of runway capacity at airports (goal 1). As major users of the airspace aviation can contribute
to the monitoring of the atmosphere and to the establishment and implementation of global
environmental standards. The monitoring of the atmosphere is performed by a vast array of
earth and satellite sensors, plus specialized weather aircraft like those used by NOAA (National
Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration in the US) to fly through tropical storms and
collect in-situ atmospheric data. The data transmission capabilities of airliners in modern ATM
systems could be used not only for traffic proposes but also to collect atmospheric data in
support of environmental standards and policies. It is in interest of airlines to preserve their

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flight environment and if appropriate some of the millions of flight around the world could be
a source of in-situ measurement and monitoring.

More details on the contribution of aviation to the undertakings of atmospheric and weather
effects are given in the Key Topic T4.5.

1.1.1.18 KEY TOPIC T4.5 – USE AVIATION TO BETTER MONITOR THE ATMOSPHERE
WEATHER EFFECT ON AIRCRAFT OPERATIONS

Benchmarks

Traditionally there have been two ways of assessing the mutual impacts between atmosphere
and aviation. On the one hand, evaluating the impact of the atmosphere on the aviation which
is analysed in the goal 15. In this goal, weather and other hazards from environment are
precisely evaluated and risks properly mitigated. On the other hand, it is necessary to evaluate
the aviation impact on the atmosphere. This impact can be negative such as the CO2 and NOx
emissions and the noise disturbances which are analysed in detail in the goal 9.

However, aviation and aircraft operations can also contribute to improve and enlarge the
atmosphere knowledge. New sensors and data treatment technologies have open a new
research line to contribute to the achievement of goal 13: “Europe is at the forefront of
atmospheric research and takes the lead in the formulation of a prioritized environmental
protection plan and the establishment of global environmental standards”. Just lets imagine
what could be achieved if the 100% of the data that the aircraft can obtain and process from
the atmosphere, could be shared between other aircraft and ground infrastructure; and how
those data could be used to feed a real-time atmospheric model capable of predicting weather
hazards as well as to foresee the possible geographic location of these threats.

In order to achieve this objective, it would be necessary a series of measures such as those
proposed in the following points:

 Aircraft equipped with systems capable of processing great amount of data

 Communications network
 Real-time broadcast
 Prediction models
Aircraft equipped with systems capable of processing great amount of data

Aircraft would need to have on board systems capable of processing significant amounts of
information from the environment (not only atmospheric which is the main purpose of this
goal but also other kind of information which can be useful for the rest of goals).

Within Industry 4.050 the concept of aviation 4.0 is introduced, which establish the evolution of
commercial aircraft. With this type of digital and smart airplane, the amount and diversity of

50
The Industry 4.0 refers to the current trend of higher levels of automation, digitalization and data
exchange in manufacturing technologies. It includes cyber-physical systems, the Internet of Things
and cloud computing among others technological assets.

282
operational data that can be collected on board of the aircraft and by ground operations will
raise exponentially. These smart aircraft are able to sense their environment, self-diagnose
their condition and adapt in such a way so as to make the design more useful and efficient
thanks to their information technology, measurement science, sensors, actuators, signal
processing, cybernetics, artificial intelligence, etc.

In addition, this type of aircraft offers significant improvements in aircraft total weight and
manufacturing cost. It also helps to improve the aircraft’s life cycle, reduce its maintenance
and decrease generated noise. One example of these aircraft is the A350, the new and latest
member of the Airbus family.

Communications network

An aircraft should have an advanced communication system, capable of transmitting data

through multiple datalinks, , directly to the ground, to other aircraft and via satellite, digitally
and at high speed, providing communication services for all aircraft needs, each with its own
required quality of service. In this way, all the detailed information, such as the weather
situation, obtained from the on-board equipment and from the sensors can be shared
between the ground infrastructures and the aircraft in a quick and reliable manner. However,
this system should be economic so that installing it on as many aircraft as possible will be
profitable. In addition, this communication system should be safe, robust and resilient to the
possible cyberattacks since the system will need larger bandwidth due to the great amount of
data exchanging.

On top of that, the key requirement for such communication is the high capacity for
transmitting that would be required. For example, new Pratt & Whitney’s Geared Turbo Fan
(GTF) engine are fitted with 5,000 sensors that generate up to 10 GB of data per second, 800
TB per day and per engine. Taking into account the goal of 25 million flights, it would be
necessary that aircraft generate on average 6000 million TB of data to comply the goals to be
achieved.

Real-time broadcast

The data obtained from the aircraft sensors is broadcasted to all the stakeholders, such as
other aircraft and the ground infrastructure in real time. In this way, the whole system will be
aware of the possible weather threats and their possible location. In addition, all this
information could be used to develop prediction models that would allow to predict weather
hazards in advance.

Prediction models

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Thanks to all the data obtained from the equipped systems and their broadcasted to other
stakeholders, predictions models could be obtained in order to foresee the possible weather
hazards.

One example could be to identify and locate the areas with presence of ice crystals thanks to
the sensors equipped in the aircraft. The presence of High-altitude ice crystals causes engine
damage and engine power loss. There are some initiatives that research how to identify the
formation of these crystals through the sensor TAT (Total Air Temperature). This is because
Total Air Temperature (TAT) anomaly has occurred in many cases near the time of the engine
power loss events. When this sensor reports zero degrees it is an evidence of ice crystals
presence in the atmosphere. This anomaly is due to ice crystals building up in the area where
the thermocouple resides, where they are partly melted by the heater, causing the zero
degrees reading. Therefore, TAT anomalies monitoring might alert of areas in which it is
probably the presence of High-altitude ice crystals and this information could be shared
between other aircraft and the ground infrastructure in real time.

The Figure 139 illustrates the benchmarks discussed for the contribution of aviation data to
achieve goal 13.
Figure 139: Benchmarks for goal 13.

ATMOSPHERIC RESEARCH : WHEATHER AND ENVIRONMENT

Aircraft
Atmospheric impact on aviation equippe
d
WEATHER HAZARDS
These weather hazards are evaluated and mitigated in goal 15

Commun
ication
Aviation impact on the atmosphere
Negative impact
Positive impact
CO2, emissions and
noise which are Aviation
analyzed in goal 9 contribution to the
atmosphere Models
knowledge

Broadcas
ting

Monitoring the atmosphere. Reference State in 2010

Taking into account the main environmental issues and their effects on aviation, it is essential
to develop a series of methods that allow to assess the atmosphere state and to measure its
composition with the objective of facing these issues and to develop mitigation strategies.

284
There are several methods to monitor the atmosphere with the objective to state its
composition in order to face the global issues mentioned before:

 Routine ground-based measurements

 Systematic aircraft measurements;
 Satellite measurements
 Ground based instrumentation
Thanks to new technologies and a variety of sophisticated measurement techniques, it is
possible to measure accurately the atmosphere composition. The globally distributed ground
stations provide high quality observations for:

 detecting long-term trends in atmospheric concentrations;

 monitoring air quality on a regional to global scale;
 evaluating and developing regional to global scale models that include atmospheric
chemicals (e.g. local and regional weather and air quality forecast models, long-range
transport models and climate models);
 and calibration and validation of satellite observations
There are several initiatives that monitor and observe the atmosphere such as the Global
Atmosphere Watch programme of WMO, which coordinates global ground-based networks
measuring greenhouse gases, ozone, UV radiation, aerosols, atmospheric pressure, wind speed
and direction, air temperature and relative humidity.

 Airborne instrumentation
Thanks to the on-board systems, aviation offers a cost effective and efficient way of collecting
information related to atmosphere conditions and state. Continuous, real time information
captured and communicated by aircraft can be used to update weather observations in a
reliably way and to increase weather prediction capabilities. There are several programs whose
objective is to evaluate the atmosphere state by using data collected form aircraft system:

IAGOS (In-service Aircraft for a Global Observing System): it is a European research

infrastructure which aims at constructing a global observation system for atmospheric
composition by deploying autonomous instruments aboard a fleet of passenger aircraft. It is
one component of the European Research Infrastructure for gathering long-term, routine in-
situ observational data on the state of the atmosphere. By deploying a set of autonomous
instruments aboard passenger aircraft of internationally operating airlines, IAGOS collects
crucial atmospheric data at a global scale. The first IAGOS aircraft went into service in 2011,
namely aircraft equipped with fully automated instruments for the measurement of several
parameters such as ozone, carbon monoxide, and humidity (ICH) and cloud particles (BCP).

MOZAIC (Measurement of Ozone and Water Vapour on Airbus In-service Aircraft): it is a

European program that uses automatic instruments for probing atmospheric state parameters
and chemical composition, such as water vapour, ozone and carbon monoxide. These
instruments have been installed on several commercial aircraft in 1994 and have, since then,
provided regular data for the upper troposphere/lower stratosphere with more than 2000
flights and 4000 tropospheric profiles per year.

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The SpectraSensors Water Vapour Sensor System (WVSS-II) provides laser fast and accurate
measurement of water vapour in the upper atmosphere, which is an essential parameter for
accurate weather modelling. The water vapour detection helps to improve forecasting of
weather and climate change. A fleet of aircraft equipped with the Water Vapour Sensor System
(WVSS-II) can provide thousands of times the number of vertical profiles accurately,
automatically, and at a fraction of the operational cost.

EUFAR: EUFAR was born out of the necessity to create a central network for the airborne
research community in Europe with the principal aim of supporting scientists, by granting
them access to research aircraft and instruments otherwise not accessible in their home
countries. In this way, scientists all over Europe can have an equal chance to carry out various
atmospheric and in situ measurements on board research aircraft.

As it can be seen, aircraft measurements are one of the most efficient tool for obtaining
representative information of the troposphere and stratosphere at high resolution and with
uniform quality.

In addition, this type of measures are really important since the global climate change
represents one of the most serious environmental issue today. Reliable predictions of the
future climate using climate models are central and fundamental requirements for determining
future mitigation strategies. The use of commercial aircraft allows the collection of highly
relevant observations on a scale and in numbers impossible to achieve using research aircraft,
and where other measurement methods (e.g., satellites) have technical limitations.

Land and sea bared sensors and data collected by aircraft are complemented by satellites.

 Satellite instrumentation
Compared to measurements made by ground-based sensors (land based and buoys) and by
airborne instrumentation (aircraft and balloons), the advantage of space-borne sensors is their
global three-dimensional coverage and regular repeat cycle.

Meteorological satellites have been successfully used for tropospheric measurements of

clouds and other parameters required for weather prediction. Geostationary satellites can be
used to measure wind velocity by tracking clouds and water vapour. Satellite sensors,
communications and data assimilation techniques are evolving steadily so that better use is
being made of the vast amount of satellite data. Improvements in numerical modelling in
particular, have made it possible to develop increasingly sophisticated methods of deriving
the temperature and humidity information directly from the satellite radiances.

Research satellites, such as ENVISAT and AURA, contribute strongly to monitor atmosphere
composition.

ENVISAT: Envisat was launched as an Earth observation satellite. Its objective was to service
the continuity of European Remote-Sensing Satellite missions, providing additional
observational parameters to improve environmental studies. Currently, scientific disciplines
use the data acquired from the different sensors on the satellite, to study such things as
atmospheric chemistry, ozone depletion, biological oceanography, ocean temperature and

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colour, wind waves, hydrology (humidity, floods), agriculture and arboriculture, natural
hazards, digital elevation modelling (using interferometry), monitoring of maritime traffic,
atmospheric dispersion modelling (pollution), cartography and study of snow and ice. The
contact with the satellite was lost in 2012.

AURA. Aura is a multi-national NASA scientific research satellite in orbit around the Earth,
studying the Earth's ozone layer, air quality and climate. The scientific findings of these studies
address key NASA research objectives related to stratospheric composition, air quality, and
climate change.

Aura's instruments measure trace gases in the atmosphere by detecting their unique spectral
signatures. MLS (Microwave Limb Sounder) observes the faint microwave emissions from
rotating and vibrating molecules. HIRDLS (High Resolution Dynamics Limb Sounder) and TES
(Tropospheric Emission Spectrometer) observe the infrared thermal emissions also due to
molecular vibrations and rotations. OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instrument) detects the molecular
absorption of backscattered sunlight in the visible and ultraviolet wavelengths.

Monitoring the atmosphere. .Progress up-to-now

A brief description of current European projects is shown below. The objective of these
projects is to assess the atmosphere state through ground and satellite infrastructure:

Copernicus: previously known as the Global Monitoring for Environment and Security (GMES)
programme, Copernicus is a European Union programme aimed at developing European
information services based on satellite Earth Observation and in situ (non-space) data. The
provision of Copernicus services is based on the processing of environmental data collected
from Earth observation satellites and in situ sensors. Copernicus services are based on
information from a dedicated constellation of satellites, known as “Sentinels”, as well as tens
of third party satellites known as “contributing space missions”, complemented by “in situ”
(meaning local or on-site) measurement data. In situ data are an essential and integrated part
of Copernicus used to provide robust integrated information and to calibrate and validate the
data from satellites (e.g. ground based weather stations, ocean buoys and air quality
monitoring networks).

EUMESAT: is the European operational satellite agency for monitoring weather, climate and
the environment. EUMETSAT operates a fleet of satellites in geostationary and polar orbit,
which provide a wide array of Earth observation data for weather, climate and environmental
monitoring. The ground segment constitutes the ground-based infrastructure necessary to
support the operation of the satellites, including the control of the spacecraft in orbit, and the
acquisition, reception, processing and delivery of their data.

The Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW): it is a programme of WMO which provides reliable
scientific data and information on the chemical composition of the atmosphere, its natural and
anthropogenic change, and helps to improve the understanding of interactions between the
atmosphere, the oceans and the biosphere. Monitoring has focused on greenhouse gases and
aerosols for possible climate change, ozone and ultraviolet radiation for both climate and

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biological concerns, and certain reactive gases and the chemistry of precipitation for a
multitude of roles in pollution chemistry.

Finally, it is important to note that, in this objective, it is very difficult to differentiate between
the 2010 state of the art and the 2017 state of the art due to several reasons:

On the one hand, the European projects mentioned before, which have as objective
monitoring the atmosphere, have been in development for several years. On the other hand,
the main environmental issues described before (such as climate change), that concerns
nowadays and which arose years ago, are still under study. In addition, it is important to
highlight that the timeframe of these aspects extends into a broader period. For these reasons,
it is difficult to evaluate accurately the progress made from 2010 to 2017.

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2 ENSURING SAFETY AND SECURITY
Aviation safety has steadily improved (section 2.1) including in the mitigation of weather
hazards (section 2.2). Aviation has been one of the preferred targets of malicious actions,
stressing the importance of physical security (section 2.4) and resilience to internal and
external attacks (section 2.5). Progress also brings new challenges, such as the integration of
‘drones’ (section 2.3) that contributes to the need for vast safe exchanges of data (section 2.6).

2.1 ULTRA-LOW ACCIDENT RATE IN COMMERCIAL FLIGHT

* Flight 2050 goal 14: “European air transport system has less than one accident per
million commercial aircraft flights”

EASA MS AOC holders show a lower rate of fatal accidents per one million departures than the
rest of the world. The rate has remained well below 0.5 fatal accident per million departures
since 2006 (Figure ).

In 2015 there were a total of 155 fatalities in commercial air transport accidents on EU territory
with EU-registered aircraft, which occurred in three accidents: one in Slovakia (4 fatalities), one
in Spain (1 fatality), and one in France (150 fatalities), (Figure and Figure ) (Eurostat 2017). In
January 2016, a Bombardier CRJ-200 operated by a cargo operator from one of the EASA
Member States (EASA MS) crashed in Sweden, killing the two flight crew. This was the only
fatal accident involving any EASA Member State operators of Commercial Air Transport
involving aeroplanes during 2016. In the last decade, there have been a total of 12 fatal
accidents involving operators from the EASA Member States.

The Figure shows the evolution of the number of fatal accidents and fatalities for Commercial
Air Transport Large Aeroplane operations (MTOW above 5,700 kg) CAT Aeroplane for the
period 2007-2016 on EU territory. Security related occurrences, such as the Russian A320 of
Metrojet that exploded over the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), the A321 Daala Airlines in Mogadishu
and the MH17 was shot down over Ukraine, are not included within this review. The
Germanwings accident, the A320 Egypt Air over the Mediterranean Sea (terrorist action not
yet confirmed) and the missing MH370 aircraft are still included.

Whereas the number of accidents worldwide in the previous 10-year series varies from the
lowest in 2009 with 17 accidents to a maximum of 31 accidents in 2012. In 2015 there were 25
accidents around the world, which is within the average of the historical series. In terms of
fatalities, the single fatal accident resulted in 150 fatalities, which is higher than the 10 year
average. There was also a slight increase in serious injuries with 11 compared with 9.2 over the
previous 10 years. At the same time, there was a 24% reduction in the number of serious
incidents over the same period with a total of 58 serious incidents compared with the average
of 75.8.

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Figure 140: CAT aeroplane fatal accident rate per million departures worldwide vs EASA MS51

Figure 141: Commercial Air Transport by EU-28-registered aircraft, number of persons killed in air transport accidents52

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Eurostat

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Figure 142: Persons killed in air accidents on the territory of the EU, involving aircraft registered in EU-28 countries, 2015,
by aviation category 53

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Eurostat

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Figure 143: Worldwide Fatal Accidents and Fatalities - 2007 to 201654

The split in terms of operation type of the aircraft involved in accidents or serious incidents in
2015 shows passenger or cargo commercial transport the main player and the presence of
other operation types such as military operations or pleasure flights where they have
interacted with CAT aeroplane operations in occurrences (Figure 144). These two last ones
being part of near mid-air collisions.

Figure 144: CAT aeroplane accidents and serious incidents by operation55

The Figure 145 compares the average number of CAT EASA MS accidents and serious incidents
for the period 2007-2015 with that for 2016. The number of occurrences (accidents and serious
incidents) for all Key Risk Areas, except for System Failure and Runway Excursion, remains very
similar to the average for the period 2007-2015; thus showing a stable pattern. Considering
the positive trend in the period 2007-2015, followed by that in the period 2015-2016, the Key
Risk Areas of System Failure, Airborne Conflict and Runway Excursion show a negative change

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in 2016 (from stable to increasing or from decreasing to increasing) in contribution to fatal
accidents in the last 10 years with 18% of those accidents.
Figure 145: EASA MS Operator Accidents and Serious Incidents by Key Risk Area –average 2007 to 2015 compared with
201656

Aircraft Upset represents only 3% of the accidents and serious incidents involving an EASA MS
operator in 2016. However, it continues to be the most fatal risk area for EASA MS Operators.
In 2016, the Preliminary Impact Assessment on “Loss of Control In-Flight” indicated the need
for specific actions in this area within the European Plan for Aviation Safety (EPAS)57. A total of
64% of fatal accident outcomes involve “loss of control” (Figure 145), which has been the most
frequent fatal accident type during the last 10 years. This risk area also includes events that
are direct precursors to a loss of control event, such as a deviation from flight path, abnormal
airspeed or triggering of stall protections. Below are the actions currently ongoing in the
European Plan for Aviation Safety (EPAS) that are related to this key risk area. Over the last 10
years, 27 % of fatal accidents involved ground collision and other associated ground events.
The risk area “Controlled Flight Into Terrain (CFIT)” is the second. With 45% of fatal accidents
involving technical failures in some way during the past 10 years, this is both a major accident
outcome and a precursor to other types of accident. Specific analysis work is ongoing to
identify the systemic, safety issues that may be present in the domains of airworthiness,
maintenance and production.

Accidents and Serious Incidents mostly involve complex situations involve multiple causes and
contributors. The graph below (Figure 146) highlights the origins of the causal and
contributory factors behind the Accidents and Serious Incidents involving EASA Member State
Operators between 2007 and 2016.

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The EPAS is the key strategic document for improving aviation safety at European Level.

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Figure 146: The causal and contributory factors behind the Accidents and Serious Incidents involving EASA Member State
Operators between 2007 and 2016

The 39th ICAO Assembly (2016) (A39-WP/29) stressed the need for continuous improvement
of aviation safety through a reduction in the number of accidents and related fatalities in air
transport operations in all parts of the world, particularly in States where safety records are
significantly worse than the worldwide average. In particular, accident rates are much higher
in remote regions subject to harsh weather, in third-world countries with less technological
and regulatory resources and in other aviation sectors like private and agricultural.

There are several reasons why the accident rates in aviation sector vary so much between
different parts of the world (Figure 147). The first that comes to mind is that safety cultures
vary between countries and airlines. It is not an easy task to establish a safety culture—it is
more a development which takes time and commitment, and must be understood by everyone
within an organization. An organization’s culture is defined by what the people do and which
decisions they take. This reveals the basic values of an organization. A positive safety culture
will move a company forward to a maximum achievable safety level, despite business cycles
and times of recession where financial pressure is evident. A positive safety culture can be split
into four different components: Informed culture; Reporting culture; Just culture and Learning
culture.

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Figure 147: Fatal accident rate of scheduled passenger and cargo fatal accidents per 10 million flights, by region of the
world, using the regions defined by the ECCAIRS taxonomy from 2004 to 201358

Theoretically, differences should not exist because aviation standards and rules are
international and almost all countries are ICAO members, thus they have adopted its
regulations and recommendations. Another noticeable aspect is that there are only a few
manufacturers of airliners in the world and their standards are practically equal. From this
aspect there should be no differences between the different regions and countries because all
airlines are customers of these companies and their training and maintenance programmes.
However, significant differences exist in the age of the aircraft, resources allocated to their
maintenance and regulators oversight and the problem should be solved efficiently. One
solution would be large scale knowledge and information interchange between actors in the
airline industry.

Safety levels in Europe are also influenced by events in countries outside the European Union.
Aircraft fly into the US and Europe from all over the world, and the F.A.A. first and subsequently
EASA too have banned flights by foreign airlines with dubious safety or maintenance
standards. Conflicts around the world continue to challenge aviation authorities in their efforts
to ensure the safe transport of passengers. The new threats highlight the need to further
strengthen the links with security agencies. Safety and security risks are taking new forms
through cybersecurity weaknesses and threats. The European Commission and the Member
States through the EASA Management Board have endorsed the Agency’s Cybersecurity
strategy which is currently being implemented. Due to the increasing population of unmanned
aircraft systems (drones), EASA has been very active in this field, having proposed a flexible
regulatory scheme to ensure the operation of drones does not affect the safety of the rest of
the aviation system. Also, the Agency together with manufacturers and scientists is assessing
the risk of collisions between drones and other aircraft.

Besides the excellent European safety records, the counting of accidents and serious incidents
is not a good risk measure. The introduction of the European Risk Classification Scheme in

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2017, as part of the implementation of Regulation (EU) 376/2014, will help to provide a better
picture of the existing safety risks. The Scheme will help to shift the focus to the probable
potential harm of identified hazards to the European aviation system (risk level associated to
hazards) instead of directly measuring the severity of a realized outcome (fatalities, injuries,
damage). The Aeroplanes Safety Risk Portfolio is the result of the identification of safety issues
through the analysis of safety data (historical occurrence data), and includes the joint expert
judgment of the Agency, the Member States and industry, through the Network of Analysts
(NoA) and the Collaborative Analysis Group in the Commercial Air Transport domain (CAT
CAG), respectively. In terms of timeframe, the data populating safety issues covers a 5 year
period (2011-2015), while for the safety issues risk areas the data covers 10 years. This is to
increase the representativeness of the data for risk areas that are mainly associated with
accidents, which are less frequent in the CAT aeroplane domain.

Safety fundamentally contributes to the sustainable growth of a sound and economically

viable international civil aviation system. The report ‘Flightpath 2050 Europe’s Vision for
Aviation’ sets a goal for year 2050 of reducing the accident rate of commercial aircraft flights
to less than one per ten million flights, i.e. half the reached current level. However, whilst the
aviation accident rate continues to decline, the rate of decline has slowed markedly since 2004
and at the same time we are seeing a continued growth in the number of flights, which are set
to almost double by 2030. As a consequence, in order to preserve the current low level of
fatalities resulting from air accidents, we must ensure that the rate of accidents continues to
decline in order to counterbalance the predicted growth in the number of flights.

The safety target in the goal 14 can be achieved by strengthening the cradle-to-grave safety
chain of aviation:
(i) aircraft design based on the most reliable scientific methods, validated and tested in the
more stringent conditions;
(ii) meeting comprehensive certification standards in all aspects related to operations and
safety;
(iii) control of the supply of raw materials, documentation of fabrication processes and
production quality checks;
(iv) qualification of all human actors, including pilots, maintainers and air traffic controllers;
(v) provision and maintenance of all support systems and equipment at the required
standards;
(vi) strict implementation of safety rules and procedures;
(vii) reporting of incidents, without identification or blame, before they become accidents;
(viii) swift implementation of protective measures once a potential hazard has been
identified;
(ix) continuous search for best practices and their timely implementation;
(x) use of existing and development of new monitoring, fault tolerant and adaptive systems
and emergency intervention strategies.

To improve the currently existing levels of aviation safety, especially when considering the
continuing growth of the industry, additional measures have been put in place during the last
years. One such measure is to encourage individual aircraft operators to introduce their own
Safety Management System (SMS).

SMS is an organized approach to managing safety. The system in the concept of SMS means
a framework of functions to manage safety. Management is about controlling the function of

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the system towards the safety objectives. Another goal of the introduction of SMS is the
facilitation of safety oversight by the national authorities. Two arguments drive the promotion
of SMS by the regulatory authorities. Furthermore due to the growth of aviation activities,
budget constraints in the safety oversight function of the authorities require a new way of
safety oversight that reduces costs (Dijkstra A.)

Europe has started to implement a Safety Management System to become more pro-active in
the identification of hazards and with the ultimate goal of further reducing our already good
safety record. This system complements the existing system of developing safety regulations,
complying with them and investigating accidents and serious incidents when they occur59.

One of the key elements of an SMS is managing safety risks, which means identifying hazards,
assessing the risks and making decisions on the best course of action to mitigate those risks.
International regulations and standards60 require that, any change to a system that has an
impact on the safety of aerodrome operations or air traffic services (ATS) shall be subject to a
risk assessment and mitigation process to support its safe introduction and operation. Within
the ICAO Safety Management Manual (ICAO Doc. 9859) a safety assessment process is defined
by a seven-step process (Figure 148).

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Including ICAO Standards and Recommended Practices, SARPs, especially of the Annex 11 “Air Traffic
Services” [ICAO Annex 11], in paragraph 2.26.5, and Annex 14 “Aerodromes” [ICAO Annex 14], in
paragraph 1.4, Single European Sky Common Requirements [EU Regulation 1035/2011] and
EUROCONTROL Safety Regulatory Requirements – ESARRs.

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Figure 148: The Seven-Step Approach to Safety Assessment Process61

The terms ‘system’/‘project‘ should be considered to include the following constituents: a) any
equipment; b) any procedure (e.g. operational procedure used by the aerodrome operator or

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air traffic service provider or, alternatively, a maintenance procedure for related equipment);
and c) the people involved and their organization.

Aerodrome and ATS systems commonly pass through a variety of phases during their life from
initial concept through to decommissioning. Safety needs to be planned for and addressed in
all of these phases although the depth of risk assessment will vary depending upon the stage
of the project and the degree of risk that exists (UK CAA CAP 760).
Risk management is generally understood as the holistic process involved in recognizing
possible risks and the measures undertaken to reduce and monitor them. It thus comprises a
modular cycle of communication, documentation, control, early warning mechanisms, and
advancement (Figure ).
Performing risk assessment early in the project can identify hazards that impact on the design
of the system. It is better that these hazards and their impact are identified early in a project
so that the system can be designed to take account of them, rather than incurring expense
trying to change a design or retrospectively to generate safety assurance evidence later in a
project.
Early in the project it is beneficial to identify the Applicable Safety Regulatory Requirements,
including National and International SARPs, local Regulations and guidance material
applicable to the intended system. These will influence the design of the system and
compliance to these standards and regulations will often mitigate hazards inherent to the
project. For example, for ATS systems the following may be applicable:
a) ICAO SARPs, e.g. ICAO Annex 11 and others,
b) Single European Sky Interoperability Rules and Common Requirements,
c) European Standards e.g. Eurocae MOPS (Minimum Operational Performance
Specifications); Eurocontrol ESARRS (European Safety Regulatory Requirements),
d) National Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) Safety Requirements.
For example, for aerodrome projects the following may be applicable (UK CAA CAP 760):
a) ICAO SARPs e.g. ICAO Annex 14,
b) European Standards, e.g. EUROCONTROL ESARRs,
c) CAA Safety Requirements for Licensing of Aerodromes,
d) CAA Safety Requirements for Aerodrome Survey Information,
e) CAA Safety Requirements for Airside Safety Management,
f) CAA Safety Requirements for the Assessment of Runway Surface Characteristics,
g) CAA Safety Standards for the Competence of Rescue and Fire Fighting Service (RFFS)
Personnel Employed at Licensed Aerodromes,
h) CAA Safety Requirements for Aircraft Fuelling and Fuel Installation Management.

In order to improve aviation safety in Europe it is vital that the output of the safety analysis
process is used to support the data-driven approach to the identification and
prioritization of actions of the European Plan for Aviation Safety (EPAS) 62. The Safety
Risk Management (SRM) process aims to establish a clear framework that supports the EPAS

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(Figure and Figure ). The resulting actions on the safety issues that are identified in the SRM
process will translate into rulemaking activities, focused oversight, research activities, safety
promotion and potentially also in actions for Member States.

All safety issues in aviation are monitored. Aircraft operators, organizations that maintain
aircraft, as well as other entities in aviation are required to report any safety issues they detect.
The reports are analysed to identify any concerns. This continuous monitoring allows the early
detection of potential problems. EASA takes immediate and appropriate action to ensure that
the highest safety standards are maintained. Improving the standards of aviation safety and
environmental protection requires rules to be continuously reviewed and improved based on
the latest scientific knowledge. The rules are drafted and adapted to reflect the changing
technology and needs of aviation with safety as the first priority. EASA advises the European
Commission on safety rules and is responsible for describing in technical terms the best ways
to achieve a high level of safety. Rules are reviewed in consultation with industry and citizens
to ensure they are proportional to the aims they aspire to.

The introduction of Risk-based Oversight (RBO) in aviation sector, as can be seen today
(EASA TE.GEN.00400-003), will allow for a more effective use of the available oversight
resources. Risk assessment and mitigation is a structured and systematic process for the
identification of hazards and the assessment of the risk associated with each hazard, or group
of hazards. The acceptability of the risks is determined by comparing the assessed level of risk
to the predetermined safety assessment criteria1 or Safety Objectives. The chart below (Figure
149) gives an overview of the RBO’s benefits. While aviation is growing, traditional oversight
will remain but will also request a similar increase in the number of required resources. RBO,
through increased efficiency would keep this requested increase at a lower level. Moreover, it
would also increase effectiveness of oversight and contribute to achieving the objective of
keeping a reducing trend in the number of accidents in spite of the increased exposure.

At State’s level, RBO provides a mechanism for better identifying hazards, measuring
associated risks as well as demonstrating effective mitigation of these risks. Ultimately it allows
the Competent Authority to focus its attention on organizations that require additional or
higher attention, strengthening the efficiency of the oversight. At the same time, an improved
understanding of the risks across the aviation system will enable better calibration of the
oversight, on the basis of an improved risk picture that takes into account the causal factors
of all safety occurrences, from isolated events to incidents and accidents.

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Figure 149: Benefits of Risk-based Oversight implementation in aviation sector63

2.2 WEATHER HAZARDS AND RISK MITIGATION

* Flightpath 2050 goal 15: “Weather and other hazards from environment are precisely
evaluated and risks properly mitigated”

Atmospheric conditions continue to be a major factor in aircraft operations, although much

progress has been made in flying safety through what were in the past hostile scenarios. As
safety progresses former hazards are overcome and new ones are discovered, that were
previously hidden behind other events. For example, windshears or microbursts must have
been the cause of accidents in the past of aircraft flying through storms, but were identified
clearly only 3 decades ago, as other safety hazards were overcome. General weather
predictions and on-board sensors like weather radar are basic indicators of potential hazards;
laser Doppler radar is a good complement not generally fitted to airliners. The information
from flights of preceding aircraft on similar routes can also be a useful warning.

An example is a windshear associated with a microburst: (i) a toroidal vortex lies above the
ground; (ii) it creates a down flow through its core; (iii) the following horizontal flow changes
from head wing to tail wind as an aircraft flies under the core; (iv) the combination of down
flow and tailwind can lead to stall and/or crash. The wind shear is most readily detected by
LIDAR that measures wind speed; it can be detected by the weather radar if the microburst is
associated with rain. The indications of an aircraft that has recently flown a similar path are a
warning for the safest option of wind shear avoidance.

The mitigation of weather hazards thus requires:

(i) supplementing meteorological data by information from ground based or airborne weather
radars or lidars and flight reports;
(ii) early warning of the flight concerned on the type and severity of the hazard likely to be
encountered;

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(iii) accurate assessment of the risk, survival tactics and timely decision of avoidance if
appropriate, and
(iv) the training of pilots on mitigation strategies, which is the last ditch defence if warnings have
failed. For example in a wind shear the best strategy is to fly at maximum power and angle-
of-attack to minimize altitude loss and sink speed (rather than dive trying to gain speed and
lift). Other weather hazards like winds, clear air turbulence, various types of clouds, rain,
icing, lighting, volcanic ash clouds, hail, require different strategies.

The aviation system is highly sensitive against disturbing weather effects such as wind gusts,
snow falls or cold waves. Atmospheric conditions continue to be a major factor in aircraft
operations, although much progress has been made in flying safety through what were in the
past hostile scenarios. Weather is responsible for: 13% of aircraft losses between 1995 and
2004 were defined primarily by weather; 33% of all accidents/incidents due to adverse weather
– thunderstorms are top-ranked by pilots as hazards affecting flight safety; 40-50% of delays
at European airports (Gerz T.). The severe weather related accidents and incidents can be
attributed to the following weather related hazards (EUROCONTROL Report):

 In-flight icing;
 Severe air turbulence (convective cloud origin);
 Hail damage;
 Lightning strike;
 Low visibility due to fog or precipitation;
 Strong low level/surface winds and windshear.

The most likely series of events that harms aviation in EU region takes place when the wind
gusts over 17 m/s blow over the area. In addition, fog and cold wave and especially even
1cm/day snow are considered as prevailing weather events in this climate region combined
with the high volume of passengers in the area, the effects in terms of delays can be described
as massive on a European level [EWENT D5.1].

Aviation has the most advanced and standardized safety and operational regulations, naturally
due to the very strong weather related safety risks, and these are and must be followed with
precision (Figure ). The severe weather impact can be associated to two different, yet
interdependent, risks, notably Flight Safety Risk and Flight Efficiency Risk. The Flight
Efficiency Risk is associated to the likelihood and potential extent of incurred flight delays or
even cancellations made due to severe weather risk management. The Flight Safety Risk is the
ultimate driver for the existence of the severe weather impact management. Flight Safety Risk
can have different sources and manifestations: In-flight Safety Risk (impact on flight crew to
put the Hazard Encounter Risk at the core of the approach as it is the original reason for the
existence of the array of activities associated to severe weather risk management) and ATCO
Excessive Overload Risk. For the purposes of this approach the management of the Hazard
Encounter Risk is described using two generic risk management functions: risk prevention
and risk mitigation.

Risk prevention is understood as any action aimed at avoiding the materialization of the risk.
These actions are further assigned to three time phases:

 Pre-tactical prevention – all actions taken before the day of operation;

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  Tactical prevention – all actions taken on the day of operation, but before the
commencement of the flight (off-block);
 In-flight prevention – all actions taken after commencement of the flight (off-block)
but before hazard encounter.

Risk mitigation could be described as the actions taken by the concerned actors to contain
the impact and minimize potential adverse safety effects on ATM and flight operations
following hazard encounter or when encounter is imminent. Expected further elaborations for
that in meteorology (Gerz T.):

 Need for system-wide information sharing among all aviation stakeholders;

 Need for stakeholders collaborative decision making processes;
 Derive simple, unambiguous and standardised products;
 Combine different hazards when and where appropriate: seamless, and in aviation
sector;
 Develop impact scenarios for various stakeholders
 Derive business cases to tailor MET info to the user’s needs.
Figure 150: Hazard encounter risk management model64

An interesting approach to set benchmarks for goal 15 is to estimate the risks of extreme
weather on European transport system, based on the definition of transport systems’
vulnerability to extreme weather events in different countries. It implies the calculations of the
most probable causal chains, starting from adverse weather phenomena and ending up with
events that pose harmful consequences to the transport systems in different climate regions.
This approach produces a relative risk indicator for each mode and country, which although
must not be considered as an absolute measure of risk, can be used as a starting point when

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deciding on the risk reduction measures, strategies and policies in the European Union
(EWENT D5.1).

According to this approach, the most likely series of events that harms aviation in EU region
takes place when the wind gusts over 17 m/s blow over the area. In addition, fog and cold
wave and especially even 1cm/day snow are considered as prevailing weather events in this
climate region combined with the high volume of passengers in the area, the effects in terms
of delays can be described as massive on a European level (EWENT D5.1).

As seen in Figure 151 the mentioned risk indicator for accidents due to extreme weather is
calculated to be zero (EWENT D5.1). This ensues the calculations which were done by taking
into account the accident rates during the last years (accidents caused by adverse weather).
Congruent with the risk indicators of other transport modes the highest risk indicator is in
Hungary and Poland where high population and transport density together with low GDP and
low quality of infrastructure produce a high risk level. However, the risk level in aviation is
significantly lower than in railway or road transport.

Figure 151: Risk indicators in the Temperate Central region for aviation passenger’s transport due to extreme weather
events65

The differences concerning the prevailing weather events in this eastern part of the temperate
region in comparison to the ones in the western part are not same from a meteorological point
of view. In the Eastern Temperate region the most likely aviation disturbing weather
phenomena seem to be snowfalls (over 1 cm/d) and cold waves when temperature drops
under -0 °C. Due to these phenomena there exists operating restrictions which lead to delays
and increased fuel consumption because of airborne holding for arriving aircraft (EWENT D5.1).

Also delays for flight cancellation are possible (Figure 152). Compared to other modes of
transport even slight disruptions in the flight plans at airports being at their capacity limit can
lead to massive disruptions throughout Europe and the rest of the world.

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Figure 152: Risk indicators for delays in EU66

At the European level, according to estimates of costs resulting from extreme weather for
aviation, the two significant cost items are operator costs resulting from cancellations of flights
and time costs for passengers. Operator costs being calculated for selected airports, covering
88% of daily volumes in Europe based on reported number of bad weather days on which an
average rate of cancellations was calculated. For passenger time costs, the Eurocontrol official
values of time were used to calculate the average delay for each passenger during the number
of bad weather days reported for 2010 at the major European airports (the average
cancellation rate has been 10 per cent of daily flights). The average delay represents the fact
that accumulated delays in major airports results in a continuous problem of delays during the
day and sensitivity analyses were carried out with respect to the estimated duration of the
delay for each passenger. The annual operator costs for aviation in 2010 were 606 million
euros. This is calculated on the bases of 10% cancellation rate for medium jets. The annual
time costs for aviation in 2010 were 980 million euros. This calculation is based on 30 minute
average delay/flight on selected airports (Figure 153) (EWENT D5.1). The data shows the
annual impact of cancellations for those airports reviewed by Eurocontrol. The reason why the
Northern European climate region dominates the calculation is naturally the volume of
extreme weather days compared to other regions. Due to the regional classification between
the Temperate Eastern and the Temperate Central regions no airports reviewed feature in the
Temperate Eastern region.

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Figure 153: Costs (mill. €) for road accidents’ fatalities (red; socio-economic costs) and aviation cancellations (black;
operators’ costs) and aviation delays (blue; passenger time costs) by climate regions 67

2.3 INTEGRATING DRONES IN MANNED AIRSPACE

* Flightpath 2050 goal 16: “The European air transport system operates seamlessly
through interoperable and networked systems allowing manned and unmanned air
vehicles to safely operate in the same airspace”

The term “drones”, although possibly inaccurate or inappropriate, is used for brevity as in
colloquial language, to designate UAVs (Unmanned Air Vehicles), RPVs (Remotely Piloted
Vehicles), Remotely Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS), AAVs (Autonomous Air Vehicles), etc. The
use of drones currently falls into 3 categories:

 Long-range global operations like “Global Hawk” imply take-off and climb and descent
and landing in restricted military airspace and cruise above airline traffic at altitudes of 18
km or more;
 Flight in line-of-sight, in good weather, not overflying populated areas, at a limited altitude
(usually below 100 m), as an extension of the traditional radio controlled aircraft models;
 Unrestricted flight in remote, uncontrolled war torn regions like Afghanistan, Syria or Iraq,
with lack of safety standards or their enforcement.

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Two main areas are identified within the UAS spectrum in terms of the types of operation: 1)
the professional use of drones for various security, safety, survey and other tasks and 2) the
recreational use where the general public are using drones for fun and private activities.

Ensuring safety with Unmanned Aircraft requires a differentiate approach (Figure 154) that
(Stark B.):

1. Incorporates a dynamic risk management systems;

2. Has built in mechanisms for improvement, and,

3. Scales appropriately to risk.

In Risk Assessment a Quantitative Statistics is a basic element. The number of drones within
the EU has multiplied over the last 2 years. EASA has already introduced a technical opinion
to initiate the definition of the regulatory framework required at EU level. Most of the
occurrences in this RPAS analysis were related to either airspace infringements which
occasionally lead to a near collision with an aircraft. Analysis of RPAS occurrences in the
European Central Repository identified 584 occurrences of all severity levels, of which 37
accidents had been classed as accidents (2011-2015), none of the accidents involved
fatalities and there were only four minor injuries reported in the period since 2010 (Figure ).
The application of the definition of accident in relation to RPAS has improved since new
definitions were provided in ICAO Annex 13.
Figure 154: UAS Safety Management System68

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Figure 155: RPAS occurrences per year – 2010 to 31 May 201669

This graph (Figure 155) shows an increasing trend in the number of reported UAS occurrences
(both accidents and incidents) per year from 2010 to June 2016 that involve UAS, with a clear
and significant jump in 2014. Up to 31 May 2016, the number of occurrences in 2016 reached
50% of those in 2015 and this does not take into account the reporting process time lag
between an occurrence happening and it being reported through an NAA to the ECR. In
considering the risk of a collision between a manned aircraft and a small unmanned aircraft,
the EU Task Force considered that the key risk to address was firmly centred on a collision with
a large commercial aeroplane; this view was supported by the responses received to the
related survey question as shown in the Figure :

Figure 156: Responses to the question on “Main Perceived Risks”70

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EASA SM1.1
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The Figure 156 shows the initial Event Types analysis in which precursors to Airborne Conflict
accidents unsurprisingly feature highly. These include Airspace infringements and Loss of
Separation, as well as near collisions. The vast majority of the Safety Issues subsequently
identified, and the analysis that follows, covers this outcome category. It can be seen that 63%
of occurrences are related to Airborne Conflict, which is the main Key Risk Area. This means
that airspace infringements and proximity of drones to other aircraft is causing a significant
number of occurrences.
Figure 157: UAS Occurrences 2010- May 2016 - Safety Events 71

The Figure 158 shows the number of reported Airborne Conflict occurrences taken from the
ECR which highlights the different numbers across the EASA MS. Further data is becoming
available from other sources in individual States (such as from the ANSV (Accident
Investigation Board Italy). The data from operators collected through the CAT Aeroplanes CAG
was used to cross-check the number of occurrences in different states.
Figure 158: UAS Airborne Conflict occurrences per state. Time period 2010-May201672

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The Figure 159 provides details of the airspace class where occurrences took place (limited to
the occurrences where this information was available) provided also with the flight phase of
the aircraft that reporting the occurrence. The graph shows that the highest number of
occurrences took place in D and G class airspace. Class D – Controlled airspace: IFR and VFR
flights are permitted and all flights are provided with air traffic control service, IFR flights are
separated from other IFR flights and receive traffic information in respect of VFR flights, VFR
flights receive traffic information in respect of all other flights (ICAO Airspace Classifications).
Class G – Uncontrolled airspace: IFR and VFR flights are permitted and receive flight
information service if requested. It can also be seen that most of the occurrences happen
during Approach and during en route phases of the flight. It also needs to be considered that
many occurrences do not have any airspace information coded which limits the usability of
the data.
Figure 159: UAS Occurrences in Relation to Airspace by Flight Phase. Time period 2010-May201673

In contrast with this limited use, there is a vast potential to be exploited, and no shortage of
highly visible candidates like Amazon and Google wanting to offer delivery, surveillance and
other services. These services and experiments can be authorized on a case-by-case basis to
ensure safety. Prospective users like Google have suggested blanket approvals like: all space
below 100 m reserved for drones; ignoring that low altitude air space is used by police
helicopters, emergency medical services, etc.…. The safety risks, in airspace below 100m, are
well documented by a variety of incidents involving unauthorized use of drones violating legal
rules, such as: (i) numerous cases of drones flying near airports, including cases in which the
aircraft had manoeuvre to avoid a collision; (ii) landing a drone in the lawn of the White House
in the US, the building of the prime minister of Japan, a North Korean drone near the office of
the prime minister of South Korea; (iii) several overflights of French nuclear power stations by
drones; (iv) a drone seen on television crashing just behind an alpine skier in a competition it
was filming; (v) ISIL used drones to drop rudimentary bombs in Iraq and Syria.

Setting aside unauthorized use and the difficulties in preventing it, the main question in what
conditions should drones be allowed to share airspace with manned aircraft? At least 4,
namely:

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 Professionalism: The record of aviation as the safest mode of transport relies on the highest
professional standards: the engineers who design the aircraft, the authorities that certify it, the
pilots that fly it, and the air traffic controllers that direct it. Where fits a layman flying a drone?
What qualifications, training and safeguards are needed so that this is not the weak,
unprofessional link?
 Quality: Commercial aircraft are high quality products in the design, testing, materials,
production and operation, all of which are neither easily achievable nor cheap. Can a cheap
drone produced without quality control be a safe partner in a congested airspace, or must it
meet at least the same quality standards?
 Sense and avoid: This is the issue discussed most often concerning the safety of removing the
local pilot and remote air traffic controller from the critical process of collision avoidance. If the
traffic density is too high collision avoidance may become impossible: how does a drone
recognize this? How is it avoided?
 Capacity: Air Traffic Management (ATM) capacity has been broadly sufficient to cope with
manned air traffic, with occasional delays or disruptions. It has managed to keep ahead of air
traffic growth, not a mean feat, though not by a wide margin. Is there the spare capacity for a
large number of drones? How to limit their number if demand turns out to be huge as market
prospects suggest?
The analyse of the existing studies on the subject of impact between drones and aircraft, shows
where the progress is concentrated:
 Study the vulnerabilities of aircraft (windshields, engines, and airframe) taking into account the
different categories of aircraft (large aeroplanes, general aviation, and helicopters) and their
associated design and operational requirements.
 Consider the possibility to do further research and perform actual tests (for example on
windshields).
The regulatory framework for the safe operations of drones in Europe currently, being
developed by EASA, already addresses the issue of collision between drones and aeroplanes.
A combination of measures are envisaged such as: operate in visual line of sight, fly under 150
m height above ground, be equipped with identification and geo-limitation functions and be
registered. Any operation of drones close to aerodromes would require a specific
authorization from the national aviation authority based on a risk assessment.

The Key Risk Areas (Outcomes) identified by EASA from the data were74:
 Airborne Conflict: The number of reported near-miss occurrences between drones and aircraft
has increased significantly is the past 2 years. There have been a small number of collisions
between drones and GA aircraft, fortunately with no fatalities so far. However, it should be
noted that many of the reports of near-misses with UAS are unconfirmed and might in fact
involve other objects such as birds. Indeed, some of the reports of near-misses with UAS have
occurred at altitudes where UAS are not normally able to operate.
 Aircraft Upset. The 2nd Key Risk Area identified involved Aircraft Upset, which covers the full
range of Loss of Control situations, which presents the potential for injuries to people on the
ground.

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 System Failures. Both System/ Component Failure Power plant and Non-Power plant feature in
the outcome types and therefore is also included in the Key Areas as it could also lead to injuries
to people on the ground, especially in certain types of UAS operation.
 Third Party Conflict. The final Key Risk Area covers the risk of UAS conflicts (collisions) with
people or property (i.e. not involving aircraft) where they may cause injuries or damage. There
were no occurrences involving such damage or injuries but expert judgement identified this as a
key risk area that could occur through causes not associated with loss of control (Aircraft Upset)
or technical failure in situations where a drone operator accidentally flies into people or
property.

Control Strategies and the Hierarchy of Controls is shown in the Figure 160:

Figure 160: Control Strategies for UAS safety management75

2.4 COMPREHENSIVE AND UNOBTRUSIVE SECURITY MEASURES

* Flight 2015 goal 17: “Efficient boarding and safety measures allow seamless security
for global travel with minimum passenger and cargo impact. Passengers and cargo pass
through security controls without introduction”

Aviation safety has seen a steady and spectacular progress into the safest mode of transport
(sections 2.1– 2.2). The recent societal threat going back to barbarism, seeks to maximize loss
of life through terrorist acts aimed at most transports.

The ingenuity that has achieved the safety of air transport must also be applied to ensure its
security at all stages of travel: (i) at the departure airport, through check-in, passport and
luggage inspection; (ii) in the transit to the aircraft; (iii) in flight; (iv) at the arrival airport.
Terrorists who fail their murderous attempts may still see some success in the disruption
caused by the safety measures needed to foil their evil intents. While the patience and
understanding of passengers is essential there should be the minimum of delay, intrusion and
disruption in the implementation of safety measures, through the use of the most appropriate
equipment and airport architectures. The standards of European airports may not be taken for
granted at some remote or holiday destinations, possibly requiring further security initiatives.

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Aviation will face serious continuing and new security risks from terrorist groups, radicalized
individuals and persons acting for other reasons (as documented in consecutive editions of
the Aviation Security Global Risk Context Statement) against the backdrop of the evolving
global security situation, passenger and cargo traffic growth, infrastructure expansion,
commercial and fiscal pressures and other developments in air transportation. Security related
events, such as criminal acts affecting (interference, sabotage) aircraft, crew member actions,
aviation critical infrastructure or the safety of airspace (acts of war) are more challenging, while
concurrently demanding a close coordination between the Safety Investigation and the
authorities in charge of the judicial investigation.

A clear need exists for the strengthening of security to be applied to all phases and processes
associated with the carriage of persons, their cabin and hold baggage, cargo, mail, courier and
express parcels, and in protecting civil aviation against cyber-attacks and cyber threats (ICAO
A39-WP/17).

Taking into account that international passenger traffic is expected to reach 6 billion by 2030
from about 3.3 billion today, while air cargo transported is expected to increase to 125 million
tonnes from 50 million (based on ICAO and IATA air traffic forecasts), growth of the aviation
industry will have significant ramifications for the aviation sector’s security risk profile. While
the ten acts of unlawful interference recorded by ICAO in 2015 is less than the 21 acts in the
previous year, high-priority risk areas for aviation in the coming years include landside security,
the threat of a cyber-attack on the aviation sector, the increasing use of Remotely Piloted
Aircraft Systems (RPAS) as well as the use of person-delivered improvised explosive devices.

The policy instruments have shaped ICAO’s aviation security programme direction, and
provided focus for priority setting for the Organization (ICAO A39-WP/14):

a) Declaration on Aviation Security, adopted through Resolution A37-17, which

reaffirmed Member States’ commitment to strengthen global aviation security;

b) The ICAO Comprehensive Aviation Security Strategy (ICASS), which emphasizes

seven Strategic Focus Areas of the Organization over two triennia (2011-2016)
mandated by the 37th Assembly;

c) Conclusions and recommendations of the 2012 High-level Conference on Aviation

Security aimed at strengthening the global aviation security framework, particularly by
mitigating the risks to air cargo and mail security and addressing the insider threat;
and

d) Resolutions adopted by the ICAO Assembly on the consolidated statement of

continuing ICAO policies related to aviation security.

The 39th ICAO Assembly (in 2016), recognizing the need to strengthen aviation security
worldwide, in light of the continuing threat to civil aviation, including the attempted sabotage
of Northwest Airlines flight 253 on 25 December 2009; and acknowledging the value of the
joint declarations on civil aviation security emanating from regional conferences held with a
view to enhancing international cooperation, hereby urges Member States to take the
following actions to enhance international cooperation to counter threats to civil aviation
[ICAO A39-WP/16]:

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 1) strengthen and promote the effective application of ICAO Standards and
Recommended Practices, with particular focus on Annex 17 (ICAO Annex 17) —
Security, and develop strategies to address current and emerging threats;

2) strengthen security screening procedures, enhance human factors and utilize

modern technologies to detect prohibited articles and support research and
development of technology for the detection of explosives, weapons and prohibited
articles in order to prevent acts of unlawful interference;

3) develop enhanced security measures to protect airport facilities and improve in-
flight security, with appropriate enhancements in technology and training;

4) develop and implement strengthened and harmonized measures and best practices
for air cargo security, taking into account the need to protect the entire air cargo supply
chain;

5) promote enhanced travel document security and the validation thereof using the
ICAO Public Key Directory (PKD) in conjunction with biometric information, and the
commitment to report on a regular basis, lost and stolen passports to the INTERPOL
Lost and Stolen Travel Documents Database to prevent the use of such travel
documents for acts of unlawful interference against civil aviation;

6) improve Member States’ ability to correct deficiencies identified under the Universal
Security Audit Programme (USAP) by ensuring the appropriate availability of audit
results among Member States, which would enable better targeting of capacity-
building and technical assistance efforts;

7) provide technical assistance to States in need, including funding, capacity building

and technology transfer to effectively address security threats to civil aviation, in
cooperation with other States, international organizations and industry partners;

8) promote the increased use of cooperation mechanisms among Member States and
with the civil aviation industry, for information exchange on security measures in order
to avoid redundancy, where appropriate, and for early detection and dissemination of
information on security threats to civil aviation, including through the collection and
transmission of advance passenger information (API) and passenger name record
(PNR) data, as an aid to security, whilst ensuring the protection of passengers’ privacy
and civil liberties; and

9) share best practices and information in a range of key areas, such as: screening and
inspection techniques, including assessments of advanced screening technology for
the detection of weapons and explosives; document security and fraud detection;
behaviour detection and threat-based risk analysis; screening of airport employees; the
privacy and dignity of persons; and aircraft security.

A more integrated approach to aviation safety and security is needed, as illustrated by issues
such as cybersecurity and remotely-piloted aircraft systems; aviation security requires a cross-
functional approach that ensures appropriate coordination with facilitation, aviation safety, air
navigation and other relevant fields. More real-time sharing of critical information between
States and industry, and between aviation security professionals and partners who have a need

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to know should be encouraged, as highlighted by recent events related to civil aviation
operations near conflict zones.

The seven Strategic Focus Areas of the ICASS should remain as a solid foundation for
addressing current and future aviation security challenges, and should therefore be used to
help shape the Global Aviation Security Plan (GASeP). It is envisaged that the ICASS would
transition seamlessly into the GASeP when the latter is approved, with the Strategic Focus
Areas of the ICASS being given renewed emphasis in a more holistic and global framework.
Other supporting strategies (for example, ICAO Assistance and Capacity Building Strategy)
could also be integrated therein.

The main components for defining the GASeP, as illustrated in the Figure 161, should be built
around six key themes, under which specific goals and targets (Table 43) could be pursued. It
also includes four broad areas of “enablers”, which contribute towards achieving goals related
not only to one key theme but across all themes. While further details of the GASeP would
need to be elaborated and refined, the six key themes of the GASeP, could be used to help
frame the deliberations (ICAO A39-WP/15).

Key objectives from 2017 used for ICAO comprehensive aviation security strategy and
development of the ICAO GASeP (ICAO A39-WP/14):

Strategic Focus Area 1: Addressing new and existing threats. ICAO made continued efforts to
enhance risk awareness, promote risk policy, and implement a risk-driven security culture with
a view to ensuring risk-based Standard-setting and rule-making on the basis of guidance
material such as the Aviation Security Global Risk Context Statement. Key objectives for 2017-
2019: Continue efforts to ensure States take substantial steps to incorporate effective threat
and risk assessment methodologies and mechanisms into their national aviation security
programmes.

Strategic Focus Area 2: Promoting innovation in aviation security. ICAO focused on

innovation, collaborative actions and coordinated efforts such as through the organization of
an ICAO Symposium on Innovation in Aviation Security (2014), supporting the ACI Airport
Excellence (APEX) programme, the establishment of an AVSEC Panel Working Group on
Innovation in Aviation Security (WGIAS) and enhancements to the AVSECPaedia within the
ICAO secure portal (https://portal.icao.int); all designed to stimulate innovative, effective, and
efficient security approaches to aviation security. Key objectives for 2017-2019: Promote the
increased sharing among States of best practices and emerging trends in aviation security
systems and technologies utilizing ICAO platforms.

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Figure 161: Key themes, under which GASeP specific goals and targets could be pursued 76

Goals Targets
1. By 20xx, States have utilized effective threat and risk
assessment methodologies;
1: Improved capacity to
2. By 20xx, States have made significant efforts to
address all threats to aviation
promote risk-based measures and approaches;
security
3. By 20xx, States have implemented mechanisms to
ensure greater threat information sharing;
4. By 20xx, compliance by States and Regions to
substantially improve levels of aviation security;
2: Achieve higher levels of
5. By 20xx, mobilize additional financial resources for
effective implementation of
effective implementation of aviation security;
ICAO Annex 17
6. By 20xx, substantial reduction of States with
significant security concerns (SSeCs);
7. By 20xx, substantial steps taken by States to
3: Promote development of
promote security culture across all organizations;
human resources in aviation
8. By 20xx, significant efforts by States to promote
security
greater capacities of security professionals;

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 9. By 20xx, States have strengthened technological
capacity to address the threat posed by LAGs;
4: Effective and efficient 10. By 20xx, substantial efforts made by States to
security measures through enhance research and to foster innovation;
process and technology 11. By 20xx, all States have utilized ICAO platforms for
innovation sharing screening best practices;
12. By 20xx, greater efforts by States to recognize
other States’ systems where determined equivalent;
13. By 20xx, enhance regional partnerships for
5: Enhance implementation
implementing effective and targeted capacity-building
through capacity building
activities to support regional initiatives and plans;
6: Integrated approach to
14. By 20xx, more efforts by all States to ensure a
aviation safety, security and
cross-functional approach to aviation security.
other disciplines
Table 43: Indicative list of GASeP goals and targets

Strategic Focus Area 3: Sharing of information. Efforts have been made to continuously
strengthen ICAO capacity to securely gather, collate and disseminate information on security
incidents, threat and risk concerns, and trends through improved functionalities of the relevant
ICAO platforms, particularly the Point of Contact (PoC) Network, which currently includes PoCs
from nearly all ICAO Member States, the Acts of Unlawful Interference Database, and
information on Universal Security Audit Programme (USAP) audit results and Significant
Security Concerns (SSeCs). Key objectives for 2017-2019: Improve mechanisms for the
reporting by States of acts of unlawful interference in accordance with Annex 17 and the
dissemination of relevant information.

Strategic Focus Area 4: Promoting global compliance and establishing sustainable aviation
security oversight capability of States. Throughout the triennium, ICAO ensured greater
coherence and coordination in rectifying deficiencies identified by the USAP including the
Comprehensive Regional Implementation Plan for Aviation Security and Facilitation in Africa
(AFI SECFAL), which was launched as an ICAO Programme to enhance the coordination of
assistance activities in Africa (ICAO A39-WP/20, A39-WP/28). Key objectives 2017-2019:
Enhance implementation and address deficiencies in States identified through audit and
monitoring activities, capacity-building and resource mobilization to support effective
implementation of regional plans and initiatives focused on assisting developing States to
achieve improved levels of security.

Strategic Focus Area 5: Improving human factors and security culture. Increased emphasis was
placed on addressing the continuing need for global and regional aviation security training,
by collaborating with the institutions within the ICAO ASTC Network, which now comprises 30
members. Key objectives 2017-2019: Enhance aviation security training efforts by collaborating
with the institutions within the ICAO Aviation Security Training Centre Network.

Strategic Focus Area 6: Mutual recognition of aviation security processes. Continued efforts in
promoting mutual recognition of aviation security processes were made through extensive
collaboration with stakeholders and industry, including dissemination of the newly developed
guidance material Recognition of Equivalence of Security Measures as well as information
exchange and debate through the AVSEC Panel. Key objectives 2017-2019: Reduce

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unnecessary duplication of measures towards the optimal use of aviation security resources,
in order to achieve the desired and appropriate balance between the effectiveness of security
measures and the efficiency of air transport, including optimized facilitation.

Strategic Focus Area 7: Emphasizing the importance of aviation security worldwide. Increased
outreach activities at the national, regional and international levels led to improved awareness
of the global aviation security threat environment. For example, to strengthen air cargo
security, ICAO carried out a range of joint initiatives with the World Customs Organization
(WCO), designed to heighten awareness among aviation security authorities, customs
administrations and stakeholders of the need to strengthen aviation and border security while
facilitating the flow of cargo. Intensified ICAO/WCO collaboration included, for example, Joint
ICAO/WCO Conferences, alignment of regulatory frameworks, joint training courses and the
publication of a document entitled Moving Air Cargo Globally. Key objectives 2017-2019:
Improve awareness of the global aviation security threat environment, and promotion of
dialogue on new and emerging aviation security challenges.

The foundational element of the framework should be based on the notion of progressive
aviation security enhancement as the core objective, consistent with ICAO’s Strategic
Objective. For practical purposes, aviation security enhancement is defined as the
improvement in the effectiveness and efficiency of aviation security to mitigate the risk of acts
and attempted acts of unlawful interference, and to mitigate its consequences; it is the
achieving and acquiring of qualitative improvement while managing security costs (ICAO A39-
WP/15).

2.5 RESILIENCE TO EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL THREATS

* Flightpath 2050 goal 18: “Air vehicles are resilient by design to current on-board and
on the ground security threat evolution, internally and externally to the aircraft”

The EU is facing one of the greatest security challenges in its history [EC JOIN REPORT].
Threats are increasingly taking non-conventional forms, some physical such as new forms of
terrorism, some using the digital space with complex cyber-attacks. Others are more subtle
and are aimed at the coercive application of pressure including misinformation campaigns,
and media manipulation. Recent coordinated cyber-attacks across the globe, for which
attribution has proved challenging, have demonstrated the vulnerabilities of our societies and
institutions. EU leaders have placed security and defence at centre-stage in the debate about
the future of Europe. This was acknowledged in the Rome Declaration of 25 March 2017 which
set out a vision of a safe and secure Union committed to strengthening its common security
and defence.

Transport security is a source of general concern. Recent events have shown that it is
particularly true for air transport. First, dramatic events have a detrimental effect on air
transport growth. Second, security checks reduce travelling convenience and increase airport
transit time. This goes against the efficiency target set by the air transport community in the
ACARE vision document. This is the reason why security is considered one of the three main
research topics in ACARE SRA2 addendum, along with environment and alternative fuels.

Access control and filtering cover border control, security filters, etc. The public seems to
increasingly accept the idea of security screenings and resulting delays. However, the industry
is looking for filtering solutions which overcome security delays for passengers. A concept that

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might be considered at political level is the idea of the “trusted passenger” - that is, someone
who is willing to renounce a large part of his or her data protection rights to speed up passage
through security checks. This concept, supported by robust identification systems such as
fingerprint and iris detection, might enable reduced airport transit times.

The safety door limiting access to the cockpit is an example that safety measures can in some
cases function in intended and unintended ways: (i) in most cases it may have prevented
hijackings; (ii) in the isolated case of the mentally disturbed German Wings co-pilot it
prevented the captain from entering the cabin and preventing an intentional crash. The
security measures also depend on the perceived level of threat and accepted level of risk: (i)
El Al aircraft are equipped with DIRCM (Directed Infra-Red Counter Measures) to counter
shoulder fired anti-aircraft missiles, whereas most other airliners do not have such systems,
originally developed for military aircraft; (ii) Israeli and at same time U.S. commercial aircraft
have armed Sky Marshalls, although the use of firearms in a pressurized aircraft has risks.

Security issues can lead to difficult dilemmas: if an liner is hijacked, and refuses to follow the
flight and landing instructions from an armed interceptor aircraft, and heads to a major
inhabited area like 9/11, should weapons be used? An alternative would be to take over control
of the aircraft remotely by building in this capability at the design stage. Doing so assumes
that: (i) it is possible to decide remotely if the aircraft has been hijacked, the crew has suicidal
intents or is unconscious due to hypoxia or other problems: (ii) the communications and
controls allow safe flight to the closest suitable airport; (iii) the systems is immune to spoofing,
cyber-attack or other malicious use. Ultimately people on board, if not controlled, have several
means to cause a crash, reinforcing the need for airport security and preventive measures.

Security has become a major factor in civil and commercial aviation. Aviation security
system to be “[r]ecognized as the world leader in civil aviation security—identifying and
countering aviation-related threats to U.S. citizens worldwide” [Federal Aviation
Administration]. The strategic goal stated in the plan was to let “[n]o successful attacks against
U.S. civil aviation” occur. In comparison to the breadth and depth of the post-9/11 focus on
aviation security, the desired key results stated in this document in retrospect seem quite
modest and the goal tragically unattained.

In recent decades, the number of threats to aviation security has grown significantly.
Current and emerging threats have been clustered into the following eight threat
categories (COPRA SECURITY D5.1):

 Improvised Explosive Devices (IED), firearms and close range destructive threats
 Chemical, Biological, Radioactive, Nuclear and Explosive (CBRNE) threats
 Ground-to-air threats
 Ground-to-ground threats
 Cyber threats
 Electromagnetic threats
 Sabotage, seizure and hijacking
 Bluff threats and threats from social media
Threat assessment defines the level of the threats against critical assets by evaluating the
types, means and possible tactics of those who may carry them out. In a threat assessment it
is important to be aware of national threats and to identify the threats specific to the airport
and to the airlines serving it. For in-depth analysis, it is also interesting to identify the history

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of criminal or disruptive incidents in the area surrounding the airport, but not primarily
directed toward the airport operations (Figure ).

This has led to even more security regulations as the threats evolved. Thereby, security
procedures have become exceedingly complex, time consuming and invasive to passenger
privacy. At the same time, passenger and cargo traffic are expected to double in the next 15
years. It is clear that the current complex security system cannot be adapted to such growth.
It has already and will increasingly become a major market restraint [Bart E.].

Currently, aviation security is primarily based on the preventive phase and is inflexible
to new threats. This is also mirrored in the research landscape for aviation security: Most
projects concentrate on preventive measures such as the detection of CBRNE-
substances. EU Project (COPRA SECURITY D5.1) recommends that the future aviation security
system (and research) should be based on all elements of the resilience cycle in a well-balanced
composition. It should embrace processes and technologies to support each phase of the
resilience cycle (Figure 162).
Figure 162: Aviation Security Threat Sources, Tactics, and Targets77

Resilience is defined as the ability to: prepare (take into account); prevent (repel or thwart);
protect against (absorb or mitigate); respond to (cope with) and recover from (and adapt to),
Figure 163.

77
Bart E.

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Figure 163: Resilience cycle depicting possible actions associated with the different phases

The aviation security system should be resilient to the evolving threat situation. It should
therefore be based on the complete resilience cycle of “prepare, prevent, protect, respond and
recover”. This should enable stakeholders to “learn and adapt” instead of exclusively be ruled
by reactive, strict and inflexible regulations.

Security concepts should aim at involving different measures at different stages of the
passengers’ travel. The COPRA Aviation Security Research Roadmap (COPRA SECURITY D5.1)
has been developed in the final Work Package of the COPRA project. The goal of the roadmap
is: ’To provide the European Commission and the Member states with clear guidelines for future
R&D activities responding to operational and economic market needs while being attentive of
the acceptance by citizens’.

The measures should be adequate for the respective stage and even further reduce the risk of
attacks. The security concepts should thus make sure not only to concentrate on the
prevention of dangerous objects to be brought into the airport or aircraft, but also should
contain elements of the other phases of the cycle. E.g., measures in the “protect” phase of the
cycle could remove the need for prevention of tiny incidents or could mitigate large events to
make them manageable; measures in the “prepare” phase could take into account analysis of
evolving threats in order to be able to adjust the other phases accordingly. Measures at each
phase should thus correspond and connect to measures in the other phases of the resilience
cycle. Therefore, covering and balancing the complete resilience cycle means that as much
emphasis as required is to be put on (COPRA SECURITY D5.1):

 Pre-incident issues (i.e. Prepare, prevent),

 Inter-incident issues (protect) and
 Post-incident issues (respond, recover).

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A visual representation of the roadmap with all roadmap items plotted in a chart was designed
and shown on the Figure 164:
Figure 164: Recommendations and goals for future aviation security concepts 78

2.6 HIGH-BANDWIDTH DATA RESILIENT TO CYBERATTACKS

* Flightpath 2050 goal 19: “The air transport system has fully secured global high
bandwidth data network, hardened and resilient by design to cyber-attacks”

So far there have been no major reports of jamming of civil aircraft communications or
cyberattacks on air traffic infrastructure. Some isolated incidents from the past indicate that it
can happen: (i) a Tornado aircraft flying over Radio Free Europe in southern Germany may
have suffered loss of control due to high power radio transmissions interfering with on board
systems; (ii) the Iranian television showed an American UAV intact (except for undercarriage)
that did an emergency landing (US version) or was remotely diverted (Iranian version).

It is not without reason that all airliner flights request switching off of electronic devices or
changing to flight mode. It is known that the standard GPS navigation signals can be easily
jammed, leading at least in the U.S., to the development of “jam-resistant” GPS versions and

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COPRA SECURITY D5.1

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entirely separate alternative navigation systems. The operation of air traffic will require
increasing amounts of data exchanging, needing larger bandwidth; this will give more
opportunities for jamming and more entry points for cyberattack. There are countermeasures
and protection methods, some developed by the military that should be sufficient to stop a
not too sophisticated attacker.

The vulnerabilities that need to be taken into account are: (i) in a large, complex
interconnected system there are many entry points for cyber intrusion and many links to
spread the cyber-attack; (ii) the weakest node may be the preferred entry point, for example
small suppliers of equipment or codes well protected by large industries or government
bodies. Cyber protection involves hardware and software and their human users in very diverse
scenarios; the civilian and military cyber training events are a way to gain and update skills,
and tend to have a regular and expanding participation. In some cases the hosts are the victims
of cyber-attacks that have experienced their consequences and want to avoid similar situations
in the future.

The principles of cyber-defence are: (i) protect each node against intrusion by multiple
identification/screening/rejection measures, some of which can be quite simple; (ii) have an
independent monitoring of the network capable of detecting and locating anomalies and
quickly isolating them; (iii) design the system for cyber-security so that affected parts can be
isolated, and the lost functions can be allocated elsewhere. It should be borne in mind that: (i)
the only code that cannot be broken in that used only once; (ii) It is not possible to protect
software 100% with another software. The blockchain is one of the favourites current
technologies focused on cyber-security. Perhaps the most famous or infamous user of
blockchain technology is the bitcoin whose value has risen and fluctuated widely; there have
been several reported instances of hackers stealing large sums of bitcoins…

The World Economic Forum has identified cybersecurity among its top global risks for the last
eight years. Its Cyberspace 2025 Model includes airports with their transformative
technologies to reduce costs, increase customer (passenger) satisfaction, and increase
productivity in airport operations. Digital landscape will greatly impact airports across the
globe and unfortunately, cybersecurity threats are growing faster than cybersecurity
mitigation measures.

A cyber-attack can be conducted for numerous reasons in general case:

 Disruption of airport operations, perhaps in advance of a physical attack
 Theft, Loss of data, Embarrassment to the airport and its management
 Or for no reason at all
 A cyber-attack can be carried out by numerous actors:
 Disgruntled passenger
 Hacktivists
 Criminals
 Anonymous
 Insider threats
 Nation-states, Terrorists
Different security systems are currently used stand-alone and their results are not necessarily
combined to achieve a combined assessment. Aviation systems such as for booking, check-in,

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security scanning (carry-on luggage and goods) or access control all work using completely
different techniques; each system is unique and works on its own without any connection
between them. A network of information as well as process interactions should be developed
that are able to collect and use the data resulting from different security checks [COPRA
SECURITY D5.1]. A seamless end-to-end process for goods and cargo requires a continuous
flow of information of different security systems. For reasons of efficiency, systems should be
integrated to interact with each other in order to be able to provide a security solution for all
stakeholders by exploiting synergic effects. For example, analytic systems could be connected
with different information gathering systems such as results of luggage checks or booking,
boarding and travel information systems. The joint information might be used as input in, for
example, behavioural pattern recognition algorithms for achieving improved results. Such
connected and auto-analytic systems might also solve situations where several quasi-
simultaneous events – each of which not a conspicuous situation as such – could lead to a
potential security relevant event. Therefore, integrated security systems and the corresponding
algorithms should be developed that are able to collect, merge and analyse data from
completely different sources/systems across all stakeholders in aviation. These systems should
facilitate the creation of completely seamless security processes.

The use of digital data and the level of interconnection of IT systems are strongly increasing
in civil aviation. Consequently, stakeholders of the air transport system like airlines, airports
and air traffic control are more and more interlinked (Figure 165) and, thus, depend on secure
means of data exchange.

ISO 27002 is a Security Program Benchmark and stresses a holistic approach to cyber security.
Airport approach to cyber security management includes:

 Recognize the Reality and Don’t Underestimate the Problem

 Cybersecurity is a Top Management Issue
 Think Aviation Industry-Wide
 Establish a Security Program
 Perform Risk Assessment and Prioritize Your Defence
 Establish a Strong Patching Program
 Include Cybersecurity in all levels of the Organization
 Increase your Internal Capability/Acquire Qualified External Assistance
 Develop an Adaptive Security Architecture
 Participate in the ACI World IT Security Benchmarking Tool

Figure 165: Interconnection of the air transport system: Arrows indicate the interfaces for information exchange and, thus,
represent risks for contagion effects in the case of false or missing information

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ICAO Assembly calls upon States and industry stakeholders to identify the threats and risks
from possible cyber incidents on civil aviation operations and critical systems, and the serious
consequences that can arise from such incidents. Based on a common understanding of cyber
threats and risks, adopt a flexible, risk-based approach to protecting critical aviation systems
through the implementation of cybersecurity management systems (ICAO A39-WP/17).

Cyber-attacks can impact aviation businesses in several ways, from the loss of data and
intellectual property to business interruption and more. To protect all key assets and effectively
manage cyber risk, it’s critical that you understand the cyber scenarios your organization is
most likely to face — and how much they can cost your business.

To assess your cyber risk, you should:

 Identify and inventory key assets — data, systems, and infrastructure — that are
essential to your operations.
 Review your internal controls and digital profile to identify internal vulnerabilities and
external threats.
 Value your cyber assets at risk using modelling and other data and technology tools.
By taking these steps, you can objectively measure your cyber risk, and incorporate
quantitative data into your risk management decision-making.

Four comprehensive scenarios address different segments of the air transport system and
serve as a basis for the analysis of specific attack vectors from internal or external aggressors
(Figure 166). One scenario, for example, considers an incorrect representation of the airspace
during transatlantic flights or near airports. In such a case, the determination of the position
of one or more aircraft could be impaired, which would lead to a loss of integrity of the
respective airspace. Another scenario addresses a spoofed data link between two air transport
stakeholders in an area relevant for safe operation. Here, the entire air transport system could
be impacted due to contagion effects.

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Figure 166: Horizontal scenario space illustration: Both key process steps in the lifetime of an aircraft and each of the
scenario spaces are depicted. Own illustration, based on EATMA 79

Based on these potential threat scenarios, an aviation consortium is able to assess potential
threats and risks for the air transport system. In the project [Cyber resilience scenario] the
developed scenarios will be transferred to a demonstrator for the purpose of analysing how
air traffic resilience could be improved with respect to potential cyber threats.

Risk Management for cyber security in airports, airlines and flight control organizations is
realized in accordance with system approach and view, it is shown in the Figure 167. ATC is
highly dependent on the availability and integrity of its technical infrastructure, buildings, IT
and communications systems. In recent years, particular attention has been given to this topic.
But this remains an important area of concern with regard to potential penetrations aimed at
causing dramatic incidents (e.g., the SAIFIT project on IT security, SAFEE on advanced aircraft
security system).

The increasing complexity and interconnection of systems provides more entry points for
cyber-attacks and more paths for its spread. A cyber-protection system must continuously
monitor the whole network, quickly detect anomalies, isolate the affected systems, and restore
their functions by other means.

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European Air Traffic Management Architecture

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Figure 167: Risk Management for cyber security

2.6.1 KEY TOPICS RELATED TO SAFETY AND SECURITY

The consideration of safety and security measures, indicates the importance of the following
topics.

 The mitigation of weather hazards is one of the safety aspects of air traffic management
(Key Topic T5.1).
 A major challenge is the integration of drones in controlled air space (Key Topic T5.2).
 On the ground side airports need to implement comprehensive and unobstructed
security measures (Key Topic T5.3).
 The provision of high-bandwidth data resilient to cyber-attacks for the aviation sector
(Key Topic T5.4) is one aspect of the wider issue of cyber-protection (Key Topic 5.5) for
which specific technologies are being developed (Key Topic 5.6).

2.6.1.1 KEY TOPIC T5.1 – EVALUATION AND MITIGATION OF WEATHER AND OTHER
HAZARDS
Goal 15 was defined in Flightpath 2050 as “Weather and other hazards from environment are
precisely evaluated and risks properly mitigated”.

Comparing the scope in both Flightpath 2050 and SRIA it can be stated that both proposals
are coherent between themselves. The objective of ensuring high levels of operational safety
make that the knowledge of most of weather phenomena, other hazards and their possible

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effects can outcome as a great value in the pursuing of safety through mitigating their related
risks.

Moreover, it is necessary to take into account the climate change and the possible effects that
could become a reality in the future, either short or long term. In this matter, research and
development become essential in order to understand possible new hazards and to set
mitigating measures that should be implemented to reduce their associated risks.

Benchmarks

It is a statement that aviation could not exist without the air. This is owing to lift principles
being based on the variation of air speed between intrados and extrados of the wings which
generates a variation of pressure that translates into the coming up of a upwards force called
lift.

This variation of air speed is extremely important for the aircraft performance thereby airplanes
usually take off and land upwind in order to increase this variation of speed between air and
aircraft, obtaining a larger lift.

However, usually wind and other meteorological effects become hazardous for the aircraft
operation producing different setbacks such as delays or even incidents and accidents. The
following weather hazards should be considered in the air traffic operation:

 Icing: one of simplest assumptions made about clouds is that cloud droplets are in a
liquid form at temperatures warmer than 0°C and that they freeze into ice crystals
within a few degrees below zero. In reality, however, 0°C marks the temperature below
which water droplets become ‘supercooled’ and are capable of freezing. While some
of the droplets actually do freeze spontaneously just below 0°C, others persist in the
liquid state at much lower temperatures. Aircraft icing occurs when supercooled water
droplets strike an aircraft whose temperature is colder than 0°C. The effects icing can
have on an aircraft can be quite serious (Figure 168) and include:
o Disruption of the smooth laminar flow over the wings causing a decrease in lift
and an increase in the stall speed. This last effect is particularly dangerous. An
“iced” aircraft is effectively an “experimental” aircraft with an unknown stall
speed.
o Increase in weight and drag thus increasing fuel consumption
o Partial or complete blockage of pitot heads and static ports giving erroneous
instrument readings.
o Restriction of visibility as the windshield glazes over.

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Figure 168: Effects of icing on an aircraft

 Visibility: reduced visibility is the meteorological component which impacts flight

operations the most. There are several causes of reduced visibility:
o c: lithometers are dry particles suspended in the atmosphere and include haze,
smoke, sand and dust. Of these, smoke and haze cause the most problems. The
most common sources of smoke are forest fires. Smoke from distant sources
will resemble haze but, near a fire, smoke can reduce the visibility significantly.
o Precipitation: rain can reduce visibility, however, the restriction is seldom less
than one mile other than in the heaviest showers beneath cumulonimbus
clouds. Drizzle, because of the greater number of drops in each volume of air,
is usually more effective than rain at reducing the visibility, especially when
accompanied by fog. Besides, snow affects visibility more than rain or drizzle
and can easily reduce it to less than one mile. Blowing snow is a product of
strong winds picking up the snow particles and lifting them into the air. Fresh
fallen snow is easily disturbed and can be lifted a few hundred feet. Under
extreme conditions, the cockpit visibility will be excellent during a landing
approach until the aircraft flares, at which time the horizontal visibility will be
reduced abruptly.
o Fog: it is the most common and persistent visibility obstruction encountered
by the aviation community. A cloud based on the ground, fog, can consist of
water droplets, super cooled water droplets, ice crystals or a mix of super
cooled droplets and ice crystals. There are different types of fog:
 Radiation fog: it begins to form over land usually under clear skies and
light winds typically after midnight and peaks early in the morning. As
the land surface loses heat and radiates it into space, the air above the
land is cooled and loses its ability to hold moisture. If an abundance of
condensation nuclei is present in the atmosphere, radiation fog may
develop before the temperature-dew point spread reaches zero. After
sunrise, the fog begins to burn off from the edges over land but any fog
that has drifted over water will take longer to burn off.
 Precipitation or frontal fog: it forms ahead of warm fronts when
precipitation falls through a cooler layer of air near the ground. The
precipitation saturates the air at the surface and fog forms. Breaks in
the precipitation usually results in the fog becoming thicker.

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  Steam fog: it forms when very cold arctic air moves over relatively
warmer water. In this case moisture evaporates from the water surface
and saturates the air. The extremely cold air cannot hold all the
evaporated moisture, so the excess condenses into fog. The result looks
like steam or smoke rising from the water, and is usually no more than
50 to 100 feet thick. Steam fog, also called arctic sea smoke, can also
produce significant icing conditions.
 Advection fog: it forms when warm moist air moves across a snow, ice
or cold water surface.
 Ice fog: it occurs when water vapour sublimates directly into ice crystals.
In conditions of light winds and temperatures colder than -30°C or so,
water vapour from manmade sources or cracks in ice covered rivers can
form widespread and persistent ice fog. The fog produced by local
heating systems, and even aircraft engines, can reduce the local visibility
to near zero, closing an airport for hours or even days.
 Wind, shear and turbulence: unravelling the daily variations of the winds, where they
blow and how strong they do remain a problem for meteorologists. The problem
becomes even more difficult when local effects such as wind flow through coastal inlets
or in mountain valleys are added to the issue. The result of these effects can give one
airport persistent light winds while another has nightly episodes of strong gusty winds.
Besides, one of the most dangerous effects for aviation is wind shear. It is nothing more
than a change in wind direction and/or wind speed over the distance between two
points. In the aviation world, the major concern is how abruptly the change occurs. If
the change is abrupt, there will be a rapid change of airspeed or track and, depending
on the aircraft type, it could take a significant time to correct the situation, placing the
aircraft in danger, mostly during take-off and landing. Significant shearing can occur
when the surface wind blowing along a valley varies significantly from the free flowing
wind above the valley. Changes in direction of 90° and speed changes of 25 knots are
reasonably common in mountainous terrain. This is the case of Bilbao Airport, where a
significant number of go arounds are registered every year. For example, in 2001, an
Embraer ERJ-145 EP operated by Portugalia, made a first ILS approach on runway 30.
When was on final, the pilot decided to go around and follow the missing approach
procedure in order to make a second try. During the second approach, the pilot
decided to try again the ILS 30 approach having been informed of variable wind of
250/21 with gusts of 25 kt. The aircraft landed passed half of the runway and seconds
later made a runway excursion, stopping over the grass 135 meters far away from
runway 12 threshold. Fortunately, none of the passengers and flight crew were
seriously injured. Related to that, mechanical turbulence is a form of shear induced
when a rough surface disrupts the smooth wind flow depending on the wind speed,
roughness of the obstruction and the stability of the air. Besides, turbulence is the
direct result of wind shear in such a way that the stronger the shear, the greater the
tendency for the laminar flow of the air to break down into eddies resulting in
turbulence. However, not all shear zones are turbulent, so the absence of turbulence
does not infer that there is no shear.
 Lee waves: when air flows across a mountain or hill, it is disturbed the same way as
water flowing over a rock. The air initially is displaced upwards across the mountain,
dips sharply on the lee side, then rises and falls in a series of waves downstream. These

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 waves are called “mountain waves” or “lee waves” (Figure 169) and are most notable
for their turbulence.
Figure 169: Amplitude (A) and wavelength (W) in lee waves

 Thunderstorms: no other weather encountered by a pilot can be as violent or

threatening as a thunderstorm. Thunderstorms produce many hazards to the aviation
community, and, it’s important that pilots understand their nature and how to deal
with them. To produce a thunderstorm, there are several drivers which must be in place.
These include an unstable air mass, moisture in the low levels, something to trigger
them (e.g. daytime heating, upper level cooling…) and for severe thunderstorms it is
necessary wind shear. The environment in and around a thunderstorm can be the most
hazardous encountered by an aircraft. In addition to the usual risks such as severe
turbulence, severe clear icing, large hail, heavy precipitation, low visibility and electrical
discharges, there are other hazards that occur in the surrounding environment:
o The gust front: it is the leading edge of any downburst and can run many miles
ahead of the storm. This may occur under relatively clear skies and, hence, can
be particularly nasty for the unwary pilot. Aircraft taking off, landing, or
operating at low levels can find themselves in rapidly changing wind fields that
quickly threaten the aircraft’s ability to remain airborne. In a matter of seconds,
the wind direction can change by as much 180°, while at the same time the
wind speed can approach 100 knots in the gusts. All of this will likely be
accompanied by considerable mechanical turbulence and induced shear on the
frontal boundary up to 6,500 feet above the ground.
o Downburst, macroburst and microburst: A downburst is a concentrated,
severe downdraft which accompanies a descending column of precipitation
underneath the cell. When it hits the ground, it induces an outward, horizontal
burst of damaging winds. There are two types of downburst, the “macroburst”
and the “microburst”. A macroburst is a downdraft of air with an outflow
diameter of 2.2 nautical miles, or greater, with damaging winds that last from
5 to 20 minutes. Such occurrences are common in the summer but only rarely
hit towns or airports. On occasion, embedded within the downburst, is a violent
column of descending air known as a “microburst”. Microbursts have an
outflow diameter of less than 2.2 nautical miles and peak winds lasting from 2
to 5 minutes. Such winds can literally force an aircraft into the ground.
 Volcanic ash: a major, but fortunately infrequent, threat to aviation is volcanic ash.
When a volcano erupts, a large amount of rock is pulverized into dust and blasted
upwards. The altitude is determined by the severity of the blast and, at times, the ash
plume will extend into the stratosphere. This ash is then spread downwind by the winds
aloft in the troposphere and the stratosphere. Of greater concern is the volcanic ash
that is ingested by aircraft engines at flight level. Piston-driven engines can fail due to

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 plugged air filters while turbine engines can “flame out” and stop working. That was
the case of Eyjafjallajökull in 2010, when it created an ash cloud that led to the closure
of most of the European IFR airspace from 15 until 20 April 2010. This meant (Figure
170) the disruption of some 100,000 flights and 10 million passenger journeys during
these days producing huge economic loses and setbacks.

Figure 170: Traffic in Europe before and during the April crisis

This set of hazards for aviation could become into tragedies if they are not found out with
enough time in order to mitigate their impact or to avoid them by setting other routes to be
flown. In this manner, phenomena occurred near airports and that affect its operation should
be early detected, either through forecasts or actual sighting, in order to implement the
appropriate measures, such as advice airplanes to land at another airport.

On the other hand, phenomena occurred along the route that will be followed by the aircraft
should be detected before aircraft departs from the airport or far enough from the hazard
meanwhile the aircraft is airborne.

In conclusion, these predictive measures lead to the need to develop the current systems and
radars used to set both weather and hazards forecasts.

Reference State in 2010

Since the beginning of aviation, weather and its related hazards have been a key factor during
air traffic operations, producing uncountable number of incidents and accidents. These events
related to meteorology have also produced uncountable delays in aircraft operations, being
one of the main reasons which aircraft cannot take-off or land.

In this context, many studies related to these hazards have been carried out along last decades.
As example, the National Aviation Safety Data Analysis Centre (NASDAC), which is a part of
the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), issued a Review of Aviation Accidents Involving
Weather Turbulence in the United States, analysing the accidents occurred during 1990s. In
this document, data was extracted from the National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB)
Aviation Accident/Incident Data System. The NTSB is the official U.S. repository of aviation
accident data and causal factors.

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This study explained that, from 1992 to 2001, there were 4326 weather accidents out of a total
of 20332 accidents that occurred in the United States, setting a 21,3% of total. Of these 4326
accidents, 509 were cited as turbulence weather events which nearly 23 percent of these
turbulence-related accidents resulted in fatal injuries to the occupants of the aircraft. The cause
or factor most often in the general aviation accidents was downdraft meanwhile in the air
carrier accidents was clear air turbulence.
Figure 171: Comparison of weather accidents to weather turbulence accidents, 1992-2001

As can be noticed in the Figure 171, the number of weather accidents showed a slightly tend
to decrease but it also remained approximately steady over the years, which induces to think
that no measures or not enough measures were taken in order to make the number of
accidents decrease. Additionally, the following Figure shows the percentages of each cause
or factor related to weather hazards, describing that the most often causes from 1992 to 2001
were wind and visibility.

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Figure 172: Total weather accidents by phenomenon from 1992 to 2001

Another study called Weather-related Aviation Accident Study 2003-2007 was issued by the
Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2010. This document reveal that, from 2003 to 2007,
there were 8657 aviation accidents which weather was a cause or contributing factor in 1740
accidents setting a 20,1% of total. If this figure is compared with the 21,3% of weather
accidents out of total reported from 1992 to 2001, it can be realized that a slightly decrease
occurred as it is displayed in the following Figure 173:
Figure 173: Weather related accidents from 1992 to 2007 in the US

Concerning the percentages of each cause or factor related to weather hazards, the following
Figure 174 shows that the most often causes from 2003 to 2007 were also wind and visibility
as in the previous period.

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Figure 174: Total weather accidents by phenomenon from 2003 to 2007

As wind has contributed about 50% of every weather-related accidents from 1992 to 2007, it
was important to study where on the route these problems had happened to the aircraft. The
following Figure shows that the most of the occurrences had happened during landing at the
destination airport (57,7%). Therefore, it is usual to think that different measures to mitigate
the impacts of the wind in the operation should be implemented.
Figure 175: Wind accidents by phase of flight from 2003 to 2007

Progress up-to-now

The decreasing streak in number of weather-related accidents have continued along the last
few years until reaching historical minimum in 2011. This was explained in the Wake and
Weather Turbulence Report issued by Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in 2016.

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According to the NTSB, 19575 aviation accidents occurred in the United States from 2002 to
2013. During this timeframe, weather was identified as a cause or contributing factor in 2983
accidents (15.23%). If this number is compared with the previous percentages, it can be noticed
that the number of accidents have considerably decreased in the last few years as it is shown
in the following Figure 176:
Figure 176: Weather related accidents in the US from 1992 to 2013

However, even though the number of accidents due to the weather has steadily decreased
until the present time, it is necessary to put into context these accidents in terms of severity.
Related to that, covering the period between 2002 and 2013, the following events have been
reported:
Figure 177: Weather events by worst injury aboard

Assessing the numbers in Figure 177, almost half of the events had no consequence for
passengers but nevertheless the high percentage of fatal injury cannot be disregarded.

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Therefore, it is necessary to find the right measures to turn these fatal events into no
consequence events. Besides, and even more important, it is necessary to focus on continuing
to decrease the number of weather-related accidents through new developments either
aircraft, ground systems and equipment or detection methods and avoidance strategies. This
means that more investments within this field are necessary.

As an example of the type of technology available to detect and predict weather related
hazardous situations, nowadays in the United States, the ground equipment consists of the
Next Generation Weather Radar System (NEXRAD) and Terminal Doppler Weather Radar
(TDWR) networks. The Next Generation Weather Radar (NEXRAD) system (Figure ) currently
comprises 160 sites throughout the United States and selected overseas locations, using the
Weather Surveillance Radars–1988 Doppler (WSR-88D).

WSR-88D systems are modified and enhanced during their operational life to meet changing
requirements, technology advances, and improved understanding of the application of these
systems to real-time weather operations. These new technologies included:

 Mid-Volume Rescan of Low-Level Elevations (MRLE)

 Supplemental Adaptive Intra-Volume Low-Level Scan (SAILS)
 Enhanced Velocity Azimuth Display Wind Profile (EVWP)
 Automated Volume Scan Evaluation and Termination (AVSET)
 Two-Dimensional Velocity Dealiasing Improvement Algorithm
Figure 178: NEXRAD system network

On the other hand, the Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR) network is a Doppler weather
radar system (Figure 178) operated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), which is
used primarily for the detection of hazardous wind shear conditions, precipitation, and winds
aloft on and near major airports situated in climates with great exposure to thunderstorms in
the United States.

TDWR was developed in the early 1990s in order to assist air traffic controllers by providing
real-time wind shear detection and high-resolution precipitation data and, as of 2014, there
were 45 operational TDWR radar systems in major metropolitan locations across the United
States and Puerto Rico.

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Figure 179: Terminal Doppler Weather Radar at Charlotte Airport

Comparing the TDWR to the WSR-88D, the range resolution of the TDWR is finer than what is
available in the Weather Surveillance Radar, 1988 Doppler (WSR-88D), or any other FAA radar
that has weather channel capability. The TDWR utilizes a range gate resolution of 150 m for
Doppler data. It has a resolution of 150 m for reflectivity data within 135 km and 300 m from
beyond 135 km to 460 km. By contrast, the WSR-88D employed by the National Weather
Service, FAA, and Department of Defence has a maximum range gate resolution of 250 m for
Doppler and 1 km for surveillance data.

The angular (azimuth) resolution of the TDWR is nearly twice what is available in the WSR-88D.
Each radial in the TDWR has a beam width of 0.55 degrees whilst the average beam width for
the WSR-88D is 0.95 degrees.

Summarizing, the Terminal Doppler Weather Radar (TDWR) is a high quality, dedicated
meteorological surveillance radar usually deployed near of the larger airports and it is a great
supporting feature to the WSR-88D Radar.

In addition, regarding the airborne operation, deteriorating weather conditions are frequently
the cause of changes in flight objectives, and the pilot needs to know quickly where the
weather is better and what to do to get there. Related to that, it is necessary an Aviation
Weather Information (AWIN) system (Figure 180) which consists of, a means for distributing
the weather products to the users, and a means to present the information to the users.

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Figure 180: Block diagram of an AWIN system

However, pilots need more than just weather information for in-flight decision making. This
includes aircraft capabilities, pilot capabilities, and information on flight-path-relevant terrain,
obstacles, air space restrictions, and traffic. For example, a light windshear or other weather
disturbance reported by an aircraft on approach can be used to alert following aircraft and
divert them to another airport before the windshear becomes more hazardous. Data links are
needed to exchange information between airplanes and ground stations and, in the same
manner, aircraft-to-aircraft links may be needed for timely exchange of in situ weather reports.
Information from on-board sensors may be passed to ground-based weather systems for
incorporation in updated forecasts and reports that can be subsequently transmitted to aircraft
in flight. Data-link weather information systems are intended to provide information for long-
term strategic planning and to augment on board sensors (Figure 181) such as weather radar
and lightning detectors.
Figure 181: Cockpit radar display of turbulence

In conclusion, further efforts in this field should be done, such as developing the current
systems aboard and improving the communications aircraft-ground and aircraft-aircraft via
data link.

2.6.1.2 KEY TOPIC T5.2 - INTEGRATION OF UNMANNED AIRCRAFT IN MANNED AIRSPACE

Goal 16 was defined in Flightpath 2050 as “The European air transport system operates
seamlessly through interoperable and networked systems allowing manned and unmanned
air vehicles to safely operate in the same airspace”.

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Comparing both Flightpath 2050 and SRIA goals it can be realized that the goal has been set
in the safety framework which makes sense because, although Unmanned Aircraft System
(UAS) represent an infinite world with multiple applications still to be explored, they are also
coming up strongly as a new risk area. Contextualizing, Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS), of
which the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) is the airborne component, comprise two
fundamental types:

 Remotely-Piloted Aircraft Systems (RPAS), a class of UAS which has a ‘pilot’ operating
the Remotely-Piloted Aircraft (RPA) from a Ground-Control Station (GCS).
 UAS with no remote pilot, or autonomous air vehicles.
These Unmanned Aerial Vehicles constitute a new threat in the European airspace as
demonstrated by the occurrence of several incidents involving conventional aircraft and UAVs.
As example, in the 2016 Annual Safety Report (Figure 182) issued by EUROCONTROL, which
relies on data received from the Member States, the highest number of reports amounts to
over 40 events in 2015; hence, in order to reduce the number of incidents related to RPAS, it
is necessary to contribute to the seamless accommodation and integration of RPAS into the
European ATM.
Figure 182: RPAS related occurrences in 2015

Benchmarks

RPAS have been instrumental in providing new capabilities for European defence and have
demonstrated significant growth as a consumer leisure product. At the same time, they are
offering public safety and security authorities’ new capabilities much in the same way they
have for the military, and are transforming commercial businesses. A core component to these

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new capabilities and transformations is the collection of data from strategic vantage points
that have been either inaccessible or too expensive to be economically viable today. This core
area of data processing is being extended to include the efficient transport of urgently needed
goods within a local community or industrial site with longer term aspirations to transform
large commercial vehicles for both cargo transport and also, someday, passenger transport.

Related to the stated above, Europe is not alone in this race: the United States (US) and China
are two key States that are significantly investing into technology and innovative businesses
that currently exceed the level of total European investments. In particular, the US is the leader
in producing defence drone systems – followed by Israel – and China not only is the leader in
producing leisure units that tend to be more and more used for professional purposes but is
also becoming the leading exported of high-end armed military drones that face US export
restrictions. Therefore, Europe should focus on developing the use of drones in as many
sectors as possible since UAS will create significant benefits that should be pursued in the
following years.

In addition, it is expected that commercial and professional users demand drones in both rural
and urban settings. Examples of some of the most influential missions, in terms of the potential
number of drones and economic impact, include the following:

 Agriculture sector where over 100000 drones are forecasted to enable precision
agriculture to help drive increased levels of productivity that are required.
 Energy sector where close to 10000 drones limit risk of personnel and infrastructure by
performing preventative maintenance inspections.
 Public safety and security where a forecasted fleet of approximately 50000 drones
would provide authorities like police and fire forces the means to more efficiently and
effectively locate endangered citizens and assess hazards as they carry out civil
protection and humanitarian missions.
 Delivery purposes where there is potential for a fleet of nearly 100000 drones to
provide society with some kind of urgent service capabilities, such as transporting
emergency medical supplies, and “premium” deliveries. This is the case of different
companies such as Amazon or Google. Related to this, many studies are currently
carrying out: as example, in 2016 Airbus signed a contract with the Civil Aviation
Authority of Singapore (CAAS) allowing them to test an UAV parcel delivery service on
the campus of the National University of Singapore (NUS) under its project “Skyways”.
This project (Figure 183) aims to provide efficient delivery of small packages using
UAVs.


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Figure 183:"Skyways" project developed by Airbus

In this case, the UAV is a fully autonomous octocopter that carries air transport containers
located on its underside and flies an equally fully automated route called “aerial corridors”
landing on a designated landing pad where it is automatically unloaded and then the customer
receives a delivery notification on their smartphone saying their parcel is ready for picking up
at the parcel station.

Projects like “Skyways” are interesting due to they could help to evolve the regulatory
framework for self-piloted aircraft systems operations if the outcomes demonstrate that
“Skyways” and associated infrastructure can safely operate over the National University of
Singapore.

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Figure 184: Applications by region based on media attention

Further actions taken at the European Union level will need to occur rapidly given the pace of
global development in drones, especially as the US and China are already (Figure ) the leaders
in different forms of production and investing more heavily than the European Union. One
example of this is the UAS Traffic Management (UTM) system that is currently being developed
by NASA in the US. This system has been described properly in Benchmarks for Goal 4.

Much of what still needs to be done include technology (detect and avoid, Datacom), air traffic
management, security & cyber reliance along with the availability of authorized & safe testing
environments. As a main finding of the study, and based on the expectations of the market to
unlock demand and global competiveness, these improvements need to be completed within
a window of opportunity limited to the next 5-10 years. Completion within such a time span
requires that an ecosystem is created at European Union level around both technology and
regulation to ensure a proper “home” for drones that brings all key public and private
stakeholders together.

Regarding research and development, European Union funding levels need to be re-assessed
to stimulate this emerging marketplace and establish a European level ecosystem. Based on
expectations of the market, an estimated total of at least EUR 200 million in additional R&D
over the next 5-10 years is required to address remaining gaps related to Very Low Level (VLL)
activities that will represent the majority of future drone operations. Required additional
investments should be supported by a mix of both public and private stakeholders reinforcing
the importance of a European level ecosystem for R&D. This same mix of stakeholders will also
be needed to ensure fast implementation of comprehensive regulation. Speed will be essential
for Europe to obtain a global leadership position, especially as the value in services remains in
the early stages of development in all markets. It is therefore also critical that R&D

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coordination at European Union level results in leveraging and bringing together numerous
initiatives that are presently fragmented across Member States and industry stakeholders.

One of the keys in this subject is the technology related to air traffic management in such a
way that the demand of UAVs on all areas of airspace highlights the critical nature of air traffic
management. UAVs will create new forms of traffic, especially (Figure 185) at very low levels
of airspace with high demand in densely populated areas where risk levels will increase. As a
result, appropriate new and adapted procedures along with the development of technology
related to the management of airspace are a "must-have" for safely accommodate the growth
of UAVs. Besides, the absence of a pilot on board the aircraft raises the question of how to
detect and avoid other traffic, or objects, and how to handle dangerous situations. Airborne
collision avoidance systems can protect unmanned aircraft from damage, but they are not
designed to deal with denser traffic. This is comparable to the situation with road traffic: As
long as there are just a few vehicles on the road, the driver is able to control the situation and
avoid other vehicles or obstacles; but the denser traffic becomes, the more traffic control in
the form of, for example, traffic lights is needed.
Figure 185: UAVs operations by altitudes

Related to that, conventional air traffic management cannot be applied to unmanned aircraft.
It relies on voice communication between air traffic controllers and pilots, and on radar
detection. Larger drones may be equipped with voice recognition/speech synthesis radio, and
have a significantly larger radar cross-section. However, many drones are too small, and
operate too close to the ground, for radar to be of any use. Current airspace management and
air traffic flow management systems are not predicted to have the capabilities to handle the
type of operations relevant to drones. In addition, the forecasted traffic density of drones is
far beyond the capabilities of current air traffic management systems, which were never

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designed to handle large amounts of dense heterogeneous traffic with widely varying
performance characteristics.

In this context, Member States of the European Union should be at the forefront of this matter,
developing the UTM system that allow UAVs to fly joining manned aircraft and also
implementing the regulatory framework regarding the integration of UAS into a busy airspace
as it is European airspace.

Besides, it is important to set the differences between the UTM concept and the UTM system:

 On the one hand, the UTM concept is a complex system in which several stakeholders
contribute to ensure the required safety level of UAS operations, i.e. is a system of
stakeholders and technical systems collaborating in certain interactions and according
to certain regulations, to maintain safe separation of unmanned aircraft, between
themselves and from ATM users, at very low level, and to provide an efficient and
orderly flow of traffic.
 On the other hand, a UTM system is a concrete technical implementation comprising
software, the necessary infrastructure for running the software and the drones
themselves, all contributing to the achievement of UTM. This UTM system should cover
the needs of both RPAS and autonomous unmanned aircraft and also consider all sort
of UAS operations: VLOS (Visual Line Of Sight), EVLOS (Extended Visual Line Of Sight)
and BVLOS (Beyond Visual Line Of Sight).
As it can be noticed, the most likely stakeholders of an UTM system could be composed of
national aviation authorities, supranational institutions, drone pilots, operators, drone owners,
conventional aviation pilots, conventional ground, rail or sea traffic, law enforcements,
emergency services, drone manufacturers or UTM service providers. This cluster of
stakeholders evidences that the UTM domain will have to deal with different and
heterogeneous organizations that should address this issue as a solid and collaborative group.

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Figure 186: Example of an UTM system

Related to the Figure 186, each UTM system can be modelled as a set of functional blocks in
mutual interaction in order to accomplish the system mission. This proposal is a logical
breakdown not aimed at constraining possible deployments, which may vary in the physical
architecture according to the specific deployment case. The breakdown is rather aimed at
highlighting important information exchanges, inputs for service, and data protocol
definitions.

Another possible breakdown is the one proposed by NASA, which shows (Figure 187) how a
UTM system will be deployed in the United States and which has been described in Goal 4.

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Figure 187: NASA UTM system

Reference State in 2010

Drones have been used since long time ago, as demonstrate the first prototypes which date
from XIX century. These first steps of the UAVs addressed to develop them for military and
security issues during the XX century, in such a way that they were used in different wars such
as the Second World War or the Cold War.

However, since not so long ago -about 20 years ago- governments and private stakeholders
started to try to extend their range of action to a civilian application. Thus stakeholders had to
consider the new concepts for a civilian application: whilst the ultimate goal in military
application is completion of mission, the ultimate goal in civilian application is safety. That
means that in military application aircraft could crash but only after mission is completed,
nevertheless in civilian application aircraft could never crash. Consequently, a technology
development was needed for UAVs civilian application due to different specifications meant
different systems.

Focusing on the European Union, several projects about UAVs were carried out during the first
years of the XXI century within the Fifth Framework Programme. This Fifth Framework
Programme set out the priorities for the European Union's research, technological
development and demonstration (RTD) activities for the period 1998-2002.

Some of these projects are explained below:

 UAV-NET: this project addressed a Thematic Network on the subject of advancing the
utilization of UAVs into the civilian commercial sphere UAVs have proven their
capability within the military fields. The many civilian applications addressed in this
project were environmental monitoring, communications relays, law enforcement
surveillance, earth observation, etc. where the benefits of UAVs were only beginning
to be understood. The Thematic Network served as a forum for information exchange,
for setting new policies and for launching activities in critical technology research and
technology platform validation studies at the next stage.

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  CAPECON: this project (Figure 188) aimed to advance the utilization of safe and low
cost Unmanned Air Vehicles (UAVs) in the civilian commercial sphere. CAPECON
surveyed in-depth applications of potential users, and produced safety and cost
assessments. It also was compared different aerodynamic configurations and it was
defined possible civil UAV configuration ready for engineering development. This
project was a research synthesis of critical technologies, configuration design,
simulation and cost appraisal methods, aimed at the design and production of safe
and commercially viable, civilian UAVs. The project also focused on configurations and
technologies suited to High and Medium Altitude Long Endurance (HALE and MALE)
missions and also to Rotary UAVs. At that moment, the commercial potential for the
civilian use of UAVs was largely untapped; hence CAPECON aimed to enable the EU to
gain a leading role in this emerging technology.
Figure 188: UAVs studied in CAPECON Project

 USICO: the main goals of this project (Figure 189) was to improve operational
capability and safety of UAVs. Related to that, the scope of work gathered the following
issues:
o Recommendations for UAV system airworthiness certification procedures and
standards.
o Recommendations for UAV operations regulations.
o Technology for see and avoid.
o Proposals for research into image recognition and sensors and adapted ADS-B
technology.
o Flight simulation of UAV ATC/ATM process. For example, USICO simulated a
civil UAV safely flight in Frankfurt airspace using the concepts developed by the
USICO project.

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Figure 189: USICO simulation in Frankfurt airspace

Progress up-to-now

During the last decade the disruptive concepts related to UAVs systems and manufacturing
were developed in such a way that the civil use of UAVs has sharply increased. Nowadays,
besides the different uses of UAVs such as public safety, deliveries, surveillance, weather
monitoring, and agriculture and so on, it is usual to know someone who owns a drone for
leisure. As a result of that, the number of drones within European Union has multiplied over
the last 2 years.

These new users of airspace are generating new conflicts which have shown up during the last
few years. Concerning that, EASA analyse in its Annual Safety Reviews the occurrences related
to UAS in the European airspace and, in the 2017 Annual Safety Review, the outcomes show
that the most of the occurrences are related to either airspace infringements that occasionally
lead to a near collision with an aircraft or issues with controlling the RPAS’s flight path.

In this manner, the analysis of UAS occurrences in the European Central Repository (ECR)
identified 606 occurrences (Figure ) of all severity levels for the last 5 years, of which 37 had
been classified as accidents, and fortunately none of them involved fatalities. The collection of
data on UAS occurrences is still in its infancy and there is still a lot of work to be done to
ensure the correct application of taxonomy terminology related to UAS. This work should be
done due to the fact that the increase in the number of non-fatal accidents and serious
incidents demonstrate the rapid development of drone operations.

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Figure 190: Key statistics about UAS accidents and serious incidents from ECR occurrence database

The Figure 190 shows the development of reported UAS occurrences for the last 5 years. These
occurrences, observations and sightings come mostly from pilots flying commercial aircraft
owing to it is rare that UAS pilots report the occurrences that they encounter concerning UAS
operations. As can be noticed from the Figure 190, the difference in terms of percentage
between both periods of time is extremely high. Moreover, this yearly growth of occurrences
can also be perceived in the following Figure 191 in which data from European Central
Repository and additional data reported to EASA from several European operators have been
used.
Figure 191: UAS reported occurrences per year 2012-2016

Fortunately, most of these occurrences have not been classified as accidents as can be seen in
the following Figure 192. However, a further effort is necessary in order to decrease the large
number of incidents and accidents reported during the last few years.

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Figure 192: UAS accidents and other occurrences during 2012-2016

An additional study has been carried out based on the available data containing altitude
information. It can be noticed in the following Figure 193 that when the drones are spotted
the manned aircraft is most often in the area from 0-6000 feet above the ground and the
distance from the aircraft to the drone is from 0-1000 feet. This reflects the main range of
drones, which can reach different altitudes but most often they usually operate in low-altitude
airspace, hence a regulatory framework that take into account an environment where both
unmanned and manned aircraft coexist should be implemented.
Figure 193: Aircraft altitude vs distance from drone at the time of detection 2010-2016

Regarding the most severe incidents reported during the last years, three key risk areas have
been set:

 The first one is the aircraft upset: most of the accidents are related to drone pilots
losing control of the drone as demonstrate the fact that 50% of the RPAS accidents are
related to such incidents. This incidents usually result in a damage and most often a
destruction of the aircraft.
 The second one is the airborne collision: even though there are very few occurrences
where actual collisions between a drone and a manned aircraft happen, the risk is
considered to be substantial and, with a steady exponential increase of unmanned

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 aircraft of all sizes and shapes, it is vital to monitor this area closely and to work on
solutions that prevent actual collisions.
 The third one is the obstacle collision in flight: drones used in aerial work operations
and in space constrained areas are susceptible to higher collision risk than manned
aircraft.
Therefore, it is evident that further regulations should be developed and implemented as soon
as possible in the European Union. These regulation framework should regard the control of
the UAS flight path, use of automation and also regard airspace infringement and airborne
separation, which is a hard task due to the fact that nowadays smaller drones do not have
transponders on board.

2.6.1.3 KEY TOPIC T5.3 – COMPREHENSIVE AND UNOBSTRUCTIVE SECURITY MEASURES

Today’s security measures as passenger and baggage security screening has as a consequence
delays and queues, which are the most frequent sources of traveller dissatisfaction. Therefore,
the ACARE goal for the future is to achieve the minimum of delay, intrusion and disruption in
the implementation of safety measures, through the use of the most appropriate equipment
and airport architectures.

One of the current initiatives which has as an objective to improve the passenger experience
and to strengthen security is the project called Smart Security, a joint initiative of the
International Air Transport Association (IATA) and Airports Council International (ACI). This
project defines a future where passengers proceed through security checkpoints with minimal
inconvenience, where security resources are allocated based on risk, and where airport facilities
are optimized. This will be achieved through the implementation of new technologies and
processes that will result in the following benefits:

 Security improvement.
 Better passenger experience.
 Operational efficiency improvement

New technologies

Conventional X-ray scanners and metal detectors are the standard security methods used
nowadays but they imply delays and troubles for passengers. Advanced screening
technologies (Figure ) will allow for effective threat detection while reducing the burden for
passengers. Some solutions proposed to improve security measures are the following ones:

 Passenger screening: security scanners which are increasingly being adopted by

airports can improved security and passenger experience outcomes, since they have
the capacity to detect concealed items on the body regardless of the substance and
the ability to facilitate a targeted search. These security scanners together with
automated decision support algorithms could help the security officers to carry out
better and quicker inspections of passengers and, at the same time, respecting better
their privacy.
 Cabin baggage screening: new technologies which are currently in development such
as Dual/multi-view X-rays and Computed Tomography (CT) could help operators to
examine in a more accurate way the cabin baggage. For example, Dual/multi-view X-
rays assist provides images of multiple angles of the same bag while the CT capacities

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 include the ability to produce 360 degree images from the bag, which will allow to
have a better view of its content.
 Alternative measures: alternative screening methods could enhance the overall
effectiveness of the security checkpoints, while at the same time support operational
efficiency and an improved passenger experience. Some of these new alternative
methods are the Explosive trace detection (ETD) or the Explosive detection dogs (EDD).
On the one hand, ETD equipment can detect trace amounts of explosives on a person,
their clothes or their belongings. This detection capabilities as well as their portability
makes ETD a passenger friendly, especially because these devices allow a process less
intrusive. On the other hand, Dogs can be used to detect passengers who may be
carrying, or have recently been in contact with explosive materials. They offer several
advantages such as a more operational flexibility than fixed screening equipment and,
in addition, they are usually considered more unobtrusive than other security
measures.

Figure 194: Technologies for Comprehensive and unobtrusive security measures

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New procedures

Until now, most risk based decisions regarding the checkpoint have focused on assessing the
risk of a particular item, but considering all passengers as equals. Therefore, the risk-based
differentiation concept is introduced, which focuses its attention on “the person” in the
assessment of threats, instead of focusing on the items risk. As a result, based on a reasoned
process of selection, different people would be screened in different ways. For example, people
who have been identified as low risk people will have a quicker screening process while people
identified as high risk people will have a slower screening process since additional measures
will be applied to them.

Five example ‘risk categories’ are illustrated in the diagram below (Figure 195), where the
majority of passengers could be considered as ‘normal risk’. Some passengers will required
enhanced search while a small proportion will not be allowed to fly or will be exempt from
screening.

Figure 195: Operational procedures for Comprehensive and unobtrusive security measures

In this way, passenger would undergo to some kind of “risk filter”, which would classify them
into higher or lower risk passengers. Therefore, the higher risk passenger would be submit to
additional screening measures prior to travel. Theses filters could be based on population
based data (category of passengers or journey) or based on individual passenger data. Data
collection can start prior to the booking of a trip for known travellers, through check-in and
baggage acceptance right up to the screening process. Each touch point by the passenger
provides an opportunity to collect additional data, which may be used in the analysis of risk.
As the technology increases, new automatic screening methods could be used to detect
behavioural anomalies and to collect data. This information could be digitally transferred to a
security officer who will ensure that the passengers with a major risk are submit to additional
security measures. Selection procedures such as these would not inhibit the passenger’s
journey through the airport and the passenger would not be aware of them.

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  Benefits
Taking into account that, on average, passengers spend 20 minutes waiting in line to get to
the security screening checkpoint, this new technologies and procedures could significantly
reduce these waiting times.

In addition, new technologies would allow to process about 360 passengers per hour while
conventional procedures such as X-ray metal detectors can process about 150 passengers per
hour.

Reference State in 2010

The attempted sabotage liquid explosives of Northwest Airlines Flight 253 on 25 th December
2009 and the thwarted plot to sabotage two cargo aircraft in October 2010 with improvised
explosive devices concealed in freight shipments at airports in the United Arab Emirates and
the United Kingdom lead to relevant ICAO actions on 2010.

In 2010 ICAO finalized a new comprehensive strategy for enhancing aviation security
worldwide (ICASS ICAO Comprehensive Aviation Security Strategy) and the 37th Session of
the ICAO Assembly unanimously adopted the Declaration on Aviation Security in light of the
continuing threat to civil aviation. Annex 17 to the Chicago Convention was updated and
strengthened to reflect the mayor risk and concerns to aviation, particularly in relation to staff
screening, security equipment capabilities, hazardous substances in liquids, aerosols and gels
(LAGs), cyber threats and air cargo. In January 2010 ICAO Secretariat established a database
on the secure Aviation Security (AVSEC) website in order to disseminate information on acts
of unlawful interference (AUI) in an efficient and effective manner, instead of distributing these
data by way of an annual print summary. Following the attempted sabotage on 25 December
2009, ICAO used the secure Aviation Security (AVSEC) Point of Contact (PoC) Network to
communicate information and recommendations to participating States, numbering 99
members at the time.

Historically, airport security measures have focused on checkpoint screening using

magnetometers to detect metallic weapons on passengers and X-ray systems to examine
carry-on items. However, these measures result in wait times and queues, which are one of the
main reasons of traveller dissatisfaction. These methods have changed little since they were
first implemented but new initiatives are emerging with the purpose of improving screening
effectiveness through the deployment of new technologies. The objective is to enhance and
strengthen security measures in order to detect efficiently threats as the entry of dangerous
items on commercial aircraft, but allowing freedom of movement for passengers. To that
purpose, there have been several advances in technology screening during recent years.

These advanced technology aims to achieve the following benefits:

 Enhancing detection devices capability

 Improving efficiency in security checkpoints
 Preserving passenger privacy and dignity

With these objectives, several advanced passenger and baggage screening technology begun
to be deployed in 2010, such as Advanced Technology (AT) X-ray, Bottled Liquid Scanners
(BLS), Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT), Chemical Analysis Devices (CADs), and Explosive
Trace Detectors (ETD). These technologies (Figure ) allow to detect explosive threats and

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prohibited items on passengers and their baggage but preserving their privacy and dignity
while increasing their safety.

Advanced Technology X-ray (AT): They are penetration X-ray based technologies that are
used to screen carry-on luggage. They provide an enhanced view of a bag’s contents through
improved image resolution. AT X-ray creates multiple views/angles, clearer and more detailed
images of baggage than traditional single view X-ray.

Advanced Imaging Technology (AIT): AIT is a new imaging capability that will be used to
inspect a passenger’s body for concealed weapons (metal and non-metal), explosives, and
other prohibited items. In addition, the AIT offers operators the opportunity to review
anomalies on an individual, to determine if a hand wand and/or physical pat-down inspection
is required. However, passenger privacy concerns raised related to this kind of equipment
because this technology can provide a whole body image that can reveal anomalies
underneath passenger clothing. As a result, passengers show displeasure because these
devices display highly personal details of their bodies. In order to ensure passengers privacy,
the officer viewing the image is in a separate room and never see the passenger being
screened while the officer attending to the passenger never see the image.

Bottle Liquid Scanner (BLS): BLSs are hand-held or table-top devices which are used to
discriminate explosive or flammable liquids from common, benign liquids carried by
passengers. BLSs were introduced because X-ray systems were unable to distinguish liquid
explosives from common liquids. The devices analyse substances within a container,
measuring particular characteristics of the content’s and distinguishing between benign and
hazardous liquids in a matter of seconds.

Chemical Analysis Devices (CAD): CADs are portable systems that can be used to identify a
range of chemical agents and explosives threats. These devices are used to assess suspicious
substances in the possession of passengers traveling through the security checkpoints.

Explosive Trace Detectors (ETD): They are used to examine articles, analysing their content
for the presence of potential explosive residue explosives residue. A swab is used to collect
samples, which are then analysed for traces of explosives residue. The first joint meeting of the
International Explosives Technical Commission (IETC) and the Ad Hoc Group of Specialists on
the Detection of Explosives (AH/DE) reviewed progress made in testing, implementing and
deploying advanced security screening technologies, including body scanners. The explosives
experts concluded that trace detection technology continues to play an important role in
airport screening, and noted that further research to validate when and how this technology
can be used for air cargo is under way in many States.

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Figure 196: Security technologies in 2010.

The common ICAO, AITA and ACI workshop on the next generation screening process for
passengers and cabin baggage in Geneva in 2010 in collaboration reviewed planned and
ongoing initiatives for developing a “checkpoint of the future” that will improve passenger
flow as well as provide effective security. In particular, it examined how certain elements, such
as the use of passenger data for identifying high-risk passengers, might be incorporated in
the screening process. The Declaration on Aviation Security urged Member States to increase
cooperation to ensure the early detection of threats and dissemination of information on
threats to civil aviation. Collection and transmission of advance passenger information (API)
and passenger name record (PNR) data are recognised as facilitators, while acknowledging the
importance of protecting passengers’ privacy. In 2010 more than 180 States had issued
machine readable passports (MRPs) in conformity with ICAO specifications by 1 April 2010,
and another five States achieved compliance by year’s end.

Progress up-to-now

Since 2010, there have been advances in passenger and baggage screening through the
development of new technologies and the improvement of the processes. Firstly, there have
been enhances in existing checkpoint and checked baggage screening technologies, such as
Advanced Imaging Technology, Advanced Technology X-Ray, Enhanced Metal Detectors,
Explosives Detection Systems, and Explosives Trace Detection to increase detection capabilities
and efficiencies. However, traditional threats to aviation security remain and new types of
threats are emerging. As a result, passenger and baggage screening must adapt to face the
evolving threats and changes. For that reason, in addition to enhancing existing technologies,
it has invested in new technologies such as automation and the use of risk-based algorithms
to screen passenger more efficiently and quicker. Through these type of initiatives which are

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currently in development, security and overall traveller experience is improved, by expediting
physical screening for passengers who are considered lower risk to aviation security.

The existing technologies which has been updated and enhanced are the following ones:
 Advanced Imaging Technology: This technology allows to screen safely passengers
for metallic and non-metallic items, such as weapons, explosives and other objects
concealed under layers of clothing. There has been improvements in this technology
since 2010, as for example images with more quality, enhanced detection capabilities
and false alarms rates reduced. However, there are still some airports that do not have
this technology deployed, which can be considered a system vulnerability because
these airport can be used as entry points.
 Advanced Technology X-Ray: These systems detect threats in carry-on baggage, by
providing a high definition x-ray image of its content. This technology is deployed in
most airports. Enhancements in Advanced Technology X-Ray include updating
software or adding an infrared operator sensor and a queuing conveyor.
 Boarding Pass Scanners: a new technology that allows reading two-dimensional
barcodes located on boarding passes. These systems reduce the need for manual
verification of boarding passes and also validates the authenticity of the passenger's
boarding pass at the security checkpoints using bar code readers and encryption
techniques. The system temporarily captures and displays the photograph from the
passenger's ID, helping security officers to compare the photo of the person carrying
the ID. If the encoded data on the passenger’s ID match with the data on the boarding
pass, the passengers are allowed to fly.
 Bottled Liquids Scanners: they can discriminate explosives or flammable liquids from
common, benign liquids carried by passengers. Efforts are dedicated to develop
capabilities that detect a broader range of threats, enable the screening of opaque
containers, and detect smaller quantities of liquid explosives.
 Enhanced Metal Detectors: these devices are used for locating potential metallic
threats on a person where Advanced Imaging technology is not deployed. Some
advances in this technology are intended to improve threat detection and
discrimination capabilities, assuring at the same time passengers privacy and dignity.
 Explosives Trace Detectors: the detection capability of these devices have been
enhanced, allowing a better operational performance and the ability to detect new
threats. They are employed in checkpoint and checked baggage screening for traces
of explosives. Transportation security officers swab a piece of carry-on or checked
baggage, or a passenger's hands, and then place the swab inside the unit to analyse it
for the presence of potential explosive residue.

Passenger screening statistics

Thanks to the technological improvements in passenger screening developed in recent years,

the number of passengers screened has improve as it can be seen in the next Figure 197:

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Figure 197: Million passengers screened according to TSA statistics

Million passengers screened per year

750

738

700 708

675
650
650

600
600

550

500
2010 2012 2014 2015 2016

In addition, baggage screening has also improve from 432 million checked bags in 2015 to
466 million checked bags in 2016.

2.6.1.4 KEY TOPIC 5.4 - HIGH-BANDWIDTH DATA RESILIENT TO CYBERATTACKS

Benchmarks

Cyber-attacks on the aviation industry are becoming a matter of concern. The 2012 report by
the British Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (CPNI) highlighted that the
interface and interdependence inherent to ICT-use has raised the vulnerability of aircraft and
aviation systems. This is because the aviation encompasses one of the most integrated and
complex information and communications technology (ICT) systems from the development
and construction of aircraft to communications and navigation instruments, along with all the
thousands of connections that link the various parts of an airport.

As in other fields, the digitalisation and placement online of such complex instrumentation
have introduced considerable problems associated with cyber security. As a result, due to the
on-board and ground computer systems, navigation systems and the use of complex data
networks, cyber-attacks and data breaches are perceived to be growing threats for the aviation
sector. With increasing inter-connectivity which is expected in the future, the system will be
more vulnerable and exposed to multiple points of attacks. Ensuring secured aviation systems
and staying ahead of the possible threats requires that the aviation sector establishes a cyber
security culture, sets measures to strengthen the defence system and develops
mitigation/prevention strategies for the threats identified.

Figure 198 summarizes aviation’s information and communications technology (ICT)

environment. Simply stated, ICT is pervasive across the aviation ecosystem, from designing
and developing aircraft, to flight operations, maintenance, communications, navigation, and
air traffic management.

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Figure 198: ICT technologies in civil aviation. Source: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics80

Therefore, in order to face the future cyber-attacks, firstly, it would be necessary to identify
the multiple threats that could compromise aviation security as well as to identify the systems
which could be vulnerable to attacks. Then, it would be required to develop strategies in order
to mitigate the threats identified. The following are some of the main threats identified in
cybersecurity:

 Phishing threats: phishing is a type of security attack that attempts to obtain

sensitive/valuable information such as usernames, passwords and credit card details,
often for malicious reasons.
 Jamming attacks: an attacker could alter the projection and mapping of airplanes, or
delete their position from the radar screen. This type of attack could have serious
consequences as the hackers could compromise the accuracy of data provided to the
aircraft management, such as speed, location and direction of nearby airports and
other planes.
 Remote hijacking: Security gaps in communication technologies used in the aviation
industry could allow hackers to remotely attack/control the flight and on-board
systems. Cyber criminals could attack critical systems such as flight controls, engine
and fuel systems, surveillance systems, etc.
 DDoS attacks: Distributed-denial-of-service attacks are attempts to make an online
service unavailable by overwhelming it with traffic from multiple sources, and cause a
denial of service for users of the targeted resource. The flood of incoming messages,
connection requests or malformed packets to the target system could result in a crash
of the platform, thereby denying service to legitimate users or systems.

80
A Framework for Aviation. Cybersecurity, August 2013, p. 8,
http://www.aiaa.org/aviationcybersecurity.

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  Wi-Fi-based attacks: there are vulnerabilities in the on-board system that could allow
hackers to use the on-board Wi-Fi signal or inflight entertainment system to hack into
the plane’s avionics equipment, and disrupt or modify satellite communications.
Currently, there is no common vision, or common strategy, goals, standards, implementation
models, or international policies defining cybersecurity for commercial aviation. Ensuring a
secured aviation system and staying ahead of evolving ICT threats is a shared responsibility,
involving governments, airlines, airports, and manufacturers. The aviation community is
working on the development of a framework to offer an approach to increasing the
effectiveness of cybersecurity for aviation. To achieve the 2050 goal of an air transport system
fully secured global high bandwidth data network, hardened and resilient by design to
cyber-attacks a triple approach is needed that encompass the technological, operational
and societal/human dimension of the problem as indicated in the Figure 199: .
Figure 199: Technological, operational and societal/human dimension of goal 19 Benchmarks

Social/human dimension
Improve forensics
technology

Operational dimension Improve attack detection

Establish a
cybersecurity
culture

Communicate the
Determining system
threats and assure
situational
awareness Technological dimension vulnerabilities

Provide incident
response Methods for effective
Establish
Ensure that
common cyber Understand the
Strengthen the
Define design recovering from attacks
government and defensive
industry work standards for threat and risk principles
system
together aviation systems
Define operational
principles
Methods for isolating
critical data

Methods for secure data

transfer

From a technological dimension, the following benchmarks must be achieved:

 Establish common cyber standards for aviation systems: Although aviation system
is now one of the most complex ICT and control systems in the world, yet there is not
a recognized common vision, or common strategy, goals, standards, and practices to
further safeguard aviation against the evolving cyber threats. Application of common
standards or practices can help provide mitigation, including against insider threats.
For example, applying common encryption standards for aviation communications
could reduce the risk of interference for future enhancements to the system.
 Understand the threat and the risk by identifying the elements of the aviation system
that need protection; determining how to protect these elements with systems and
standards and understanding the timeliness required for responding to threats.
 Strengthen the defensive system including: (1) hardening the Internet backbone,
including IPS malware detection and prevention; (2) securing power sources; (3) adding
public-key infrastructure (PKI) or other encryption technologies; and (4) technology

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 and procedural upgrades to critical systems. Long-term solutions may require
architectural changes to aviation’s networks and control systems.
Define and agree on design principles: The internet design principles, that all nodes are
known and trusted are no longer valid for aviation. Aviation must define design principles for
its networks and control systems that consider the evolving nature of the cyber threat. This
would include identifying architectures and design principles that help us protect our systems
and platforms against known attack methods, defining quality assurance standards for critical
systems, and ensuring that aviation systems are resilient against unknown threat scenarios.

From an operational dimension, the following benchmarks must be achieved:

 Communicate the threats and assure situational awareness by establishing a protected

forum for industry and government information exchange on current and emerging cyber
threats to the commercial aviation system and creating secure mechanisms to extend
information exchange to the international community.
 Provide incident response able to provide the aviation community with a means to
mitigate evolving threats.
 Define operational principles: These principles focus on the operational principles of
systems after they are deployed in the field. This would include operational standards and
best practices that mitigate threats to our systems and platforms to assure its resiliency.
Items to consider would be system upgrades and patches, the timeliness of system
changes, decisions on when to upgrade or retire obsolete systems, maintenance practices,
access control, and personnel processes such as credentials, training, and inadvertent
human errors that expose vulnerabilities that can aid an attacker.
From a social/human dimension, the following benchmarks must be achieved:

 Establish a cyber security culture: The same disciplined approach that created aviation’s
safety culture (i.e., a common vision and strategy, clear goals, common understanding, a
collaborative risk-based decision making model, non-punitive reporting structures, open
communication of failures, training, etc…) must also be applied to securing cyber systems
across the air transportation system.
 Ensure that government and industry work together to coordinate national aviation
cybersecurity strategies, policies, and plans. This will imply: (1) Establish a
private/public cyber partnership that includes “business continuity elements” for the
aviation sector; (2) Establish policies for the near- and long-term development for
cybersecurity; (3) Define accepted international rules of behaviour; (4) Consequences for
bad behaviour must be enforced; (5) Governments need to move cybersecurity to a high
priority on the diplomatic agenda.
On top of that it would be necessary to conduct necessary research and development on
technical and operational assets. The aviation community, government and academia need to
define and conduct necessary research and development to support the design and
operational principles for enhancement to the aviation system. This would include:

1. Creating secure network architectures, including methods for maintaining secure data
transfer, isolating critical data, and effectively recovering from attacks;
2. Determining system vulnerabilities,
3. Improving attack detection, and (4) improving forensics technology.

Reference State in 2010

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In 2010 aviation stakeholders start to realise the need to create a common framework for
cybersecurity in aviation and start to construct a holistic approach to this problem. Current
European response to this threat although considers the extension and streamline of
regulation, but first focusses on understanding the risks and building a holistic, coherent,
affordable and adaptable response, and then establishing mitigating measures. The most
relevant initiatives at that moment are summarized hereafter from different perspectives.

A. Legislative and regulatory developments

 ICAO
ICAO’s Annex 17 to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, Security – Safeguarding
International Civil Aviation against Acts of Unlawful Interference, sets minimum standards for
aviation security worldwide and creates a global policy and legal framework. ICAO Aviation
Security Manual (Doc 8973) provides guidance, including on minimum measures to protect
critical information systems against unauthorised access and use. In 2010 Annex 17 was
updated and strengthened to reflect the mayor risk and concerns to aviation, in particularly
cyber threats. In 2012 a new Annex 17 Recommended Practice 4.9 recognizes cyber- attacks
as a distinct threat to the aviation industry that needs attention.

In 2010 ICAO finalized a new comprehensive strategy for enhancing aviation security
worldwide (ICASS ICAO Comprehensive Aviation Security Strategy) that recognize cyber-
attacks on aviation systems, including Air Traffic Management systems as a new and evolving
threat to aviation. The Diplomatic Conference on Aviation Security, held in Beijing from 30
August to 10 September 2010 criminalizing the act of cyberattack on air navigation
facilities.

 The digital agenda for Europe

The European Commission launched in March 2010 the Europe 2020 Strategy 1 to exit the
crisis and prepare the EU economy for the challenges of the next decade. Europe 2020 sets
out a vision to achieve high levels of employment, a low carbon economy, productivity and
social cohesion, to be implemented through concrete actions at EU and national levels. The
Digital Agenda for Europe is one of the seven flagship initiatives of the Europe 2020 Strategy,
set out to define the key enabling role that the use of Information and Communication
Technologies (ICT) will have to play if Europe wants to succeed in its ambitions for 2020.

In the Digital Agenda for Europe, the Commission committed itself to establishing a CERT for
the EU institutions, as part of the EU's commitment to a reinforced and high level EU
Networking and Information Security Policy in Europe. In August 2010 the Commission
requested four cyber-security experts known as the "Rat der IT Weisen" to make
recommendations on how to set up such a CERT. Their report was finalised in November 2010.

The Digital Agenda also calls on all Member States to establish their own CERTs, paving the
way to an EU-wide network of national and governmental Computer Emergency Response
Teams by 2012 (see IP/11/395). The EU's Council of Telecoms Ministers adopted conclusions
on 27th May 2011, confirming this objective.

AT the Digital Agenda Commission also committed to:

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  Present in 2010 measures aiming at a reinforced and high level Network and
Information Security Policy, including legislative initiatives such as a modernised
European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA), and measures
allowing faster reactions in the event of cyber-attacks, including a CERT for the EU
institutions;
 Present measures, including legislative initiatives, to combat cyber-attacks
against information systems by 2010, and related rules on jurisdiction in cyberspace
at European and international levels by 2013.

B. Standardisation Activities

 ECAC
ECAC Study Group on Cyber Threats to Civil Aviation was settled in 2009. Since then it
has been recognised their valuable contribution on Cybersecurity in Aviation, notably the
works of its Study Group on Cyber Security in Civil Aviation, including the updated ECAC Doc
30; as well as its Vulnerability assessments on cyber security since 2011.

The Group has also achieved international outreach with provisions on cyber security in ICAO
Annex 17, sharing of information with ICAO and common Europe-USA paper at ICAO
Assembly.

C. Services

 CERT-EU
After a pilot phase of one year and a successful assessment by its constituency and its peers,
the EU Institutions have decided to set up a permanent Computer Emergency Response Team
(CERT-EU) for the EU institutions, agencies and bodies on September 11th 2012. The team is
made up of IT security experts from the main EU Institutions (European Commission, General
Secretariat of the Council, European Parliament, and Committee of the Regions, Economic and
Social Committee). It cooperates closely with other CERTs in the Member States and beyond
as well as with specialised IT security companies. CERT-EU will gradually extend its services, on
the basis of the requirements of its constituency and taking into account the available
competencies, resources and partnerships.

In recent years, CERTs have been developed in both private and public sectors as small teams
of cyber-experts connected to the internet that can effectively and efficiently respond to
information security incidents and cyber threats, often on a 24 hours a day-7days a week basis.

Progress up-to-now

Aviation cyber-security is a fast moving topic and a very dynamic area with strong political and
technical involvement by many players. As a consequence the last years have seen many
developments in this domain, proposed and actual. Latest developments in terms of
legislative and regulatory changes, standardisation activities, pan-European research and
development, etc. are updated and summarised hereafter. However the dynamism of this area
makes the shelf life of any analysis limited. The most relevant initiatives at to now moment are
summarized hereafter from different perspectives.

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A. Legislative and regulatory development

 ICAO
The last updates of ICAO’s Annex 17 and ICAO Aviation Security Manual regarding
cybersecurity were in 2014.

The 39th ICAO Assembly, held in September/October 2016, included (item 16) a progress
report on the global aviation security policy framework and implementation of the ICAO
Comprehensive Aviation Security Strategy (ICASS), including developments in risk assessment,
innovation and cyber-security. Cyber-security was also expected to be addressed in other
relevant items, such as RPAS (Item 33). The General Assembly passed a high-level resolution
on cyber.

The Working Group on Threat and Risk has added cyber-security to the Risk Context Statement
which should be used by all ICAO members to inform their national risk assessments. This
includes a specific risk matrix for ATM.

 FAA
FAA has revised its cyber security strategy recently. The five components of the strategy
include – improved governance model, continued improvements to the protection and
defence of the FAA mission, data driven risk management approaches applied to cyber, focus
on building cyber workforce and enhanced collaboration with external partners. The regulatory
side of FAA is targeting its improvements via a program named Aircraft Systems
Information Security/Protection (ASISP) – examining potential gaps and improvements via
a risk based framework.

For ATM systems, FAA is currently focused on cyber resilience and has an active effort
underway to characterize threats to the mission (service threads vs. individual systems). This
effort will create and maintain a National Airspace level threat model to help FAA prioritize
its cyber related activities investments. FAA has also ramped up its operational exercises to
include more realistic scenarios and has increased its participation in national level cyber
exercises. To this end, a cyber‐test facility was established in 2015 to facilitate more
comprehensive tests and exercises.

 European Union
The General Data Protection Regulation (EU) 2016/679 (GDPR) applies to personal data
and imposes additional legal obligations on data processors, stipulates that Data Protection
Impact Assessments and risk assessment and mitigation, along with prior approval of the DPA
for high risks. Data protection law is extended to all foreign companies processing data of EU
residents, and a single set of rules is introduced for all EU Member States.

In July 2016 the Network and Information Security (NIS) Directive (2016/1148) was
adopted, establishing minimum standards for Member States and operators of critical national
infrastructure. It implies risks assessment and adoption of appropriate measures to ensure a
secure and trustworthy environment; mandatory reporting of any incident seriously
compromising the networks and information systems. Member States shall establish effective
Computer Emergency Response Teams (CERT) and designate one or more competent
authorities, which will be part of a secure European-wide electronic data interchange network
to allow the sharing of cybersecurity related information especially for incident reporting.

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In October 2016, a new unit (A5) in DG MOVE dealing with all security aspects in
transport has been established integrated Maritime Security (former A4) and Aviation
Security (former A2).

 EASA
In November 2015 EASA has developed a Cybersecurity Roadmap that identified 4 main
objectives: Situational Awareness, Readiness & Resilience, Reactiveness, and Cyber-Security
Promotion. Since then, EASA is working on its implementation and a number of initiatives to
better address cybersecurity risks in aviation improving resilience and fostering built-in
security:

 EASA has been tasked to facilitate a Strategic European Coordination Platform

including representatives of key industry stakeholders, Member States and EU
Institutions.
 EASA is supporting the creation of a European Centre for Cybersecurity in Aviation
(ECCSA) and providing the initial operational capabilities in collaboration with CERT-
EU, to promote voluntary information sharing and expert collaboration.
 EASA is undertaking a gap analysis of all Implementing Rules. These are started to
identify areas of action.
 It is expected that EASA will release a Notice of Proposed Amendment (NPA) for a
single, horizontal rule by the end of 2017. This will be followed by an opinion sent
to the European Commission by the end of 2018, and a rule in force by end of 2019.
 Negotiations on the EASA Basic Regulation is on-going and it might give EASA the
competency to address cyber-security although it is noteworthy that the European
Council proposal does not address cyber-security and the Parliament proposal
considers cyber-security as one additional source of concern for Safety
 EASA has also joined the FAA in the information-security Aviation Rulemaking
Advisory Committee (ARAC). The FAA tasks the ARAC to provide advice and
recommendations concerning a full range of aviation-related issues, in this case
information/cyber-security. However, this is focused on aircraft cyber-security and
does not address ATM, since in the US ATM systems are of federal interest only.

 High Level Conference Cybersecurity in Civil Aviation Krakow 8-9 November 2017
The Conference discussed the progress achieved for aviation ground systems, including
institutional set-up, legislation advancement, risk assessment methodology, cybersecurity
promotion, research activities, commitments and resources devoted to cybersecurity. All this
in order to establish a ground for the future European strategy for Cybersecurity in Aviation
and the Cybersecurity Road Map that will define the future actions that have to be undertaken
at European level in order to ensure a secure environment for aviation covering the cyber-
space.

B. Standardisation Activities

 CEN
It has published in 2014, EN 16495 Information security for organisations supporting civil
defining guidelines and general principles, structured in line with ISO 27002, for the
implementation of an information security management system.
 EUROCAE

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The Eurocae sub-group from WG-72 (Aeronautical Information Systems Security) is producing
a Process Specification for the security accreditation of ATM systems throughout the
lifecycle of data exchanged between aircraft and ATM systems: this includes the creation,
origination, storage, transmission, processing and decommissioning of data. It will address the
design of a security accreditation method for ground ATM systems analogous to airworthiness
certification. The scope will have a broad approach focusing on safety, operational and
economic impact.
 ECAC
An ECAC Study Group on Cyber Threats to Civil Aviation is updating Document 30 ('Doc.
30') to better address cyber-risks. Doc. 30 builds upon ICAO Annex 17 and can define higher
standards. Amendments to the overarching principles in Chapter 14, and prescriptive annexes,
as well as supporting guidance material are expected to be developed and included within the
ECAC Aviation Security Handbook within the next couple of years.
 Industry High-Level Group (IHLG)
In 2014, ICAO, ACI, CANSO, IATA and the International Coordinating Council of Aerospace
Industry Associations (ICCAIA) signed a Civil Aviation Cybersecurity Action Plan aimed at
more effective coordination across all stakeholders to effectively respond to cyber challenges.
Since then there has been progress with:

 Sharing of best practices: IHLG organisations has identified key practices and
guidance, to be held on an ICAO-based dedicated cyber security web-page. There is a
recognition that specific guidance for different entities may be appropriate, with
overarching guidance at the ICAO level (drawing on international standards such as
ISO/IEC 27002).
 Developing a common set of terms: The IHLG identified a number of existing
glossaries and have facilitated sharing those among the aviation community through
the cyber portal established by ICAO.
 Preparing civil aviation against future challenges: The IHLG agreed a common set
of key messages such that a consistent view could be presented publicly. Many efforts
were also made to promote the cyber-security topic as a priority.
 Proposing a declaration for the ICAO 39th Assembly: The IHLG proposed a
declaration intended to consolidate and align cyber-related policy statements and
directions to facilitate defining general objective. This was scheduled for the end of
September 2016.

 ACI World Cybersecurity Task Force (2015)

The Task Force was initially set up with the focus of enhancing cyber-security information-
sharing between airports and industry partners; educating airport management and
information technology staff on cyber-security issues; representing ACI’s interests with other
organisations who are also concerned with the growing risks posed by cyber-terrorism in the
air transport industry. The taskforce has also developed the IT Airport Cybersecurity
Benchmark, a web-based system addressing the specific information security needs of the
airport community. It is aligned to ISO/IEC 27002 controls.

 ASD Civil Aviation Cyber Security Task Force

The Task Force was launched in October 2015 with the goals of developing an ASD position
on civil aviation cyber-security and coordinating ASD inputs to external bodies on the subject.

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International work has been through the ICCAIA and has contributed to ICAO’s Assembly and
AVSEC Panel, including the IHLG declaration (see above). European work to-date has centred
on coordinating with, and providing input to, EASA (especially on the Basic Regulation and
cyber-security roadmap) and ECAC. High-level objectives for the manufacturing industry and
for operators have been developed. The Task Force was set up as a temporary entity so in
autumn 2016 decisions will be taken on whether to extend and on any future work programme.

 CANSO ATM Security Working Group

CANSO has an ATM Security Working Group (ASWG) that address all aspects of security,
including cyber-security. The third ASWG meeting was held in December 2015. A working
paper on cyber-security was presented to the fifth ICAO EURNAT EUR/NAT Aviation Security
Group (ENAVSECG) in May 2016. Ongoing activities within CANSO Vision 2020+ include:

 Security promotion, awareness and Just Culture

 ATM security human factors in the whole ATM lifecycle
 Identification of Security standards and best practices applicable to ATM environment
in the light of sustainability and regulatory compliance
 Audit and oversight issues
 ADS-B Working Group activities for secure surveillance

2016 has also seen cooperation between CANSO and NEASCOG (NATO-EUROCONTROL
Security Coordination Group).

In 2017 CANSO and EUROCAE commit on the joint development of aviation industry
standards, with particular focus on ATM, USAS and Cyber security.

C. Functions and Services

 European Centre for Cyber Security in Aviation

One of the enablers identified in the EASA Cyber-Security in Aviation project and roadmap is
the European Centre for Cyber Security in Aviation (ECCSA). CCSA’s mission is to provide
information and assistance to European aviation manufacturers, airlines, maintenance
organizations, air navigation service providers, etc. in order to protect the critical elements of
the system such as aircraft, navigation and surveillance systems, datalinks, airports, etc. ECCSA
will cover the full spectrum of aviation. ECCSA’s capabilities will be rolled out with a stepped
approach, providing during the first implementation phase, 2017 – 2018, the following
services:

 A public website reporting cyber security news and ECCSA initiatives,

 Open Source Intelligence services for members,
 A collaboration platform for members to exchange sectorial cyber security information.

 Aviation-ISAC
The Aviation Information Sharing and Analysis Centre (A-ISAC) is a US / Boeing led
membership group for relevant security information sharing for the aviation sector. It
combines both industry and government participants to share timely and actionable
information pertaining to threats, vulnerabilities, incidents, etc. In addition, it aims to foster
cooperation and provide best practices and educational awareness. Membership is open to

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European organisations, and Airbus will be an “anchor” member to address European issues
and engagement with the government, when needed.

 EU-Aviation ISAC (EA ISAC)

A similar initiative to the Aviation-ISAC has been proposed by Airbus and Lufthansa, with
informal discussions considering its formal launch. Discussions between the US and European
efforts on potential collaboration are ongoing with a meeting held in September 2016 on the
Aviation-ISAC’s European strategy. NDA and MoU are being drafted to frame the EA-ISAC
activities.

D. Research and Development Activities

Civil aviation cybersecurity research and development activities are currently fragmented
across national and EU funding sources. The latest High level conference on cybersecurity in
civil aviation has suggested EU institutions to ensure a high level of priority of aviation-relevant
subjects in the next Research Framework Programme (FP9).

These different perspectives must be coherent and complementary: civil aviation cybersecurity
must be fully integrated in the EU Research agenda in order to increase efforts to develop
technologies and competencies at European level.

A more coordinated research and development work programme needs to be implemented

with short-term flexible research activities. EU commitment should serve for development
activities to improve the safe operation of the civil aviation transport system, whilst research
and development activities for business continuity could remain within the existing funding
instruments. As part of this strategic vision and master plan, EASA needs to be involved to
ensure there is a good link between science, innovation development, deployment and policy.

 European ATM Master Plan

The 2015 Edition of the Master Plan makes explicit reference to cyber-risks to ATM. A risk
identified within the Master Plan is that the deployment of SESAR solutions leads to
unaddressed cyber-security vulnerabilities. The mitigations identified were to (a) ensure efforts
on ATM cyber-security are coordinated, and assess policy options for strengthening cyber-
security and resilience, and (b) establish principles and processes for ensuring cybersecurity
and resilience are included appropriately within the SESAR R&D work programme.

The draft 2016 Deployment Programme both refines the specific Families related to SWIM
cyber-security and reports on the identified cyber-security requirements to be considered in
the deployment of each Family, having specific regard to the potential cyber-threats linked to
the increased connectivity associated to the full PCP deployment. The SDM is of the opinion
that some components of some families are particularly exposed to cyber-security risks and
that stakeholders should take appropriate action to mitigate them. The Commission also
requested to the SESAR Deployment Manager to consider cyber-security requirements at
project level in the Deployment Programme by proposing guidance material.

 SESAR 2020
The SESAR 2020 multi-annual work programme identified cyber-security as a research topic
to address. PJ19 (Content Integration) coordinates cyber-security activities and guidance
provided across all projects, by the appointment of Security/Cyber-Security ATM Focal points

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in each project. Each SESAR solution shall develop a security case to demonstrate that self-
protection and collaborative support has been correctly addressed. As part of this, projects
will undertake security risk assessments and identify resulting security requirements – both
include the cyber dimension. SESAR has develop a study on the research and development
(R&D) needed to ensure ATM cyber security that sets out the elements needed to introduce a
holistic approach to cyber-security. In addition, the SJU are currently developing a cyber-
security strategy to clarify what will be delivered as part of SESAR's output regarding cyber-
security and the ‘securability’ of SESAR solutions. It will define the responsibilities of the SJU
in the frame of the whole system - and service - lifecycle. Topics such as the role of operational
mitigations to system vulnerabilities are likely to be addressed. The strategy is expected to be
published in Q4 2016.

 ACARE Security Sub-Group

In June 2015, at the request of the EC, a dedicated security sub-group was created within the
WG/4 (Safety & Security) of the Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Innovation in
Europe (ACARE). It accounts for both the evolution of technology as well as radical changes or
'technology shocks'. It has identified objectives for operators and manufacturers as well as
short term, medium and long term challenges.

 GAMMA
The Global ATM Security Management Project (GAMMA) is a European research project (2013-
2017) whose goal is to develop solutions to emerging air traffic management vulnerabilities
backed up by practical proposals for the implementation of these solutions. During 2016 the
focus has moved towards translating the GAMMA concept into a set of prototypes to validate
in exercises. The Security Management Platform (SMP) prototype represents the central
instantiation of the GAMMA concept as it is the security information sharing platform which
lies at the heart of the GAMMA proposal for managing ATM security in Europe.

 EUROCONTROL Agency Research Team (ART)

A dedicated ART Workshop on ‘ATM Security and Cybersecurity’ was held in Q1 2016, giving
a broad overview of different areas of activities within the field.

 European PPP on Cyber Security ECS

The European Commission has signed on July 2016 a PPP with the private sector for the
development of a common approach and market on cybersecurity. The Aim of this
partnerships is: 1) Foster cooperation between public and private actors at early stages of the
research and innovation process in order to allow people in Europe to access innovative and
trustworthy European solutions (ICT products, services and software). 2) Stimulates cyber-
security industry, by helping align the demand and supply sectors to allow industry to elicit
future requirements from end-users, as well as sectors that are important customers of
cybersecurity solutions (e.g. energy, health, transport, finance). 3) Coordinate digital security
industrial resources in Europe. The EC will invest up to €450 million in this partnership, under
its research and innovation programme Horizon 2020 for the 2017-2020 calls (4years).
Cybersecurity market players are expected to invest three times more.

 FAA
FAA is in the process of leveraging useful research in cyber defence and resilience conducted
by partner agencies in the US Federal government. The research focus areas are – cyber

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resilience, self-adaptive systems, data analytics for cyber, and design assurance in mixed-trust
environments.

The following Figure 200 summarizes the progress achieved up to new in this goal.

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Figure 200: Progress achieved up to now in goal 19

.
Annex 17 update: Cyber mayor risk New Annex 17 Recommended Last update Annex 17 & Aviation 39th ICAO Assembly ICAO WG on Threat and Risk added cyber to the
Regulatory

to aviation Practice 4.9 “cyber- attacks aviation Security Manual Risk Context Statement & specific risk matrix
ICAO Comprehensive Aviation Security distinct threat”. FAA Aircraft Systems Information Security/Protection (ASISP)
Strategy ICASS FAA cyber‐test facility FAA National Airspace level threat model
Beijing Diplomatic Conference on Aviation Security criminalize cyberattack General Data Protection Regulation Regulation (EU) 2016/679

Digital agenda for Europe Network and Information Security (NIS) Directive (2016/1148)
Legislative initiatives to combat cyber attacks Rules on jurisdiction in cyberspace EASA Cybersecurity Roadmap Negotiations on the EASA Basic Regulation
High Level Conference Cybersecurity in Civil Aviation

CEN EN 16495
Standardisation

Modernise European Network and EASA joined the ARAC

Information Security Agency ENISA Industry High-Level Group (IHLG) EASA Gap analysis of all Implementing Rules
EASA NPA for a single, horizontal rule
ECAC Study Group on Cyber Threats Doc 30 ACI World Cybersecurity Task Force
CANSO ATM Security WG EASA Strategic European Coordination Platform
ASD Civil Aviation Cyber Security Task Force
ECAC Vulnerability assessments on cyber security
EUROCAE WG-72 security accreditation of ATM
Update ECAC 'Doc. 30'
CANSO & NEASCOG cooperation
CANSO & EUROCAE cooperation
Services

Computer Emergency Response Team (CERT-EU) for the EU institutions European Centre for Cybersecurity in Aviation (ECCSA)
Aviation Information Sharing and Analysis Center (A-ISAC) ACI IT Airport Cybersecurity Benchmark

EU-Aviation ISAC (EA ISAC)

European ATM Master Plan makes explicit reference to cyber-risks to ATM

Cybersecurity and resilience are included appropriately within the SESAR R&D work programme.
SESAR 2020 multi-annual work programme includes cyber-security
R&D

ACARE Security Sub-Group SESAR PJ19 appointment of Security/Cyber-Security ATM Focal points.
Security case for each SESAR solution
SESARr study on R&D needed to ensure ATM cyber security
Global ATM Security Management Project (GAMMA) SJU cyber-security
European PPP on Cyber Security ECS
FAA of leveraging research by partner agencies

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017

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2.6.1.5 KEY TOPIC 5.4 – GUIDELINES FOR CYBER PROTECTION AND SECURITY
Reference State 2010

The state of the art within Europe was reviewed in Cyber Europe 2010 (CE2010) – the first pan-
European exercise on Critical Information Infrastructure Protection. It was organized by EU Member
States, facilitated by the European Network and Information Security Agency (ENISA) and supported
by the Joint Research Centre (ENISA, 2011).

The objective of the exercise was to trigger communication and collaboration between countries in
Europe to try to respond to large-scale attacks. During the CYBER EUROPE 2010 exercise, experts from
the participating public bodies of European countries worked together to counter simulated attempts
by hackers to paralyze the Internet and critical online services across Europe.

The simulation exercise was based on a fictitious scenario on a fictitious Internet interconnection
infrastructure, with a limited number of Internet Interconnection Sites (IIS1) between countries.
During the exercise, Internet connectivity between European countries was gradually lost or
significantly reduced, requiring cooperation between Member States to avoid a total network crash.

The key findings of CE2010 were as follows:

 The planning phase of the CYBER EUROPE 2010 exercise benefited from the interaction among
the participants, which allowed the interests and concerns of all parties to be taken into account
and enabled a fruitful and highly appreciated exercise.
 Member States should continue to work on the points of contact that were established during the
exercise and to establish a solid European CIIP-network. The consolidation of trust between MS
and partners should be a continuing objective.
 The exercise increased in several ways the understanding of how cyber incidents are handled, both
on a European level (between Member States) and on a national level (between players). It is,
however, worth mentioning that the artificiality of the scenario limited this scope of understanding
to a certain extent. A more realistic scenario could lead to a deeper insight of how cyber incidents
are handled.
 The exercise accentuated the necessity to be able to establish and locate relevant points of contact
within Europe. Since each country is organized differently, it is very important to know who to
contact in case of an incident or, more generally, who is able to answer a specific question.
 The exercise demonstrated the need for efficient communications, leading not only to greater
understanding, but also illustrating the differences in structure between Member States. How to
achieve efficient communication will need more gathering of requirements and analysis work.

Progress Up To Now

A Worldwide Perspective on the Aviation Sector

With the development of new technologies such as internet, the global aviation industry is subject to
a new and growing type of threat coming from cyberspace. As in the other industries, cyber threats
purposes are for example the robbery of information, political actions, make profit, or simply weaken
one stakeholder of the industry (Duchamp et al, 2016).

The global aviation industry has many layers overseeing the safety of all the stakeholders involved,
from aircraft manufacturers to the passenger boarding a flight. Overall, these different actors can be
classified into 4 categories:

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  One international organization: the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), part of the
UN. It codifies the rules of investigation internationally and designs international civil aviation
Standards and Recommended Practices in collaboration with its member states.
 Governments: National investigation organizations, virtually security agencies that investigate
on behalf of countries involved in the accident. France’s Bureau d’Enquêtes et d’Analyses (BEA)
or the USA’s National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) are the main examples of such
organizations. On top of ICAO’s guidelines, they may develop additional safety standards (for
example, the NTSB developed smoke detectors in aircraft toilets).
 Trade organization of airlines: International Air Transport Association (IATA) oversees
standards at industry level and is directly in contact with most of the world’s airlines.
 Manufacturers of aircraft and security systems: Many large corporations such as Boeing,
Dassault, Thales, Honeywell, etc. They constantly update their systems to face new threats with
the advice of the different boards described above.
Because of its complexity and its weight in the economy, breaking the aviation industry’s security
constitutes a great challenge for hackers and terrorists. Moreover, this industry relies more and more
on information and communication technology (ICT). As an industry that is well known for providing
one of the safest type of transportation, it is mandatory for all its stakeholders to understand the risks
and to prevent any malicious events for the good of the industry, the economy, the population and
the environment.

The aviation sector is not immune to the cyber security risks that have been critical issues for all the
other industries. Modern aircraft are very complex systems that rely on many transponders to
communicate their position to air traffic control. It’s quite difficult to hack all systems at once,
including the on-board radios and the Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System
(ACARS), used to send messages or information about the airplane rather than voice transmissions.
Consequently, “an attacker with a deep knowledge of the plane’s system could intentionally cause
serious problems with its normal operation” (Paganini, 2014). Major cyber-security incidents in the
aviation sector strengthen this observation, and the threat is not as recent as one might think.

In her research paper, security specialist Ruben Santamarta exposed the backdoors and remote
control of SATCOM aviation radios, reaching the rather alarming conclusion that “the current status
of the products [we] analysed makes it almost impossible to guarantee the integrity of thousands of
SATCOM devices” (Santamarta, 2014).

It is not just navigation systems that have been subject to cyber-attacks. An attack on the internet in
2006 forced the US Federal Aviation Administration to shut down some of its air traffic control systems
in Alaska. In July 2013, an attack led to the shutdown of the passport control systems at the departure
terminals at Istanbul airport, causing many flights to be delayed. Finally, an attack that possibly
involved malicious hacking and phishing targeted 75 airports in the USA in 2013. These are just a few
examples among many more but they justify the needs to prevent such threats that could lead to
dramatic consequences.

Communication between people and devices, the rise of computing performance, price erosion and
software developments are all ingredients shared by all the industries that enhance the necessity to
consider seriously the cyber threats in the aviation sector. Indeed, aviation security remains a critical
topic despite all the investments and measures that have been made, especially when the examples
above point out that this threat is not a new trend at all.

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One of the major explanation for this new type of threat in this sector is the greater use of computer-
based systems: sophisticated air navigation systems, on-board aircraft control and communication
systems, airport ground systems including flight information and security screening, day-to-day data
management systems.

In the same time, cyber threats have been developed regardless of the industries but in relation with
technologies: computer viruses, malicious attacks, etc. Because of an increasing number of travellers,
the creation of new modern airports, the introduction of more complex aircraft, the use of IT and
advanced computer-based systems, the risks will increase considerably with time. In addition to this,
it is important to consider the digitalization of the sector with electronic ticketing for example or the
goal of reducing costs by the reduction of manpower for example.

Like any other industry, it is possible to consider two types of cyber security breaches:

1. “Opportunistic”: the goal is to exploit mistakes made by internal users like employees using
the IT systems with the purpose of causing inconvenience and nuisance to any entity involved
in the aviation ecosystem
2. “Calculated and premeditated”: it concerns any malicious attacks to disrupt operations or
threaten lives. This category is critical as terrorism are fully aware of the potential of
technologies and cyber-attacks.
Then, like in the other industry, we can mention different factors that would influence the cyber
security strategy:

 There are more and more interactions between people, devices and services. This increase and
diversity in the interactions make the paths of attacks less and less predictable
 Innovation and cost reduction made by the ecosystem transform non-existent or unavailable
technologies into common goods. Moreover, software is more and more used to provide
effective solutions and digital experience to the workers of this industry and passengers.
Consequently, this evolution exposes more and more internal and external systems to
potential threats.
For example, a report from the NASA (2009) highlights the rise of software complexity in all industries:

 Flight software lines of code has increased 10 times in ten years

 From 1960 to 2000, functionality provided by software to pilots has grown from 8% to 80%
Moreover, despite this new complexity, the aviation systems seem not to be prepared. Indeed, since
the creation of the first aviation network, the systems ran isolated and were designed more for high
availability than for security.

With the rise of software complexity in the aviation sector, software security cannot be totally
guaranteed. This is the reason why it is important to handle vulnerabilities in this sector, to deploy
software updates to prevent any attacks and of course to test regularly the security of critical systems.

With the complexity and the high number of stakeholders in this industry, the number and the origins
of breaches could be substantial. In the same way, establishing the stakeholder accountable for a
breach or an attack could be difficult. Some previous cases in the aviation sector have led to some
observations. For example:

 When a vulnerability or a breach is discovered, vendors do not always address or fix it

 No stakeholder would accept to be accountable for a breach or a vulnerability: the suppliers
blame each other, the main manufacturers such as Airbus or Boeing blame the suppliers, the
airplane operators blame the manufacturers and so on

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  Critical systems and cabin systems on airplanes are not isolated properly from external threats
 The principal internal communication protocol, Avionics Full DupleX (AFXD), had poor security
solutions implemented
As cyber-attacks against the aviation industry have increased considerably, setting the cyber security
as a major concern, all 4 categories of industry stakeholders as pointed out earlier worked together
to address these cyber threats.

The major efforts made by these stakeholders are the following:

 With the increase of cyber-attacks in all the industries and the increase of computer-based
solutions used, ICAO encourages better and stronger collaboration between all the
stakeholders to identify as many threats and risks as possible.
 ICAO organized a discussion to define responsibilities on cyber security for the aviation
industry.
 ICAO would like to encourage countries to implement strong cyber security strategy and
management. The goal is to implement more policies and measures to prevent any cyber-
attacks that could lead to dramatics consequences. This recommendation by the ICAO includes
crisis management and business resilience.
 More and more countries started to work on cyber security few years ago.
 More and more airports started to implement measures to secure any IT systems already
exposed. They also started to consider upstream the cyber security issues for the future
projects.
 With safety as a top priority, IATA conducts yearly audits mandated by governments and
provides airlines with a cyber-security toolkit that has a traditional risk assessment approach.
 Finally, manufacturers have made some efforts as well: for instance, Boeing implemented
additional security measures on the 777 aircraft to prevent on board hacking of critical
computer systems (Federal Register, 2013)
Although a lot of efforts have been made, there still exist a lot of issues to be addressed.

 Cyber Europe 2012

On 4 October 2012 more than 500 cyber-security professionals across Europe participated in Cyber
Europe 2012, the second pan-European Cyber Exercise. The exercise built on extensive activities at
both the national and European level to improve the resilience of critical information infrastructures.
As such, Cyber Europe 2012 was a milestone in the efforts to strengthen cyber-crisis cooperation,
preparedness and response across Europe (ENISA, 2012).

Cyber Europe 2012 had three objectives:

1. Test the effectiveness and scalability of mechanisms, procedures and information flow for public
authorities’ cooperation in Europe.

2. Explore the cooperation between public and private stakeholders in Europe.

3. Identify gaps and challenges on how large-scale cyber-incidents could be handled more effectively
in Europe.

Twenty-nine EU (European Union) and EFTA (European Free Trade Association) Member States were
involved in the exercise; 25 of them participated actively in the exercise, while the other four were
involved as observers. In addition, several EU Institutions participated. Following up on a key
recommendation of Cyber Europe 2010, the private sector actors took part in this exercise.

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Cooperation between public and private players took place at the national level, while public
authorities also cooperated across borders.

Cyber Europe 2012 resulted in the following recommendations:

• Cyber Europe 2012 proved valuable in enhancing pan-European cyber-incident management. It is

therefore important to continue the efforts and further develop the European cyber exercise area. EU
Member States and EFTA countries should cooperate towards new pan-European and national cyber
exercises in order to enhance transnational cyber-incident management. The Good Practice Guide on
National Exercises, developed by ENISA, provides additional support in this area.

• Future cyber exercises should explore inter-sectoral dependencies and be more focused on specific
communities.

• Cyber Europe 2012 provided an opportunity for international-level cooperation and strengthening
of the European cyber-incident management community. To foster international cooperation it is
essential to facilitate exchange of good practices in cyber exercises, lessons learned, expertise and the
organization of conferences. This will ensure a stronger community that is able to tackle transnational
cyber-crises.

• EU Member States and EFTA countries should further improve the effectiveness, scalability of, and
familiarity with, existing mechanisms, procedures and information flows for cooperation of public
authorities in Europe. Lessons learned from Cyber Europe 2012 provide an excellent starting point.

• All stakeholders in the area of international cyber-crisis cooperation need to be trained on the use
of procedures in order to know how to adequately work with them.

• The involvement of private sector organizations as players was of added value to this exercise.
Therefore, EU Member States and EFTA countries should consider the involvement of the private
sector in future exercises.

• The European cyber-incident management community could be strengthened with input from other
European critical sectors (e.g. health, transportation) that are relevant to the handling of large-scale
crises.

 Cyber Europe 2014

In May 2014, a European-wide cyber warfare exercise The Cyber Europe 2014 (CE2014) was organized
by the Crete-based European Union Agency for Network and Information Security (ENISA).
Representatives of 200 organizations and some 400 cyber security professionals came from all the EU
member states and those in the EU Free Trade Space (ENISA, 2014).

The event was designed to simulate unrest and political crisis at a pan-European level, and to test
cyber security response across public and private sectors. The objective of this first phase was to
analyse how the events escalate and de-escalate, to understand these processes at all technical,
operational, and strategic levels, as well as to understand the related public affairs issues linked to
cyber threats.

The exercise, however, came in for stinging criticism. The main concern was fundamental problems of
inter-governmental communication and disparate incident response standards across borders. Also,
some believed that the war games might have done little more than act as a communication exercise.
Cross-border crises are hard to conceive especially if they are multi-sector, because different sectors

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will have different vulnerabilities. These war games were not designed to test whether they all had
defences that were up to the job of combating the latest malware, only the older recognized malware.

However, the 2014 war game was a step up from previous years with more technical demands of the
participants than previously. This was a valuable exercise with as many as 16 different types of case
studies, but any real attack would have surprises no-one expected, and the key question of any war
game would be how to prepare for the ‘unexpected'.

CE2014 demonstrated that strong cross-border cooperation was necessary for the EU member states,
and the public and private sector. This kind of cooperation between the EU and EFTA countries was
crucial for the strengthening of cross border, transnational cyber-incident management.

A report on CE2014 concluded with five key findings:

1. Cyber Europe exercises, as well as any cooperation activity at European level during real cyber
crises, build upon existing relations between Member States. ENISA and the Member States
will continue to invest in trust building activities to maintain and further develop existing trust.
2. ENISA and the Member States should further develop the operational procedures which drive
the cooperation activities during a cyber crisis, taking into account existing and future
cooperation frameworks, to bring these procedures to a maturity level similar to those found
in other sectors such as civil protection and aviation.
3. ENISA and the Member States will seek further integration with national and regional activities.
4. ENISA will address future Cyber Europe activities as a program containing both trainings as
well as small and large scale exercises, in order to provide a better experience and achieve
greater impact.
5. Lastly, ENISA will further develop the Cyber Exercise Platform to offer a richer experience to
both players and planners, as well as to support the organization of national and regional
exercises, fostering the development of a cyber exercise community.
6. Cyber Europe 2016
Cyber Europe 2016 was the fourth pan-European cyber crisis exercise organised by the European
Union Agency for Network and Information Security (ENISA). Over 1 000 participants working mostly
in the ICT sector, from public and private organisations from all 28 Member States of the European
Union and two from the European Free Trade Association (EFTA), joined in a programme of activities
ranging from training sessions and communication checks to technical competitions and cooperation
exercises. The exercise simulated a realistic crisis build-up over an actual period of 6 months,
culminating in a 48 hour event on 13 and 14 October 2016 (ENISA, 2017).

Cyber Europe 2016 was based on three pillars essential to the successful mitigation of large-scale
crises caused by cybersecurity incidents: cooperation at national and international levels and sound
cybersecurity capabilities.

First, the exercise fostered cooperation between targets of simulated cybersecurity incidents, security
providers and national authorities, shedding light on national-level public–private and private–private
cooperation. Participants had to follow existing business processes, agreements, communication
protocols and regulations to mitigate effectively the situations presented to them. Such mechanisms
were not always in place for all participants, which hindered the overall ability to reach full EU-level
situational awareness. The EU network and information security directive identifies many of the
associated shortcomings and proposes measures that ENISA and Member States are already
implementing to improve the situation.

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Second, Cyber Europe 2016 helped participants understand how cybersecurity authorities would
cooperate with each other and EU bodies in the event of a large-scale crisis. Undoubtedly, crisis
cooperation at EU level is very much maturing and improving. Most, if not all, Member States have
come to realise the importance of sharing structured information across national borders. With the
active support of ENISA, they have leveraged the benefits of EU-level situational awareness for their
own crisis management activities. Yet despite such progress, Cyber Europe 2016 highlighted, as
previous exercises did, the absence of a cooperation framework at EU level for crises stemming from
cybersecurity incidents, officially endorsed cooperation procedures or a centralised hub. The creation
of the EU CSIRTs Network and the European Commission initiative to publish a crisis cooperation
blueprint in 2017 are excellent developments in that regard. They will surely benefit from the detailed
findings in this report.

Last, the exercise offered countless opportunities for participants to enhance their cybersecurity
capabilities, from their technical and operational expertise to their capacity to handle crisis
communication. Organisational and individual cybersecurity preparedness and capabilities in the EU
were excellent overall. Technical expertise, business continuity and crisis communications procedures
were of a high standard. Nevertheless, the vision required to link technical- and operational-level
response activities to strategic crisis management mechanisms was sometimes lacking, which proved
detrimental to fostering crisis exit strategies supporting decision-making.

Additionally, many lessons were learned from the use of the prototype platforms developed by ENISA
to support cooperation at EU level; they will reflect positively on the development of the EU-level crisis
cooperation infrastructure financed by the Connecting Europe Facility (CEF).

A report on CE2016 concluded with these key findings:

Participating organisations responded adequately to most challenges they faced during the exercise.
Cybersecurity experts employed in a wide array of sectors in the EU demonstrated high levels of
expertise and appetite to resolve complex cybersecurity issues. Their ability to cooperate in the most
difficult times is an important finding.

No participant questioned the essence of cyber incident cooperation at EU level. Rather, all actors
focussed their efforts on lifting the remaining barriers. Such cooperation was particularly insightful
and led to a full understanding of all facets of the crisis within a few hours, which supported the swift
mitigation of a simulated large-scale attack against EU interests. In particular, the EU Cyber Standard
Operational Procedures helped to provide EU-level situational awareness and structured cooperation
activities.

The exercise in itself proved to be an excellent opportunity to increase individual and collective
knowledge in the field of cybersecurity. Participants developed skills, procedures and relationships.
Most importantly, they reiterated their appreciation in the exercise series: 99% indicated interest to
participate in the next exercise.

Innovation and transformation were at the heart of Cyber Europe 2016. From a product, process,
rhetoric and service perspectives, the exercise planning team, composed of Member States and ENISA
representatives, pushed established boundaries to transform the EU cybersecurity society. The
European Union Ombudsman underlined this joint effort in March 2017 with an award for excellence
in innovation and transformation.

Participants repeatedly asked for more opportunities to test their technical skills regularly against
a variety of advanced scenarios. Many were grateful for the multiple options offered by ENISA to

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involve media, legal and financial policy experts and hope for more to come as leaders across the EU
realise that cybersecurity goes beyond information security.

The Cyber Crisis Cooperation Platform prototype developed by ENISA provided numerous insights
into technical means supporting EU-level cooperation. These will be of paramount importance in
order to ensure the buy-in from Member States in such a cooperation platform, currently under
development.

The Cyber Exercise Platform proved to be a powerful tool to plan, conduct and evaluate the exercise.
In particular, the simulated environment developed by ENISA supported the crisis build-up in
a realistic fashion with an unprecedented emphasis on written and visual storytelling.

Cyber Europe 2016 resulted in the following recommendations:

1. Following their revision, the operational procedures which drive the cooperation activities during
a cyber crisis should be endorsed by the CSIRTs Network established by the Network and Information
Security Directive. Training opportunities on the use of these procedures and tailored exercises should
be offered regularly.

2. An EU-level cyber crisis cooperation framework is currently being developed by the European
Commission. It should build upon these findings to develop interconnections between cooperation
mechanisms, identify and empower key actors, from CSIRTs to law enforcement, and set a clear vision
for the future of EU cyber response.

3. Future Cyber Europe should focus on cooperation activities on technical and operational topics.
Other options should be pursued to offer training and exercise opportunities on a variety of other
topics increasingly associated with cybersecurity. In particular, ENISA should support EU-wide capacity
building on cyber crisis communication.

 Research Findings Elsewhere

Problem: despite the fact that lack of security of commercial-grade multi-million ADS-B technology
has been widely covered by previous academic studies, and more recently by the hacking community,
the fundamental architectural and design problems of ADS-B have never been addressed and fixed.
As noted by Costin and Francillon (2012), it has been demonstrated that a low-cost hardware setup
combined with moderate software effort is sufficient to induce potentially dangerous safety and
operational perturbations via the exploitation of missing basic security mechanisms such as message
authentication. Also, given the efforts in terms of time and money invested so far, it is unclear why
such mission-critical and safety-related protocol does not have a security chapter in the main
requirements specifications document.

Approach: raising awareness among the academic, industrial and policy-making sectors on the fact
that critical infrastructure technologies such as ADS-B require real security in-place in order to operate
safely and according to the requirements.

Directions for future research: not identified

Problem: recently, as a result of the rapid increase in air traffic, the construction of the CNS/ATM
next-generation ATC system has been accelerated. To ensure the safe navigation of more aircraft in
limited air space, CNS/ATM has to predict accurate traffic flows on the basis of flight plans and

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accurate positioning of aircraft. ADS-B is able to provide accurate navigation information, such as the
location, altitude, and identification information of aircraft; consequently, it is the core technology in
CNS/ATM. However the transmission of ADS-B data between ADS-B sensor and ATC is carried out in
an unencrypted (or unprotected) communication channel; therefore, it is vulnerable to security threats
such as spoofing, eavesdropping, and data modification (Lee et al 2014).

Approach: the ideal method of countering this security threat toward ADS-B would be to issue X.509
certificates to all planes and provide a certificate based security service, but this is difficult in reality.
As proposed by Lee et al 2014, a more realistic approach would be to protect the ADS-B data
transmitted between the ADS-B sensor and ATC. In the proposed method, the ADS-B sensor is
identified using SPKI four tuple certificates and further authorized to transmit ADS-B data to ATC
using SPKI six tuple certificates. An authorized ADS-B receives symmetric keys from ATC and utilizes
them to encrypt the ADS-B data. It is believed that application of this method to the next-generation
ATC system could facilitate an effective response to the security threats to ADS-B data transmitted
between ADS-B sensors and ATC, such as spoofing, eavesdropping, and data modification.

Directions for future research: implementing the proposed security framework, improving it
through validation at the laboratory level, analysing the benefits of application to CNS/ATM, and
performing tests to link the actual data with an ATC system in operation.

Problem: securing ADS-B and preventing attackers from exploiting its open-text open broadcast
nature in order to launch attacks against ATC operations.

Approach: a novel intrusion detection system operating with minimal overhead and demonstrating
promising performance values (Kacem et al 2016).

Directions for future research: not identified

Problem: although simulation can support the operation of critical infrastructures in various levels
and applications, it is easy to overlook the difficulties involved in setting up the simulation testbed
with enough fidelity and level of realism to ensure its effectiveness in supporting these activities.
Approach: a system based solely on open source tools and designed to support activities that cannot
be conducted in the real environment. Current features are already powerful enough to perform a
variety of studies, including the one presented in ADS-B, which has been a much discussed topic in
the literature recently (Monteiro et al 2016).
Directions for future research: developing an automatic pilot module to comprehend voice
commands, execute the instructions of controllers and reply to the orders using voice synthesizers.

Problem: with the increase in the amount of UAVs in the sky, the need for the UAV traffic
management arises. Unmanned air traffic management system (UTMS), especially in the urban
airspace, could be considered as a critical infrastructure, which – if disrupted – can lead to severe
monetary losses and even casualties. As a computerized system, UTMS is susceptible to cyber-attacks
ranging from cyber vandalism to cyber warfare. An emphasis on building security into products
counters the all-too-common tendency for security to be an afterthought in development. Addressing
existing vulnerabilities and patching security holes as they are found can be a hit-and-miss process.

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Approach: using the “secure by design” philosophy to systems engineering when the system is
designed from the start to be secure. This approach contrasts with less rigorous approaches including
security through obscurity, security through minority and security through obsolescence, which have
proven themselves to be ineffective (Sidorov et al 2017).

Directions for future research: not identified

Problem: cyber security does not fully comprise technological solutions, and is actually a three-fold
notion based on technology, people, and processes. People are considered one of the most influential
factors in cyber security. They could knowingly or unknowingly compromise systems, could wilfully or
by negligence violate protocols, and might not be aware of consequences of their actions from the
point of view of cyber security.

Approach: approaches to human resources management and personnel education need to be

designed with cyber security in mind. Moreover, processes are required to ensure sustainable cyber
security. Internal processes of the organization need to be designed to include technology
maintenance, security incident response actions, security incident information management, self-
adjustments in view of changes in cyber threat landscape, etc. It is also important to ensure that
people and processes are connected with every process having a manager as the authority for
reinforcing the process. Properly designed and setup technology takes care of all the heavy lifting in
ensuring cyber security: encryption, resiliency, fool-proofing, filtering, reducing human factor, etc.
(Sidorov et al 2017).

Directions for future research: not identified

Problem: the need for increased surveillance due to increase in flight volume in remote or oceanic
regions outside the range of traditional radar coverage has been fulfilled by the advent of space-
based Automatic Dependent Surveillance – Broadcast (ADS-B) Surveillance systems. ADS-B systems
have the capability of providing air traffic controllers with highly accurate real-time flight data. ADS-
B is dependent on digital communications between aircraft and ground stations of the air route traffic
control centre (ARTCC); however these communications are not secured. Anyone with the appropriate
capabilities and equipment can interrogate the signal and transmit their own false data; this is known
as spoofing. The possibility of this type of attacks decreases the situational awareness of the airspace
concerned.

Approach: designing a secure transmission framework to prevent ADS-B signals from being spoofed.
Three alternative methods of securing ADS-B signals can be evaluated: hashing, symmetric encryption,
and asymmetric encryption. Research is needed to determine the security strength of the design
alternatives. Feasibility criteria can be determined by comparative analysis of alternatives. Economic
implications and possible collision risk can be determined from simulations that model the airspace
concerned (Amin et al. 2014).

Directions for future research: not identified

Problem: a space-based system plays a vital role within national critical infrastructures. They are being
incorporated into energy distribution software, advanced air-traffic management applications, rail
signalling systems, etc. Unfortunately, these infrastructures are susceptible to a broad range of

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security threats; the end users of communications, location sensing and timing applications often fail
to understand these infrastructures. Potential cyber-attacks may overthrow many of the safety
assumptions that support the condition of critical space-based services. These safety assumptions are
based on standard forms of hazard analysis that ignore cyber-security considerations. This is a
significant limitation when, for instance, security attacks can simultaneously exploit multiple
vulnerabilities in a manner that would never occur without a deliberate enemy seeking to damage
space based systems and ground infrastructures. Moreover, it is unclear how to represent and reason
about the safety concerns that are created by the diverse security threats to GNSS architectures,
including jamming, spoofing and the insider threat to ground based systems. Such concerns invalidate
many of the assumptions that support the provision of critical services.

Approach: identifying attack scenarios that justify the allocation of additional design resources so
that safety barriers can be strengthened to increase the flexibility against security threats. One
approach would be to extend the application of argumentation techniques such as GSN from safety-
related applications to represent security argumentation. The ultimate goal would be providing an
integrated, risk-based approach to the identification of attack scenarios that can help assess the
resilience of safety cases to security threats (Sharma et al. 2016).

Directions for future research: not identified

Problem: security of Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) against cyber-attacks is an important yet

challenging problem. Since most cyber-attacks happen in erratic ways, it is difficult to describe them
systematically. Deception attacks (or false data injection attacks), which are performed by tampering
with system components or data, are not of particular concern if they can be easily detected by the
system’s monitoring system. However, intelligent cyber attackers can avoid being detected by the
monitoring system by carefully design cyber-attacks. The main objective then is to investigate the
performance of such stealthy deception attacks from the system’s perspective.

Approach: investigating three kinds of stealthy deception attacks according to the attacker’s ability
to compromise the system. Based on the information about the dynamics of the system and existing
hypothesis testing algorithms, one can derive the necessary and sufficient conditions under which the
attacker could perform each kind of attack without being detected (Kwon et al. (2013).

Directions for future research: using the conditions under which the deception attacks successfully
bypass the monitoring system, one could not only evaluate the vulnerability level of a given CPS, but
also develop secure system design methodologies against stealthy deception attacks.

Problem: currently UAVs are used for a wide range of missions such as border surveillance,
reconnaissance, transportation and armed attacks. UAVs are presumed to provide their services at any
time, be reliable, automated and autonomous. To fulfil their missions, UAVs need to collect and
process data. The amount and kind of information enclosed make UAVs an extremely interesting
target for espionage and endangers UAVs of theft, manipulation and attacks (Hartmann and Steup
2013).

Approach: developing a scheme for the risk assessment of UAVs based on the provided service and
communication infrastructures. The components to be analysed could be the type of communication
system, data storage, sensor system, environmental factors, and fault handling mechanisms. Risk can

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then be defined as the result of the product of the susceptibility of an UAV, the probability of
occurrence of a specific attack on a component’s vulnerability, and the severity of the attack.

Directions for future research: not identified

Problem: current autopilot systems for UAVs were not built with cyber security considerations taken
into account, and are thus vulnerable to cyber-attack. To develop a cyber secure autopilot
architecture, a study is needed on potential cyber threats and vulnerabilities of the current autopilot
systems. The ultimate goal would be to build a controller the current UAV autopilot system making it
robust to cyber-attacks (Kim et al, 2012).

Approach: to attain the goal, one needs to develop a more sophisticated and accurate model to
simulate the GPS attack coupled with a sensitivity study. Then, one needs to develop a collision
avoidance algorithm for the ADS-B attack scenario and carry out a numerical analysis on simulated
multiple aircraft.

Directions for future research:

 One should focus on more sophisticated attacks that utilize multiple points of attack or
multiple methods.
 One should also evaluate possibilities for a coordinated attack where the attacker uses several
attacks in a certain manner to induce more effective faults into the autopilot system.
 One should consider possibilities for the disguised attack where the attacker can mask an
attack to induce a false reaction from the autopilot in order to remedy the attack.
 A purely analytical approach could also bring valuable insights; for instance, certain Kalman
filtering algorithms might be vulnerable to a special form of induced error in measurements
which cannot be detected.
 There is an acute need for developing metrics for cyber-attacks; until now a metric for
measuring either likelihood or a damage potential of cyber-attacks on a UAV autopilot does
not exist.
 Algorithms for detecting cyber-attacks need to be developed.

2.6.1.6 KEY TOPIC T5.5 – THE BLOCKCHAIN PROCESS AS AN EXAMPLE OF CYBERSECURITY

Airport transportation systems are cyber-physical systems that serve passengers, air traffic system
under supervision of human controllers or unmanned. It is forecasted that the volume of these
operations will grow more than recent years. Therefore, cyber-physical system will become more
important to work uninterrupted and secure. According to Sampigethaya and Poovendran (2013)
aviation information systems contain physical components, including electronics, hardware,
infrastructure, and humans which use digital computing, storage, software, or data networking to
generate, process, present, and consume data. However, the increasing density of these interactions
between physical and cyber systems warrant a surgical consideration of cyber-physical interactions
and potential performance risks from cyber and physical threats. Authors demonstrated ‘cyber’ layer
benefits for helping future aircraft, airports, and freight movement systems to overcome 21 st century
challenges.

In another study Johnson (2012) studied air traffic management systems safety for developing a
technology roadmap and proposed the extreme need on raising awareness about the potential
threats to safety-related systems amongst regulators and senior management. He stressed that

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without greater strategic leadership there would be security breaches that might leave major
vulnerabilities.

It is well-known that there are great amount of studies regarding Industry 4.0 and Internet of Things
applications. Furthermore, same vulnerability problems arise on these issues also. Hence, it is thought
to create an analogy and mention about a growing research trend on Blockchain technologies.

Globalization become more reasonable with the developments in network technologies and internet.
In this age, digital platforms changing the business models and whole society by enabling connected
structure via cloud-based systems (Kushida et al., 2011; Pon et al., 2014; van Alstyne et al. 2016). This
perspective can enable a light-weight financial system, inter-organizational record-keeping and
multiparty data aggregation (Greenspan, 2016).

One of these technologies is Blockchain which is accepted as a general purpose technology (GPT)
today like steam engine, electricity, and the internet examples (Catalini and Gans, 2016). GPTs typically
lead to subsequent innovation and productivity gains across multiple industry verticals, sustaining
new technological paradigms and economic growth for multiple years (Bresnahan and Trajtenberg,
1995; Helpman and Trajtenberg, 1998; Rosenberg and Trajtenberg, 2001; Moser and Nicholas, 2004;
Basu and Fernald, 2007). According to Naughton (2016) Blockchain technology will be the most
important IT invention of our age.

When the historical background of Blockchain examined it can be seen that Satoshi Nakamoto
proposed Bitcoin as an electronic payment system based on a decentralized peer-to-peer network,
without the need for an intermediation in a White paper published in 2008 (Nakamoto, 2008). The
Blockchain platform is created for Cryptocurrency exchange by Nakamoto but it is not mentioned in
the report (Mattila, 2016). However, the technology used in Blockchain gives insights many other
scholars with different application areas today. Underlying technology came with Bitcoin is Blockchain
which is a protocol and widely acknowledged as a major breakthrough in fault-tolerant distributed
computing, after decades of research in this field.

Briefly Blockchain can be defined as a distributed ledger that contains all transaction executed in the
Bitcoin network. This technology described with three words as disintermediated, censorship-
resistant, and tamper-proof (Seppala et al., 2016). The ledger network is open and participants do not
need to trust each other to interact. All transactions are verified and recorded by the nodes of the
network through cryptographic algorithms, without supervisors, central authority, human
intervention, and any other third party organizations. The reliability of network is provided by the
majority of nodes even some of them dishonest or malicious. For making human intervention or
controlling authority unnecessary verification is performed by a mathematical mechanism called
proof-of-work. Proof-of-work systems runs by “mining81” and “mining” does not serve the purpose of
verifying transactions, but of building a credible commitment against an attack. Consensus about the
true state of a distributed ledger therefore emerges and becomes stronger as time (and blocks) go
by. If a bad actor wanted to reverse a past transaction it would have to spend a disproportionate
amount of resources to do so. This is the result of the bad actor not only having to outpace the growth
rate of the legitimate chain, but also of having to recompute all blocks after the one that is being

81
Mining: Nodes in the network compete to solve a mathematical puzzle that requires the consumption of
computing power. Once the puzzle solved the new block of transactions is accepted by the network and
committed to the Blockchain. The network nodes which is called miners rewarded with newly generated coins.

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manipulated. Since the network always takes the longest, valid chain as the true state of the ledger
(i.e. as the “consensus”), the task of altering a past block of transactions and imposing it on the rest
of the network becomes increasingly difficult as the chain is extended. As a result, in proof-of-work
systems, a blockchain is only as secure as the amount of computing power dedicated to mining it.
This generates economies of scale and a positive feedback loop between network effects and security:
as more participants use a cryptocurrency, the value of the underlying token increases (because the
currency becomes more useful), which in turn attracts more miners (due to higher rewards), ultimately
increasing the security of the ledger.

Main idea of Blockchain protocol is decentralization and permisionless attendance. However, there
are different blockchains as permissioned, private, public etc. The steps of Blockchain protocol can be
demonstrated in the Figure 201:

Figure 201: Blockchain Process 82

It is clear with the explanation of blockgeeks.com that blockchain process is paperless,

disintermediated, unaltered, reliable and free. These characteristics make this system more popular
especially for reducing transaction costs at first. These costs are; the cost of verification and the cost
of networking (Catalini and Gans, 2016). By using blockchain protocol, for the first time in history value
could be reliably transferred between two distant, untrusting parties without the need of a costly
intermediary.

However, Blockchain technology has also some technical challenges and limitations that have been
identified. Swan (2015) presents seven technical challenges and limitations for the adaptation of
Blockchain technology in the future:

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Throughput: The potential throughput of issues in the Bitcoin network is currently between 4 to 7
tps (transactions per second) and it is limited when compared to VISA and PayPal.

Latency: To create sufficient security for a Bitcoin transaction block, it takes currently roughly 10
minutes to complete one transaction. To achieve efficiency in security, more time has to be spent on
a block, because it has to outweigh the cost of double spending83 attacks. Bitcoin protects against
double spending by verifying each transaction added to the block chain, to ensure that the inputs for
the transaction have not been spent previously. This makes latency a big issue in Blockchain currently.
Making a block and confirming the transaction should happen in seconds, while maintaining security.
To complete a transaction e.g. in VISA takes only a few seconds, which is a huge advantage compared
to Blockchain.

Size and bandwidth: At the moment, the size of a Blockchain in the Bitcoin network is over 100GB84
When the throughput increases to the levels of VISA, Blockchain could grow 214PB in each year. The
Bitcoin community assumes that the size of one block is 1MB, and a block is created every ten minutes.
Therefore, there is a limitation in the number of transactions that can be handled (on average 500
transaction in one block). If the Blockchain needs to control more transactions, the size and bandwidth
issues have to be solved.

Security: The current Blockchain has a possibility of a 51% attack. In a 51% attack a single entity would
have full control of the majority of the network’s mining hash-rate and would be able to manipulate
Blockchain. To overcome this issue, more research on security is necessary.

Wasted resources: Mining Bitcoin wastes huge amounts of energy ($15million/day). The waste in
Bitcoin is caused by the Proof-of-Work effort. There are some alternatives in industry fields, such as
proof-of-stake. With Proof-of-Work, the probability of mining a block depends on the work done by
the miner. However, in Proof-of-Stake, the resource that is compared is the amount of Bitcoin a miner
holds. For example, someone holding 1% of the Bitcoin can mine 1% of the “Proof-of-Stake blocks”.
The issue with wasted resources needs to be solved to have more efficient mining in Blockchain. 


Usability: The Bitcoin API for developing services is difficult to use. There is a need to develop a more
developer-friendly API for Blockchain. This could resemble REST APIs. 


Versioning, hard forks, multiple chains: A small chain that consists of a small number of nodes has
a higher possibility of a 51% attack. Another issue emerges when chains are split for administrative or
versioning purposes. 


Beyond these limitations according to Yli-Huumo et al. (2016) scalability is also an issue that needs to
be solved for future needs. Therefore, to identify and understand the current status of research
conducted on Blockchain, it is important to gather all relevant research. It is then possible to evaluate
what challenges and questions have been tackled and answered, and what are the most problematic
issues in Blockchain at the moment.

Due to the fact that the maturity of blockchain technology is still relatively low, the technological
know-how is still concentrated to a small group of blockchain users in the World. However, in a decade
the Blockchain platform has been approved with its bespoken characteristics. Hence, the idea behind

83
Double-spending is the result of successful spending of money more than once.
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December 2016- http://www.coinfox.info/news/6700-bitcoin-blockchain-size-reaches-100-gb Access Date
19.10.2017

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it make the technology became widespread and it can be envisioned that the perspective will have
potential to be improved with these common applications. For today there are many application areas
of Blockchain and here some of them are mentioned.

As an irreversible and tamper-proof public records repository for documents, contracts, properties,
and assets, the blockchain can be used to embed information and instructions, with a wide range of
applications from private to public (Atzori, 2015). The most popular application is smart contracts
which can be described as tamper- proof, self-executing and automatically enforceable. Based on
Mattilla et al. (2017) American cryptographer Nick Szabo published an article in which he outlined the
concept of smart contracts in 1994 at first. However, because of the immature technology and IT
infrastructure at that time the idea couldn’t have opportunity to be applied. Beyond Szabo’s smart
contract definition today smart contracts are accepted as a set of promises in a digital form including
protocols within which the parties perform on these promises. Blockchain technology enable smart
contracts to be programmed and embedded to the system easily. Moreover, it can be envisioned that
these smart contract systems may be improved with self-execution and self-enforcement to be fully
automatized in autonomous organizations. With these improvements in smart contracts it is
envisioned to reach Decentralized Autonomous Organization/Corporations/ Societies
(DAOs/DACs/DASs). In this concept, self-sufficient agents derived from artificial intelligence and
capable to execute tasks without human involvement, for which the blockchain can provide additional
functionality. DAOs operate independently of their developers. In their structure, humans are moved
from the centre of the organization to its outskirts, as the system is used to organize human activity
algorithmically. An open organization based on smart contracts may solve the problem of bad
leadership or issues with the transparency of the organization. However, if left unregulated and
ungoverned, errors in the programming code may prove to be very harmful or even dangerous. The
DAO is in development stage and so it reveals new types of risks. The organizational character
of The
DAO in itself raises the question of, for instance, the distribution of liability for damages within such
new types of applications. In addition, it involves ties to the question of determining the correct legal
entity in economic activity based on new models of co-operation, as is the case with The DAO. Hence,
developing technology is not only adequate for making the application common, but also social side
should be handled with a holistic perspective.

Smart property concept is another application area and applied to digital ownership of tangible and
intangible assets. By the way it can change the patent system with a distributed perspective and can
democratize the triadic perspective. By embedding patent system into blockchain, idea-owners do
not need third-party approval but need acceptance by nodes in the network. The execution of
instructions by a cryptographic code with protection of participants against risks of fraud and a
significant reduction of management overheads. Because of the remarkable advantages related to
automation, transparency, auditability and cost-effectiveness, the blockchain may represent a
disruptive innovation for many varieties of contracts and business activities.

Decentralized voting system may be demonstrated as an important application area for blockchain
for public administration field. Tamper-proof ballots and election results can create transparency and
strengthen democracy. Due to the fact that blockchains can be designed to be public yet anonymous,
anyone can easily verify the voting outcome and also check that their own vote has been taken into
account accordingly, while still maintaining ballot secrecy. Blockchain technology can therefore help
to reduce corruption in political systems and act as a safeguard against rigged elections.

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Blockchain technology may be used in improving IoT with smart, censorship-resistant, tamper-proof,
and disintermediated data interchange. This may add value to industry 4.0 applications also with same
technology perspective.

Another market may be music industry for applying Blockchain technology. According to report of
Middlesex University (2016), Blockchain technology could revolutionize the music industry with a
networked database for music copyright information, fast payments, transparency in the chain and
Access to alternative sources of capital. As can be seen in the application examples, the idea behind
blockchain technology, which may be called as a paradigm, has been becoming popular evolutionary.

Because of these evolutionary improvements in Blockchain, Swan (2015), described blockchain

technology as “fundamental for forward progress in society as Magna Charta or the Rosetta Stone”.
Again based on Mattila (2016) blockchain technology is shifting society in two aspects. Firstly,
blockchain technology enables directly and reliable transactions of any assets over the internet
between any parties by providing censorship-resistant, disintermediated, tamper-proof digital
platforms (Mattila & Seppälä, 2015; Mattila, 2016). Secondly, for enterprise- and industry- level
systems, blockchain technology is providing efficiency gains on top of existing structures by removing
the constant need for actively intermediated data-synchronization and concurrency control by a
trusted third party (Mattila, 2016; Mattila et al., 2016). Therefore, blockchain platform can be described
as more democratic and equal for all nodes in the network. Main idea is accepting all parties sharing
the same platform without having privileges and no third-party that will provide ones these privileges.
So, blockchain technology can enable all the participants to produce a platform together in a
distributed manner, without having to trust each other in almost any capacity (Seppälä & Mattila,
2016; Mattila, 2016).

It is thought that the potential of Blockchain regarding security, smart contract structure and peer-to-
peer network design may be applied for improving the Aviation cyber-physical systems. It can be
proposed that research studies may be directed to understand the sub-systems to apply blockchain
logic to aviation industry in future.

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5 Prioritizing Research, Testing Capabilities
and Education
The continuation of the success of the European aeronautics sector in the long term requires a joint
research strategy (section 6.1), implemented through industry-research-academia cooperation
(section 6.2), with access to test and development facilities (section 6.3) the whole supported by a
steady influx of young talent (section 6.4).

6.1 European Research and Innovation Agenda

*Flightpath 2050 goal 20: “European research and innovation strategies are jointly defined by
all stakeholders, public and private, and implemented in a coordinated way with individual
responsibly”.

Aviation is recognized as one of the top five advanced technology sectors in Europe. Thus, it is
generally acknowledged that research infrastructures are extremely important to the aviation industry
and the scientific community working on aeronautics. Europe has the world’s leading research
infrastructure covering the entire aviation system from wind tunnels through simulation facilities to
test aircraft. Industrial customers (i.e. aircraft manufacturers) make commercial use of facilities for
developing and enhancing their products during limited test periods. This contributes towards making
the facilities available for scientific research to other users who need them for limited periods of time.
This situation benefits the numerous research projects conducted under national or EU programmes
on both fixed and rotary wing aircraft, and is conducive to improving basic knowledge (of such matters
as flow stability, transition, wakes, vortices and the combustion process) through tests directly funded
by research establishments to improve fuel efficiency and reduce noise.

European research is defined, organised and funded in a coherent and coordinated, dynamic and agile
way avoiding duplication and inefficiency. It is prioritised towards initiatives resulting from strategic
roadmaps defined and agreed by all European stakeholders, satisfying actual needs (industry pull)
and potential future demands (technology push). The start of the EU aeronautics programme in the
framework programme FP2 with a budget of 36 M€ and its steady growth one hundred fold to a
budget of 3.6 B€ in H2020 testifies to the success and growing importance of this initiative. It was
pioneering in supplementing without duplication national, bilateral and multilateral cooperation on
an occasional basis among larger nations, by a systematic cooperation accessible to all EU member
states, bringing more talent to the European pool. The growth of the aeronautics program has seen
a shift from (i) basic, to (ii) industrial, (iii) demonstration and (iv) integration activities. This growth
should be considered as an efficient element of integral European transport system growth that
“provides completely safe, secure and sustainable mobility for people and goods”. A single European
transport area should ease the movements of citizens and freight, reduce costs and enhance the
sustainability of European transport. Technological innovation can achieve a faster and cheaper
transition to a more efficient and sustainable European transport system by acting on three main
factors: vehicles’ efficiency through new engines, materials and design; cleaner energy use through
new fuels and propulsion systems, better use of network and safer and more secure operations

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through information and communication systems. The synergies with other sustainability objectives
such as the reduction of oil dependence, the competitiveness of Europe’s transportation (aviation,
automotive, railway and maritime) industry as well as health benefits, especially improved air quality
in urbanistic conglomerates, make a compelling case for the EU to step up its efforts to accelerate the
development and early deployment of clean vehicles (aircraft, cars, trains, etc.).

On a separate track the European Research Council (ERC) has sponsored high-quality research in basic
science, including mathematics and physics, with some underrepresentation of engineering.
Fundamental and applied research in various scientific disciplines (such as fluid mechanics, materials,
structures and systems) and the development of sub-components and components (like engines) and
aeronautical end-products (including fixed-wing aircraft and rotorcraft) has always been associated
with extensive design, computation, testing, optimisation and validation activities. This complex
process calls for the systematic use of various research facilities, such as aerodynamic wind tunnels,
combustion and structural test beds, material elaboration apparatus, clusters of small computers (or
conversely high-end super-computers), air traffic management and air traffic control simulators, flight
simulators, and research aircraft. These facilities, used for different disciplines and specialities, differ
greatly in their size and range of application but are often linked to one another through a complex
immaterial network that transforms basic scientific knowledge into competitive products while
integrating environmental, safety and security requirements. Formal pan-European networks have
been established to improve overall efficiency by exchanging best practices and progressively
specialising in fields of application. Examples are AT-One for Air Traffic Management, DNW, and
ESWIRP for wind tunnels.

The gap between the Joint Research Initiatives (JRI) “Clean Sky” and “SESAR” focused on industrial
application and the ERC focused on fundamental research needs to be filled by a Basic Research
Programme (BRP). The call for “exploratory research” ideas in SESAR is a first step towards filling the
void in basic research and needs to be expanded and extended to all areas of aeronautics. Both Joint
Undertakings (JUs) Clean Sky and SESAR ensure the medium term competitiveness of the European
aeronautical sector; the supply of new ideas and prospects to ensure longer term competiveness
depends on a Basic Research Program linking the human resources of academia, industry and research
establishments.

In view of the next EU Framework Program, different organizations are preparing position papers
indicating the priorities to be addressed and supported. In particular, the European Commission has
formed a High Level Group to draw up a vision and strategic recommendations to maximise the
impact of future European Union (EU) research and innovation (R&I). The Group has elaborated a
report entitled “LAB – FAB – APP Investing in the European future we want” [1] containing series of
recommendations aimed at maximising the impact of EU Research & Innovation Programmes for
post-2020 EU programme. The report is based on the results of the interim evaluation of Horizon
2020, on a collection of documents and on issue papers prepared by the Commission services and
feedback received from a range of European-level stakeholder organisations.

The summary of recommendations is shown in Figure 202. As it can be easilly recognized, the main
messages are to support innovative ideas and invest in education.

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According to this strategic vision to maximise the impact of future European Union (EU) research and
innovation (R&I), EREA, the Association of European Research Establishments in Aeronautics, has
issued recommendations for an impactful aviation research programme in the next Framework
Programme, which takes into account those of “LAB-FAB-APP” report of the High Level Group. The
EREA position paper [2] has stressed that it is essential to support, develop and maintain test
infrastructures for new products and innovative solutions and invest on human capital source to bring
in new ideas for the technological base of the European Industry. For supporting and keeping one of
the most flourishing EU industries and because of the long cycles characterizing research in aviation,
the investment in Research and Innovation is crucial and requires the necessary support from public
funding through Grants up to TRL 6. To ensure a proper flow through the innovation chain, a certain
degree of continuity is required. EREA therefore fully supports multi-annual programming. FP9 should
earmark a larger portion of the funding for Collaborative Research on TRL levels 1 to 4-5, which will
keep the invaluable innovation and human capital source for one of Europe’s most strategic sectors
vibrant and bring in new ideas for the technological base of the European Industry.
Figure 202:

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6.2 Industry- Research-Academia clusters
*Flightpath 2050 goal 21: “Creation of a network of multi-disciplinary technology clusters
based on collaboration between industry, universities and research institutes”

The creation of these technology clusters could be the result of 3 initiatives, two ongoing and one to
be restored from the past:

A – The (iii) demonstration and (iv) integration activities existing in the JUs Clean Sky and
SESAR;

B – The fundamental research in mathematics, physics and engineering existing in the ERC;

C – Restoring the (i) basic and (ii) industrial research that existed in the aeronautics programme
since the beginning and lapsed with increasing scale.

European research and innovation strategies are jointly defined by all stakeholders, public and private,
and implemented in a coordinated way with individual responsibility. This involves the complete
innovation chain from blue sky research up to technology demonstration. A network of multi-
disciplinary technology clusters has been created based on collaboration between industry,
universities and research institutes (EREA, PEGASUS, XNOISE, FORUM-AE, etc.). The sector is organised
to sustain the full research and innovation chain. This includes mechanisms for small and medium
enterprises (SMEs) to link with higher tier suppliers without any penalty for sub-contracting. Research
work with achieved previously maturation in its TRLs is continued and intensified with particular
emphasis on medium and high levels which are specifically focused on improving components for
existing aircraft. Fundamental aeronautics research is coherent with more applied research and makes
use of the European Research Council’s scheme. In the short-term, attractive and efficient research
instruments are put in place, which ensure continuity between research on promising breakthrough
concept, their validation by focused RTD actions and finally their demonstration in an integrated
environment.

The basic research programme in C may be a relatively modest budget item (up to 100 M€) but it can
have a major effect on long-term competiveness by linking A and C. It would be possible to imagine
the clusters around any or all of the 14 main aeronautical technologies: flight physics, aerodynamics,
propulsion, structures, materials, production, control, avionics, telecommunications, computation,
electrics, noise, emissions and operations.

Harmonisation between technology evolution in aviation and in other correlated sectors enables spin-
in from and cross-fertilisation with innovations in other sectors, such as communications (mobile web,
travel search engine providers). It also incentivises the aeronautical world to be more adaptive to the
very fast evolution of IT technologies (c.f. the current aeronautical evolution on 10-year time scale
versus IT technology evolution on a yearly time scale).

The contribution of the EU aeronautics programs from FP2 to the present deserves special focus (Key
Topic T6.1).

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2.6.1.7 KEY TOPIC T6.1 – EU AERONAUTICS PROGRAMS SINCE FP2
The aerospace industry is characterized by a high R&D intensity, technological complexity, long
product life cycles, and so on. To support the huge costs associated to the development of new
products in this demanding industrial sector, the European Union has funded numerous transnational,
collaborative R&D projects, within the European Framework Programmes (FPs). The proposals are
submitted by self-organized consortia composed by at least two independent legal entities
established in different EU Member States and an associated State. Since their initiation in 1984, seven
FPs have been launched, and continued in the 8TH EU FP, named Horizon 2020, launched in 2014
(Table 44).

Table 44: General information concerning the aerospace sector funded from FP2 to FP7 in the time period 1987 to 2013.85

In order to analyze the main fields of interest such researches carried out within the EU framework
programs, Guffarth et al., by consulting the EUPRO database 86 , have inspected 2013 projects
dedicated to the aerospace sector and mapped each of them into one or more of 25 thematic
categories as shown in Table 45. Moreover, Figure 203 illustrated the fraction of the projects funded
during each FP that can be associated to the different categories. A more uniform distribution among
the different categories can be noticed in the early FPs. Four categories have increased the relative
importance from FP4 until FP7: SAT (satellite and space topics), RSY (quality and safety systems, non-
destructive detection and repair systems, maintenance and their facilities), OMP (optimization of
manufacturing processes and supply chains, existing product improvements) and SIM (simulation,
numerical models, computer-aided systems for air traffic management or aerodynamic application).

85
Source: D. Guffarth, M. J Barber, (2013): The European aerospace R&D collaboration network, FZID Discussion
Paper, No. 84-2013
86
EUPRO database is developed and maintained by Austrian Institute of Technology, Innovation Systems
Department by standardizing raw data on EU FP research collaborations collected from the CORDIS database

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Table 45: Thematic categories used to classify the EU funded projects related to the aeronautic sector87.

A significant observation which can be resumed by relating the data in Figure 203 with the historical
development of the aeronautic industry concerns the composite material sector (COM).

It can be noted that projects belonging to this category were among the most relevant in FP2 and
FP3 which have been in place between the mid-1980s to the mid-1990s. During this period, many
R&D efforts have been devoted to the development of new composite materials in response to the
aircraft manufacturers demand to reduce its weight in order to decrease fuel consumption and
increase the airplane flight range.

It has to be reminded that until the mid-1990s the amount of composite materials employed was
around 10% of the total aircraft weight and limited to nonstructural parts. This percentage has sensibly
increased up to the actual figures. In fact, both the Boeing 787 and the Airbus A350 recently
introduced in the aircraft market (in 2011 and 2015, respectively) are now composed with about 50%
in weight of carbon fiber reinforced materials. This evidences that the industrial application of such
new technology has nearly 20 years lag with respect to the research and development phase.

87D. Guffarth, M. J Barber, (2013) : The European aerospace R&D collaboration network, FZID Discussion
Paper, No. 84-2013, http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:bsz:100-opus-9038

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The most relevant topics of FP4 concerning efficiency and optimization of aircraft design and
procurement costs, (OMP and RSY in Table 45) were continued in FP5. In addition, specific goals
concerning the reduction of aircraft noise and climate impact become of greater importance thus,
explaining the increase of AER and REC categories. During the exploitation period of FP5, the
improvement of aircraft operational capability is put in evidence by the increased number of projects
dedicated to computer-aided systems (SIM).

In FP6, the significant percentages associated to categories like space (SAT), satellite-based
information services (LSO) and data information models (SIM) signaled the growing importance
recognized by the EU to the Galileo project, and to satellite telecommunications. As it concerns the
aeronautic sector, the most relevant efforts have been associated to safety and security (RSY), cost
reduction (OMP), improvement of the environmental impact with regard to emissions (REC) and noise
(AER and OMP).

Within the FP7 the EU strategy concerning aerospace has been concentrated on the reduction of
emissions and alternative fuels (REC), air traffic management (SIM), safety and security (RSY) and
efficient aircraft production (OMP).
Figure 203: Thematic development of EU-funded aerospace R&D projects88.

Participation by country

88
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The graphs shown in Figure 204 the provides a synthetic description of the relative involvement of
the different EU countries in the FP projects. In particular, the diameter of the nodes is associated to
the overall number of participants per country, whereas the links between the nodes provide the
number of connections between the regions: the thickness of the links indicates the amount of
connections within the different FPs. Such graphs illustrate the evolution of the involvement of the EU
countries from a more uniform distribution in FP2 and FP3 towards a more concentrated one in FP5-
FP7. Such change may be reasonably associated to the previously discussed evolution of the relative
importance of the different categories and to the identification of a less fragmented and more
specialized cooperation network.

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Figure 204: The European aerospace R&D collaboration network89

Participation by section: industry, research, academia.

As it concerns the organization types participating to the EU funded projects the following categories
can be considered: IND (industry), EDU (education and science facilities, like universities), ROR
(research organizations, like the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft), GOV (government and other public
authorities) and OTH (all other organizations).

89
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In the Figure 205 illustrates the relative weight of such different organizations within the FP projects
is illustrated. As it concerns the industry IND, It can be noted that there is a presence between 50-60%
almost constantly from FP2 to FP5. In FP6 and FP7 a decrease to 45% and 38% respectively can be
noticed. An opposite trend, closely related to the thematic development discussed before, is visible
for the scientific organizations EDU and ROR since their shares, nearly constant from FP2 to FP5 with
a percentage <40%, increased to 45% in FP6 and 53% in FP7. In particular, such trend is related to the
rising relevance of topics like satellite and space, environmental impact in FP6 and FP7 which demands
for a more prominent scientific effort and long development phase.

The average by considering all FPs, “an industrial actor participated in a mean number of 3.2 projects,
with a standard deviation of 14.6, a research organization in 3.0 (11.1) projects, and a university in 2.6
(6.1) projects. Over all organization types, the fluctuation seems to be high, since they participate on
average in about three projects over 26 years. The enormous variation indicates strong heterogeneity
within the different types”.
Figure 205: Relative shares of the different organization types to aerospace EU funded projects90.

6.3 Test, Simulation and Development Facilities

*Flightpath 2050 goal 22:” Identification, maintenance and ongoing development of strategic
European aerospace test, simulation and development facilities. The ground and airborne
validation and certification processes are integrated where appropriate”.

90
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Research and development infrastructure is an indispensable tool to achieve a decisive competitive
edge in developing sustainable aviation products and services that meet the needs of EU citizens and
society. Appropriate core capabilities are available and accessible. Infrastructure and the associated
workforce are vital assets, which are maintained and further developed in a focused, efficient and cost
effective manner. Suitable access to these facilities enables knowledge transfer across Europe and
facilitates continuity from blue sky research to innovation in products and services for the benefit of
Europe. Strategic aviation infrastructure is of the highest quality and efficiency, providing the basis for
world-class research and competitive product development while supporting education. It ranges
from wind tunnels via iron and copper birds up to experimental aircraft and simulation capabilities for
in-flight and airport operations. Infrastructure is organised in a network for the best usability of all
stakeholders. The data quality and operational efficiency of European aviation infrastructure helps
industry to minimise risks and development costs, and helps society to determine the impact of
aviation in benefits such as fast transport as well as in penalties such as impact on the atmosphere.

The days of duplication or multiplication of major aerospace test facilities are long gone, as shown by
some good examples of the last few decades: (i) the joint Dutch-German aero-acoustic wind tunnel
DNW; (ii) the joint British-French-German cryogenic pressurized wind tunnel ETW; (iii) the choice of
CIRA to build an icing wind tunnel and an atmospheric re-entry simulation facility not existing
elsewhere in Europe on a comparable scale. The rationalization of smaller scale test facilities has
diminished duplication and it may be time to look at updates, upgrades and new needs.

There is large-scale co-operation in science, code development and high power computing. The main
topics of this include:

 Improved and validated fluid dynamics, aerodynamic control, combustion, noise and thermal
modelling based on high performance computation, covering all needs for the aircraft and its
engines, external and internal.
 Methods and tools facilitating evaluation of aircraft and engine configurations.
 Results from demonstration, allowing to assess not only improvements in vehicle development
but also to verify and validate new modelling techniques.
An European aeronautical facility programme would logically consist of the following steps:

 List by industry and certification authorities of the test facilities needed for the foreseeable
future and their appropriate specifications;
 comparison with the inventory of existing facilities in Europe to identify the needs (i) already
met; (ii) to be met by upgrades or (iii) requiring new facilities;
 To devise a funding and implementation plan, associating each test facility with one or more
technology clusters (section 6.2).
6.4 Young Talent and Women in Aviation
*Flightpath 2050 goal 23: Students are attracted to careers in aviation. Courses offered by
European universities closely match the needs of the aviation industry, its research
establishments and administration and evolve continuously as those needs develop.

The aviation community is committed to lifelong learning and continuous education thus promoting
interest in the sector and stimulating innovation. Europe’s students are attracted to careers in aviation

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and perform highly. Courses offered by European Universities are academically challenging and
adapted continuously to support and match the evolving needs of the sector research
(establishments) and administrations. Educational policies across the EU motivate students to pursue
further studies in science, technology and mathematics to ensure a steady supply of talent for a first
class work force. The aviation community engages actively with European students from the earliest
age. Higher education is based on the adaptation of curricula based on the evolution of knowledge,
language and (soft) skill requirements derived from ICAO. The curricula are designed based on a
common understanding of the balance between multi-disciplinary and in-depth knowledge, such as,
for example, common language recommendations, the T-shaped professional and the Conceive-
Design-Implement-Operate (CDIO) philosophy. This ensures that scientists of the future are capable
of integrating interdisciplinary skills of a technological, human and social nature. Also more detailed
requirements such as inclusion of a flight test, hands-on experience, and a minimum amount of
essential, aeronautics related knowledge are included.

The aviation sector in Europe will need a vast pool of human resources (Key Topic T6.2). The
distribution by tasks may be comparable in Europe and the United States (Key Topic T6.3).

The European Parliament called on the Commission to provide more support in FP9 'for young
researchers, such as pan-European networking tools and to reinforce funding schemes for early-stage
researchers with less than two years of experience after PhD completion.

2.6.1.8 KEY TOPIC T6.2 – HUMAN RESOURCES NEEDED BY THE AERONAUTICAL SECTOR IN
EUROPE
Benchmarks

The SRIA challenge relevant for the Goal 23 is dedicated to: Infrastructure and Skills – aiming to ensure
the preservation of Europe’s research infrastructure requirements and encourage a sustained flow of
competent, trained and motivated people.

ACARE has laid down the plan to establish a” fully integrated European aviation education system
which will deliver the required high-quality workforce, with the skills and the motivation to be able to
meet the challenges of the future. This requires a harmonised and balanced approach covering the
entire scope from attracting talents over primary and secondary education to apprenticeship,
academia and lifelong professional development”. ACARE settles three action actions relevant for this
analysis, indicated in the Table 46:

 Action Area 5.6 – Provide world-leading education in aviation;

 Action Area 5.7 – Stimulate the involvement of stakeholders in education;
 Action Area 5.8 – Make aviation attractive to ensure inflow into educational programmes.

Action Areas Target State 2050 Desirable Progress

By 2025, the means for
European aviation education is
harmonisation across
world-leading, providing excellent
5.6 - Provide world-leading European aviation
support to the aviation sector.
education in aviation education should be
Programmes are harmonised with
defined, with
European accreditation schemes
implementation following

401
 and a chartered aerospace shortly after. European
engineer qualification. accreditation should be in
place in 2035. As well, the
qualification of chartered
aerospace engineer
should also be available.
Industry and research
establishments are fully involved Internships, placements
in educational programmes and subject matter for
5.7 - Stimulate the ensuring that students are better masters and doctoral
involvement of stakeholders prepared for a career in aviation. students; staff exchanges;
in education Industry is reaping substantial greater number of
benefits form this collaboration, industry-funded
which extends to apprenticeships university chairs
and life-long learning.
Awareness programmes
for schools should be in
place from 2020 onwards
The image of the aviation sector is
By 2025 there should be a
positive and attractive. Sufficient
system of grants for
5.8 - Make aviation attractive number of people flow into the
outstanding students who
to ensure inflow into educational programmes and
wish to join aviation
educational programmes choose a career in aviation. This
programmes from within
supports European aviation as
and beyond Europe. A
world leader.
European XPRIZE in
aviation should also be
organised in 2025.
Table 46: Status relative to the ACARE Goal 23.

Analysing the scope in both Flightpath 2050 and SRIA it can be stated that both proposals are
coherent and SRIA is complementary to the FP 2050. SRIA analyses several keys aspects and areas to
be promoted until 2050. We can highlight the following:

 Ensure a large inflow of talent into aviation educational programs:

o From primary trough secondary to high education;
o Attract talent from outside Europe;
o Attract people from other sectors to pursue a career in aviation
o Outreach to the general public.
 Retain professionals at later stage – keeping them motivated and updated in terms of
knowledge and skills.
 Gender balance – attract female students and encourage greater participation of women in
conferences, events and competitions.
In terms of measures to be taken, the following are highlighted:

 Implementation of awareness programmes:

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 o Careers must be visible attractive and progressive, with LLL possibilities and flexibility
to change disciplines inside the sector.
 Organisation and promotion of scholarships, grants and prizes;
 Promote diversity in types of education and training:
o Degree programmes must be interesting, appealing, of high quality and supported by
modern facilities. Harmonised curriculum; Europe-wide standard for aviation
education; Links with outstanding education institutes worldwide.
o Professional education and re-training opportunities should be available on-line and
on-site.
o Include in the programmes the 21st Century skills – problem solving, critical thinking
and creativity.
Reference State in 2010

In 2010, the shortage of skill aviation professionals were a forthcoming threat and worries about skills
shortages were widespread at a global scale in aviation. Red flags were raised by ICAO, IATA, ACARE.

In Europe, clearly, there were no guarantees that it would be possible to keep up with the changing
world in a way that allowed the maintenance or increase of its technological position, as the demand
for professional engineers and technicians was expected to grow in all levels of the value chain. The
majority of the worries about skills shortages were directed mainly at engineering related careers. Is
well known that the major demographic trend in Europe is characterised by an aging population and
declining younger age cohorts. In 2010 the industry employment was already assisting to a
concentration of age structures in the middle age range (35-50 years) and experiencing lower
recruitment rates of youngsters – in part due to longer education and training periods – but also due
to broad use of early retirement schemes. This demographic tendency, in addiction with lower
proportions of qualified young people who were (and are) choosing for mathematics, physics and
engineering careers was (is) a concern for the aerospace industry, not only in Europe but in all mature
industrialized economies. Europe AI also faces challenges posed by the emerging economies who
accessed the aircraft market and are not confronted neither with the problem of an ageing society
nor a decreasing interest in STEM study programmes. The longstanding dimension of the declining
labour supply is also heightened by the circumstance that regional mismatches in the labour market
cannot easily be adjusted. Cultural, linguistic, and legal differences among European members
challenge companies’ desires to move work and employees between countries. It was clear the need
for education and training to coordinate multiple cultural traditions and institutions and make them
work across borders, to develop transparent and recognised training courses and graduates. It’s also
relevant to mention that for the European AI is difficult to take advantage of the global market for
highly skilled employees, since European characteristics - less open societies and language barriers –
make Europe, in general, less attractive than the US, and most Member States are more restrictive.

Nevertheless and as mentioned above the labour shortages on the engineering level are not only a
European but also a US concern. In 2014, in a study made by GAO (US Government Accountability
Office), the analysis found mixed evidence about a current or possible future shortage of aviation
professionals. There has been a steady decline in the number of engineering graduates in the US since
a peak in the mid-1980s, but as the USA can rely on immigrants, the situation there is different.
Aerospace engineers experienced a low unemployment rate—the most direct measure of a labour

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shortage—and increases in employment suggested that a shortage may exist. Until 2010, around half
of all engineers with PhDs in the US workforce under the age of 45 were foreigners. Data provided
less support for a shortage of aircraft mechanics; while the occupation has had a low unemployment
rate, both employment and earnings have stayed about the same, suggesting that demand for this
occupation has not outstripped supply. Industry and government are taking some actions to attract
and retain qualified individuals in these occupations, but employers GAO interviewed remain
concerned about future needs. GAO found that most of these employers had some challenges hiring
personnel with the skills employers were seeking at the wage they offered. Employers reported taking
a variety of actions, but few were raising wages. Several US agencies—the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) and the Departments of Defence (DOD), Education, Labour (DOL), and Veterans
Affairs—developed programs that assisted individuals interested in aviation careers. For example, in
academic year 2011–2012, Education disbursed approximately $1.6 billion in federal grants to
students majoring in related fields. Still, most employers and stakeholders stated that maintaining a
qualified workforce was difficult (Figure 206), in part because of a perception that fewer people are
interested in aviation careers.
Figure 206: Need for aviation professionals in the US

ICAO has also addressed shortage of skilled aviation professionals. In 2009, ICAO also strongly
addressed the shortage of skilled aviation professionals. The analyses made at that time highlighted
that:

 In the next 20 years, airlines will have to add 25,000 new aircraft to the current 17,000-strong
commercial fleet
 By 2026, 480,000 new technicians will be needed to maintain these aircraft and over 350,000
pilots to fly them
 Between 2005 and 2015, 73% of the American air traffic controller population is eligible for
retirement.
The underlying problem was presented and simply stated in the following way: “the demand for
aviation professionals will exceed supply”. Factors that explain it include:

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  wholesale retirements in the current generation of aviation professionals;
 aviation professions not attractive enough to potential candidates;
 competition with other industry sectors for skilled employees;
 training capacity insufficient to meet demand;
 learning methodologies not responsive to new evolving learning style;
 accessibility to affordable training;
 lack of harmonization of competencies in some aviation disciplines, and
 little awareness by the “next generation” of types of aviation professions available.

Actual Status

Since then, some initiative were already put in place.

 Main European achievements.

Workforce mobility assumed a growing importance for the European AI. National cluster units and
the new European Aerospace Cluster Partnership (EACP) established opportunities to develop and
expand transnational education and training programmes. The Hamburg Qualification Initiative (HQI),
or the PEGASUS (Partnership of a European Group of Aeronautics and Space Universities) are
examples of successful transnational cooperation. The HQI has established an exchange in the field
of training between the aviation clusters of Hamburg and the French aerospace valley of the regions
Midi-Pyrénées (Toulouse) and Aquitaine (Bordeaux). The programme has evolved from the exchange
of trainees to integrated transnational vocational training courses.

The PEGASUS alliance created with the purpose to optimise the higher education services offered in
the best interest of Europe both in terms of continuing to attract the best students and also to offer
highly relevant educational and research programmes, also evolved to include also an industry and
research alliance is also pursuing the interest to promote excellence and recognition seal of European
aerospace Universities. The cooperation among the IMT, EREA and PEGASUS in general and the
technology clusters are further elements in the alignment of education, research and industry.

The attraction of young talent to aviation has been enhanced by demonstrating the progress in
aerospace vehicles of all types: airliners, helicopters, fighters, launchers, satellites, rockets and drones;
and highlighting the multidisciplinary nature of aerospace engineering as a synthesis of advance
technologies with working opportunities throughout Europe. The pool of young talent have been
enlarged by promoting greater participation of women in aviation through dissemination of
opportunities and successful case histories. The best form of alignment of university courses with the
needs of industry and research establishments is the joint research activities that point to the same
future and link academic staff to the places where their students are going to be employed, creating
synergies and longer term links.

 ICAO initiatives.

405
ICAO stated then that solutions should be globally-harmonized in nature and include human resource
planning tools, accredited training and educational programmes adapted to the next generation, and
wide-ranging cooperation among concerned stakeholders. Therefore, ICAO established the Next
Generation of Aviation Professionals Taskforce (NGAP), consisting of 29 representatives from
industry, education and training providers, regulatory bodies and international organizations. Near-
term objectives define included to: inventory human resources planning data; identify and support
initiatives to reach out to the next generation; and, find ways to harmonize training regulations. The
Task Force also envisaged to support initiatives relating to the next generation of aviation
professionals.

The NGAP initiative was “launched to ensure that enough qualified and competent aviation
professionals are available to operate, manage and maintain the future international air transport
system. This is critical as a large contingent of the current generation of aviation professionals will
retire, access to affordable training and education is increasingly problematic, and aviation competes
with other industry sectors for highly skilled professionals. The lack of harmonized competencies in
some aviation disciplines and a lack of awareness by the 'next generation’ of the types of aviation jobs
available further compounds the problem”.

Under this initiative several actions are in place, as presented in the Figure 207 below:
Figure 207: NGAP: New generation of Aviation Professionals task force

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As for the recent NGAP developments/actions by NGAP (2016 – 2017) we can mention the following:

 Established as ICAO Programme, inclusion in GANP & GASP, Assembly Resolution;

 Outreach activities and communications including:
 Website; Newsletters; Training Reports
 Inclusion in Global and regional training conference programmes
 Collaboration with IPTA to promote best practices for pilot careers
 Supported Dream Soar Initiative
 NGAP Global Summit & Model ICAO Forum
 New Fundamentals of the Air Transport System course
 New Aviation Training and Education Directory
 Updated aviation personnel forecasts
 New CBT manuals and regional workshops

Furthermore, in December 2018 ICAO has welcomed a new International Association of Aviation
and Aerospace Education the ALICANTO initiative as filling an important gap in air transport’s global
cooperation framework. ALICANTO will be launched following the signing of an agreement by 34 of
the world’s prominent aviation and aeronautical universities.
The agreement underscores the key importance today of the overall NGAP programme in bringing
together States, educational and training institutions, United Nations organizations, industry and
other actors to address existing and future aviation personnel shortages.
The partnering universities further recognized that that their aligned participation and input is
critical in order to identify and implement effective approaches to attract, educate and retain the
next generation of aviation professionals.
The launch of ALICANTO is supported also by the Chinese Society of Aeronautics and Astronautics
(CSAA), the Aerospace College Alliance of Sino-universities (ARCAS), the Partnership of a European
Group of Aeronautics and Space Universities (PEGASUS), the Romanian Aeronautical
Association/European Aviation Institute and the Directorate General of Civil Aviation of Turkey.
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  Other initiatives worldwide to attract young talent to aerospace
The “Australian Youth Aerospace Association” (www.ayaa.com.au) is composed and animated by
young students from Aerospace and organises a set of activities that aim to engage and attract youth
to aerospace related careers. Among the initiatives we can highlight the following:

 Aerospace Futures: a 3 days conference dedicated to expose university students to

opportunities in aerospace industry. In this conference, students have the opportunity to be
aware of the latest developments in AI; to better know the organisations involved in AI; to
discover job opportunities in AI.
 AYA Forum: is a 5 days interactive conference dedicated to secondary students that aims to
showcase the Aerospace Industry. Through this forum students have the opportunity to gain
a clear understanding of the pathways available for them after the high school.
 RocketProjet: this action allows students to become rocket engineers for a day. It showcased
both the theoretical and practical applications of modern rocketry.
 Australian Undergraduate week: a 5 days event is organised and includes hands-on space
engineering activities; dissemination of PhDs and internships activities.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in the United States has two programmes
that focus on attracting female talent. Through the NASA/Girls Scouts of the USA partnership, NASA
scientists provide training sessions, led by NASA scientists, for girl scouts. Some 100 000 girls have
participated in these sessions until May 2016. Under the “NASA G.I.R.L.S” programme, female NASA
professionals provide online lessons in STEM fields to girls selected through a competitive process.
Surveyed countries support many other programmes that foster interest in STEM careers, but these
are not specifically targeted to women. Some countries also support initiatives to attract interest
among male students in female-dominated professions. Germany, for example, funds a nation-wide
network and information platform to support gender-sensitive career and life orientation for boys
through the programme “New Paths for Boys and Boys’ Day”. The programme provides information
and material to education and social work professionals, career advisers, human resource teams,
education and training specialists, and parents. Nationwide conferences and meetings are also
organised to facilitate exchanges between researchers and practitioners.

2.6.1.9 KEY TOPIC T6.3 – EMPLOYMENT IN THE AERONAUTICAL SECTOR

The aerospace and defence sector is characterized by strong volume growth with an estimated
production of 25,000 aircraft in the next 20 years. That’s way, the industry must attract qualified
engineers and skilled blue-collar workers, as well as pilots and technicians. According to Alix Partners
(It's All About People, The Battle for Talent in the Aerospace and Defence Industry, January 2013)
European aerospace and defence industry is expected to require at least 12 500 engineers yearly 91.
The demand for highly skilled people is expected to increase dramatically. For example, the number
of U.S. jobs that require complex interactions involving a high level of judgement has grown three

91
https://legacy.alixpartners.com/en/Publications/AllArticles/tabid/635/articleType/ArticleView/articleId/466/Its-
All-About-People.aspx

408
times as fast as employment in general. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) estimates
that 350 000 new pilots and 480000 new technicians will be needed to keep these planes operational92.

Data on higher education choices for Aerospace engineers from The Department of Education and
Census Bureau show (Figure 208) that the most common major for Aerospace engineers is
Engineering.

Figure 208: Most common major for Aerospace engineers

As it concern the skills required to aerospace engineers, data on the critical and distinctive skills
necessary for Aerospace engineers from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, show that the most required
skills are Science, Reading Comprehension, and Operations Analysis. The revealed comparative
advantage (RCA) shows (Figure 209) that Aerospace engineers need more than the average amount
of Science, Technology Design, and Operations Analysis.
Figure 209: Most common major for Aerospace engineers

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Aerospace and defense sector employment in Europe by 2015 accounted for 552 000 aeronautic
employees and up to 38 000 space employees93, being the distribution by tasks comparable in Europe
and the United States94. More detailed statistics are available from the United States Department of
Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics (Table 47).

HOUSEHOLD DATA. ANNUAL AVERAGES

18. Employed persons by detailed industry, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity
[Numbers in thousands]

2016
Percent of total employed
Industry Total Black or
Hispanic
employed Women African Asian
or Latino
American
Aircraft and parts 729 22.4 6.0 8.8 12.9
manufacturing
Aerospace product and 73 15.0 3.2 3.6 17.7
parts manufacturing
Table 47: Aviation Employment in the US95

And the United States Department of Transportation (Table 48):

CATEGORY 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007
39 39 39 39 40 41 42 36 37 35
Pilot--Total
187 287 322 621 621 316 218 808 981 784
15 14 14 14 14 14 14 8 450 9 127 9 559
Student 1/
971 580 369 405 643 683 767
Recreational 15 16 16 17 16 18 12 13 20 17
(only)
Sport 223 211 192 174 152 135 118 98 79 64
10 11 11 11 12 12 13 14 15 13
Private 2/
009 339 652 909 456 927 566 322 015 694
Commercial 2/ 6 081 6 587 6 685 6 911 7 536 7 956 8 175 8 289 8 083 7 101
Airline 6 888 6 554 6 408 6 205 5 818 5 597 5 580 5 636 5 657 5 349
Transport 2/
Flight Instructor 6 848 6 669 6 521 6 386 6 371 6 350 6 359 6 362 6 293 6 232
Certificates 4/
Remote Pilots 793 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA
7/

93
Aerospace and Defence Industries Key Facts & Figures 2016
94
2016 Household data annual averages .United States Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics
95
: https://www.bls.gov/cps/cpsaat18.htm

410
 187 183 174 166 160 155 150 147 144 138
Non Pilot--Total
914 259 000 294 452 918 019 052 968 452
Mechanic 5/ 6 536 8 419 8 151 7 917 7 729 7 487 7 215 6 980 6 740 6 524
Repairmen 5/ 1 822 2 289 2 278 2 288 2 307 2 278 2 312 2 335 2 284 2 193
Parachute 540 811 763 712 697 683 655 633 615 594
Rigger 5/
Ground 4 772 5 907 5 889 5 869 5 853 5 880 5 894 5 860 5 785 5 726
Instructor 5/
Dispatcher 5/ 3 615 4 503 4 326 4 115 3 930 3 744 3 530 3 381 3 230 3 087
Flight Navigator 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Flight Attendant 169 159 150 143 138 134 128 126 124 118
6/ 170 703 941 701 223 114 646 034 419 426
Flight Engineer 1 458 1 626 1 651 1 691 1 712 1 731 1 766 1 828 1 894 1 901
Table 48: Estimated Active Women Airmen Certificates Held December 31, 2007-201696

Note: The term airmen includes men and women certified as pilots, mechanics or other aviation technicians. This table (Table
2) represents data for females only. Data in the Pilot Categories does not directly correspond to the same category in Table 1
as glider and/or helicopter and/or gyroplane certs are not broken out separately. Data in the Non Pilot Categories as well as
Flight Instructor Certificates does directly correspond to the same category in Table.
- 1/ In July 2010, the FAA issued a rule that increased the duration of validity for student pilot certificates for pilots
under the age of 40 from 36 to 60 months. This resulted in the increase in active student pilots to 14,767 from 8,450
at the end of 2009.
- 2/ Includes those with an airplane and/or a helicopter and/or glider and/or a gyroplane certificate.
- 3/ Glider and lighter-than-air pilots are not required to have a medical examination.
- 4/ not included in total.
- 5/ historically, numbers represented all certificates on record. No medical examination required. In 2016, Federal
Regulation required that airmen without a plastic certificate no longer considered active. Therefore, starting with 2016,
those airmen with a paper certificate only were excluded.
- 6/ Flight Attendants first reported in 2005.
- 7/ Remote pilot certification started in August 2016. These numbers are not included in the pilot totals.
NA Not available. Prior to 1995 repairmen were included in the mechanic category. Recreational certificate first issued in
1990. Sport certificate first issued in 2005
Several potential solutions have been put in place at European level in an open, creative and
cooperative cooperation environment. The most relevant are summarised here after:

1. Recruiting more creatively - improving recruiting process by institutionalising a close

cooperation between industry and science to attract talents:
o Airbus is using Twitter accounts to talk to potential recruits and is holding international
recruitment days where candidates are quickly down-selected from several hundred
applicants97.
o Rolls-Royce supports PhD students, 25% of the graduates are recruited and many more
remain in the network98.

96
Excel file 2016-civil-airmen-stats_US Dep of Transportation
https://www.faa.gov/data_research/aviation_data_statistics/civil_airmen_statistics/
97
http://www.industryweek.com/recruiting-retention/boeing-and-airbus-fight-hell-aerospace-engineers;
access: December 2017
98
http://www.indianexpress.com/news/airbus-plans-innovation-unit-in-india/967419; access: December 2017

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 2. Acting globally - companies globalise their activities to attract the largest pool of talent while
similarly benefitting from lower cost and international work-sharing:
o Boeing Design Centre in Moscow, to benefit from the local pool of talents99;
o Airbus innovation units in Bangalore and Delhi (India), to benefit from the local pool
of talents100.
3. Improving the working environment - companies focus on improving the working
environment:
o UTC Re-Empower Program supporting experienced professionals returning to work
after a career break101.
o BAE Systems has created an “Assignment Panel”, a clearing-house of openings in the
company, so employees do not need to leave in order to find new challenges102.
o Northrop Grumman has implemented a highly structured rotation system where top
talents spend their first two years on four rotations, supported by a mentor103.
4. Improving knowledge transfer from experienced to young employees - companies actively
seeks opportunities to improve the knowledge transfer from older to younger employees.
They use rotation programs as a lever to transfer knowledge and systematically offer part time
work for older people (e.g. BAE Systems has established a very aggressive mentoring
programme to ensure that knowledge is being passed down from one generation to
another104).
5. Improving number of college graduates who have studied science, technology, engineering
and mathematics. A good example of that kind action, undertaken by an aviation company’s
cluster, is Aviation Valley Association Education Support Foundation105. The foundation main
goal is popularizing science and education, developing scientific interests as a means for
attractive discoveries and experiences. Some of the most important actions and projects
conducted by the foundation:
 The Children’s Technical University includes activities for primary school pupils.
These include interactive lectures, conducted using scientific experiments, aid, and
exhibits. The topics of the lectures are adjusted to the age of the pupils. Topics from
the fields of chemistry, physics, mathematics, civil engineering, biology, aeronautics
and every other scientific subject related to the Technical University. Classes are taught
by academic staff, industry specialists, students, and other institutions offering
institutions. Actions are conducted full-time in Rzeszow, Mielec, Debica, Ustrzyki Dolne
and part-time (The Travelling Children’s Technical University).

99
http://www.boeing.com/news/frontiers/archive/2005/september/mainfeature1.html; access: December 2017
100
http://company.airbus.com/careers/jobs-and-applications/vacancies-in-india.html; access: December 2017
101
http://www.utc.com/Careers/Work-With-Us/Pages/ReEmpower_Program.aspx; access: December 2017
102
Economist Intelligence Unit 2011, Talent strategies and the competitiveness of the US aerospace and defence
industry, p. 8
103
http://www.northropgrumman.com/careers/Students-Entry-Level/Pages/default.aspx; access: December
2017
104
https://www.baesystems.com/en-uk/our-company/corporate-responsibility/working-responsibly/investing-
in-our-people/diversity-and-inclusion/developing/perfect, access: December 2017
105
https://dolina-wiedzy.pl/fundacja/; access: December 2017

412
  Flying Physics Project - demonstrative physics lessons for middle school pupils held
a few times a month in selected schools with the approval of the respective principal.
Teachers are grouped in two person teams that are didactically and substantively
prepared. During the demonstrations, scientific exhibitions are used that are used to
confirm the theoretical material present during a multimedia presentation.
 Suggestion Project - demonstrative physics lessons held for teenagers of secondary
schools. They are conducted twice a month in selected schools with the approval of
the respective principal. Topic that combine physics and aviation are conducted by a
two teachers working in team that have the knowledge and ideas for interesting
lessons, which can be a great foundation of knowledge, and it serves as a way to better
prepare for the Matura exam.
 Company and science picnics - The foundation participates in several scientific
events, during which it presents scientific exhibitions. This called the experiment zone,
in other words experiment stations that can be used to conduct simple experiments
with the help of organizers and volunteers. In the experiment zone, there are also play
stations dedicated for young children.
 CEKSO Operator Training Centre and CEKSO 2 project - In 2005, the Aviation Valley
Association established a program that intended to increase accessibility of
professions related with the aerospace industry. The task of CESKO was coordinating
training in technical in the Subcarpathian Voivodeship to suit the realistic needs of
industry, and creating a world class Operating Training Centres in the long term.
Cooperating under the CEKSO framework permits more extensive analysis of issues
regarding implementing: new production management tools, new production
technologies, and continuous improvement tools. Practical Training Centres, in
accordance with their statutes, educate young future employees by appropriating the
forms and educational contents to the employment needs of Aviation Valley
companies. The institutions also train adults in the form courses to meet the needs of
companies.
In 2015 new actions, named CEKSO 2, were being implemented. The main principle is
shortening the adaptation period of professional graduates and increasing their skills
to adapt to the ever changing needs of aerospace company through:
o Modifying secondary school curriculums;
o Creating motivators for teachers and students;
o Preparing teaching staffs.

Current Situation

Europe

According to Aerospace and Defence Industries Association of Europe (ASD), the figures for
employment in 2015 looks like- 2017 are the following (Table 49):
49:

Concluding, to maintain EU leadership in aviation, to reach a sustainability and safety aviation, it is

important to eliminate the barriers to women’s participation in the workforce .

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The, Dr Fang Liu, has encouraged the momentum on the long-term sustainability of all aspects of
the international civil aviation network .

Furthermore, with respect to aviation gender equality, a priority emphasized by ICAO Member
States, the Secretary General of ICAO Dr. Liu emphasized that while “air transport connects people,
cultures and businesses across the globe, and strengthens socio-economic development worldwide,
at the same time it has not been very successful at providing an open, inclusive working
environment for women.” She called on the airline CEOs to make gender parity a personal priority,
stressing that it must be driven from the top in any organization, and highlighted ICAO’s new
Gender Equality

Our recommendations for future actions will stress the importance of involving women at all levels
and dimensions of aeronautics research and in STEM. One of the Flightpath 2050 goals states that
“Students are attracted to careers in aviation”, whereas today the situation is rather unbalanced
between men and women.

Women’s values in PARE project should be synthesis as below: the common denominator to
attracting young talent and steering women to STEM, , inside and outside school is to change the
mentality and philosophy of intuitions, starting since childhood.

Potential solution at European level in an open, creative cooperation environment such as: recruiting
more creatively, improving the working environment, improving number of college graduates who
have studied STEM.

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www.pareproject.eu

This project has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and
innovation programme under grant agreement No 769220. This publication
[communication] reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be
held responsible for any use which may be made of the information contained therein.