Big data

of data is created.[8] One question for large enterprises is

determining who should own big data initiatives that affect the entire organization.[9]

This article is about large collections of data. For the

graph database, see Graph database. For the band, see
Big Data (band).
Big data is a term for data sets that are so large or

Relational database management systems and desktop

statistics and visualization packages often have diculty
handling big data. The work instead requires massively
parallel software running on tens, hundreds, or even thousands of servers.[10] What is considered big data varies
depending on the capabilities of the users and their tools,
and expanding capabilities make big data a moving target.
For some organizations, facing hundreds of gigabytes of
data for the rst time may trigger a need to reconsider
data management options. For others, it may take tens or
hundreds of terabytes before data size becomes a significant consideration.[11]

1 Denition
Growth of and Digitization of Global Information Storage
Capacity[1]

complex that traditional data processing applications are

inadequate. Challenges include analysis, capture, data
curation, search, sharing, storage, transfer, visualization,
querying, updating and information privacy. The term often refers simply to the use of predictive analytics or certain other advanced methods to extract value from data,
and seldom to a particular size of data set. Accuracy
in big data may lead to more condent decision making,
and better decisions can result in greater operational eciency, cost reduction and reduced risk.
Analysis of data sets can nd new correlations to spot
business trends, prevent diseases, combat crime and so
on.[2] Scientists, business executives, practitioners of
medicine, advertising and governments alike regularly
meet diculties with large data sets in areas including Internet search, nance and business informatics.
Scientists encounter limitations in e-Science work, including meteorology, genomics,[3] connectomics, complex physics simulations, biology and environmental
research.[4]

Visualization of daily Wikipedia edits created by IBM. At multiple

terabytes in size, the text and images of Wikipedia are an example
of big data.

Big data usually includes data sets with sizes beyond

the ability of commonly used software tools to capture,
curate, manage, and process data within a tolerable
elapsed time.[12] Big data size is a constantly moving
target, as of 2012 ranging from a few dozen terabytes to
many petabytes of data. Big data requires a set of techniques and technologies with new forms of integration to
reveal insights from datasets that are diverse, complex,
and of a massive scale.[13]

Data sets are growing rapidly in part because they are increasingly gathered by cheap and numerous informationsensing mobile devices, aerial (remote sensing), software
logs, cameras, microphones, radio-frequency identication (RFID) readers and wireless sensor networks.[5][6]
The worlds technological per-capita capacity to store information has roughly doubled every 40 months since the In a 2001 research report[14] and related lectures, META
1980s;[7] as of 2012, every day 2.5 exabytes (2.51018 ) Group (now Gartner) analyst Doug Laney dened data
1

3 ARCHITECTURE

growth challenges and opportunities as being threedimensional, i.e. increasing volume (amount of data),
velocity (speed of data in and out), and variety (range of
data types and sources). Gartner, and now much of the
industry, continue to use this 3Vs model for describing big data.[15] In 2012, Gartner updated its denition as
follows: Big data is high volume, high velocity, and/or
high variety information assets that require new forms
of processing to enable enhanced decision making, insight discovery and process optimization. Gartners definition of the 3Vs is still widely used, and in agreement
with a consensual denition that states that Big Data
represents the Information assets characterized by such
a High Volume, Velocity and Variety to require specic
Technology and Analytical Methods for its transformation into Value.[16] Additionally, a new V Veracity is
added by some organizations to describe it,[17] revisionism challenged by some industry authorities.[18] The 3Vs
have been expanded to other complementary characteristics of big data:[19][20]

2 Characteristics
Big data can be
characteristics:[19][20]

described

by

the

following

Volume The quantity of generated and stored data. The

size of the data determines the value and potential
insight- and whether it can actually be considered
big data or not.
Variety The type and nature of the data. This helps people who analyze it to eectively use the resulting insight.
Velocity In this context, the speed at which the data is
generated and processed to meet the demands and
challenges that lie in the path of growth and development.

Variability Inconsistency of the data set can hamper

processes to handle and manage it.
Volume: big data doesn't sample; it just observes
and tracks what happens
Veracity The quality of captured data can vary greatly,
Velocity: big data is often available in real-time
aecting accurate analysis.
Variety: big data draws from text, images, audio,
Factory work and Cyber-physical systems may have a 6C
video; plus it completes missing pieces through data
system:
fusion
Machine Learning: big data often doesn't ask why
and simply detects patterns[21]

Connection (sensor and networks)

Digital footprint: big data is often a cost-free

byproduct of digital interaction[20][22]

Cyber (model and memory)

The growing maturity of the concept more starkly delineates the dierence between big data and Business Intelligence:[23]

Cloud (computing and data on demand)[28][29]

Content/context (meaning and correlation)

Community (sharing and collaboration)
Customization (personalization and value)

Business Intelligence uses descriptive statistics with Data must be processed with advanced tools (analytics
data with high information density to measure and algorithms) to reveal meaningful information. For
example, to manage a factory one must consider both visthings, detect trends, etc..
ible and invisible issues with various components. Infor Big data uses inductive statistics and concepts from mation generation algorithms must detect and address innonlinear system identication[24] to infer laws (re- visible issues such as machine degradation, component
[30][31]
gressions, nonlinear relationships, and causal ef- wear, etc. on the factory oor.
fects) from large sets of data with low information density[25] to reveal relationships and dependencies, or to perform predictions of outcomes and 3 Architecture
behaviors.[24][26]
In a popular tutorial article published in IEEE Access
Journal,[27] the authors classied existing denitions of
big data into three categories: Attribute Denition, Comparative Denition and Architectural Denition. The authors also presented a big-data technology map that illustrates its key technological evolutions.

In 2000, Seisint Inc. (now LexisNexis Group) developed a C++-based distributed le-sharing framework for
data storage and query. The system stores and distributes
structured, semi-structured, and unstructured data across
multiple servers. Users can build queries in a C++ dialect
called ECL. ECL uses an apply schema on read method
to infer the structure of stored data when it is queried,

3
instead of when it is stored. In 2004, LexisNexis ac Big Data technologies, like business intelligence,
quired Seisint Inc.[32] and in 2008 acquired ChoicePoint,
cloud computing and databases
Inc.[33] and their high-speed parallel processing platform.
Visualization, such as charts, graphs and other disThe two platforms were merged into HPCC (or Highplays of the data
Performance Computing Cluster) Systems and in 2011,
HPCC was open-sourced under the Apache v2.0 License.
Currently, HPCC and Quantcast File System[34] are the Multidimensional big data can also be represented as
only publicly available platforms capable of analyzing tensors, which can be more eciently handled by
tensor-based computation,[44] such as multilinear submultiple exabytes of data.
space learning.[45] Additional technologies being applied
In 2004, Google published a paper on a process called
to big data include massively parallel-processing (MPP)
MapReduce that uses a similar architecture. The MapRedatabases, search-based applications, data mining,[46]
duce concept provides a parallel processing model, and an
distributed le systems, distributed databases, cloudassociated implementation was released to process huge
based infrastructure (applications, storage and computing
amounts of data. With MapReduce, queries are split
resources) and the Internet.
and distributed across parallel nodes and processed in
parallel (the Map step). The results are then gathered Some but not all MPP relational databases have the ability
and delivered (the Reduce step). The framework was to store and manage petabytes of data. Implicit is the
very successful,[35] so others wanted to replicate the al- ability to load, monitor, back up, and optimize the use of
gorithm. Therefore, an implementation of the MapRe- the large data tables in the RDBMS.[47]
duce framework was adopted by an Apache open-source DARPA's Topological Data Analysis program seeks the
project named Hadoop.[36]
fundamental structure of massive data sets and in 2008
MIKE2.0 is an open approach to information management that acknowledges the need for revisions due to big
data implications identied in an article titled Big Data
Solution Oering.[37] The methodology addresses handling big data in terms of useful permutations of data
sources, complexity in interrelationships, and diculty
in deleting (or modifying) individual records.[38]
Recent studies show that a multiple-layer architecture is
one option to address the issues that big data presents.
A distributed parallel architecture distributes data across
multiple servers; these parallel execution environments
can dramatically improve data processing speeds. This
type of architecture inserts data into a parallel DBMS,
which implements the use of MapReduce and Hadoop
frameworks. This type of framework looks to make the
processing power transparent to the end user by using a
front-end application server.[39]

the technology went public with the launch of a company

called Ayasdi.[48]
The practitioners of big data analytics processes are
generally hostile to slower shared storage,[49] preferring direct-attached storage (DAS) in its various forms
from solid state drive (Ssd) to high capacity SATA disk
buried inside parallel processing nodes. The perception
of shared storage architecturesStorage area network
(SAN) and Network-attached storage (NAS) is that
they are relatively slow, complex, and expensive. These
qualities are not consistent with big data analytics systems that thrive on system performance, commodity infrastructure, and low cost.

Real or near-real time information delivery is one of the

dening characteristics of big data analytics. Latency is
therefore avoided whenever and wherever possible. Data
in memory is gooddata on spinning disk at the other
Big Data Analytics for Manufacturing Applications can end of a FC SAN connection is not. The cost of a SAN
be based on a 5C architecture (connection, conversion, at the scale needed for analytics applications is very much
higher than other storage techniques.
cyber, cognition, and conguration).[40]
The data lake allows an organization to shift its focus from There are advantages as well as disadvantages to shared
centralized control to a shared model to respond to the storage in big data analytics, but big data analytics pracchanging dynamics of information management. This en- titioners as of 2011 did not favour it.[50]
ables quick segregation of data into the data lake, thereby
reducing the overhead time.[41][42]

5 Applications
4

Technologies

Big data has increased the demand of information management specialists in that Software AG, Oracle CorpoA 2011 McKinsey Global Institute report character- ration, IBM, Microsoft, SAP, EMC, HP and Dell have
izes the main components and ecosystem of big data as spent more than $15 billion on software rms specializing
in data management and analytics. In 2010, this industry
follows:[43]
was worth more than $100 billion and was growing at al Techniques for analyzing data, such as A/B testing, most 10 percent a year: about twice as fast as the software
machine learning and natural language processing
business as a whole.[2]

5 APPLICATIONS
initiative is composed of 84 dierent big data programs spread across six departments.[54]
Big data analysis played a large role in Barack
Obama's successful 2012 re-election campaign.[55]
The United States Federal Government owns six
of the ten most powerful supercomputers in the
world.[56]

Bus wrapped with SAP Big data parked outside IDF13.

The Utah Data Center is being constructed by the

United States National Security Agency. When nished, the facility will be able to handle a large
amount of information collected by the NSA over
the Internet. The exact amount of storage space is
unknown, but more recent sources claim it will be
on the order of a few exabytes.[57][58][59]

Developed economies increasingly use data-intensive

technologies. There are 4.6 billion mobile-phone sub- 5.1.2 India
scriptions worldwide, and between 1 billion and 2 bil Big data analysis was in part responsible for the BJP
lion people accessing the internet.[2] Between 1990 and
to win the Indian General Election 2014.[60]
2005, more than 1 billion people worldwide entered
the middle class, which means more people become
The Indian government utilises numerous techmore literate, which in turn leads to information growth.
niques to ascertain how the Indian electorate is reThe worlds eective capacity to exchange information
sponding to government action, as well as ideas for
through telecommunication networks was 281 petabytes
policy augmentation.
in 1986, 471 petabytes in 1993, 2.2 exabytes in 2000,
65 exabytes in 2007[7] and predictions put the amount of
internet trac at 667 exabytes annually by 2014.[2] Ac- 5.1.3 United Kingdom
cording to one estimate, one third of the globally stored
information is in the form of alphanumeric text and still Examples of uses of big data in public services:
image data,[51] which is the format most useful for most
big data applications. This also shows the potential of yet
Data on prescription drugs: by connecting origin, lounused data (i.e. in the form of video and audio content).
cation and the time of each prescription, a research
unit was able to exemplify the considerable delay
While many vendors oer o-the-shelf solutions for
between the release of any given drug, and a UKBig Data, experts recommend the development of inwide adaptation of the National Institute for Health
house solutions custom-tailored to solve the companys
and Care Excellence guidelines. This suggests that
problem at hand if the company has sucient technical
new or most up-to-date drugs take some time to lter
capabilities.[52]
through to the general patient.

5.1

Government

Joining up data: a local authority blended data about

services, such as road gritting rotas, with services for
people at risk, such as 'meals on wheels. The connection of data allowed the local authority to avoid
any weather related delay.

The use and adoption of big data within governmental

processes is benecial and allows eciencies in terms
of cost, productivity, and innovation, but does not come
without its aws. Data analysis often requires multiple
parts of government (central and local) to work in collaboration and create new and innovative processes to deliver 5.2 International development
the desired outcome. Below are the thought leading exResearch on the eective usage of information and comamples within the governmental big data space.
munication technologies for development (also known as
ICT4D) suggests that big data technology can make important contributions but also present unique challenges
5.1.1 United States of America
to International development.[61][62] Advancements in
In 2012, the Obama administration announced the big data analysis oer cost-eective opportunities to
Big Data Research and Development Initiative, to improve decision-making in critical development areas
explore how big data could be used to address im- such as health care, employment, economic productivportant problems faced by the government.[53] The ity, crime, security, and natural disaster and resource

5.4

Healthcare

management.[63][64][65] However, longstanding challenges

for developing regions such as inadequate technological infrastructure and economic and human resource
scarcity exacerbate existing concerns with big data such
as privacy, imperfect methodology, and interoperability
issues.[63]

5.3

a mirrored image of the real machineable to continuously record and track machine condition during the later
utilization stage. Finally, with the increased connectivity oered by cloud computing technology, the coupled
model also provides better accessibility of machine condition for factory managers in cases where physical access
to actual equipment or machine data is limited.[31]

Manufacturing

Based on TCS 2013 Global Trend Study, improvements

in supply planning and product quality provide the greatest benet of big data for manufacturing.[66] Big data provides an infrastructure for transparency in manufacturing
industry, which is the ability to unravel uncertainties such
as inconsistent component performance and availability.
Predictive manufacturing as an applicable approach toward near-zero downtime and transparency requires vast
amount of data and advanced prediction tools for a systematic process of data into useful information.[67] A conceptual framework of predictive manufacturing begins
with data acquisition where dierent type of sensory data
is available to acquire such as acoustics, vibration, pressure, current, voltage and controller data. Vast amount of
sensory data in addition to historical data construct the
big data in manufacturing. The generated big data acts
as the input into predictive tools and preventive strategies
such as Prognostics and Health Management (PHM).

5.3.1

Cyber-physical models

Current PHM implementations mostly use data during

the actual usage while analytical algorithms can perform more accurately when more information throughout the machines lifecycle, such as system conguration,
physical knowledge and working principles, are included.
There is a need to systematically integrate, manage and
analyze machinery or process data during dierent stages
of machine life cycle to handle data/information more efciently and further achieve better transparency of machine health condition for manufacturing industry.
With such motivation a cyber-physical (coupled) model
scheme has been developed. The coupled model is a digital twin of the real machine that operates in the cloud
platform and simulates the health condition with an integrated knowledge from both data driven analytical algorithms as well as other available physical knowledge. It
can also be described as a 5S systematic approach consisting of sensing, storage, synchronization, synthesis and
service. The coupled model rst constructs a digital image from the early design stage. System information and
physical knowledge are logged during product design,
based on which a simulation model is built as a reference
for future analysis. Initial parameters may be statistically
generalized and they can be tuned using data from testing
or the manufacturing process using parameter estimation.
After that step, the simulation model can be considered

5.4 Healthcare
Big data analytics has helped healthcare improve by providing personalized medicine and prescriptive analytics,
clinical risk intervention and predictive analytics, waste
and care variability reduction, automated external and
internal reporting of patient data, standardized medical terms and patient registries and fragmented point
solutions.[68]

5.5 Education
A McKinsey Global Institute study found a shortage of
1.5 million highly trained data professionals and managers [43] and a number of universities [69] including
University of Tennessee and UC Berkeley, have created
masters programs to meet this demand. Private bootcamps have also developed programs to meet that demand, including free programs like The Data Incubator
or paid programs like General Assembly.[70]

5.6 Media
To understand how the media utilises Big Data, it is rst
necessary to provide some context into the mechanism
used for media process. It has been suggested by Nick
Couldry and Joseph Turow that practitioners in Media
and Advertising approach big data as many actionable
points of information about millions of individuals. The
industry appears to be moving away from the traditional
approach of using specic media environments such as
newspapers, magazines, or television shows and instead
tap into consumers with technologies that reach targeted
people at optimal times in optimal locations. The ultimate aim is to serve, or convey, a message or content that
is (statistically speaking) in line with the consumers mindset. For example, publishing environments are increasingly tailoring messages (advertisements) and content (articles) to appeal to consumers that have been exclusively
gleaned through various data-mining activities.[71]
Targeting of consumers (for advertising by marketers)
Data-capture

5 APPLICATIONS

5.6.1

Internet of Things (IoT)

Main article: Internet of Things

Big Data and the IoT work in conjunction. From a media perspective, data is the key derivative of device interconnectivity and allows accurate targeting. The Internet
of Things, with the help of big data, therefore transforms
the media industry, companies and even governments,
opening up a new era of economic growth and competitiveness. The intersection of people, data and intelligent algorithms have far-reaching impacts on media eciency. The wealth of data generated allows an elaborate
layer on the present targeting mechanisms of the industry.
5.6.2

Technology

eBay.com uses two data warehouses at 7.5 petabytes

and 40PB as well as a 40PB Hadoop cluster for search, consumer recommendations, and
merchandising.[72]
Amazon.com handles millions of back-end operations every day, as well as queries from more than
half a million third-party sellers. The core technology that keeps Amazon running is Linux-based and
as of 2005 they had the worlds three largest Linux
databases, with capacities of 7.8 TB, 18.5 TB, and
24.7 TB.[73]
Facebook handles 50 billion photos from its user
base.[74]

5.7.3 Real estate

Windermere Real Estate uses anonymous GPS signals from nearly 100 million drivers to help new
home buyers determine their typical drive times
to and from work throughout various times of the
day.[80]

5.8 Science
The Large Hadron Collider experiments represent about
150 million sensors delivering data 40 million times per
second. There are nearly 600 million collisions per second. After ltering and refraining from recording more
than 99.99995%[81] of these streams, there are 100 collisions of interest per second.[82][83][84]
As a result, only working with less than 0.001% of
the sensor stream data, the data ow from all four
LHC experiments represents 25 petabytes annual
rate before replication (as of 2012). This becomes
nearly 200 petabytes after replication.
If all sensor data were recorded in LHC, the data
ow would be extremely hard to work with. The
data ow would exceed 150 million petabytes annual
rate, or nearly 500 exabytes per day, before replication. To put the number in perspective, this is equivalent to 500 quintillion (51020 ) bytes per day, almost 200 times more than all the other sources combined in the world.

As of August 2012, Google was handling roughly The Square Kilometre Array is a radio telescope built of
thousands of antennas. It is expected to be operational by
100 billion searches per month.[75]
2024. Collectively, these antennas are expected to gather
Oracle NoSQL Database has been tested to past the
14 exabytes and store one petabyte per day.[85][86] It is
1M ops/sec mark with 8 shards and proceeded to hit
considered one of the most ambitious scientic projects
1.2M ops/sec with 10 shards.[76]
ever undertaken.

5.7
5.7.1

Private sector
Retail

Walmart handles more than 1 million customer

transactions every hour, which are imported into
databases estimated to contain more than 2.5
petabytes (2560 terabytes) of datathe equivalent
of 167 times the information contained in all the
books in the US Library of Congress.[2]
5.7.2

Retail banking

FICO Card Detection System protects accounts

world-wide.[77]
The volume of business data worldwide, across all
companies, doubles every 1.2 years, according to
estimates.[78][79]

5.8.1 Science and research

When the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) began
to collect astronomical data in 2000, it amassed
more in its rst few weeks than all data collected
in the history of astronomy previously. Continuing at a rate of about 200 GB per night, SDSS has
amassed more than 140 terabytes of information.
When the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope, successor to SDSS, comes online in 2020, its designers
expect it to acquire that amount of data every ve
days.[2]
Decoding the human genome originally took 10
years to process, now it can be achieved in less than
a day. The DNA sequencers have divided the sequencing cost by 10,000 in the last ten years, which
is 100 times cheaper than the reduction in cost predicted by Moores Law.[87]

7
The NASA Center for Climate Simulation (NCCS)
stores 32 petabytes of climate observations and
simulations on the Discover supercomputing
cluster.[88][89]
Googles DNAStack compiles and organizes DNA
samples of genetic data from around the world to
identify diseases and other medical defects. These
fast and exact calculations eliminate any 'friction
points,' or human errors that could be made by one
of the numerous science and biology experts working with the DNA. DNAStack, a part of Google Genomics, allows scientists to use the vast sample of resources from Googles search server to scale social
experiments that would usually take years, instantly.

5.9

Sports

Big data can be used to improve training and understanding competitors, using sport sensors. Besides, it
is possible to predict winners in a match using big data
analytics.[90] Future performance of players could be predicted as well. Thus, players value and salary is determined by data collected throughout the season.[91]

encrypted text leading to the security enhancements in

big data.[95]
In March 2012, The White House announced a national
Big Data Initiative that consisted of six Federal departments and agencies committing more than $200 million
to big data research projects.[96]
The initiative included a National Science Foundation
Expeditions in Computing grant of $10 million over
5 years to the AMPLab[97] at the University of California, Berkeley.[98] The AMPLab also received funds from
DARPA, and over a dozen industrial sponsors and uses
big data to attack a wide range of problems from predicting trac congestion[99] to ghting cancer.[100]
The White House Big Data Initiative also included a commitment by the Department of Energy to provide $25
million in funding over 5 years to establish the Scalable
Data Management, Analysis and Visualization (SDAV)
Institute,[101] led by the Energy Departments Lawrence
Berkeley National Laboratory. The SDAV Institute aims
to bring together the expertise of six national laboratories and seven universities to develop new tools to help
scientists manage and visualize data on the Departments
supercomputers.

The U.S. state of Massachusetts announced the MasThe movie MoneyBall demonstrates how big data could sachusetts Big Data Initiative in May 2012, which probe used to scout players and also identify undervalued vides funding from the state government and private
players.[92]
companies to a variety of research institutions.[102] The
In Formula One races, race cars with hundreds of sen- Massachusetts Institute of Technology hosts the Intel Scisors generate terabytes of data. These sensors collect data ence and Technology Center for Big Data in the MIT
points from tire pressure to fuel burn eciency. Then, Computer Science and Articial Intelligence Laboratory,
this data is transferred to team headquarters in United combining government, corporate, and institutional fundKingdom through ber optic cables that could carry data ing and research eorts.[103]
at the speed of light.[93] Based on the data, engineers and The European Commission is funding the 2-year-long Big
data analysts decide whether adjustments should be made Data Public Private Forum through their Seventh Framein order to win a race. Besides, using big data, race teams work Program to engage companies, academics and other
try to predict the time they will nish the race before- stakeholders in discussing big data issues. The project
hand, based on simulations using data collected over the aims to dene a strategy in terms of research and innovaseason.[94]
tion to guide supporting actions from the European Com-

Research activities

Encrypted search and cluster formation in big data was

demonstrated in March 2014 at the American Society
of Engineering Education. Gautam Siwach engaged at
Tackling the challenges of Big Data by MIT Computer
Science and Articial Intelligence Laboratory and Dr.
Amir Esmailpour at UNH Research Group investigated
the key features of big data as formation of clusters and
their interconnections. They focused on the security of
big data and the actual orientation of the term towards
the presence of dierent type of data in an encrypted
form at cloud interface by providing the raw denitions
and real time examples within the technology. Moreover,
they proposed an approach for identifying the encoding
technique to advance towards an expedited search over

mission in the successful implementation of the big data

economy. Outcomes of this project will be used as input
for Horizon 2020, their next framework program.[104]
The British government announced in March 2014 the
founding of the Alan Turing Institute, named after the
computer pioneer and code-breaker, which will focus on
new ways to collect and analyse large data sets.[105]
At the University of Waterloo Stratford Campus Canadian Open Data Experience (CODE) Inspiration Day,
participants demonstrated how using data visualization
can increase the understanding and appeal of big data sets
and communicate their story to the world.[106]
To make manufacturing more competitive in the United
States (and globe), there is a need to integrate more
American ingenuity and innovation into manufacturing
; Therefore, National Science Foundation has granted
the Industry University cooperative research center for

7 CRITIQUE

Intelligent Maintenance Systems (IMS) at university of

Cincinnati to focus on developing advanced predictive
tools and techniques to be applicable in a big data
environment.[107] In May 2013, IMS Center held an industry advisory board meeting focusing on big data where
presenters from various industrial companies discussed
their concerns, issues and future goals in Big Data environment.

to determine the topics that are discussed during the day?

Is it necessary to look at all the tweets to determine the
sentiment on each of the topics? In manufacturing different types of sensory data such as acoustics, vibration,
pressure, current, voltage and controller data are available
at short time intervals. To predict down-time it may not
be necessary to look at all the data but a sample may be
sucient.

Computational social sciences Anyone can use Application Programming Interfaces (APIs) provided by Big
Data holders, such as Google and Twitter, to do research
in the social and behavioral sciences.[108] Often these
APIs are provided for free.[108] Tobias Preis et al. used
Google Trends data to demonstrate that Internet users
from countries with a higher per capita gross domestic
product (GDP) are more likely to search for information
about the future than information about the past. The
ndings suggest there may be a link between online behaviour and real-world economic indicators.[109][110][111]
The authors of the study examined Google queries logs
made by ratio of the volume of searches for the coming year ('2011') to the volume of searches for the previous year ('2009'), which they call the 'future orientation index'.[112] They compared the future orientation index to the per capita GDP of each country, and found a
strong tendency for countries where Google users inquire
more about the future to have a higher GDP. The results
hint that there may potentially be a relationship between
the economic success of a country and the informationseeking behavior of its citizens captured in big data.

There has been some work done in Sampling algorithms

for Big Data. A theoretical formulation for sampling
Twitter data has been developed.[124]

Tobias Preis and his colleagues Helen Susannah Moat

and H. Eugene Stanley introduced a method to identify online precursors for stock market moves, using
trading strategies based on search volume data provided by Google Trends.[113] Their analysis of Google
search volume for 98 terms of varying nancial relevance, published in Scientic Reports,[114] suggests
that increases in search volume for nancially relevant
search terms tend to precede large losses in nancial
markets.[115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122]

7 Critique
Critiques of the big data paradigm come in two avors,
those that question the implications of the approach itself,
and those that question the way it is currently done.[125]

7.1 Critiques of the big data paradigm

A crucial problem is that we do not know much about
the underlying empirical micro-processes that lead to the
emergence of the[se] typical network characteristics of
Big Data.[12] In their critique, Snijders, Matzat, and
Reips point out that often very strong assumptions are
made about mathematical properties that may not at all
reect what is really going on at the level of microprocesses. Mark Graham has leveled broad critiques at
Chris Anderson's assertion that big data will spell the end
of theory:[126] focusing in particular on the notion that
big data must always be contextualized in their social,
economic, and political contexts.[127] Even as companies
invest eight- and nine-gure sums to derive insight from
information streaming in from suppliers and customers,
less than 40% of employees have suciently mature processes and skills to do so. To overcome this insight decit,
big data, no matter how comprehensive or well analyzed, must be complemented by big judgment, according to an article in the Harvard Business Review.[128]

Big data sets come with algorithmic challenges that previously did not exist. Hence, there is a need to fundamen- Much in the same line, it has been pointed out that the detally change the processing ways.[123]
cisions based on the analysis of big data are inevitably informed by the world as it was in the past, or, at best, as it
currently is.[63] Fed by a large number of data on past ex6.1 Sampling Big Data
periences, algorithms can predict future development if
the future is similar to the past.[129] If the systems dynamAn important research question that can be asked about ics of the future change (if it is not a stationary process),
big data sets is whether you need to look at the full data to the past can say little about the future. In order to make
draw certain conclusions about the properties of the data predictions in changing environments, it would be necesor is a sample good enough. The name big data itself con- sary to have a thorough understanding of the systems dytains a term related to size and this is an important char- namic, which requires theory.[129] As a response to this
acteristic of big data. But Sampling (statistics) enables critique it has been suggested to combine big data apthe selection of right data points from within the larger proaches with computer simulations, such as agent-based
data set to estimate the characteristics of the whole pop- models[63] and Complex Systems. Agent-based models
ulation. For example, there are about 600 million tweets are increasingly getting better in predicting the outcome
produced every day. Is it necessary to look at all of them of social complexities of even unknown future scenarios

9
through computer simulations that are based on a collection of mutually interdependent algorithms.[130][131] In
addition, use of multivariate methods that probe for the
latent structure of the data, such as factor analysis and
cluster analysis, have proven useful as analytic approaches
that go well beyond the bi-variate approaches (cross-tabs)
typically employed with smaller data sets.
In health and biology, conventional scientic approaches
are based on experimentation. For these approaches, the
limiting factor is the relevant data that can conrm or
refute the initial hypothesis.[132] A new postulate is accepted now in biosciences: the information provided by
the data in huge volumes (omics) without prior hypothesis is complementary and sometimes necessary to conventional approaches based on experimentation. In the
massive approaches it is the formulation of a relevant hypothesis to explain the data that is the limiting factor.
The search logic is reversed and the limits of induction
(Glory of Science and Philosophy scandal, C. D. Broad,
1926) are to be considered.
Privacy advocates are concerned about the threat to privacy represented by increasing storage and integration of
personally identiable information; expert panels have released various policy recommendations to conform practice to expectations of privacy.[133][134][135]

7.2

Critiques of big data execution

extract, transform, load part of data preprocessing.[140]

Big data is a buzzword and a vague term,[141][142] but
at the same time an obsession[142] with entrepreneurs,
consultants, scientists and the media. Big data showcases
such as Google Flu Trends failed to deliver good predictions in recent years, overstating the u outbreaks by
a factor of two. Similarly, Academy awards and election predictions solely based on Twitter were more often
o than on target. Big data often poses the same challenges as small data; and adding more data does not solve
problems of bias, but may emphasize other problems. In
particular data sources such as Twitter are not representative of the overall population, and results drawn from
such sources may then lead to wrong conclusions. Google
Translatewhich is based on big data statistical analysis
of textdoes a good job at translating web pages. However, results from specialized domains may be dramatically skewed. On the other hand, big data may also introduce new problems, such as the multiple comparisons
problem: simultaneously testing a large set of hypotheses is likely to produce many false results that mistakenly
appear signicant. Ioannidis argued that most published
research ndings are false[143] due to essentially the same
eect: when many scientic teams and researchers each
perform many experiments (i.e. process a big amount
of scientic data; although not with big data technology),
the likelihood of a signicant result being actually false
grows fast even more so, when only positive results are
published.

Big data has been called a fad in scientic research

and its use was even made fun of as an absurd prac8 See also
tice in a satirical example on pig data.[108] Researcher
danah boyd has raised concerns about the use of big
data in science neglecting principles such as choosing a For a list of companies, and tools, see also: Category:Big
representative sample by being too concerned about ac- data.
tually handling the huge amounts of data.[136] This approach may lead to results bias in one way or another.
Big memory
Integration across heterogeneous data resourcessome
that might be considered big data and others not
Data dened storage
presents formidable logistical as well as analytical challenges, but many researchers argue that such integrations
Data journalism
are likely to represent the most promising new frontiers
Data lineage
in science.[137] In the provocative article Critical Questions for Big Data,[138] the authors title big data a part
Data science
of mythology: large data sets oer a higher form of intelligence and knowledge [...], with the aura of truth, ob Machine learning
jectivity, and accuracy. Users of big data are often lost
in the sheer volume of numbers, and working with Big
Statistics
Data is still subjective, and what it quanties does not
Small Data
necessarily have a closer claim on objective truth.[138]
Recent developments in BI domain, such as pro-active
reporting especially target improvements in usability of Jobs related with Big Data
Big Data, through automated ltering of non-useful data
and correlations.[139]
Big-data psychologist
Big data analysis is often shallow compared to analysis of
smaller data sets.[140] In many big data projects, there is
no large data analysis happening, but the challenge is the

Big Data Marketing

Big Data Security Analytics

10

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10

Further reading

Sharma, Sugam; Tim, Udoyara S; Wong, Johnny;

Gadia, Shashi; Sharma, Subhash (2014). A BRIEF
REVIEW ON LEADING BIG DATA MODELS.
Data Science Journal 13.
Big Data Computing and Clouds: Trends and Future
Directions. Marcos D. Assuncao, Rodrigo N. Calheiros, Silvia Bianchi, Marco A. S. Netto, Rajkumar Buyya. Technical Report CLOUDS-TR-20131, Cloud Computing and Distributed Systems Laboratory, The University of Melbourne, 17 December
2013.
Encrypted search & cluster formation in Big Data.
Gautam Siwach, Dr. A. Esmailpour. American Society for Engineering Education, Conference at the
University of Bridgeport, Bridgeport, Connecticut
35 April 2014.
Big Data for Good (PDF). ODBMS.org. 5 June
2012. Retrieved 2013-11-12.
The Rise of Industrial Big Data. GE Intelligent
Platforms. Retrieved 2013-11-12.
Stark, John (2015). Product Lifecycle Management:
Vol 2. The Devil is in the Details. Appendix A: PLM
and Big Data. Springer. ISBN 9783319244341.
History of Big Data Timeline. A visual history of
Big Data with links to supporting articles.
Hu, Han; Wen, Yonggang; Chua, Tat-Seng; Li,
Xuelong (2014). Towards scalable systems for big
data analytics: a technology tutorial. IEEE Access
2: 652687. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2014.2332453.

11

External links

Media related to Big data at Wikimedia Commons

The dictionary denition of big data at Wiktionary

EXTERNAL LINKS

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12.1

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