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Growth of and digitization of global information-storage capacity [1]
Big data is a field that treats ways to analyze, systematically extract information from,
or otherwise deal with data sets that are too large or complex to be dealt with by
traditional data-processing application software. Data with many cases (rows) offer
greater statistical power, while data with higher complexity (more attributes or columns)
may lead to a higher false discovery rate.[2] Big data challenges include capturing
data, data storage, data analysis, search, sharing, transfer, visualization, querying,
updating, information privacy and data source. Big data was originally associated with
three key concepts: volume, variety, and velocity. When we handle big data, we may
not sample but simply observe and track what happens. Therefore, big data often
includes data with sizes that exceed the capacity of traditional software to process
within an acceptable time and value.
Current usage of the term big data tends to refer to the use of predictive analytics, user
behavior analytics, or certain other advanced data analytics methods that extract value
from data, and seldom to a particular size of data set. "There is little doubt that the
quantities of data now available are indeed large, but that's not the most relevant
characteristic of this new data ecosystem."[3] Analysis of data sets can find new
correlations to "spot business trends, prevent diseases, combat crime and so
on."[4] Scientists, business executives, medical practitioners, advertising
and governments alike regularly meet difficulties with large data-sets in areas
including Internet searches, fintech, urban informatics, and business informatics.
Scientists encounter limitations in e-Science work, including meteorology, genomics,
[5]
connectomics, complex physics simulations, biology and environmental research. [6]
Data sets grow rapidly, to a certain extent because they are increasingly gathered by
cheap and numerous information-sensing Internet of things devices such as mobile
devices, aerial (remote sensing), software logs, cameras, microphones, radio-frequency
identification (RFID) readers and wireless sensor networks.[7][8] The world's technological
per-capita capacity to store information has roughly doubled every 40 months since the
1980s;[9] as of 2012, every day 2.5 exabytes (2.5×260 bytes) of data are generated.
[10]
Based on an IDC report prediction, the global data volume was predicted to grow
exponentially from 4.4 zettabytes to 44 zettabytes between 2013 and 2020. By 2025,
IDC predicts there will be 163 zettabytes of data. [11] One question for large enterprises is
determining who should own big-data initiatives that affect the entire organization. [12]
Relational database management systems, desktop statistics[clarification needed] and software
packages used to visualize data often have difficulty handling big data. The work may
require "massively parallel software running on tens, hundreds, or even thousands of
servers".[13] What qualifies as being "big data" varies depending on the capabilities of the
users and their tools, and expanding capabilities make big data a moving target. "For
some organizations, facing hundreds of gigabytes of data for the first time may trigger a
need to reconsider data management options. For others, it may take tens or hundreds
of terabytes before data size becomes a significant consideration." [14]
Contents
 1Definition
 2Characteristics
 3Architecture
 4Technologies
 5Applications
o 5.1Government
o 5.2International development
o 5.3Healthcare
o 5.4Education
o 5.5Media
o 5.6Insurance
o 5.7Internet of Things (IoT)
o 5.8Information technology
 6Case studies
o 6.1Government
 6.1.1China
 6.1.2India
 6.1.3Israel
 6.1.4United Kingdom
 6.1.5United States of America
o 6.2Retail
o 6.3Science
o 6.4Sports
o 6.5Technology
 7Research activities
o 7.1Sampling big data
 8Critique
o 8.1Critiques of the big data paradigm
o 8.2Critiques of the 'V' model
o 8.3Critiques of novelty
o 8.4Critiques of big data execution
o 8.5Critiques of big data policing and surveillance

 9See also
 10References
 11Further reading
 12External links
Definition[edit]
The term has been in use since the 1990s, with some giving credit to John Mashey for
popularizing the term.[15][16] Big data usually includes data sets with sizes beyond the
ability of commonly used software tools to capture, curate, manage, and process data
within a tolerable elapsed time.[17] Big data philosophy encompasses unstructured, semi-
structured and structured data, however the main focus is on unstructured data. [18] Big
data "size" is a constantly moving target, as of 2012 ranging from a few dozen terabytes
to many zettabytes of data.[19] Big data requires a set of techniques and technologies
with new forms of integration to reveal insights from data-sets that are diverse, complex,
and of a massive scale.[20]
"Variety", "veracity" and various other "Vs" are added by some organizations to describe
it, a revision challenged by some industry authorities. [21]
A 2018 definition states "Big data is where parallel computing tools are needed to
handle data", and notes, "This represents a distinct and clearly defined change in the
computer science used, via parallel programming theories, and losses of some of the
guarantees and capabilities made by Codd's relational model."[22]
The growing maturity of the concept more starkly delineates the difference between "big
data" and "Business Intelligence":[23]
 Business Intelligence uses applied mathematics tools and descriptive statistics with

data with high information density to measure things, detect trends, etc.
 Big data uses mathematical analysis, optimization, inductive statistics and concepts
from nonlinear system identification[24] to infer laws (regressions, nonlinear
relationships, and causal effects) from large sets of data with low information
density[25] to reveal relationships and dependencies, or to perform predictions of
outcomes and behaviors.[24][26][promotional source?]
Characteristics[edit]
Shows the growth of big data's primary characteristics of volume, velocity, and variety
Big data can be described by the following characteristics:

Volume
The quantity of generated and stored data. The size of the data determines the value
and potential insight, and whether it can be considered big data or not.
Variety
The type and nature of the data. The earlier technologies like RDBMSs were capable to
handle structured data efficiently and effectively. However, the change in type and
nature from structured to semi-structured or unstructured challenged the existing tools
and technologies. The Big Data technologies evolved with the prime intention to capture,
store, and process the semi-structured and unstructured (variety) data generated with
high speed(velocity), and huge in size (volume). Later, these tools and technologies
were explored and used for handling structured data also but preferable for storage.
Eventually, the processing of structured data was still kept as optional, either using big
data or traditional RDBMSs. This helps in analyzing data towards effective usage of the
hidden insights exposed from the data collected via social media, log files, and sensors,
etc. Big data draws from text, images, audio, video; plus it completes missing pieces
through data fusion.
Velocity
The speed at which the data is generated and processed to meet the demands and
challenges that lie in the path of growth and development. Big data is often available in
real-time. Compared to small data, big data are produced more continually. Two kinds of
velocity related to big data are the frequency of generation and the frequency of
handling, recording, and publishing.[27]
Veracity
It is the extended definition for big data, which refers to the data quality and the data
value.[28] The data quality of captured data can vary greatly, affecting the accurate
analysis.[29]
Other important characteristics of Big Data are: [30]
Exhaustive
Whether the entire system (i.e., =all) is captured or recorded or not.
Fine-grained and uniquely lexical
Respectively, the proportion of specific data of each element per element collected and if
the element and its characteristics are properly indexed or identified.
Relational
If the data collected contains common fields that would enable a conjoining, or meta-
analysis, of different data sets.
Extensional
If new fields in each element of the data collected can be added or changed easily.
Scalability
If the size of the data can expand rapidly.
Value
The utility that can be extracted from the data.
Variability
It refers to data whose value or other characteristics are shifting in relation to the context
in which they are being generated.
Architecture[edit]
Big data repositories have existed in many
forms, often built by corporations with a special
need. Commercial vendors historically offered
parallel database management systems for big
data beginning in the 1990s. For many years,
WinterCorp published the largest database
report.[31][promotional source?]
Teradata Corporation in 1984 marketed the
parallel processing DBC 1012 system. Teradata
systems were the first to store and analyze 1
terabyte of data in 1992. Hard disk drives were
2.5 GB in 1991 so the definition of big data
continuously evolves according to Kryder's Law.
Teradata installed the first petabyte class
RDBMS based system in 2007. As of 2017,
there are a few dozen petabyte class Teradata
relational databases installed, the largest of
which exceeds 50 PB. Systems up until 2008
were 100% structured relational data. Since
then, Teradata has added unstructured data
types including XML, JSON, and Avro.
In 2000, Seisint Inc. (now LexisNexis Risk
Solutions) developed a C++-based distributed
platform for data processing and querying
known as the HPCC Systems platform. This
system automatically partitions, distributes,
stores and delivers structured, semi-structured,
and unstructured data across multiple
commodity servers. Users can write data
processing pipelines and queries in a
declarative dataflow programming language
called ECL. Data analysts working in ECL are
not required to define data schemas upfront and
can rather focus on the particular problem at
hand, reshaping data in the best possible
manner as they develop the solution. In 2004,
LexisNexis acquired Seisint Inc.[32] and their
high-speed parallel processing platform and
successfully used this platform to integrate the
data systems of Choicepoint Inc. when they
acquired that company in 2008.[33] In 2011, the
HPCC systems platform was open-sourced
under the Apache v2.0 License.
CERN and other physics experiments have
collected big data sets for many decades,
usually analyzed via high-throughput
computing rather than the map-reduce
architectures usually meant by the current "big
data" movement.
In 2004, Google published a paper on a process
called MapReduce that uses a similar
architecture. The MapReduce concept provides
a parallel processing model, and an associated
implementation was released to process huge
amounts of data. With MapReduce, queries are
split and distributed across parallel nodes and
processed in parallel (the Map step). The
results are then gathered and delivered (the
Reduce step). The framework was very
successful,[34] so others wanted to replicate the
algorithm. Therefore, an implementation of the
MapReduce framework was adopted by an
Apache open-source project named Hadoop.
[35]
Apache Spark was developed in 2012 in
response to limitations in the MapReduce
paradigm, as it adds the ability to set up many
operations (not just map followed by reducing).
MIKE2.0 is an open approach to information
management that acknowledges the need for
revisions due to big data implications identified
in an article titled "Big Data Solution Offering".
[36]
The methodology addresses handling big
data in terms of useful permutations of data
sources, complexity in interrelationships, and
difficulty in deleting (or modifying) individual
records.[37]
2012 studies showed that a multiple-layer
architecture is one option to address the issues
that big data presents. A distributed
parallel architecture distributes data across
multiple servers; these parallel execution
environments can dramatically improve data
processing speeds. This type of architecture
inserts data into a parallel DBMS, which
implements the use of MapReduce and Hadoop
frameworks. This type of framework looks to
make the processing power transparent to the
end-user by using a front-end application
server.[38]
The data lake allows an organization to shift its
focus from centralized control to a shared model
to respond to the changing dynamics of
information management. This enables quick
segregation of data into the data lake, thereby
reducing the overhead time.[39][40]
Technologies[edit]
A 2011 McKinsey Global Institute report
characterizes the main components and
ecosystem of big data as follows:[41]
 Techniques for analyzing data, such

as A/B testing, machine
learning and natural language
processing
 Big data technologies, like business
intelligence, cloud
computing and databases
 Visualization, such as charts, graphs and
other displays of the data
Multidimensional big data can also be
represented as OLAP data cubes or,
mathematically, tensors. Array Database
Systems have set out to provide storage and
high-level query support on this data type.
Additional technologies being applied to big
data include efficient tensor-based computation,
[42]
such as multilinear subspace learning.,
[43]
massively parallel-processing (MPP)
databases, search-based applications, data
mining,[44] distributed file systems, distributed
cache (e.g., burst
buffer and Memcached), distributed
databases, cloud and HPC-based infrastructure
(applications, storage and computing resources)
[45]
and the Internet.[citation needed] Although, many
approaches and technologies have been
developed, it still remains difficult to carry out
machine learning with big data.[46]
Some MPP relational databases have the ability
to store and manage petabytes of data. Implicit
is the ability to load, monitor, back up, and
optimize the use of the large data tables in
the RDBMS.[47][promotional source?]
DARPA's Topological Data Analysis program
seeks the fundamental structure of massive
data sets and in 2008 the technology went
public with the launch of a company
called Ayasdi.[48][third-party source needed]
The practitioners of big data analytics
processes are generally hostile to slower
shared storage,[49] preferring direct-attached
storage (DAS) in its various forms from solid
state drive (SSD) to high capacity SATA disk
buried inside parallel processing nodes. The
perception of shared storage architectures—
Storage area network (SAN) and Network-
attached storage (NAS) —is that they are
relatively slow, complex, and expensive. These
qualities are not consistent with big data
analytics systems that thrive on system
performance, commodity infrastructure, and low
cost.
Real or near-real time information delivery is
one of the defining characteristics of big data
analytics. Latency is therefore avoided
whenever and wherever possible. Data in
direct-attached memory or disk is good—data
on memory or disk at the other end of
a FC SAN connection is not. The cost of
a SAN at the scale needed for analytics
applications is very much higher than other
storage techniques.
There are advantages as well as disadvantages
to shared storage in big data analytics, but big
data analytics practitioners as of 2011 did not
favour it.[50][promotional source?]
Applications[edit]
Bus wrapped with SAP Big data parked outside IDF13.
Big data has increased the demand of

information management specialists so much so
that Software AG, Oracle
Corporation, IBM, Microsoft, SAP, EMC, HP an
d Dell have spent more than $15 billion on
software firms specializing in data management
and analytics. In 2010, this industry was worth
more than $100 billion and was growing at
almost 10 percent a year: about twice as fast as
the software business as a whole.[4]
Developed economies increasingly use data-
intensive technologies. There are 4.6 billion
mobile-phone subscriptions worldwide, and
between 1 billion and 2 billion people accessing
the internet.[4] Between 1990 and 2005, more
than 1 billion people worldwide entered the
middle class, which means more people
became more literate, which in turn led to
information growth. The world's effective
capacity to exchange information through
telecommunication networks was
281 petabytes in 1986, 471 petabytes in 1993,
2.2 exabytes in 2000, 65 exabytes in 2007[9] and
predictions put the amount of internet traffic at
667 exabytes annually by 2014.[4] According to
one estimate, one-third of the globally stored
information is in the form of alphanumeric text
and still image data,[51] which is the format most
useful for most big data applications. This also
shows the potential of yet unused data (i.e. in
the form of video and audio content).
While many vendors offer off-the-shelf solutions
for big data, experts recommend the
development of in-house solutions custom-
tailored to solve the company's problem at hand
if the company has sufficient technical
capabilities.[52]
Government[edit]
The use and adoption of big data within
governmental processes allows efficiencies in
terms of cost, productivity, and innovation, [53] but
does not come without its flaws. Data analysis
often requires multiple parts of government
(central and local) to work in collaboration and
create new and innovative processes to deliver
the desired outcome.
CRVS (civil registration and vital statistics)
collects all certificates status from birth to death.
CRVS is a source of big data for governments.
International development[edit]
Research on the effective usage of information
and communication technologies for
development (also known as ICT4D) suggests
that big data technology can make important
contributions but also present unique
challenges to International development.[54]
[55]
Advancements in big data analysis offer cost-
effective opportunities to improve decision-
making in critical development areas such as
health care, employment, economic
productivity, crime, security, and natural
disaster and resource management.[56][57]
[58]
Additionally, user-generated data offers new
opportunities to give the unheard a voice.
[59]
However, longstanding challenges for
developing regions such as inadequate
technological infrastructure and economic and
human resource scarcity exacerbate existing
concerns with big data such as privacy,
imperfect methodology, and interoperability
issues.[56]
Healthcare[edit]
Big data analytics has helped healthcare
improve by providing personalized medicine
and prescriptive analytics, clinical risk
intervention and predictive analytics, waste and
care variability reduction, automated external
and internal reporting of patient data,
standardized medical terms and patient
registries and fragmented point solutions.[60][61][62]
[63]
Some areas of improvement are more
aspirational than actually implemented. The
level of data generated within healthcare
systems is not trivial. With the added adoption
of mHealth, eHealth and wearable technologies
the volume of data will continue to increase.
This includes electronic health record data,
imaging data, patient generated data, sensor
data, and other forms of difficult to process
data. There is now an even greater need for
such environments to pay greater attention to
data and information quality.[64] "Big data very
often means 'dirty data' and the fraction of data
inaccuracies increases with data volume
growth." Human inspection at the big data scale
is impossible and there is a desperate need in
health service for intelligent tools for accuracy
and believability control and handling of
information missed.[65] While extensive
information in healthcare is now electronic, it fits
under the big data umbrella as most is
unstructured and difficult to use.[66] The use of
big data in healthcare has raised significant
ethical challenges ranging from risks for
individual rights, privacy and autonomy, to
transparency and trust.[67]
Big data in health research is particularly
promising in terms of exploratory biomedical
research, as data-driven analysis can move
forward more quickly than hypothesis-driven
research.[68] Then, trends seen in data analysis
can be tested in traditional, hypothesis-driven
followup biological research and eventually
clinical research.
A related application sub-area, that heavily
relies on big data, within the healthcare field is
that of computer-aided diagnosis in
medicine. [69] One only needs to recall that, for
instance, for epilepsy monitoring it is customary
to create 5 to 10 GB of data daily. [70] Similarly, a
single uncompressed image of
breast tomosynthesis averages 450 MB of
data. [71] These are just few of the many
examples where computer-aided
diagnosis uses big data. For this reason, big
data has been recognized as one of the seven
key challenges that computer-aided
diagnosis systems need to overcome in order to
reach the next level of performance. [72]
Education[edit]
A McKinsey Global Institute study found a
shortage of 1.5 million highly trained data
professionals and managers[41] and a number of
universities[73][better source needed] including University of
Tennessee and UC Berkeley, have created
masters programs to meet this demand. Private
boot camps have also developed programs to
meet that demand, including free programs
like The Data Incubator or paid programs
like General Assembly.[74] In the specific field of
marketing, one of the problems stressed by
Wedel and Kannan[75] is that marketing has
several sub domains (e.g., advertising,
promotions, product development, branding)
that all use different types of data. Because
one-size-fits-all analytical solutions are not
desirable, business schools should prepare
marketing managers to have wide knowledge
on all the different techniques used in these sub
domains to get a big picture and work effectively
with analysts.
Media[edit]
To understand how the media uses big data, it
is first necessary to provide some context into
the mechanism used for media process. It has
been suggested by Nick Couldry and Joseph
Turow that practitioners in Media and
Advertising approach big data as many
actionable points of information about millions of
individuals. The industry appears to be moving
away from the traditional approach of using
specific media environments such as
newspapers, magazines, or television shows
and instead taps into consumers with
technologies that reach targeted people at
optimal times in optimal locations. The ultimate
aim is to serve or convey, a message or content
that is (statistically speaking) in line with the
consumer's mindset. For example, publishing
environments are increasingly tailoring
messages (advertisements) and content
(articles) to appeal to consumers that have
been exclusively gleaned through various data-
mining activities.[76]
 Targeting of consumers (for advertising

by marketers)[77]
 Data capture
 Data journalism: publishers and
journalists use big data tools to provide
unique and innovative insights
and infographics.
Channel 4, the British public-service television
broadcaster, is a leader in the field of big data
and data analysis.[78]
Insurance[edit]
Health insurance providers are collecting data
on social "determinants of health" such as food
and TV consumption, marital status, clothing
size and purchasing habits, from which they
make predictions on health costs, in order to
spot health issues in their clients. It is
controversial whether these predictions are
currently being used for pricing.[79]
Internet of Things (IoT)[edit]
Main article: Internet of Things
Further information: Edge computing
Big data and the IoT work in conjunction. Data

extracted from IoT devices provides a mapping
of device inter-connectivity. Such mappings
have been used by the media industry,
companies and governments to more accurately
target their audience and increase media
efficiency. IoT is also increasingly adopted as a
means of gathering sensory data, and this
sensory data has been used in medical,
[80]
manufacturing[81] and transportation[82] contexts.
Kevin Ashton, digital innovation expert who is
credited with coining the term,[83] defines the
Internet of Things in this quote: “If we had
computers that knew everything there was to
know about things—using data they gathered
without any help from us—we would be able to
track and count everything, and greatly reduce
waste, loss, and cost. We would know when
things needed replacing, repairing or recalling,
and whether they were fresh or past their best.”
Information technology[edit]
Especially since 2015, big data has come to
prominence within business operations as a tool
to help employees work more efficiently and
streamline the collection and distribution
of information technology (IT). The use of big
data to resolve IT and data collection issues
within an enterprise is called IT operations
analytics (ITOA).[84] By applying big data
principles into the concepts of machine
intelligence and deep computing, IT
departments can predict potential issues and
move to provide solutions before the problems
even happen.[84] In this time, ITOA businesses
were also beginning to play a major role
in systems management by offering platforms
that brought individual data silos together and
generated insights from the whole of the system
rather than from isolated pockets of data.
Case studies[edit]
Government[edit]
China[edit]
 The Integrated Joint Operations Platform

(IJOP, 一体化联合作战平台) is used by
the government to monitor the
population, particularly Uyghurs.
[85]
Biometrics, including DNA samples,
are gathered through a program of free
physicals.[86]
 By 2020, China plans to give all its
citizens a personal "Social Credit" score
based on how they behave.[87] The Social
Credit System, now being piloted in a
number of Chinese cities, is considered a
form of mass surveillance which uses big
data analysis technology.[88][89]
India[edit]
 Big data analysis was tried out for

the BJP to win the Indian General
Election 2014.[90]
 The Indian government uses numerous
techniques to ascertain how the Indian
electorate is responding to government
action, as well as ideas for policy
augmentation.
Israel[edit]
 Personalized diabetic treatments can be

created through GlucoMe's big data
solution.[91]
United Kingdom[edit]
Examples of uses of big data in public services:
 Data on prescription drugs: by

connecting origin, location and the time
of each prescription, a research unit was
able to exemplify the considerable delay
between the release of any given drug,
and a UK-wide adaptation of the National
Institute for Health and Care
Excellence guidelines. This suggests that
new or most up-to-date drugs take some
time to filter through to the general
patient.[92]
 Joining up data: a local authority blended
data about services, such as road gritting
rotas, with services for people at risk,
such as 'meals on wheels'. The
connection of data allowed the local
authority to avoid any weather-related
delay.[93]
United States of America[edit]
 In 2012, the Obama
administration announced the Big Data
Research and Development Initiative, to
explore how big data could be used to
address important problems faced by the
government.[94] The initiative is composed
of 84 different big data programs spread
across six departments.[95]
 Big data analysis played a large role
in Barack Obama's successful 2012 re-
election campaign.[96]
 The United States Federal
Government owns five of the ten most
powerful supercomputers in the world.[97]
[98]
 The Utah Data Center has been

constructed by the United
States National Security Agency. When
finished, the facility will be able to handle
a large amount of information collected
by the NSA over the Internet. The exact
amount of storage space is unknown, but
more recent sources claim it will be on
the order of a few exabytes.[99][100][101] This
has posed security concerns regarding
the anonymity of the data collected.[102]
Retail[edit]
 Walmart handles more than 1 million

customer transactions every hour, which
are imported into databases estimated to
contain more than 2.5 petabytes (2560
terabytes) of data—the equivalent of 167
times the information contained in all the
books in the US Library of Congress.[4]
 Windermere Real Estate uses location
information from nearly 100 million
drivers to help new home buyers
determine their typical drive times to and
from work throughout various times of
the day.[103]
 FICO Card Detection System protects
accounts worldwide.[104]
Science[edit]
 The Large Hadron Collider experiments

represent about 150 million sensors
delivering data 40 million times per
second. There are nearly 600 million
collisions per second. After filtering and
refraining from recording more than
99.99995%[105] of these streams, there are
1,000 collisions of interest per second.[106]
[107][108]
o As a result, only working with

less than 0.001% of the
sensor stream data, the data
flow from all four LHC
experiments represents 25
petabytes annual rate before
replication (as of 2012). This
becomes nearly 200
petabytes after replication.
o If all sensor data were
recorded in LHC, the data
flow would be extremely hard
to work with. The data flow
would exceed 150 million
petabytes annual rate, or
nearly 500 exabytes per day,
before replication. To put the
number in perspective, this is
equivalent to
500 quintillion (5×1020) bytes
per day, almost 200 times
more than all the other
sources combined in the
world.
 The Square Kilometre Array is a radio
telescope built of thousands of antennas.
It is expected to be operational by 2024.
Collectively, these antennas are
expected to gather 14 exabytes and
store one petabyte per day.[109][110] It is
considered one of the most ambitious
scientific projects ever undertaken.[111]
 When the Sloan Digital Sky
Survey (SDSS) began to collect
astronomical data in 2000, it amassed
more in its first few weeks than all data
collected in the history of astronomy
previously. Continuing at a rate of about
200 GB per night, SDSS has amassed
more than 140 terabytes of information.
[4]
When the Large Synoptic Survey
Telescope, successor to SDSS, comes
online in 2020, its designers expect it to
acquire that amount of data every five
days.[4]
 Decoding the human genome originally
took 10 years to process; now it can be
achieved in less than a day. The DNA
sequencers have divided the sequencing
cost by 10,000 in the last ten years,
which is 100 times cheaper than the
reduction in cost predicted by Moore's
Law.[112]
 The NASA Center for Climate Simulation
(NCCS) stores 32 petabytes of climate
observations and simulations on the
Discover supercomputing cluster.[113][114]
 Google's DNAStack compiles and
organizes DNA samples of genetic data
from around the world to identify
diseases and other medical defects.
These fast and exact calculations
eliminate any 'friction points,' or human
errors that could be made by one of the
numerous science and biology experts
working with the DNA. DNAStack, a part
of Google Genomics, allows scientists to
use the vast sample of resources from
Google's search server to scale social
experiments that would usually take
years, instantly.[115][116]
 23andme's DNA database contains
genetic information of over 1,000,000
people worldwide.[117] The company
explores selling the "anonymous
aggregated genetic data" to other
researchers and pharmaceutical
companies for research purposes if
patients give their consent.[118][119][120][121]
[122]
Ahmad Hariri, professor of psychology
and neuroscience at Duke
University who has been using 23andMe
in his research since 2009 states that the
most important aspect of the company's
new service is that it makes genetic
research accessible and relatively cheap
for scientists.[118] A study that identified 15
genome sites linked to depression in
23andMe's database lead to a surge in
demands to access the repository with
23andMe fielding nearly 20 requests to
access the depression data in the two
weeks after publication of the paper.[123]
 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
and hydrodynamic turbulence research
generate massive data sets. The Johns
Hopkins Turbulence Databases (JHTDB)
contains over 350 terabytes of
spatiotemporal fields from Direct
Numerical simulations of various
turbulent flows. Such data have been
difficult to share using traditional
methods such as downloading flat
simulation output files. The data within
JHTDB can be accessed using "virtual
sensors" with various access modes
ranging from direct web-browser queries,
access through Matlab, Python, Fortran
and C programs executing on clients'
platforms, to cut out services to
download raw data. The data have been
used in over 150 scientific publications.
Sports[edit]
Big data can be used to improve training and
understanding competitors, using sport sensors.
It is also possible to predict winners in a match
using big data analytics.[124] Future performance
of players could be predicted as well. Thus,
players' value and salary is determined by data
collected throughout the season.[125]
In Formula One races, race cars with hundreds
of sensors generate terabytes of data. These
sensors collect data points from tire pressure to
fuel burn efficiency.[126] Based on the data,
engineers and data analysts decide whether
adjustments should be made in order to win a
race. Besides, using big data, race teams try to
predict the time they will finish the race
beforehand, based on simulations using data
collected over the season.[127]
Technology[edit]
 eBay.com uses two data warehouses at

7.5 petabytes and 40PB as well as a
40PB Hadoop cluster for search,
consumer recommendations, and
merchandising.[128]
 Amazon.com handles millions of back-
end operations every day, as well as
queries from more than half a million
third-party sellers. The core technology
that keeps Amazon running is Linux-
based and as of 2005 they had the
world's three largest Linux databases,
with capacities of 7.8 TB, 18.5 TB, and
24.7 TB.[129]
 Facebook handles 50 billion photos from
its user base.[130] As of June 2017,
Facebook reached 2 billion monthly
active users.[131]
 Google was handling roughly 100 billion
searches per month as of August 2012.
[132]
Research activities[edit]
Encrypted search and cluster formation in big
data were demonstrated in March 2014 at the
American Society of Engineering Education.
Gautam Siwach engaged at Tackling the
challenges of Big Data by MIT Computer
Science and Artificial Intelligence
Laboratory and Dr. Amir Esmailpour at UNH
Research Group investigated the key features
of big data as the formation of clusters and their
interconnections. They focused on the security
of big data and the orientation of the term
towards the presence of different types of data
in an encrypted form at cloud interface by
providing the raw definitions and real-time
examples within the technology. Moreover, they
proposed an approach for identifying the
encoding technique to advance towards an
expedited search over encrypted text leading to
the security enhancements in big data.[133]
In March 2012, The White House announced a
national "Big Data Initiative" that consisted of six
Federal departments and agencies committing
more than $200 million to big data research
projects.[134]
The initiative included a National Science
Foundation "Expeditions in Computing" grant of
$10 million over 5 years to the AMPLab[135] at the
University of California, Berkeley.[136] The
AMPLab also received funds from DARPA, and
over a dozen industrial sponsors and uses big
data to attack a wide range of problems from
predicting traffic congestion[137] to fighting cancer.
[138]
The White House Big Data Initiative also

included a commitment by the Department of
Energy to provide $25 million in funding over 5
years to establish the scalable Data
Management, Analysis and Visualization
(SDAV) Institute,[139] led by the Energy
Department's Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory. The SDAV Institute aims to bring
together the expertise of six national
laboratories and seven universities to develop
new tools to help scientists manage and
visualize data on the Department's
supercomputers.
The U.S. state of Massachusetts announced the
Massachusetts Big Data Initiative in May 2012,
which provides funding from the state
government and private companies to a variety
of research institutions.[140] The Massachusetts
Institute of Technology hosts the Intel Science
and Technology Center for Big Data in the MIT
Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence
Laboratory, combining government, corporate,
and institutional funding and research efforts. [141]
The European Commission is funding the 2-
year-long Big Data Public Private Forum
through their Seventh Framework Program to
engage companies, academics and other
stakeholders in discussing big data issues. The
project aims to define a strategy in terms of
research and innovation to guide supporting
actions from the European Commission in the
successful implementation of the big data
economy. Outcomes of this project will be used
as input for Horizon 2020, their next framework
program.[142]
The British government announced in March
2014 the founding of the Alan Turing Institute,
named after the computer pioneer and code-
breaker, which will focus on new ways to collect
and analyze large data sets.[143]
At the University of Waterloo Stratford
Campus Canadian Open Data Experience
(CODE) Inspiration Day, participants
demonstrated how using data visualization can
increase the understanding and appeal of big
data sets and communicate their story to the
world.[144]
Computational social sciences – Anyone can
use Application Programming Interfaces (APIs)
provided by big data holders, such as Google
and Twitter, to do research in the social and
behavioral sciences.[145] Often these APIs are
provided for free.[145] Tobias Preis et
al. used Google Trends data to demonstrate
that Internet users from countries with a higher
per capita gross domestic product (GDP) are
more likely to search for information about the
future than information about the past. The
findings suggest there may be a link between
online behaviour and real-world economic
indicators.[146][147][148] The authors of the study
examined Google queries logs made by ratio of
the volume of searches for the coming year
('2011') to the volume of searches for the
previous year ('2009'), which they call the 'future
orientation index'.[149] They compared the future
orientation index to the per capita GDP of each
country, and found a strong tendency for
countries where Google users inquire more
about the future to have a higher GDP. The
results hint that there may potentially be a
relationship between the economic success of a
country and the information-seeking behavior of
its citizens captured in big data.
Tobias Preis and his colleagues Helen
Susannah Moat and H. Eugene
Stanley introduced a method to identify online
precursors for stock market moves, using
trading strategies based on search volume data
provided by Google Trends.[150] Their analysis
of Google search volume for 98 terms of varying
financial relevance, published in Scientific
Reports,[151] suggests that increases in search
volume for financially relevant search terms
tend to precede large losses in financial
markets.[152][153][154][155][156][157][158]
Big data sets come with algorithmic challenges
that previously did not exist. Hence, there is a
need to fundamentally change the processing
ways.[159]
The Workshops on Algorithms for Modern
Massive Data Sets (MMDS) bring together
computer scientists, statisticians,
mathematicians, and data analysis practitioners
to discuss algorithmic challenges of big data.
[160]
Regarding big data, one needs to keep in
mind that such concepts of magnitude are
relative. As it is stated "If the past is of any
guidance, then today’s big data most likely will
not be considered as such in the near future." [69]
Sampling big data[edit]
An important research question that can be
asked about big data sets is whether you need
to look at the full data to draw certain
conclusions about the properties of the data or
is a sample good enough. The name big data
itself contains a term related to size and this is
an important characteristic of big data.
But Sampling (statistics) enables the selection
of right data points from within the larger data
set to estimate the characteristics of the whole
population. For example, there are about 600
million tweets produced every day. Is it
necessary to look at all of them to determine the
topics that are discussed during the day? Is it
necessary to look at all the tweets to determine
the sentiment on each of the topics? In
manufacturing different types of sensory data
such as acoustics, vibration, pressure, current,
voltage and controller data are available at short
time intervals. To predict downtime it may not
be necessary to look at all the data but a
sample may be sufficient. Big Data can be
broken down by various data point categories
such as demographic, psychographic,
behavioral, and transactional data. With large
sets of data points, marketers are able to create
and use more customized segments of
consumers for more strategic targeting.
There has been some work done in Sampling
algorithms for big data. A theoretical formulation
for sampling Twitter data has been developed.
[161]
Critique[edit]
Critiques of the big data paradigm come in two
flavors: those that question the implications of
the approach itself, and those that question the
way it is currently done.[162] One approach to this
criticism is the field of critical data studies.
Critiques of the big data
paradigm[edit]
"A crucial problem is that we do not know much
about the underlying empirical micro-processes
that lead to the emergence of the[se] typical
network characteristics of Big Data".[17] In their
critique, Snijders, Matzat, and Reips point out
that often very strong assumptions are made
about mathematical properties that may not at
all reflect what is really going on at the level of
micro-processes. Mark Graham has leveled
broad critiques at Chris Anderson's assertion
that big data will spell the end of theory:
[163]
focusing in particular on the notion that big
data must always be contextualized in their
social, economic, and political contexts. [164] Even
as companies invest eight- and nine-figure
sums to derive insight from information
streaming in from suppliers and customers, less
than 40% of employees have sufficiently mature
processes and skills to do so. To overcome this
insight deficit, big data, no matter how
comprehensive or well analyzed, must be
complemented by "big judgment," according to
an article in the Harvard Business Review.[165]
Much in the same line, it has been pointed out
that the decisions based on the analysis of big
data are inevitably "informed by the world as it
was in the past, or, at best, as it currently is".
[56]
Fed by a large number of data on past
experiences, algorithms can predict future
development if the future is similar to the past.
[166]
If the system's dynamics of the future change
(if it is not a stationary process), the past can
say little about the future. In order to make
predictions in changing environments, it would
be necessary to have a thorough understanding
of the systems dynamic, which requires theory.
[166]
As a response to this critique Alemany Oliver
and Vayre suggest to use "abductive reasoning
as a first step in the research process in order
to bring context to consumers' digital traces and
make new theories emerge".[167] Additionally, it
has been suggested to combine big data
approaches with computer simulations, such
as agent-based models[56] and complex systems.
Agent-based models are increasingly getting
better in predicting the outcome of social
complexities of even unknown future scenarios
through computer simulations that are based on
a collection of mutually interdependent
algorithms.[168][169] Finally, the use of multivariate
methods that probe for the latent structure of
the data, such as factor analysis and cluster
analysis, have proven useful as analytic
approaches that go well beyond the bi-variate
approaches (cross-tabs) typically employed with
smaller data sets.
In health and biology, conventional scientific
approaches are based on experimentation. For
these approaches, the limiting factor is the
relevant data that can confirm or refute the
initial hypothesis.[170] A new postulate is accepted
now in biosciences: the information provided by
the data in huge volumes (omics) without prior
hypothesis is complementary and sometimes
necessary to conventional approaches based
on experimentation.[171][172] In the massive
approaches it is the formulation of a relevant
hypothesis to explain the data that is the limiting
factor.[173] The search logic is reversed and the
limits of induction ("Glory of Science and
Philosophy scandal", C. D. Broad, 1926) are to
be considered.[citation needed]
Privacy advocates are concerned about the
threat to privacy represented by increasing
storage and integration of personally identifiable
information; expert panels have released
various policy recommendations to conform
practice to expectations of privacy.[174][175][176] The
misuse of Big Data in several cases by media,
companies and even the government has
allowed for abolition of trust in almost every
fundamental institution holding up society. [177]
Nayef Al-Rodhan argues that a new kind of
social contract will be needed to protect
individual liberties in a context of Big Data and
giant corporations that own vast amounts of
information. The use of Big Data should be
monitored and better regulated at the national
and international levels.[178] Barocas and
Nissenbaum argue that one way of protecting
individual users is by being informed about the
types of information being collected, with whom
it is shared, under what constrains and for what
purposes.[179]
Critiques of the 'V' model[edit]
The 'V' model of Big Data is concerting as it
centres around computational scalability and
lacks in a loss around the perceptibility and
understandability of information. This led to the
framework of cognitive big data, which
characterizes Big Data application according to:
[180]
 Data completeness: understanding of the

non-obvious from data;
 Data correlation, causation, and
predictability: causality as not essential
requirement to achieve predictability;
 Explainability and interpretability:
humans desire to understand and accept
what they understand, where algorithms
don't cope with this;
 Level of automated decision making:
algorithms that support automated
decision making and algorithmic self-
learning;
Critiques of novelty[edit]
Large data sets have been analyzed by
computing machines for well over a century,
including the US census analytics performed
by IBM's punch-card machines which computed
statistics including means and variances of
populations across the whole continent. In more
recent decades, science experiments such
as CERN have produced data on similar scales
to current commercial "big data". However,
science experiments have tended to analyze
their data using specialized custom-built high-
performance computing (super-computing)
clusters and grids, rather than clouds of cheap
commodity computers as in the current
commercial wave, implying a difference in both
culture and technology stack.
Critiques of big data execution[edit]
Ulf-Dietrich Reips and Uwe Matzat wrote in
2014 that big data had become a "fad" in
scientific research.[145] Researcher Danah
Boyd has raised concerns about the use of big
data in science neglecting principles such as
choosing a representative sample by being too
concerned about handling the huge amounts of
data.[181] This approach may lead to
results bias in one way or another. Integration
across heterogeneous data resources—some
that might be considered big data and others
not—presents formidable logistical as well as
analytical challenges, but many researchers
argue that such integrations are likely to
represent the most promising new frontiers in
science.[182] In the provocative article "Critical
Questions for Big Data",[183] the authors title big
data a part of mythology: "large data sets offer a
higher form of intelligence and knowledge [...],
with the aura of truth, objectivity, and accuracy".
Users of big data are often "lost in the sheer
volume of numbers", and "working with Big Data
is still subjective, and what it quantifies does not
necessarily have a closer claim on objective
truth".[183] Recent developments in BI domain,
such as pro-active reporting especially target
improvements in usability of big data, through
automated filtering of non-useful data and
correlations.[184] Big structures are full of spurious
correlations[185] either because of non-causal
coincidences (law of truly large numbers), solely
nature of big randomness[186] (Ramsey theory) or
existence of non-included factors so the hope,
of early experimenters to make large databases
of numbers "speak for themselves" and
revolutionize scientific method, is questioned. [187]
Big data analysis is often shallow compared to
analysis of smaller data sets.[188] In many big
data projects, there is no large data analysis
happening, but the challenge is the extract,
transform, load part of data pre-processing.[188]
Big data is a buzzword and a "vague term",[189]
[190]
but at the same time an "obsession"[190] with
entrepreneurs, consultants, scientists and the
media. Big data showcases such as Google Flu
Trends failed to deliver good predictions in
recent years, overstating the flu outbreaks by a
factor of two. Similarly, Academy awards and
election predictions solely based on Twitter
were more often off than on target. Big data
often poses the same challenges as small data;
adding more data does not solve problems of
bias, but may emphasize other problems. In
particular data sources such as Twitter are not
representative of the overall population, and
results drawn from such sources may then lead
to wrong conclusions. Google Translate—which
is based on big data statistical analysis of text—
does a good job at translating web pages.
However, results from specialized domains may
be dramatically skewed. On the other hand, big
data may also introduce new problems, such as
the multiple comparisons problem:
simultaneously testing a large set of hypotheses
is likely to produce many false results that
mistakenly appear significant. Ioannidis argued
that "most published research findings are
false"[191] due to essentially the same effect:
when many scientific teams and researchers
each perform many experiments (i.e. process a
big amount of scientific data; although not with
big data technology), the likelihood of a
"significant" result being false grows fast – even
more so, when only positive results are
published. Furthermore, big data analytics
results are only as good as the model on which
they are predicated. In an example, big data
took part in attempting to predict the results of
the 2016 U.S. Presidential Election[192] with
varying degrees of success.
Critiques of big data policing and
surveillance[edit]
Big Data has been used in policing and
surveillance by institutions like law
enforcement and corporations.[193] Due to the
less visible nature of data-based surveillance as
compared to traditional method of policing,
objections to big data policing are less likely to
arise. According to Sarah Brayne's Big Data
Surveillance: The Case of Policing,[194] big data
policing can reproduce existing societal
inequalities in three ways:
 Placing suspected criminals under

increased surveillance by using the
justification of a mathematical and
therefore unbiased algorithm;
 Increasing the scope and number of
people that are subject to law
enforcement tracking and exacerbating
existing racial overrepresentation in the
criminal justice system;
 Encouraging members of society to
abandon interactions with institutions that
would create a digital trace, thus creating
obstacles to social inclusion.
If these potential problems are not corrected or
regulating, the effects of big data policing
continue to shape societal hierarchies.
Conscientious usage of big data policing could
prevent individual level biases from becoming
institutional biases, Brayne also notes.
See also[edit]
For a list of companies, and tools, see
also: Category:Big data.
 Big data ethics

 Big Data Maturity Model
 Big memory
 C++
 Data curation
 Data defined storage
 Data lineage
 Data philanthropy
 Data science
 Datafication
 Document-oriented database
 In-memory processing
 List of big data companies
 Urban informatics
 Very large database
 XLDB
 Data analysis
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Further reading[edit]
Library resources about
Big data
 Resources in your library

 Resources in other libraries
 Peter Kinnaird; Inbal Talgam-Cohen,

eds. (2012). "Big Data". ACM
Crossroads student magazine. XRDS:
Crossroads, The ACM Magazine for
Students. Vol. 19 no. 1. Association for
Computing Machinery. ISSN 1528-
4980. OCLC 779657714.
 Jure Leskovec; Anand
Rajaraman; Jeffrey D.
Ullman (2014). Mining of massive
datasets. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 9781107077232. OCLC 88
8463433.
 Viktor Mayer-Schönberger; Kenneth
Cukier (2013). Big Data: A Revolution
that Will Transform how We Live, Work,
and Think. Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt. ISBN 9781299903029. OCLC
828620988.
 Press, Gil (9 May 2013). "A Very Short
History of Big Data". forbes.com. Jersey
City, NJ: Forbes Magazine. Retrieved 17
September 2016.
 "Big Data: The Management
Revolution". hbr.org. Harvard Business
Review. October 2012.
 O'Neil, Cathy (2017). Weapons of Math
Destruction: How Big Data Increases
Inequality and Threatens Democracy.
Broadway Books. ISBN 978-
0553418835.
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This article may contain an excessive number of citations. Please

Growth of and digitization of global information-storage capacity [1]

o 5.7Internet of Things (IoT)

 6.1.5United States of America

o 7.1Sampling big data

o 8.1Critiques of the big data paradigm

o 8.2Critiques of the 'V' model

o 8.4Critiques of big data execution

o 8.5Critiques of big data policing and surveillance

 Business Intelligence uses applied mathematics tools and descriptive statistics with

Big data can be described by the following characteristics:

 Techniques for analyzing data, such

Big data has increased the demand of

 Targeting of consumers (for advertising

Big data and the IoT work in conjunction. Data

 The Integrated Joint Operations Platform

 Big data analysis was tried out for

 Personalized diabetic treatments can be

 Data on prescription drugs: by

 The Utah Data Center has been

 Walmart handles more than 1 million

 The Large Hadron Collider experiments

o As a result, only working with

 eBay.com uses two data warehouses at

The White House Big Data Initiative also

 Data completeness: understanding of the

 Placing suspected criminals under

 Big data ethics

Come: Analytics Delivers for IT

 Resources in your library

 Peter Kinnaird; Inbal Talgam-Cohen,

 This page was last edited on 30 September 2020, at

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