EE 152 Power Systems Analysis

Generator and Transformer

Models
Prepared by: Lorelisa Ethel Luya

University of the Philippines

Electrical and Electronics Engineering Institute

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Outline ● Generator models
○ Equivalent circuit
○ Phasor diagram
○ Steady-state characteristics
○ Salient-pole synchronous
generator
● Transformer models
○ Equivalent circuit
○ Types of transformers
○ Transformer connections

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Generator Models

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 Types of Generators

● DC Generators
● Synchronous Generators -
Steam, hydro or gas turbines
● Induction Generators - Mini
hydro, wind turbinee

Image from https://dguha1952.blogspot.com/2014/07/erection-sequence-and-plan-for_30.html

These are the different types of generators discussed in EEE 43 and 44. In our context
of EE 152 which focuses on power systems analysis, we’ll mainly discuss synchronous
generators. They are normally used for the traditional steam, hyrdo or gas power
plants.

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 Salient vs Cylindrical Rotor

Image source: https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/basics-synchronous-machines Image source: https://www.slideshare.net/ajaybalar31/synchronos-machines

Commonly used for hydro plants Commonly used for steam powered
Low speed application (upto 1000 RPM) generators
High speed application (upto 3000 RPM)

Synchronous generators have two types based on their construction: salient pole or
cylindrical rotors. Salient poles (left picture) are commonly used for hydro plants and
low speed applications. Cylindrical rotors are used for steam-powered generators.
We’ll be discussing the equivalent circuit of these machines and how they are used
for power systems analysis.

Note that for SG, the field windings are connected in the rotor while the armature
windings are in the stator.

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 Equivalent Circuit

E  V  [ Ra  jX s ]I a

The equivalent circuit model of an SG (cylindrical) is shown in the left hand side.
Assuming a balanced system, we can simplify our model with the circuit on the upper
right image.

The armature resistance is generally much smaller than the synchronous reactance (R
<< Xs) which is why in the single line diagram shown in the lower right, we can
remove R.

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 Phasor Diagrams

E  V  [ Ra  jX s ]I a

Relationship between different parameters vary depending on the type of load

connected. The images here show the phasor diagram equivalent of having different
types of load connected to the generator.

Terminal voltage, , is usually set as reference (angle = 0 degrees) because it is easily

measured with a voltmeter in a physical setting.

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 Voltage Regulation

Vnl  Vrated
VR   100%
Vrated
E  Vrated
 100%
Vrated

Voltage regulation is used to compare the performance of different machines. It looks

at the percentage change of voltage from no-load to rated load. This gives indication
of the change in field current required to maintain system voltage when going from
no-load to rated load at some pf

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 Steady-state Characteristics
E  V  [ Ra  jX s ]I a
Power Factor Control

Generation of reactive power

can be controlled by the field excitation
Generator V-curves: Ia vs If

Infinite bus in the grid provides constant voltage magnitude, phase angle and
frequency. Assuming a SG has constant mech input power, how can we vary the
excitation voltage to maintain real power output (VI along x axis)?
- must move along y-axis. This means that there is a need to generate reactive
power.
- Generation of reactive power can be controlled by the field excitation. This means
that can vary with respect to changing .
- This means that power factor can be controlled by varying field current

Generator V-curves shows this relationship of

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 Steady-state Characteristics

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Power Angle EV V
P3  3 cos(   )  3 cos 
Characteristics Zs Zs
2
EV V
Q3  3 sin(   )  3 sin 
Zs Zs
EV
P3  3 sin( )
is reached when = 90°. This is the Xs
steady state stability limit or static stability
V
limit. Going beyond 90 loses synchronism and Q3  3 ( E cos   V )
disconnects it from the system. Xs

This slide shows the power equation of the circuit single line diagram on the top right
corner. Power angle ( ) can vary based on the mechanical rotation of the generator.
As you increase the driving input torque to your generator, the machine accelerates
and the power angle increases.

Q: At what instance do you want to increase torque? Ans: When there is an increase
in load demand or power output, you need to increase the input torque to meet the
demand.

Equilibrium is reached at some power angle value where power output balances the
mechanical input power. In general power angle << 90%.

Theoretically, is reached when = 90°. This is the steady state stability limit or
static stability limit. Going beyond 90 loses synchronism and disconnects it from the
system.

For the reactive power, for small power angle > . This means that the
generator delivers reactive power to the grid. This is also known as overexcited state.
Generators are normally operated in overexcited mode

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 Salient Pole Synchronous Generators

E  V cos   X d I d

Due to non-uniform of air gap, there is a difference in reluctance along the direct
(low) and quadrature (high) axis. This results in low reactance in Xq, and high
reactance in Xd

To analyze how that affects the armature current, we need to split it into d-axis and q-
axis.

The phasor diagram in the slide represents a salient pole generator.

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 Salient Pole Synchronous Generators

P3  3 V I a cos 
I a cos   I q cos   I d sin 
EV 2 Xd  Xq
P3  3 sin   3V sin 2
Xd 2X d X q
Reluctance power

Use these equation for steady state analysis. Take note that unlike with the cylindrical
rotor, the power equation here has reluctance power.

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Example 2.1
A 50-MVA, 30kV, three-phase, 60-Hz synchronous generator has a synchronous
reactance of 9Ω and a negligible resistance. The generator is delivering at a 0.8 pf
lagging at the rated terminal voltage to an infinite bus.

a. Determine the excitation voltage per phase and the power angle .
b. With the excitation held constant at the value found in (a), the driving torque is
reduced until the generator is delivering 25MW. Determine the armature current and
the power factor.

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Example 2.1 Solution
(a) Apparent power is
= 50∠ cos 0.8 = 50∠36.76°
= 40 + 30
Rated voltage per phase is
30
= = 17.32∠0°
3
Rated current is
∗
∠ .
= ∗ = = 962.25∠ − 36.87°
. ∠ °
Excitation voltage per phase
= 17320.5 + 9 962.25∠ − 36.87 = 23558∠17.1°

The excitation voltage per phase is .

The power angle = . °

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Example 2.1 Solution
(b) At 25MW, = sin = 10.591°
. .

23558∠10.591° − 17320∠0°
= = . ∠− . °
9

Power factor cos 54.43 = .

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Transformer Models

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How Transformers Work (Video)

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UchitHGF4n8

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Power Transformer
● In most systems, the energy may undergo four or five transformations between generator and
ultimate user
● A given system is likely to have five times more kVA of installed transformer capacity than of
generators

Image from https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/electric-power-systems

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 Equivalent Circuit

Transformer has the following parameters in its equivalent circuit:

1. Turns ration (N = )
2. Impedance winding ( and ) – These represent copper losses
3. Shunt impedance ( _ 1 and ) – These represent core loss and hysteresis.

For an ideal transformer, there would be no #2 and #3.

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 Equivalent Circuits

open circuit test and

short circuit test
for determining parameters

It is easier to analyze a transformer if we refer everything to one side (primary or

secondary side). The top image shows the transformer is referred to the primary side.
The bottom image shows the transformer referred to the secondary side.

If your given an actual transformer, you can find its parameters by doing an open and
short circuit tests.
Open circuit test.
1. Apply rated voltage at one terminal while keeping the other terminal open.
2. Measure the applied voltage and no-load current .
3. Compute for the shunt impedance = and =

Short circuit test

1. Short one terminal.
2. Starting from 0V, increase the input voltage ( ) on the other terminal until you
measure rated current ( ) on the shorted terminal.

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Open and Short Circuit Test

Open circuit test. Short circuit test

1. Apply rated voltage at one terminal while 1. Short one terminal.
keeping the other terminal open. 2. Starting from 0V, increase the input voltage ( ) on
2. Measure the applied voltage and no-load the other terminal until you measure rated current
current . ( ).
3. Compute for the shunt impedance = and 3. Compute for = , = and
=
= −

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Transformer Performance

Pout

Pin

V2 nl  V2
VR  100%
V2

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 Three Phase Transformer Connection

Three phase transformers can be connected as either wye or delta. This gives us four
combination of transformer connections as shown.

Y-Y advantage is decrease of insultation cost and availability of neutral for grounding.
A big disadvantage of this is when there’s unbalanced load and the presence of third
harmonics. To address these two problems, it is possible to either solidly ground the
neutral of the transformers OR add a tertiary winding to be connected in delta. This
Y-Y connection is rarely used because its issues can already be addressed by the other
types of connection.

The delta-delta has no neutral connection. It can handle unbalanced loads and third
harmonics as well.

Most common is Y-delta or delta-Y. This is more stable for unbalanced loads. Y-delta
is commonly used as a step-down while the delta-Y is commonly used for step-up.
Just take note that this connection causes a 30° phase shift.

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Per-phase Model of a Three-phase Transformer

● For Y- , Hi side (LL) leads Lo side (LL) by 30 degrees [ASA]

● It is convenient to replace the  connection by an equivalent Y

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 Autotransformers

V1 I 2 N1 VH I L
  a   1 a
V2 I1 N 2 VL I H

A conventional two-winding transformer can be converted into an autotransformer

by connecting primary and secondary terminals in series as shown in the right image.

The high voltage side of the autotransformer is the sum of and . The winding
pertaining to is called the series winding while the winding pertaining to or
is called the common winding.

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 Autotransformers
● Power rating advantage
1+
● Part of the power is by
electromagnetic induction but
part of it is conducted power.
● For the same rating, the S auto (V1  V2 ) I1 N 1
autotransformer is smaller,   1 2  1
more efficient, lower internal S 2 w V1 I1 N1 a
impedance

Power rating advantage is the ration between an autotransformer and a two-winding

transformer. This shows that for the same transformer when connected as an
autotransformer, it can handle more power.

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Three Winding Transformers

● Supply of two independent loads at different voltages (e.g. Local supply)

● Two transmission lines with different voltage levels
● Tertiary winding for reactive power compensation
● For Y-Y, delta tertiary is for harmonic suppression

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 Three Winding Transformers

1
ZP  Z PS  Z PT  Z ST 
2
1
Z S  Z PS  Z ST  Z PT 
2
1
Z T  Z PT  Z ST  Z PS 
2

To determine the impedance of a three-winding transformer, three short-circuit tests

are carried out. For each test, one is open, one is shorted, and reduced voltage is
applied to the remaining winding.

= ℎ ℎ ℎ
−

= ℎ ℎ ℎ
−

= ℎ ℎ ℎ
−

Then solve for the impedances , and which are referred to the primary side.

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Voltage Control of Transformers

● Tap changing transformers

● Regulating transformers or boosters

● To control voltage magnitude (reactive power flow)

● To control angles (real power flow)

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 Tap Changing Transformers

● Off-load tap changing (OLTC) transformers

○ Infrequent change
○ +/- 5%, 2.5% step
● Tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers
○ With voltage sensing circuitry
○ De-energized taps on HI side
○ Multiple taps (e.g. 32 steps at 5/8 % each) on LO side

OLTC needs to be disconnected from the network when the tap setting is to be
changed which is why this is used when it is expected that it would be rarely changed.

TCUL is used when there is an expected frequency of change in settings.

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Regulating Transformers or Boosters

● Can change both the (voltage)

magnitude and angle
● Consists of a series transformer
and an exciting transformer

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Phase Angle Control

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Example 2.2
A two-winding transformer is rated at 60kVA, 240/1200 V, 60 Hz. When operated as a
conventional two-winding transformer at rated load, 0.8 power factor, its efficiency is
0.96. This transformer is to be used as 1440/1200-V step-down autotransformer in a
power distribution system.
(a) Assuming ideal transformer, find the transformer kVA rating when used as an
autotransformer.
(b) Find the efficiency with the kVA loading of part (a) and 0.8 pf.

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Transformer rated currents are:
60000
= = 250
240

60000
= = 50
1200

(a) Autotransformer secondary current:

= 250 + 50 = 300

With windings carrying rate currents, the autotransformer rating:

= 1200 300 =
Note: power advantage of transformer is
360
= =6
60

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When operated as a two-winding transformer at full load,
60 0.8
= 0.96
60 0.8 +

60 0.8
= − 60 0.8 = 2
0.96

360 0.8
= 100 = . %
360 0.8 + 2

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 Example 2.3
A simple power system is shown. This system contains a 480-V generator connected to an ideal 1:10
step-up transformer, a transmission line, an ideal 20:1 step-down transformer, and a load. The
impedance of the transmission line is 20Ω + 60Ω, and the impedance of the load is 10∠30°Ω. The
base values for this system are chosen to be 480 V and 10 kVA at the generator.
a) Find the base voltage, current, impedance, and apparent power at every point in the power
system.
b) Convert this system to its per-unit equivalent circuit.
c) Find the power supplied to the load in this system.
d) Find the power lost in the transmission line

Chapman example 2-3

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(a)

Region 1 480 V 10 kVA 10 480

= 20.83 = 23.04 Ω
480 20.83
Region 2 480 10kVA 10 4800
= 4800 = 2.083 = 2304Ω
0.1 4800 2.083
Region 3 4800 10kVA 10 240
= 240 = 41.67 = 5.76Ω
20 240 41.67

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b)
480∠0°
, = = 1.0∠0°
480

20 + 60
, = = 0.0087 + 0.0260
2304

10∠30°
, = = 1.735∠30° = 1.503 + . 0868
5.76

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c.)
1∠0°
= = = 0.569∠ − 30.6°
, 0.0087 + 0.0260 + 1.736∠30°

, = = 0.569 1.503 = 0.487

= , = 0.487 10 =

d.)
, = , = 0.569 0.0087 = 0.00282

= 0.00282 10 = .

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